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IMPROVING THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE: DEALING WITH LARGE 
HETEROGENEOUS CLASSES 
BY 
VERA EKUWA MANSA ARlIlN 
A TIiESlS SUBMITTED TO THE 
DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS, UNIVEI<SITY 
OF GHANA, LEGON, IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUlRF.Mnn WR 
THE AWARD OF TID: MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGIU:I: IN 
LINGUISTICS. 
JUNE,2000 
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DECLARATION 
I declare that this thesis is the reiiult of my rHearm. work, carried out in 
Ihe Dqwtmcpt of Linguistics, University ofGIwla, Legon, under the supervision 
of Dr. LA. Anyidoho (Departmer1t of Linguistics. University of Ghana. Legon) 
aDd Dc. K. Andob Kumi (Language Contte). 
References cited have been duly acknowled~ 
VERA EKUWA MANSA ARlDN 
(Candidate) 
DR. L.A. ANVfOOHO 
(Supervisor) 
~ 
• • ••••••• u.~ • ••• ••• • •• 
DR. K ANDOH·KUMJ 
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DEDICATION 
To my bwband, ShadIack Arhin. who gave me all the needed support aDd 
cncouragcmeot to carry out this research. And to my children for their pUic.nce. 
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
My sincere thanks go to Dr. L. A. Anyidoho of the Linguistics Department 
for all the thought provoking lectures she gave in Applied Linguistics; focaJltbe 
new areas of knowledge she opened up for me and for her guidance in the 
plaaning of this thesis. I will also like to expreiS my deepest gratitude to Dr. 
Andoh-Kumi. who also supervised my work and offered valuable assistance. 
To Mrs. Doris Adjei who typed this thesis quickJy and efficiently, I also 
say a big thank you. 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
PAGE 
Declaration .. 
Dedication ... iii 
Acknowledgement iv 
TableofConten1: ... 
List of Figures ... 
List of Abbreviations ... 
Abmact ... xi 
CHAPTER ONE - GENERAL INTRODUCTION ... 
1.1 Introduction ... 
BackpoundtotheProblem .. .......(  ..' ;;O1~ 2 
1.3 The Problem ... ···· · · · · · ~C( 4 
1.3.1 The T_g of English .. . •.........• 6 
Scope ..... 
DalaaodRcsearcbProcedure ... 
1.6 Importance of Study ... 
1.7 Conclusion ... 
CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW .... 10 
2.1 lnIroduction ... 10 
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TABLE or CONTENTS 
PAGE 
Declaration .. 
Dedication ... iii 
Acknowledgement . iv 
Table of Content ... 
UstofFigures ix 
List of Abbreviations 
Abstract ...•.... 
CllAYl'ER ONE· GENERAL INTRODUCTION ....... 
1.1 Introduction ... 
Scope ..... 
DatallldRcsearchProeedure ... 
1.6 Importance of Study ... 
1.7 Conclusion ... 
CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW ... 10 
2.1 Introduction ... 10 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
PAGE 
Declaration ... 
.DcdicatiOD ... iii 
Acknowledgement .. 
TablcofConteot ... 
List of Figures ix 
AListo_fAb b...r.e..v..i.a..t.l.O. n5  ...................................................... . xi 
CHAPTER ONE· GENERAL INTRODUCTION ..... 
1,1 Introduction ... 
1.2 BackgrouodtotheProblem 
1.3 Tho Problem .. . 
1.3.1 ThoTeacbinsofEDgJish .. 
Scope ... 
I.S DalamdRcsearcbProcedure ... 
1.6 lmportanceofStudy .. 
Conclusion ... 
CHAPTER 1WO • LITERATURE REVIEW .. 10 
2.1 lDtroduction ... 10 
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Group Work .............  II 
Individual Learning Style ... 13 
CIo&cd.Ended and Open-Ended AoIivjties ... 16 
Building OD What Learners Know ... 18 
2.6 Attitude of Teachers Towards Learners .. 20 
2.7 Coocluaioo ..... . 22 
CHAPTER THREE . METHODOLOGY ... 24 
J.I Subj ....... 24 
3.2 Data Coll~on Methods 24 
3.3 Descriptive Research ... 
3.3.1 Examination and Analysis ofWrinen Texts 25 
3.3.2 The Direct Observation Method 26 
J.J.2.IU_Observatioo. 27 
3.3.2.2 Structured Observation .. 28 
3.4 TheSwveyMdhod .... 29 
J.4.1 TheQuestiooDairo ....................................... .. . . 30 
3.4.2 Persona1lnterviews ..... . J2 
3.4.3 The Semi-Structw"ed Interview ... 33 
3.S Coocl",Wn ... 33 
CHAPTERWUR • ANALYSIS OF DATA •..•..... 35 
4.) 1JIIIVductioa .•• 35 
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The Nature oftbc Heterogeneous Clus ......  35 
Langull!!, Background .. 35 
GeoderOisCribution . 40 
4.2.3 Socio-&onomic Background 42 
4.2.4 Engllsb Language Proficiency Score ... 44 
4.2.5 Learning Style •... 50 
4.3 Extent to which Teachen and Students mly be Affected 52 
by the Heterogeneous Nature of the Clus ..... . 54 
4.3.! AttitudeofSrudents 53 
4.3.2 Attitude ofTeacbers ..... 53 
The Effectiveness ofTaching Melhodi and Textbook Used 56 
4.4.1 Clusroom Observation . 56 
4.4.2. The Senior Secondary Core English Textbook .... 59 
4.4.2.1 Content . 60 
4.5 CoochwOll ... 64 
CHAYTER FIVE . WA YS OF DEALING WITH LARGE 
HElEROGENEOUS CLASSES.... 66 
5.1 
5.2.1 CuiturelBackgrouod Sensitive Pedagoay ... 68 
5.2.2 Effi:ctiveClMRoomInteradKm ... 74 
5.2.3 Modifyina Teaching Medwds to Suit the Needs 
of 1be Mixed Ability CWS .. 77 
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5.2.4 Orpaizing Group-Work in a Large HeteroseneousClass...... 10 
5.2.5. Modifying Tncbook Materia1s... 83 
S.3 Ccn.:lusion .... 85 
APPENDICES. . 87 
BmLlOGRAPHY ... 121 
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LIST OF FIGURES 
PAGE 
Figure I .. .. . ........ 37 
Fipre2 .. . 37 
Figme3 .... . 39 
Figurc4 .. 
Figure S .. 43 
Figure 6 .. . 
Figure7 .......... . 47 
FigureS .. . 
Fi_9 .. . 49 
Fi_IO ....... . 54 
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LIST OF ABBREVlA TIONS 
COLT CommunieativeOrientation of Language Teaching 
ELT English Language Teacbing 
GES Ghana Educltion Service 
SSS Scnior Secondary SchooJ 
SSSCE Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination 
TALOS Target Language Ol»ervation Scheme 
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ABSTRACT 
10 Ghana. tM medium of instruClion in schools IDCl the iangualc of 
official busiacu i. English. However. many people in the country complain about 
the falling standard oftbc language. Over me years, the chicfexaminen' reports 
on SSS En,,,sh euminllioos indicate that there is • eriu in the language and 
To help solve the lancu-p probWm, some retel.«hers have identified a 
nwnber of weaknesses in students' writing. which have to be addtcslld by 
1eKhcn. This work is different. It is a case study which identifies the issue of 
poor hlnd1ina of Illge heterogeneous classes by teadn:ra. as a probable reason 
why many !OtoocnlS cannot comnrunicak effectively even after they hlivc lODe 
lhrough the Eftalish Ilrtpagc programme for SSS studentJ. Two SSS classrooms 
of the T ema Methodist Day Secondary School were investigated for the purpose 
orthisrcscarcb. 
The rcsWts obtained after classroom observation and analyses of data 
Ihow thaI students iDdae classrooms are from diverse linguistic. socio-ceooomic; 
and cukunl t.ckllfOUllds. wbic:b seem 10 ha. .' c some ioOumc:e 011 their ability \0 
conununicate well. Aaain. teachers use classroom activities and textbooks which 
do not $Cem to eater (or the needs of students 
This wod identifies the specific n«ds of the students and offers a range 
ofsuitablc activities and teac:hin« me1hods which may be -.cd by the teac:hfts 
who handle such larp bctcrocencous cl.sses. 
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CHAPTER ONE 
GEN.:RAL INTRODUCTION 
Introduction 
This iNdy iDvcSligates the problems flCed by teachen MOd learners in large 
heterogeneous cluses at the Senior Secondary School Level in Ghana. The broad 
aim of the itudy is to propose appropriate interventions which may be used by 
English Language teacberi to help all learners benefit from lessons taught. The 
nature ofbderogeoeity. which exists in the classroollli observed. is diJCussed. 
However, for the purpose of this study the tenn heteroleneous class is Uied 
narrowly to Rfel' to the different English langullae proficiency levels of students in 
a clus. This term is used interchangeably with "mixed ability class". 
Additionally, the problcDli oflargeclaues will be lookedal since handling mixed 
ability classes. which are abo large. ieeIIli to add to the problema faced by 
The main motiVillion for focusing on the issue of handling larae 
hetero&eDeOUS eluses is based on concerns expressed by many English Janeuase 
teachers when asked to comment on the falling standards of the English language 
in Ghana. Teachers often say that in spite of the fact that the time allotted to the 
teaclliag of Eoglisb 011 the time table it inadequate and that they are unable to 
cover the English syllabus. they wish that they could pay a little more attention to 
the leu proficic:ut 1tudaU. They add that it is UDfortuDale lhal many of their 
studeaUcompIeIctbeirsecondary~OIlwilb.outbeingabletocommllllic8te 
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effectively in the &.glisb language. SiDce English is the official IaDguI&C of 
Ghanaians. there is the need to ensun that all students beamt from Engliab 
langu.aac lasooa. 
Inthiscbapter, lbe following will bediscusscd: 
a) Background 10 tbe problcm 
b) Tbeproblem 
c) Scope 
d) Oalaandretelldlprocedurc 
e) Irnportanceofstudy 
8acqround to tbe Problem 
10 Ghana the mcdiwn of instruction in sdtools beyond Primary 4 and the 
langu.ie of official business is Enalish. (n fact, English plays a dominant role in 
"*1 domaiDL First. iI ii me langualc of admUWtntiOD and aU other officii) 
businaa. SecoDd, it is used at aoc:iaJ fwl.etions where the participants come from 
diffneot linguistic '*klfOUDds. Third. English is the lanlfUtlSC of jownaiiam; 
most m:~. Mld radio aDd television programmes are done in English. Also 
in education. EnaJisb plays a major role. The languaae policy is thai the: prevalent 
Gbanaian language of the locality should be the language ,of inatruction from 
PrinIIry 1·3, after which it bccome5 a wbject. English then becomes the medium 
o( Wtructioa &om Prinwy 4 onwards. In Primary 1·3. £aalish is a subject on the 
timetable. At tbiI ..... pupils leam to read. write and develop t.sic vocabulary in 
EftsUab· Additionally. en,lish i, the unifyiDa (orce amoGI, educated people of 
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different etimic groups who speak Iaoguages which are not mutually intelligible. 
English is at.o Ibe language for inter-etbnic as well as intemational 
communication.; therefore, the acquisition of a high lcvel of conunwlicative 
competence in it is imperative for those who wish to go beyOlld the boundarieaof 
their commwlities. However. many Ghanaians complain that the standard of 
students' performance in English is falling. Over the years.. the Chief Examiners' 
reports on the SSSCE indicates that evcn tbough Ghulaians aim at standard British 
English, the language and communicatiOl'l skills of students fall far below the 
standard aimed at. 
Some researchers who have acknowledged that the proficiency level of 
mooyotude. .. in Gbaoa ;. generally low are Tandob (1917), Hyde (1991), 
Odamtten et 01, (1994), Adika and Owusu-Sckyere (1997), Adam (1997), Dako 
(1997), and Dzameohie (1997), 
Problems in commwticatioo sJdlls among students that these studies have 
identified are many. For example. Dzameshie (1997) observes !:hat there is very 
little use of CommWlicative Language Teachina methods in the clusroom while 
Odamtten et aI. (1994) trace the problem to inadequate time allotted to the 
comprebeasive syllabus of the Eoglilb L..guage as a subject in the Senior 
Secondary Schools, studcaHcacher rlti05 and the caliber of teachers. Tandoh 
(19B7), Hyde (1991), Adib ODd Owusu-Sekyele (1997), Adam (1997) and Dako 
(1997) investipletbc written English ofUnivcrsity of Ghana Wldergraduates and 
identify various errors in students' writing such as concord, spelling, vocabulary 
and expression. Theyconcludethatthereareinstanceswbcre~gqualityof 
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lancuaIelessoas diffieuk. lsi foe<. staliItics sbow Ihat eocb yP< Iar.., numben or 
iludeot£ qualify for SaUor Sec:ondary education and due to parental ptessure, 
bc.Ia of sccoodary schools are forced to enrol these studeau in the few schools 
available. New classrooms are bardly buik tInd. so class size eventually swells up 
ThrouJh informal di5tU$Sions with tac:hm, it was discovered dlat the 
average dass saze of I'DIIlY Seoior Secondary Schools in GbIaa is 48. but iQmc 
scbool' hive classes witb SO studeDls and above. Kraft (1994:7) reports that 
raearch done at the University of Colorado provides evideDCe ""Ih.at class size does 
not really affect student achievement when the size is belwccn 20 and 40 students. 
but ... when the elua; We riles above 40, aehievcmeat tahs a serious downward 
rum," ThiI is the prob&cm tbM the teacbers in most schools face. Unfortunately. the 
training programmes for teachers do not adequately prepare them to handle larse 
classes effectively. 
Another reason 'Why it is impor1&nl to rmd .appropriate way, of handlin, 
I.,. heteroamcolli classes is that leacMTI are trained to teKh a class uSunUne 
they blve. bomogeneou& group of leamen. Unfortunately, many tntbook writen 
atso make the same assumptioa. For example, an explicit statement mack by the 
SSS En&lish lQIbook writtn on bow teacbcrs should lUe the SSS English 
textbooks puts the tc:acben in the I'3ther chaUeasinl posi1ion of figuring out how 
tomeetthc individualnccdsofheterogetlcoUJgIoupsofleamers. 1lt,estalement 
says: 
The UIIbon would be &lad if all tc:.chcn would 
auiduol-.ly takt their studcntsthrougb every detail 
of die taits pa&e by page. If Ibis is done, every 
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lachioapoioliDlheseboollswiUbecov<m!aod 
ow studeoU wiD emerge: with. a worthy command of 
.... En&lUb. (199I:x) 
Since the textbooks haYCDOtbeco carefully designed to meet the nccdsof 
mixed ability ellISes. the sugestioo above bas ta be modified. No handbook hu 
been provided for leacben, and teachers will need guidelines for baodlina their 
Iqe oUxcd ability classes. HaviJlg 0UIfuIcd ..... probl. .... faced by tho ....b ers 
iD thoc:1ooarootu.. briefbo<karouud '" tho tcacbin& of English iD tho secondary 
schools may help cxplaia wby materials for teaching should be carefully chosen. 
Many Gbanaian s&lJdenls rely mostly on tex._books and their lCachen. This 
means that it is wry important to UK good tcxtboob which will help students to 
comm~ effectively. Teachers must be trained to use suitable teathing 
lDdhodllDd bwe their own proficiency in Englisb railed 10 that they can provide 
appropriate JaDpII madriI. 
Mao)' teachers teach by going through the textbook page by page because 
more time is devoted to teaching teacher trainees the Enilish language rather than 
ways of teacbina it. Some schools are also flooded wilh university gmduatcs who 
-have .not _gone lbro.up a ny training in cdUCIUoD. For tbac teachen, tex1boob gml!yinOuenc:. tao<U>c methods iDIIadofKlin& ... guide in tho absence of 
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The heavy reliance on English textbooks in the secondary schools by both 
teachers and !lUdeaIsllllkesonebclic\i~ that if textbooks are carefully wrinen and 
careful instructions are provided for their use. the quality of written and spoken 
English of Ghanaian students will impro\'e. Even tboush many researchers have 
saidthis,specific guidelines for teaching have not been provided. It is this that the 
study bopes to provide. 
1.4 Scope 
This study aims It investipling the EnaIish language situation in Senior 
Secondary Schools in Ghana. Teachers' qualification and background is looked ai, 
and teaching methods used in the classrooms are aiSCSsed. Finally, suggestioni for 
handling large mixed ability classes are made. 
Studies that have already been done on handJinglarge mixed ability claues 
in the context ofELT bave been reviewed. These include Slaven (1983). Scheibl 
(1984), Webb (1989), Villegas (1991), Hodfield (1992), Arends (1994). 
Prodromou (1995), Ur (1996), and Joyce and Weil (1996). The literature review 
shows the main pwpose of embarking upon the current itUdy. 
Primarydatacoll~cdisaJsoanalyied.ltCOlllpl'iscsthefollowinl: 
a) Claiiroominteractioo 
b) Structured and unstructured interviews with teachen and students 
c) Questionnaires 
d) Marked ....y o 
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SugcstionJ offmd in this study cover the followiq areas: 
0) EffiocoiwJamioaforoll_iacluJ 
b) Useful ma&erialsIactivities for classroom te.china 
c) Sustaininai.ntemt 
d) Morutorin8s1udeot'sachievement 
Oata aDd Rnnu. Procedure 
A focus gro"" was UICd for the pwpOIe ofthil study. This WIS. science 
class and an Ida cl. . of the Tema Methodisc Day Secondary School. Tcrna 
Metbodist DIy Secondary School wu chosen for dtis case study. This school was 
chosmforsewralrcasons 
First, il represents majority of schools in Ghana in thai its itudentJ are 
admitted into the school from Junior Secondary Schools with average grades. Th;s 
school is DOl considered II one oftM gradc A Kbools in the country. Second, the 
cLus sizes of boIb etassa obIerved are .bove 40 P. .i 1s. which represent most 
largeclasletin~lCbools. ltlsthcrefon:likclythal. suggestions offcrcdin 
enthusiastic .boUllbe study and willingly offered assistance throughout the fnt 
term of the 1991199 academic year when tbe reaearch atarted. 
OocsecondyearJCicocccla$sudanartac:. ... werecbosenforthisstudy 
This was to ioVesfiptc the extent to wbich secmiatly homogeneous groups would 
exh.ibitsi8D'of~. 
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1.6 Importance of Study 
This study is important in three main respects. First. it offers suggestions 
wtti<:b mil)' help teachers baDdJe large mixed ability classes effectively within the 
Limited time provided Cor the teaching o(the English language in schools. Second. 
this study reviews course materials and teachin, methods which shouJd be uaefW 
to eurricuJum planners, tex.tbook developers, teacher trainers and teachers. Finally, 
the study will be beneficial to rCiearchers in that it may provide a buis for further 
re§earch in the area and abo improve the Engliib language situation in Ghana. 
1.7 Conclusion 
This study aims 81 creating awareness that in teaching large mixed ability 
classes, classroom activities will havc to be dcsiped to suit the specific nceds of 
all learners so that each member benefits from the leuons. Additionally, it will 
provide suggestions for teaching which could be included in a teachers' handbook. 
The study cornpriia five chapters. Chapter one is the leneral introduction; 
cblpter two reviews cxilting literature OIl handling mixed ability classes; chapter 
three presents the collection lOCi ....I yses of data: chapter four i •• discussion of 
the fmdings and implications of the study. Chapter five which concludes this study 
suggests ways ofbandling: large heterogeneous classes. 
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REV[[W 
APPROACHES IN LANGt:AGE TEARING, 
ISSUES IN TEACHI"IG 'I1lXED ABILITY CLASSES 
2.1 IIItroduclioa 
Researchers who have done some work in the area of handling mixed 
ability classes seem to agree thalaU cJasses are made up of students who differ in • 
number oeways. Differences such as intelligence. cognitive atyle. socio·economic 
t.ck.g:rouDd. kDowledse of tile world, cultwal bKkground and gender would affect 
tbctc.chinaIDd1eam.ingprocess. Somcresearcbersbavetbereforeproposeddllt 
the lock-step approach, wbere the teacher stands in front of the class while all the 
studcoli move at the same pace, may not help the students to get the most out of 
lheeJaa. 
Sehcibl (1984). Hadfield (1992). Prodromou (1995), Woolfolk (1995~ 
Ioyoe mel Wei! (1996),_ Ur (1996) bel;'" that students con leom how to leam 
and respond 10 a number of teaching and leaminB environments which will help 
them acquire the much needed knowledge if teaching methock uaed by teachers in 
language cluarooms an: carefully planned. A number of activities and ways of 
band.lina mixed ability classes have therefore boeD sUlgatcd. These activities 
ensure !bit telcbcrs highlight similarities amcmg students instead of differences 
MMly re:IeaI'Cbers who look at waY' of handling mixed ability classes suggest 
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similar strategies for EFL situltioas. Tbia chapCer carefWly analyses suggestions 
offered. 
2.2 Group Work 
Scbcibl (1984) suggests that group work is an obvious choice for mixed 
ability cIas.ses. This is because I nwtimwn number of pupils in a class are actively 
involved in the Icsson as thc)' occupy themselves with tasks. Similar views have 
been expressed by Arendt (1994), Prodromou (1995). Woolfolk (1995), Uld Ur 
(1996).Theser~bersdiscUiStbeadvantagesofgroupwork.Ur(I996:305) 
auerll that Learners are able to work cO-opel'atively to eoswe higher achievement, 
IDd peers teach and appreciate me another's effort According to research 
findinp. if each member of the group is rude to contribute to the group according 
to hislher ability, members are likely to learn quic:kJy from one anothcr'~ effort. 
Woolfolk (1995: 378) discUiSeS the need for each individual in a group to actively 
participate in tasks since aWng questioru; and attempting to explain issues 10 
group members belp the individual to organise information. This, according to 
Webb (1989) and Kiag (1990), is an excellentleaming strategy since the more a 
studentprovidestboughtful explanations to oeher students, the more the explainer 
learns. 
Slaven (1913) also notes that learners' Khievemcnt is incrased when the 
IJOUP is rewarded hued on the average grades of the group members. In a 
rescarc:b on co-opentiw learning with heterogeneous groups and elements of 
competitioo and reward., Slaven and his associates developed a IysIem called 
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ShMkItl T('QIfU _A ~ Divis/OIlS, or $TAD (Slaveo 1995), Tbc avenle test 
score~ from each iDdividual ' s previous work arc neorded. Tbc:a ItUdeots prepare 
for class quiz.:zes in their poups even tbousb students are made to lake quizzes 
individually. Baed 011. how each .member improves co hisI1ter individual averate 
score, each team member can cam one to three scores for the goup. Thus. only 
whe:i1 an iDdividuaJ improves on previous work does helshe cam a mark for Ihc 
group. AccordiD& \0 Woolfolk (l995), Ibis makes every student work h.n:I and 
avoidstbeprobknlofstudeoU' UDC:qUI.Ic:ontributioDto alfOUPploject. 
Even thous,b the STAD lDIIy teem a good way ofencouraaina members of 
a BfOUP to work bud \0 adUeve beaer results, courses organised for teachezJ awst 
provide guidelines for effective teachina otherwise the objective of this revision 
done in iP'oupJ will be throwo overboud, 
In another racarcb which investiptel the value of group work, Doughty 
and PieI (1986) compared. "'tather-rro..d" d ... and group won. on a problem 
solving task. The resean:b proved that, interactive behaviours sucb as 
comprebcnaioD ch«ks., ~clari6cation.requests, rcpair,etc.wmmore 
frcquentIyUledia groups with regard to informatiOllcxciwngc than the ""te.cher-
In recc:ol timcsaroup work bas been ideatified as a useful way oflcaming 
in the classroom. UnfortuDlildy. DOt much has beca sUd about effective WI)'S of 
handling group work in large classes. Evea. tboup Prodromou (1995) states IbM 
the mac exitlcncc of group work wiD naf.1OIw the problem ir ancntion is not paid 
to what goa on in the group. DO detailed sugacstions are offered for secood 
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laniuap: teachers. Prodromou., tor example, sugge5ts community commuaicatioo 
thai CDCOuraps groups to interllCt in their first IlDgWlp while the teKher 
reformut.aa what bas been said ioto Englisb. However, be doe:. not provide 
ckUi*lguidcline5for domgctUsin theclaseroom. Ghanailftteacberswho baodle 
large mixed ability clape. wiU like to know where group work fits in the language 
curricu,hllD. 1bey will alia like to know bow much time must be spent on group 
work. if it should contribute positively to the kamiag process. nus lnfonnation 
will be beodicial to them because learners are usually constra ined by time and a 
10ided .yUabUi. Current research in the area of group work does nol seem to 
address lbae peculiar needs of Ghanaian te.Kbers. It is this vacuwn that this 
projCC1 aeekaso 611 
2.3 Indiyidual Leu.iDI Style 
Another suggestion that has been offered for handlina mixed ability c lasses 
effectively is the need for teKbers to be awan: of the leamina styles of students in 
the clNaroom. HUIIt (1970: 2) uys that. ..... the cloacr a teaching &trategy is 
tailored &0 Ihe learDer's coaoepWal &eve!. the IDOfc learning will take pIac:c." nil 
mw hu boa> ro;_ by RubUi (1987), A. ....'  (1994), Books (1994) 
Prodnlmou (1995), Woolfolk (1995), U, (1996~ loyce ..d  WcH.(1996). 
Teacbers areadvisedto.doptteachiaalt)'leswttitb suit individuaJDCCda, 
kamina style. and aptitude. Banks (1994:$) advocates III 'equity pedl8OIY,' 
wbich is a tcnn used for maIdUoa: tcacbiaB styles &0 studaU' learning styles in 
order to facilitau: acadcmi.c achievements of studcats from divenc bKkgrounds. 
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_(1994) omd Prodromoo(I995) also __e st thII. varietyofactiv;u.,1OII 
teacbingmelhodllbouJd beuscd in class 10 enableeacb Jeamerto use st:rIIegies 
with which be Of she is comfortable. For example. while some learners do bettu 
when given the opportuaity to work on projects. others need to visuaJize coocepU 
bema laUIhI. If ~ben are COIlJCious of varied luming styles in the classroom, 
leaners are more likely to benefit &om the teacbina if an «Lettie approach " 
adopted. For 0""",,1e. Woolfolk (1995) provMlos • ".'80 of ways of 
accommodatinalcaminl styleJ. 10 • reading Jesson, for example, I wide ranae of 
activiuessur;batbe Uleofverbal rmterialJ, visual fIUItcrials,tapes rorlistenin8 
and viewiDgas wcllas activities such as the Ule of projects could be provided at 
difftrenl reading lnell, This variety made available to learners will dcCmitcty 
offer each learnCf a chance to do somdhiog he1shc likes domg or scmething which 
falls in lin. with hislhctlltudy tcchnique. 
What makes thIe idea of varying lessons in e1ass more relevant is the 
..- c:GIId......t by Naiman .. aI. (1978) I0Il Pickett (1971). Throuah 
classroom obser\Wioa and interviews. the raearch established lUI then: is 
..-..n.ty '" die Iecboiq .... -"'yocl by different Ieam.,. whicb n,cds 
to be explomL In their IUl'Vcy.1camers reported thM they developed their L2 
vocabulary in varied ways. Examp&es listed are: memorizing vocabulary lista. 
leamiDCwonis iocoaaert, pncticing vocabulary by puttinaworda into diffettnt 
structum in ooSerto driU tb.emIelvcs aDd reacJiq to reinforce vocabulary. Otbcn 
also .-epooud II1II tI>oy played games which iavolvod IhioItioa of words with the 
.- ending, and..,,-ing words to the"""lves. Areods (1994) sums IlUa ~ by 
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su.gestia, that 1eamiD& activitia must be designed to merge with a variety of 
INDtinlstyles, ie, visual. auditory, tactile, etc. 
Prodromou (1995) adds that in a mlxed ability elus,lcamen must be made 
teIpODaiblc for their own teaming. SiDc:c &be teac.her ~t see to the need. of 
every mcmbe.r in • class• • oonducive environment should be creaIed for 5tlf~ 
ckwIopcneat. ProdroIDOU (1995) sugesu that tell-access activities must be used 
in the classroom. This implies thai students should be encouraged to do 
iDdepeodcd -" Uuougb lb. .... ofmdepecdeol llUdy tocbmques, w!Uch ....b Ic 
them to wort OIl matcriab of their OWD choiec. In addition to thiS- students mllst 
DlOQitor Cbrir own progress as they buikl their grammar and vocabulary. Joyce aod 
Weil (1996) provide an example of an lndividuaJly PreiCribcd lastrudioaal 
programme (IPI) to support Ibis point. TbiJ ptOp'amme was deve}oped by the 
Leornins Resea.cl> and Dev. .......t  c. .... of !he Univmity of Piasbwgb, m 
~U.boratioo. with Baldwin WhitcbaU School District. IPI is designed to assist 
pupik 10 work II. tMir own pace, develop self..initiatioo aod self-dircction of 
leaming, whicb also CDCOUrase telf-evaluatioo.. The expe<;tat:ion is thIt iD a mixed 
ability class, activities oftbis nature may help all fNdeatI to paform well in cu. 
Ur(l996)also admits dtataUowiQaleamersadtoiccin tub tbeyhave totac:kle 
inclasslnaUJtetcff'ectivelcunina:. 
IDcleed ct.e idea or varyioa activities ill clua is crmial to baodIing mixed 
ability classes. However options available for Ghanaian tcachelll aod learners to 
choose froD' are limited. For e. ...m plc. maD)' schools do not have acceSll to audio 
visual aida and 50 rely mainlyoa textbook activitics. F\II1betmore if. tcacbet is 
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dealing with a large class., monitoring tbc progress of each student ioa systematic 
way is not III cuy task. Also, becauae lessons are examination oriented, teacberl 
as weU as learners need to work in a certain time frame. ThWl, students cannot 
have the luxury of choosing what they want to learn or deciding on bow mucb 
lime they wish to spend on their own projects. If students will benefit from 
SuggcRiODi offered, teachers need to be taughl ways of modifying these 
suggestions to meettbe needJ of Ghanaian students.1bis project hopes to asSiit 
tho GIwWan t ...h er in this....,ro. 
In_ attempt to JOIvc the problems faced by students in mixed ability 
classes, Prodromou (1995) and Ur (1996) propose that students work on both 
closed..-mded and open-ended. activities, which provide variety in such classes 
within the framework of one and the same leason. This proposal will be reviewed 
in the section below. 
2.4 Closc ....E oded aad Open~E.dcd Activitics 
Prodromou and Ur classify most textbook exercises such as "~S/DO" 
questions, "Wh" questions, multiple choice. truclfalie questions. substitution 
drills, comprebcua,iouexercisea,ete. ucloiccHndcd. Cloled~endedexereises are 
homogenous in DIture aod only addretI the needs of a limited range of learners 
wbo have mastered the relevant laapqe. Leam.en at a lower level, according to 
these writers, may cUber QOI. respood to such questions or are likely to Jet answers 
wrong. They further claim tbaI: .dvlllced learners are abo neglected in that these 
.ctivities do not giYetbem.acbaDce to show what they can do with the language. 
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Open-eodcd activities, on the othcr band, take into cogni.zancc ditreteDUS 
.. Ieomioa sly1. ... well as proficieu<y 1ev.1s of SIUdaIts. Open-ended tasks do 
DOt have ooe prcdderm.ined aDSWer. Ur explains thIt open-coded tasks enable 
SlUdentatobeoonscnctive intbeirlmowlcdse.sirtce such activities are coostructed 
in ways tIYt eDIble advaftCed Inrners to provide ton& or complex answers while 
weaker students may use monosyllabic or fewer worda. 
80th Prodromou aad Ur suagest thai activities in textbooks which arc 
closed-coded by QI&we shoWd be modified by cachetS into open-ended tuks 
since open-eaded tuks aUow all students to work comfortably at their own level. 
For eumple. IIUdeDb cao reorder questions under comprebensioo texts. 1bcy 
lathe order in which qu.estiom: are asked In the textbook. Ur Idds that students 
ibould begivcntbecbaocetodeletc questions mey do not think they wish to work 
OIL Apin for quesaOQl which demInd either true or false answtn. bod!. 
~ suaat that they caa be made more open-ended by asking srudaJcs to 
padelbeirlllS\oWtS by sbowioJ bow truc or bow false the answer is, OIl a scale of 
one to tbrcc or OGC 10 five. Amwen may tben be pttIeDted for whole cl ... 
discussions or dcbatca. In the same way, "yes/no" questions may be COiQItrUcted in 
such a way th8t aDiWCn CIIl be: partly rilh! or partly wrona-
Apart from rdaptiat exerciles in kXtbooks. Ptodromou IDd Ur ~urale 
teachers to .. tub...t:uch are nahnlly open~nded in clus. Thia. they say. may 
give all studcnIs • ct.loe to Mly participa1c: in IC:I~. Activities whicb elicit 
tndividYaIrapGllllCtosituatioos.andthosctbat blive 00 ODC rigbtaoawerl:udraw 
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on the experience and knowledge of individual members in the clauroom are 
examples of D8lUra11y open-ended tasks. These include prediction and 
brainstorminl-=tivities as well as reordering ofj wnbled sentences. 
OIhcrresearcbcrs aaree that open-ended exercisea may allow students to 
participate in clSSI at their own pace and at their own level. Such tasks also seem 
to create the much-needed low anxiety environment. which promotes learning for 
slow learners. 11 mOil be pointed out. bowever. that even though research 
CODducted in the 1990's supports the efficacy of open-ended tasks. research on 
effective teac:hiDc ofknv Khievers conducted in the 1980's seems to suggest that it 
is better to avoid open-eodcd questions and games and rather emplwize short. 
frequent paper-and-pencil exercises so d:tat learners will have a sense of direction 
(Ebmeier &: Ziomek t 982; Emmer et aI. 1989; Slaven, Karweit and Madden 
1989). In Ghana since studcnta at the SSS level are expected to 'Write examinationi 
at the end of their counc, leamcn must be introduced to assignment types which 
reflect the final examinatiun. In addition to this, weaker learners mUll be assisted 
to grapple with the cbaUen.pg tasks that more proficient students are able to 
handle. 
2.5 DaUding Oa What Lnraen bow 
Knowledge of ltUde!It's background i. said to be a valuable tool that 
teachers can make use of in the c.lauroom. A teacher can draw on student's 
kDowleclte of the world. langua&e diffcreoces and cultural backgrolUld in order to 
make lessons effective. (Rosenshine and Stephens 1916, Prodromou 1995, 
/ 
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Woolfolk 1995, Arends 1996). This knowledge should belp teachers to select 
appropriate texts which studeots are familiar with. This idea emerges from the 
notiOll. that some students who seem icoorant or lack high linguimc aptitude are 
very witty and voluble in their own language and culture (Ur 1996). ViJleps 
(1991) also adds that children whose language use at home corresponds with what 
i5 expected in the clu.iroom bave 811 advantage in the learning process. Again, 
Bennett (1990) says that it i5 useful for teachcn to become familiar with features 
of students' dialect beauIe such knowledge helps them to wuierstand how 
students' first language interferes with the target langUolge. Knowledge of the 
students' dialect may also be an added advantage in vocabulary expansion. 
Brwnfil (1980) and Prodromou (1995) remind teachers that &orne learners may not 
contributc inclauDOtbccaUletbeyare not clever. but because they are being 
confronted with questioas thai UllIme an experience of the world they do nol 
have. 
There are other reasons why r~hcrs advise teachers tD study the 
cultural backgrotmd of students. Wong (1996) and Flowerdew (1998) suggest that 
the attitude of a group of people towardJ life may help teachers choose appropriate 
teaching methods to facilitate the learning process. For students in Hon. KOD" for 
example, Flowcrdew 1&)'1 that the concepts of"&ce" and self effacement that exist 
in their culture make collaborative learning strategies the best cboice for 
classrooms since a DOO.-stf'essfuJ environment is created. 
Apart from knowina the learners cultural IUd linauistic background. 
Arends, Ur, and Woolfolk stress the need for tea.chen to find out &om students the 
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Woolfolk 1995. Arends 1996). This knowledge should belp teachers to select 
appropriate texts which students are familiar with. This idea emerges from the 
notion that some students who seem ignorant or lK:k high linguiitic aptitude are 
very witty and voluble in their own langwlge and culture (Ur 1996). Villegas 
(1991) also adds thai children whose language use at home corresponds with what 
is expected in the clauroom have an advantage in the leaming proCClS. Again, 
Bennett (1990) says that i1 is useful for teachen to become familiar with features 
of students' dialect becauIe sucb knowledge helps them to understand how 
studea!s' first IangtUlF ioterferes with the target -pace. Knowledge of the 
students· dialect may also be an added advantage in vocabulary expansion. 
Brumfit (1980) and Prodromou (1995) remind teachers that some learners may not 
contribute in class not becaUIC they Me DOt clever. but because they U'e beina 
confronted with quesax.. tMI auwne ... experience of the world they do nOl 
have. 
There are other reasons why researchers advise teachers to itUdy the 
cultural backgro\lld of JtulJenti. Wonl (1996) and Flowerdew (1998) suggest that 
the attitude of a group of people toward. life may help teacben choose appropriate 
toachina methods to facilitlte the learning process. For student. in Hong Kong. for 
example. Flowcrdew says that the concepts of "faee" ad self effacement that exist 
in their culture make collaborative learning strategies the beit choice for 
claslrooms since • DOD-stressful environment i5 created. 
Apart &om knowing the learners cuillUal ...d  Iingui.ltic backgroWld, 
Arenda, Ur. and Woolfolk stress the need for tachen to find OUI &om students the 
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kind of teaching methods they are used to for teaming in the clasirOOm. 
_ adlh that -... sbould know ...-s' prov; .... edueotict>al 
expericnce and its possible inflUCDCe on lheirattitude lowards learninlEDglish. 
Knowing iNdc:ot's beck-FOund and taking advantage oftbat knowledge 10 
improve lachina is crucial to the issue of handlina mixed ability CIUSC5. Even 
IbouP it may DOl be easy for teachen to haw: studmts describe leacbinl metbodl 
used in previous schools they attended, the)' should be aware of language teaching 
medtodolosies av.ilable IDd draw U1 web reSOW"CCS freely to help individual 
students learn the language in their preferred ways (Prodromou 1995). 
2.6 A.ttihld~ orT~uhen Towards Learacrs 
Apart from mod.ifyiac tachint .chods to suit individual needs of learners 
in mixed ability tlassrooms. researchers advice teachers 10 be leIl5itive to the 
emotions of &he individuallcamus. who are diffcmd in a number of ways.. Arends 
(1994) and Woolfolk (1995) suggest thai raisiDi Ibe self- esleem of learners can 
help eveo the slow lamer Dieve gre&lcr success. Prodromou (J995) examines 
the role orlbe 1eKber and PlVpCIMliIlhat in order to be successful in a mixed ability 
du&, tbe teacher has to play the role of a friend. manaacr. counsellor, fKilit.lOr of 
learniq. reliabl. iDfOlllllllt on the laopaae, social worker IDd a model for 
students. Clifford (1990; 1991} also addatbatl tacbetmust be supportive, patient 
and must DOt embanus students whal tbcy make mistakes in clus. 
The issue of sexism is clitc:-..d by I number ofre.aearciacrs. p~ 
ArcbdI_ Joyce IDd WeiJ (1996) 'Iy tbat sexism shouJd be .,..."cd io teacJl:ia&. 
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,.. _h as possible. podc<-freelao_ ohouklile used in clost ond sex roIeo, 
wltich reflect geoder bill in teachin& mMeriais, should be di£cussed in dass. 
Arendsideutifies(onnsofse)l;.bi.sincurricuJum~ria1s.Tbesearclinguistic 
bias, (where masculine terms are used to refer to all people) .tereotyping. 
invisibility (where women are either omitted or under represented in texts) and 
imbalance/unreality (el. rcpmenting a nuclear family as typical instead of a .ingle 
parent family). FrqmartMion is also seetl as another type of bias. Hcre, 
inf'onnalion about WOmtll as Ul1».lIy separated from the body of the main text. 
OftCQ tacbers wtcoruciously coDtribute to bia5u by payinl more attenlion '0 boys 
!boo girls (Sadl. .,  and Sadk., 1990. CIDhnc<, McClellud and Saffo,d 1992). 
Indeed. neither teachers nor materials should make any studem feel le$S import_ 
in c\aai. Linn aod Hyde (I989:17) in t1teu meta-analyse. coaeluded that 
diffc~nces between bo)'l aDd prls were always small and so educatiolUll programs 
if ~fully pbnned could brin, out the best in both sexes. Arends also records that 
overall lQ score of males and femalei aft not MgnifiCMIly different on the 
Prodromou (1995) IdwDecs the argument that the welfa~ of each srudent 
mustbesouaht· Early fiDiIbers of tub rnustnotbealJowcd to intimidate slower 
students. They must be allowed to work on other tub while slower leamers are 
hclpedtoconsolidillcoldmatC1'ialwhilcsUlUlininlthcinICfestofthceotirec:lass. 
Ur sugests lhat compulsory and optional tasks should be assigned to ItUdeats so 
that tbe fast or more advanced students wjll .IWilY' have tasks to work on. This 
may casctbcpressurconeacblNdenl. 
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F.-. __ student<from low e<:<JII()1Dicba<kgroUnds 
should be card\JIIy looked ... Accordio& to Woolfolk (1995) sucb mode.ts fool 
they an: DOt academically competent aDd ICICbers re.tpOOd to them by asUa, them 
to memori.u materials tbrouah teacher domiDlltxt activities. Coleman et aI. (1966) 
assllrC tacbers that children of the poor have as much poIential as the children of 
tberic:b. butscboollbaveDOt kamI: to U5C the appropriate teachinltechDiquesto 
enhance tbeirability. Joyce and Weil (1996) reiterate this. Arends also adds thIt 
exIu"bit biuca apiDIt such llUdeats. Heider, Cazden and Brown (196ft) suaaelit 
1lIIt studcntl from low ecoaomK: backgrounds rcquift' matt prompts thin middJe 
clasaJtudeau. To support tbis idca,Addae Mensah et al. (1973) explain that the 
elite kDows "'*- it takes to make a child sllCceuful at school. Therefore every 
effort is made at bome for suc:hstudeDlslO do well . This pub the tess fortunak at. 
diAdvantagc and tCKben Deed to be aware of that. This infonnllion is very useful 
because teacben may be gWd.ed to exhibit appropriate behaviour to~ learnen 
of all bKkarounds. Even though it hu been recorded that appropriate models of 
ICKbin& may elevate the achievement of childreo oflhe poor, (Slavin et aI .• 1990. 
Joyce and Showers 1995). metbodi wbidJ DIlly krVe as a guide to teacbeTs have 
aotbee:aaivea.. Tbd projcc1 will contribute in that direction. 
2.7 ( ;onclusion 
So far, research done In the area of bandJini mUted ability clanes 
considers Icoowlcdae of 1cama-5' lcamina: 5tyks and background as an ClSeDlial 
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factor towards dcsipinl appropriate tasks and teachin! methods. The researchers 
have come up with • number of arguments and leoeraliutions whieh may help 
tacbers to do their ....o rt effectively in mixed ability elaues. ThC$e suaaeitions 
however do DOt fully address the needs of students who learn English in schools as 
a second Iquaac. Secondly, classroom situations in Ghana also reveal that .... y 
suuatioa offered (or the improvement of the tcacbinl and learning ,i.tualioo has 
to c:oMider a number of local factors which include the followinll: (arlle classc£, a 
la.ded syllabus, insufficient time and non av.i1ability of equipment. Therefore. 
this study derives its motivation from the lapses lb.t the review of the exiSlm,; 
Iitenrurebas rcYtaIed. 
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t"actortow.ro. daigninc ~atetasks and teaching methods. 1bc ~htrs 
hive come up with a nwnbcr of _gwncnts and generalizations which may help 
lcachers to do their work effectively in mixed ability classes. These Sup:estiODS 
bowever do not fully address the needs of stUdenlS wbo learn English in schools as 
a second Ianguagc. SecoodJy,classroomsituatioos in GbaDaalso reveaJ thai any 
sugcstionoffered fortbe improvcmcnl of the tca.ching and learuing situation hIS 
to cooaider a oumbcr of local fac10rs which includt the following: i8laeciaues,a 
loedcd syllalu.. insufficient time and non availability of equipment. Therefore. 
this study derive. its motivation from the lapses tbat the review of the existing 
IileralW'Chasrn'caJed. 
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r.ctor cowards desi8DiR8 appropriate tasks and teachin, methods. The racarcben 
have come up with a Dumber of arguments and generalizations which may help 
teachers to do their ..... ork effectively in mixed ability ClasSCi. 1bese suggestions 
however do not fully address the needs of srulitnu who leam English in schools as 
a second language. SccondIy,elassroom sitmtioosin Ghanaa150reveaJtbMlilnY 
~ offcrul fOf the Unprovemen1 of the tcaching and Icarning situation has 
10 CODSider. number of local flCWn which include the following: large classes , ti 
la.ded syllabus, insuffic ienl lime and non availability of equipment. Therefore. 
this study derives ita motiv.tioo from the IIp.s tbIt the: review of the exisling 
Iiteratwehas revea1ed. 
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CHAPTER THREE 
MEmODOLOGY 
3.1 Subjed. 
Tema Metbodiat Day Secoodary School W8i chosen for the study because, 
unlike other schools visited. teachers were willing to offer the assistance needed at 
every stage of the raeardl. However. time and rcsolUCes would not allow for all 
the cJa.es in tbc Khool to be chosen as samples; therefore, two second-year 
classes were obsaved. The cboice of form 2e, • science class. and fonn 2D, an 
arts class was deliberate since the existence of heterogeneity had to be investigated 
in groups of learners whicb teem bomogeneous. 
3.2 Data CoUedioa Metlaods 
Two dIta collection metbods were employed for this Rudy. They are the 
Descriptive aDd the Sw:vey Methods. The descriptive method is a systematic 
method of narrDa lad describing. situation without judgement. This procedure 
enables oae to later OD investiaatc how teachin8 methods cwrcntly adopted (i.e. 
process) may have affected leaming outcomes (i.e. product). ACCOrding to 
1lo£cnabiDc and Furst (1973). the descriptive method follows an approach in the 
literature oftbc ~..d Product" model pnlpOIed for classroom observation 
where the descriptive variables are related to measures of student growth. 
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CHAPTER THREE 
METHODOLOGY 
3.1 Subjects 
Tema Mctbodi5t Day Secondary School was chosen for the study because. 
unlike otbcr sebools visited., teacbers were willing to offer the assistance needed at 
every saqe of tbe raeardl. However, time and resources would not allow for all 
the c~ ill Ibe ICbooI to be cboeen as samples; therefore, two second·yeac 
classes were observed. The choice of form 2e •• science class, and fonn 2D, an 
arts class was deliberate since the existe:ucc of heterogeneity had to be investigated 
in groups of learners which seem homogeneoUi. 
3.2 DataCoUrctioaMetlaod! 
Two dIta collectioD. methods were empJoycd for this study. They are the 
Descriptive and the Survey Methods. The descriptive method is a systematic 
method of DIImItiaa aDd describing a situation without judgement. This pracedwe 
enables one to later on investigate bow teaching methods currently adopted (i.e. 
process) may bave affected learning outcomes (i.e. product). According 10 
Rosensbine and Furst (1973). the descriptive method foUowa an approach in the 
literature of the '"Proccu and. Product" model proposed for claw-oom observation 
wberctbtde:scriptive variables are related to measures ofltUdent growth. 
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Descriptive ResesrdJ 
The dclcriptive research method was used to examine the followinl: 
a) Textbooks and syllabus recommended by O.E.S. for senior 
secoodaryscbools. 
b) Classroom intcnction and leamin& process. 
h.u'thennore. the main ~s for gathcring data fordcscriptive research were 
UiCd. and tbey are: 
a) 1bc examinatioa aodanalysis of written texts and 
b) Tbedircct observation metbod . 
1'baemetbodlwereverytalCfuI~5forgainiaganUui&htintoEngliJb 
languase teachinJ aad IeanUng It the Senior Second.ry School level. While 
syllabi. SSS English textbooks, examiners' reportl ...d  wrinen assignments were 
examined for analysis, the direct observation mcthodwas used for investigating 
deuroom tatenctioa aDd the learning process 
3.3.1 Euminalion nd Aualysis ofWritteo Tests 
The writtco texts which were Ihadied for the purpose ofdUl research are 
1hc SSS syllabus, Co .. Eapisb textbooks, Examiners' _ lad E. ..y s written 
by studcots. The examination of these malerials helped the re$earcher 10 
understlDd what tcacheB and learners arc expected to do in the En&liab. langullc 
._ .. well as Ibc ..... of English in 1hc sehool . This I>ocksround 
infomwtiOll may ..., belp the rcsarcber to lSIJc:u how appropriate the suggested 
metbods bciac ueed by teachers are. The examination of students' eua)'l abo 
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3.3 DacriptlveRese.rcb 
The delcriptive research melhod was used to examine the foHowin!: 
.) r extbooks and syUabus recommended by G.E.S. for senior 
secondorysobools. 
b) Claaroom iDtcnction and leamml process. 
furthermore. the main approaches for piherinl data for descriptive rescarc:h were 
uscd, and tIoey are: 
a) The cxamination and analysis of written texts and 
b) The direct obic:rvation method. 
lbeecmetbodaWC'l'evcry uscfUltooU forpioing an insight into English 
language tcacbins Md 1e:amin1 al the Senior Seeoodary School level. While 
syllabi, SSS English textbooks. examinen' reports and written usipunents were 
eX&mined for analysis. the direct observation method was uscd for investigating 
3.3.1 ED.laden and Aaalysis .fWrittCD Tuts 
The whttllll texts wbich were dUdied for the purpoH of this rese.ch are 
the SSS syllabus, Core English textbooks, Examiners' reports aad Essays written 
by students. The cxurWlation of these materials helped the researcher to 
underaandwhatteacbersandlcarncrsareexpcctcdtodointheEnaJiihlauguaae 
dusrooms • weU • die ICaIe of EngliAb j;p the school. This bKkpound 
iDformItioIl may also help tbe researcher to _ how appropriate the suggested 
-boiaa-by-.. .... Tbe_ofSlUdeals' ....y sa\so 
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3.3 Descriptive Resean:b 
The descriptive researeh method was I..IIed to exanUnc the following: 
.) Tmbool<s.d,yllabus_byO.E.S.fo<senior 
......wy"'booIs. 
b) Classroom interaction aod learning PfOCCi$· 
Fwthmnore, the milo Ippro.ches for galherina dlla for descriptive research were 
uoed..dlhey ...:  
I) The eumioation and aDaIysis of written texts and 
b) The direct observation method. 
lbac metbods ~ very useful took for aaiaiDllll insiabt iDeo English 
languiSC teaching mel "-niDI It the Senior Secondary School level. While 
syllabi, SSS English textbooks, ex.miners' reports aDd written uaipwent.s wen 
exaraiDld for auaalysia. the direct observation mechod was used for invc5tiptina 
Thc writIca tats wtaicb were aaudild for the J'WPOae of this research are 
!be SSS .yUabus, eo. . Eaglish textbooks, ExuUnen' _ &Ad E. ..y s written 
by stUdents. The examination of these materials helped the researcher to 
UDdemand what tcachcts and leamers lI'e ex.peeted to do in the EnaJiIb laopge 
dassrool'Ql IS wen as dtc state of Enp&sh in the sclaool. Tbi.a bKkpowxl 
infOl'1llalioa_y alto hIIIp lbc f'tSC.Ucbn to __ bov.' appropri.lc Ihe sugested 
mcdM:Jda being used by IeKbm: are. The examination of SIUdeots' cuaya abo 
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helped the researcher to identify the diffemrt pro6c:iency levels in each c1als 
3.3.2 Tbe Direct ObservatioD Method 
To investigaae classroom inteAetioo aad the learning proceiS tbe following 
obsel'VlltionplaDwuprepued. 
A 2e.ll.4$P.M.tol.lSP.M 
Ii:. Jd.l.05PM tDl.4SP.M S 
The classes were observed by the reaearcber for nine weeks in tbe first tenn of the 
1998199 academic year, which lasted tbirtcm weeb. Three, forty-minute periods 
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for each class were oblen'ed catb week. bringin!l the total Dumber ofperiodJ 
ob5avcd for each class to tweDty seveo. The structured lAd UIlJtr\JCt\,IrC DOD-
participMt metbodsofc:laJ:aoomobieMllion were uscd (Lyncb 1996). Classroom 
ldivitielwere observcdfrom a comer at tbe blCk ofe.:b class. Thia corner was 
chosen beCMIK as mucIl as possible the researcbn wanted to avoid beiDl noticed 
50 that lessons would go 011 uodisturbed. This non-participant stand was taken 10 
thai notes could be written as classes wen: taught, with the aim of !letting a bolillic 
view of1bc ciassroom setting. 
3.3.1.1 Uastradured Observadoa 
To get • fair idea about the general atmosphere in the classrooms, the clus 
IeaClwn were initially asked to slip. mini-size tape recorder in their pockets as 
they did the fint week of te.cbiDl. This was supposed to help the researcher pin 
some insight into the 'reaI' classroom situation when: normal classes went on 
without the pracoce of a rcsearcber. Again. tJW: was to bdp identify cbana;es in 
attitude of studcnta (if .y) when researcher was present. 
In the ICCCaI week of &be tam, the raarchcr went to oblerve lUiOnS. 
ObserwIiOllwunotttruc:twedmtbetenletha'lnoputicu1ariuueshAdbce:n 
sinaJcd out for observatioo. Ewry step of each Jcuon was WItched critically and 
a;cneraJ notes were pur down in a noce book. 
At the end oCme second week, a pattern of\eachina emcracd and decisions 
~ wbat wu to be obicrved more critically for the rest of tile time tpeIIl ill the 
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Cor each class were obeerved each week. bringing lbe total aumber of periods 
ob&crved for each class to twenty seven. The 5UUctured and unsuucrured DOD· 
putic;paol methods of clasaoom 0_w en: used (Lynch 1996). ClasInIom 
lCtivitics were observed from a comer at the back of cKb clus. This comer was 
chosen bectuse as much as possible the resea.rcher wanted to avoid bcinlnotieed 
so that IeJlOllS would go OIl undisturbed. This non-participant stand was taken so 
that notes could be writSm as classes were taught, with the aim ofgcttmg a boliltic 
view of the classroom settinl. 
3.3.2.1 UlUtnactand Obun.tioa 
To ert a fair idca abouttbc gencral alrnosphcrc in thecllssrooms, tbc cllss 
tncben were initially IIkcd to 'lip I mini·,ize '-pc recorder in the., pockets as 
they did the fine week of te.ehiDJ. This WII supposed to help the researcher pin 
some insight into the 'real' classroom .ituation where normal classe. went on 
wMout the_of ........b er. ApiA, dUs was 10 help Kleotify cbaoaes m 
attitudc ofstudeats(ifaoy) wbeo. rellCalchcr was present. 
lnthe second week oftbeterm. the researeberwentkJobecrve lessons. 
sm&led out for ObservatiOD. Every step of 08Ch lcSlOll was watched critically and 
gcoeraJ.noteswerepuidown in a notebook 
At the end ofthc second week, a patterp ofteachina emerged and decisions 
on what was to be oblc:rwd more critically for the rest oftbe time!ipeDt in the 
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school were made. This meant that a more structured type of observatioo bad to be 
do. .. 
3.3.2.2 StrueturedObservatioD 
Various checklists have been desipcd for observing second lmpage 
classroom activities. Examples of these are Ullman & Oeva (l931, 1985) for 
example. who UiCd Jtructured schedules to describe an observation instrwncnt 
called "T_t Lan. .... Observatioo Scheme" (TALOS). Th ... is alllO !be 
(COLT) scheme developed by AUen et 81. (1984) (see Appendix 1 for Checklists). 
Others who have used other structured checklists are MoskowilZ (1970) and 
Bialystok et al. (1979). Most of these checldists require that the obierverregularly 
ticks off what bappeni in clau on hiilher list at very short mlerv.ls. These types of 
checklists are not appropriaIe for this research since .nitudes of sndents to lessons 
bad 10 be carefully obIavcd and often keeping ones head down while ticking off 
checklists at regular iDtervals might make the observer skip some vital incidents 
which needed to be recorded. Secondly, this iJ a qualitative research and general 
descriptiollJofeveptsareneedcdratberthanfrequeneychecks. 
For the purpose of this rcseareh. simpler checklists were designed. 
Guidelines for obtcrvaIioa were written md room was created in the note-book for 
opeo.-mded notcs. (See appendix 2 for an example of the guidcline.a used). 
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Owing a iaioo, shOr1 notH were writlcn wtder broad beadinp listed on 
the observation guide at appropriate intervals of the lesson. 1bese are: 
.) Styleor_',praeoIatiOil. 
b) _po<ticip_. 
c) Majorstrengthsofleuon. 
d) Classroom atmosphere.  
• ) U. ........... 
SUBgHlioos. 
These short DOtes described exactly whit weoa on durio, the IcssoD. Immediately 
after each lesson howcwt, details wwler each broad heading 00 the plan were filled 
in. Any tcac:bioa poiat wtucb was not quite (:iear WIS discussed with the elas 
teacher in the staff commoo room of the schooL This method of gatherina 
c~ ella was tiled throughout the period of observation and a pattern 
3.4 Tb~ Survey Mttb.od (0 
Under 1M survey research two methods were also used in this study. They 
are the usc of questioonairc.i and personal iDlerviews. Moore (1913) notc£ that 
tbesc mc:thodahaJparesearcbertodrawCODelwimsfromlnfonnatioocolleeted. 
Since it was difficutt to rndI into the miadrs of1eKhen and leamen by mcn:ly 
~ classroom activities, the survey method was very useftal. This method 
was abo IDCd 10 ptber bIc.kpound infol'1NlioD oa teKben and learners. 
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3.4.1 TheQuestioDDllire 
A Rries of qucsttons were desiJDed 10 investigate the linguistic 
background of respoodents. It was boped that this would reveal the nature of 
bdcrogcoeity in the classes obterved. The q...estioanaire provided the oppommity 
for respondents to give frank answers sinec respondents were not required to 
diKlose their IWDC$. After filling in the questiOODaire. students wrote essays 
C'VIlUlling dJe SSS Enalisb Coune OIl: tbrir an.JWer sheets provided. The es~ys 
were graded and proficiency scorel were mllcbed with bKkgroWld information. 
amongotbers: 
'} thai the classa were made of mixed ability groups. 
b) that respondmts in eKb clus were: from different social, economic. and 
linpistic bockpoomds. 
eJ 11m Ih= was • possibl. relalionslUp bc:tw"" ....· s boekpound and 
pro6cieucylevel. 
1be qUC5tioaaaire i. provided in Appendix 3. It comprises five sections 
wbicb amenJly investigate liquistic: exposure of students It both primary and 
s~schoolle\'el. These five scctionsare explained below. 
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~ 
llUs.uoo.,....uy ...k s,ofindOUltbc_,Im. ...... spok .. by 
Ibe rapoodaIt. FurIhermo<e. il in .......... how _ mpoodeDlS commuoicale 
in EatJisll .. bome. 
This scctioo aetualIy investipta bow often respondents practice the foUl' 
basic drills in EngliJb (Le. liRWng. ",eakin" reoding ODd writing). 
To establish the ltnportance of the use of appropriate teaching methods and 
mucri. . to make the teachinJ, ad anm, of the English ianauage more 
effective, respondents were asked iP the third section oftbe queslionnaireto say 
how much Enclilh they learnt from reading materials. mends, rclatiOlls, etc:. as 
agaiNI Englisllleomt _ leachors ODd schoollCXlboob. 
ThillClCtioa: isa xlfevaIualion section which allows respondenb to talC 
help 1o reYOOI doe IOIIowio8: a) Wri_ EnaIiIb of,tuck.IS and b) SuwstioN 
they wiIIllO oftiIr. wIIidIi may help improve the wriliPg skills of studenll. 
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~ 
General infonDltion about students iscliciled in this section: age, sender, 
educatiooal blckgrouadaad socio-ccooomic t.ckpound. This will establiih the 
issue ofheteroseneity. 1be final part oflhi.section asks students to write an «say 
on the uaefulncss of the core English progranune, The purpose of this task. il two 
fold: 
to find out students' perception of the Enalish programme for senior 
SO<OJIdaryochools. 
2) touscssscudeotsproficic:ncylc\'ci 
The questionnaire was administered by the class teachers after the purpose 
of the qucatiooaaU'e ud. the maDDer in wbKh it should be .swered were 
explained to 1hMIcDls. The questioanaire was completed in forty minutes, durin, 
one of their free periods. The essay topic was taken home and respondents were 
asked to take their time to write their essays and present them, together with 
questionnaires the (aOowina: week. Students were givCD amp~ time SO write the 
csay so that tbcy would have eDOUIIa time to wrik well aDd read over their work. 
3.4.2 Penoaall.ttrviewt; 
The inteMew tecbaique took Ihc form of verbal communication with 
reIpCIDCIeaIs. This tec:baique has an added advantage over questionnaires in that 
ODe is able 10 uk respondcats for clarificatioo. 'Theft arc three types of interviews, 
These arc highly SUUctutedlsaaoo.dized. lDItrviewa. 1CIDi-lInIctured interviews 
and UDitrUctW'edf"mfonnaI intnvicws. For Ibis qualitative research. the semi-
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structured interview tecbDique was ClDploycd. Tc.ebers' srouP interviews took 
pIIce in a very relaxed ~ in the staff comDlOD roolD. Students' mllCrYiew 
lOOk. pJ.ce in!kir classroom. Each_o ftbae iDluvicws1astcd forty minlUs. 
3.4.3 TllcSemi-Structuredlqlemew 
For the ~d interview far students and teKMn. interview 
queAiolll which would encourage interviewces to talk freely about their attitude 
towards the SSS English course. (See appendix 4 for interview guides for teachen 
andltUclenU). 
Becaae of time COASIniot, &roUP interviews were dooe iDllcad of 
individual interviews siDce they have tbe advaotaac of sampling a greater number 
of people within the same amount of time that a ooe·on-onc interview might take 
for a single person. Participants were aIJo aUowed (0 question and clarity each 
othen' teIpOIIIe&. Tbt Interviews were reCOtded on tape and DOtes werc lisa 
taken .. diKtaMioDi wept OD. Tbue Lnterviews helped to aive a clear 
...d entadiq .f!he problem being investigalod. 
3.5 CONCLUSION 
In this chapu:r, methods used for the purpose of this research have been 
dis.cusscd. Since it would have been cX1rCmcly difficult to '* one tnctbod to gain 
an wi.t into the problem heine: investigated ill the two Form 2 c .... obeerved, 
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classrooms, maI)'It: questionnaires and conduct interviews. In c1upter 4, data 
ga1heredthroupllh. .. ~ .. aoaI)'Z.d. 
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CHAPTF.R FOUR 
ANALYSIS OF DATA 
this chapter presents the ana1ysis of data, which comprises data eollected 
&om qucsUoaaairet. iDIerviews. dusfOom obtcrvMion. written CSM)'i and 
textbooks. TbeanaJysisisprcsentedintel'lnlofthemajorquutioDlraiscd: (a)tbe 
nature oftbe betcroSftl.ec)us dan. (b) the extent to which teachers as weU as 
students may be affected bylbe heterogeneoua nature of the class, and (c;) the 
etr'ectiveness of teacbUtg methods and textbooks used in clauroom activities in 
lar&eheterogeoeousclaues. 
4.2 Tbe Nalure .r~e Heterot::encous Class 
The followin& diffaences between the learners in the classes investigated 
were identified: language background. aeudcr, aocio--economic background, 
EnaiiohLaoauaicP",fici=ylevelaodlc&mingaylo. 
4.2.1 Language Backan.ad 
A lCCtion of the quesriaImaire. desi!Ded to seek infonnation on the rnpondents' 
language bockpowod, ......,  lb. local Iangua80(') the -... speak lad Ibe 
languap<.) dIcy -... in when they II" bock home daily after school. The 
respoosesrecorded(see Fig.1 oopaae 37) iDdic:.&e IbIIcvenlboucbthc school is 
situated in the Acc:tI mctropolilan un, the majority of the students speak Akan.. 
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PERCENTAGE Of 
STUDENTSSPEAKlNG 
LA. NGU• 
o ., i!j ~ t •G E1 1 I!i I 
~ ~ -.jpo.~ ......... 
f 
o " ". '\, Ii 
i ~. ''i ~ 
~"" .~. . _~f~· ' ~ 
~ .'+, 1-~~ 
;!  ... . 'i~. '~i ." ,:.~~ 
II .... ,; _,',. 
If 
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To support the claim made in section 4.2.1 that the school does DOl fully 
provide the needed exposure to eosme English language proficiency, the 
questionnaire sought 10 find out where studeIds fek they could be helped to 
communicate more effectively in English. Respondents were therefore asked how 
much English they bad learnt from various sources i.e. home, school (teaching and 
textbooks) or media (radio, television, newspapers). Figure 3, 00 the page 39 
depicts the main source through which students learn English. Again, both the 
science IDd arts da. . recorded similar results. Generally, students admitted thai 
not very much English is learnt through the media and in their home environment. 
The graph shows that the principal means by which student» learn to speak English 
isthrougbthescboolsyitem.ltisatsc:booltluutheytindthemselvespractisin8the 
four skills ~ liatening, &peaking, reading and ¥<Titing. 
BOIhthe scicnce and arts class record an average of 80% of students who 
say thai the school is Vlnerc they really get exposed to the English language. Thi, 
ob6ervation therefore means that the load of reipOniibiJity is on the school system 
to eosme that students are helped to come intocootact withtbe English language 
as often as pouiblc. Each child spend&. allcast. an average of ciaht hoW'S a day in 
school so ifstudents have sufficient contlct with spokenaod VlTitten English, the 
English lanauaae situatioo in Ghana may improve 
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i[ll~~ !! I~ig 
~ g ~~ii~ 1 
I: 
otw~ oO/w2 
:::;;:~2 ~a:~:! 
;;:",:::2 ::~~:! 
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4.2.2 Geader DiltribudoD 
Gender distribution was analyzed ita terms of percentages. (See Fig.4 011 
page 41). In the seieace class, we bad 68% males 8Ild 32% females. An interview 
with thc clas.itcacher revealed that students wetc admitted intotbescieoccc:lass 
only when they pu.sed a teit spe1:wly designed for the selection of science 
studeou.lt tumedOUll tMI most ofthestuden&s whoQUaljfied were males. 
The arts class investiglkd. OIl the othet hind. Ud more female students 
than male. Female srudmts formed 94% of the population with only 6% male 
students. There seemed to be an explanation for this. Students in this particular 
class had the optioo to do my of the courses in home economics and more female 
scudeDtathanmale1op1cdforiL This findiDaKem8\O Indicate that one's gender 
aff'ccts suhjcct choice. What cannot be said for certain is whether or not 
stereotypical ideas .boutappropriatc courses for bo)'l and girls has a role to play 
in the picture observed here. This issue was not direr;tly investigated. However, for 
the teacher, &:his ccrtaiDJy implies that male and female itUdents have varied 
interestJ and this should tnformthccboiceoftopics farELT. 
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~",,~,"-. 
Figure4a Figure4b 
Gender Science (%) Gender Ar1S(%) o 
Male 68 Male 6 
Female 32 Female 94 
I_Male 
L_Femele .Male 
_Female 
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4.2.3 Sod.EcoaolDic Blckgrouad 
To be able to investigate the l4Xio-cconomi<: beckground of students. it 
wu important 10 provide a working definition for the cMclOries high cl. ... middle 
class, lower class and very low class siDce there teems to be aD absence of 8 well· 
defmed c1au JtnICtla'C in Ghana (AssimenJl 1981: 123). For the purpO&e of this 
re&earCb, the respondents were made to understand that 'high ela.u· represents the 
elite ill society. wbohaYeaverystrongeducatioDal b1ckaround and are tinanciaUy 
1OUDd, EXIIIlples of people ill this category arc university degree bolder. who 
exccliathe1rprofession.'Middleclus' repre...ueducatedlsemi-edueatedpareats 
who place areat premium OIl the eduWion and training of they. ehi~ but may 
have to forgo luxuries 10 IChievc this goal. These may be s.Nl to represent the 
workingelals in the dcve&opedcountries. 
Lower class repre5ft)ts parmts with very little or no education who ,I.JO 
have ~ ... problems. Vuy low clua f'fPfCscnts lIle 8J'0lJp of parents who are 
not educated and ba~ \0 shift all ~w responsibilities on people who are 
willing to help since members of the extended family are not financially sound 
either, lbe Jl'apb i.e, figure 5 on pa. 43. represents ,ocio-ecooomic class of both 
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0
The graph clearly shows that the majority of the students (i.e. 60 ..- and 
above) have parents who make sacrifices in order to educate their children . This 
may imply that unless such parents are very convinced about the need to get books 
for their children. they are not likely to buy them. Again, such parents may be too 
busy working to pay school fees that they may noC give their children all the 
attention they need to improve on their schoolwork. The presence of about 10% of 
respondents who belong to the rugh class. another 20'10 who belong Co the lower 
class and .bout 4% (arts class only) who belong to the very low class may offer a 
great challenge to the leaCber. This is because the issue ofsocio-economic class 
may affect ones knowledge of the world as well. A poor Ghanaian student with 
illiterate. non-English ,peaking parents. and with no access to television or books 
might hear. speak. read or write English only in school. Thus. strategies may have 
to be put in p1lce to help such children. 
4.2.. ED&lisb Language ProficieDcy Score 
Test &COrel of euays written by students generally reveal that most of the 
students Uve to be usiited to write more effectively. Members of the arts class 
seem to communicate better in writing lhan the science stUdents. (See Figure 6 on 
next page. for distribution). 
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~~1·?·r 1 -
~§~~I ~ 
iI 
~ 
'~f/ij'I';  
m 
~ 
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The majoriry of the membct's of the science class scored between 0-40%. 
10 an interview withtbe classtcacber, it was rcvealed that the scores tallied with 
average sCOfeiobtained in class work and tests. It was also revealed during an 
interview that respondents in the science el.ss, (most of them being male 
itudeots), admitted that they wually spoke Pidgin English, and hllcUy paid 
.ttrntion to grammar. Additionally, they read very linle outside textbooks 
recommended for thei.r course. 
The score:) obtained in the iris cl.ss revealed a morc even spread of .D 
English language proficiency levels, wruch may pose a challenge to the class ! 
r. 
teacber.sinceeachstudentmustbenefitrromlessonstaughl. T 
A further step was taken to find oUl uthere was a cOrTelation between 
proficiency scores and background of students. The difference between the scores 
obtained by group members was also tested statistically through an.lyses of 
variance (ANOYA). The results established cenain trends. For example. 
proficienc), scores were significantly different at 10-10 for students in the artsclaas, 
who scored higher than the science students. The mean scores were 400/. and 
500.. .. rapectivcly for sctcncc and Ifts students. (See figwe 7 on next page). 
Another issue th.t came to light was that gender significantly affects 
proficiency score. (See figure 8 also on next page). Females scored an average of 
49% as compared to males who had 44~o. ThUi. since members of the aN clau 
were mostly remales, one could understand wby members of the arts class ICOred 
hiprgradeithanthoseintbe science clus. 
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<tal .. ,. 
Ftgure7 
-rM.EAN  SCORE FOR ARTS AND SCIENCE STUDENTS SCIENCE ..T O "" L  50 arc' ..... Y : -,;{!'''';;$i1 f~r·: 
SCIENCE 4 45 
46 47 50 
MEAN SCORE 
Fi1jIure8 
MEAN SCORE FOR MALES AND FEMALES 
GI!NDER MfAN SCORE 
FEMALE CO 
MAj.E " MALE IT! 143 
FEMALE .. ~ - - . -, - ~>.a:: ::J49 
40 42 44 46 46 50 
MEAN SCORE 
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Qat ", -' ----
Figure 7 
MEAN SCORE FOR ARTS AND SCIENCE STUDENTS 
seffNer: 
MTa "so  i ARTS ~ __ u -~50 (;~(i .,  
iil 
~iJ.~~· ; 
SCIENCE 1&&& 145 r- ' .~;.:~ 
48 47 50 51 
MEAN SCORE 
Figure 8 
MEAN SCORE FOR MALES AND FEMALES 
Ot:NOER MEAN SCO.R.E  FEfMLE 
""'-E " MALE c:~,~ ]43 
FEMALE ~~.- --;-lC :-::-';'~ - -4 149 
~' - - --
40 42 44 46 48 50 I 
MEAN SCORE 
I 
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ID the 7th JlDt', 2000, edition of 'Every Woman' broMlcut OIl the BBC 
World Service, it was observed IhIt female students in the U.K. arc, on the 
average, scoring higher grades in school now than teD years ago. 1b.is was 
attributed to the availability of opportUnities after completing their courses, which 
seemed to be motivating females to get to the top. This seems to reflect the 
situation in Ghana. Another flClOr, which may have given rise to females scoring 
heber grades is that molt male students admitted that they did not like reading and 
often spoke pidgin English outside the classroom. The arts students, by the natw'e 
of their cOur!e, happen to read more textbooks which seem to contain more 
authentic language which they may need to use in their day-la-day .2. ' 
T 
communication. 1ne arts atudcnts are also compelled to write more essays in their 
subject areas. Reading more and writing more, seems to give the arts students 
more opportunitylopractisc usmgthcEngiish language. 
The place where students grow up and stay for most part of their life aJso 
affects the English proficiency. When proficiency 5COfes were analyzed in terms of 
where students stay, it was found out that those who usually find themselves in the 
urban areas had ao average score of 49% and those in the semi-urban areas had 
42%. Those in the runl areas Ud an average of 40%. (Sec Figure 9 on next page). 
The results of this survey may imply that if leachers are aware of the area 
students usually find themselves, they may adopt teaching &trategiet which will v,' 
beJpaJl students to forge ahead without Illowingtheir background to affect them 
nesatively. 
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flOUR£1 
AREA MEAN SCORE 
RURAL '" 
SEMI-URBAN .. 
URBAN .8 
MEAN SCORE BY AREA WHERE STUDENT GREW UP 
i SEM-URBAN 
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The studeftts may alJO be belped to learn independently while students 
from the rural areas mly be given opportunities to use the English language in a 
school environment. Such an environment is necessary since Kraft (1994), in a 
study conducted in Ghanaian schools, found that, Ghanaian children, particularly 
tboiCintberuralareas,haveonly 1% of the English language contact hours that a 
child growing up in the United States of AmeriCli might have. He said. this might 
make it extremely difficult for such GhanaIan students to master !.he English 
language. 
Looking at the results discussed in the preceding section, it can be 
concluded that the background of students may have a bearing on proficiency 
scores. Knowledge of the backgroWld of students is therefore necessary if the 
Englisblanguagcteac:bcr is 10 iucceed in satisfying the individual language needs 
of students. 
4.2.5 Learniog Styles 
Subjects were interviewed to find out if they all preferred the tcacher 
ccntered lock-step approach (prodromou 1995) being used by their teachers to 
teach Engllsh.. Out of forty-six 5tUdents prescnt in the arts class at the time of the 
interview, only one uudeot said the lock-&tep approach made learning easy. Forty-
five students however said they prefcned to study in • clus in WbKh lessons were 
taught in a variety of interesting ways. 'They added that they wouJd perhaps gain 
more from the a.oas if theIr leacher could rely ~ on the core Eoglish textbook 
and create interesttnl!: bsons by herself insIead of helpin. them to SO through the 
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book pilge by page. When asked iftbey bad Illy "interesting" ideas to offer, thirty-
five membcn: of the class suggested group work because they enjoyed studying in 
groups outside class boun. Thirty members of the group also suggested that, for 
more difficult comprebe.oiion passages, the teaeber should extend the silent 
reading period instead of asking some students to read aloud. 
When ..k ed if the classroom en'monment was such that they could freely 
communicate in a relaxed atmosphere, twenty-fow members of the class said it 
was. They added that they were people who generally liked asking questions and .D 
o 
contributing to lively wstussioos. Six admitted that in order to save face. they 
would neitherconbibute out ofthelroWD wil1 nor ask questions even if they did 
not undcrsLlnd • &enon. Wh~ asked what they usually did to catch up with the 
rest of the class, they said that they normally asked friends to teach them when 
cwscs were over. 
Questions, similar to those posed in the arts class, were asked in the 
scienceclU5. Then: were forty-four itUdents present on the day of the interview. 
None of the studeou in the C!IW wanted a teacher-centered class even though 
twenty-tbreestudentssaidtbeywouJdstilloeedtbeitteacherinlhcbackgroWldto 
reassW'e them. In aU. thirty students admitted that they learnt by interacting with 
teachen and friends so would prefer a teaching method which enabled them to use 
the language in a ownber of ways including group work. 
The answers given by students during this interview clearly showed that 
studeolswcte, toiOmeexteot., aware of their preferred leaming s(ylesand wished 
that tcacben would respond to them. The responses aiwa by member$ oftbe: two 
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heterogeneous cl8Slel are interesting in that the focus of the science students 
seems to indicate that they prefer aD analytical approacb to leaming. Tbey mainly 
wanted to learn the language by asking a lot of questions, practising the language 
in groups and baving a teacher in the baCkgroWld to tell them when they were 
going wrong. Tbii respoue is interesting in the sense that this approach reflects 
the procedure in conducting science experiments. The arts stUdcnls, on the other 
band. stiU oeeded lheirteacher to control tbe class but wished that there was more 
variety in the mdhod ofteacbiDg adopted. 
The responses to the questionnaires and interviews seem to suggest that 
learners in the class differ in a number of ways. 'The differences do not only exist 
in the backgroWld of the learners but also in learning styles and proficiency levels. 
El.tent to Wbicb Teachers aDd Students May Be 
Affected By the HC'te rogeneous Nature of the Class 
1bis section examines the extent to which learners. as well as teachers, 
may be affected and therefore respond to the heterogeneous "environmentn in 
which they find themselves. Owing the focus group di.icumon, students exprcs!I4:'d 
their feclinp. It is worthy to note that studtnta were williDg to express their views 
in the presenee oftbe teac:hers who asked iftbeycoukl sit in tbe dilcuuioo.. 
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4.3.1 Attitude or Students 
Even though students admitted that the presence of their colleagues who 
did better in English offeted tbem a standard to strive at, tbey still couJd not face 
that challenge. This rude them feel rather frustrated because the attitude of their 
teacbersand teachinS methods used by their leachers did not meet the needs of the 
less proficient students, who formed the majority. (See Figwe 1000 next page). 
While some said their teachers were impatient with the wuker students, others 
said the teacher talked all the time and hardly paused for questions from those who .. 
did nol oodcntand the lessons. 'The less proficient students, most of whom were ! 
&om low economic backgrouod, said thai to save their face and to prevent their r. 
11 
class mates from laughing at them, they did not ask questions in class. These 
students said they felt 'd.iscriminated' ag.m~t since their teachers always paid 
anentiontotheproficienlleamers 
4.3.2 AttihideorTeacbers 
In a separate dilCUUion with teachers, they admiRed thlt what the learners 
said conceming their style of teaching was true. The te.chers also expressed their 
frustn.tion about the situation. Fim. they admitted that they did not know how to 
handle such mixed ability classes, which seemed to pose problema to the learners 
They also said the recommended English lellibooks did not come with teacher's 
blDdbooks and this furtheraddcd to tbeir problems. 
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·~.  
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They added that weak Sludents, who were admitted to the first year class remained 
weak students in the final year and this obviously meant they were oot using the 
right teaching strategi«. This comment is interesting in the sense that the same 
concern has been noised by Tandoh (1987:112) in a l'C$Carch which looks at the 
Eng1ish language ofUnivenity of Ghana students. Tandoh concludes that the level 
of language skills among lirst year stuclcnts remain wx:hanged even after they 
have progressed to the final year, wbeo any improvement does occur, it is only 
minimaJaodoccUfSmanunpredictableWlY· 
.0 
According to the teachers, about 70% of their class needed one kind of help I> 
or another to mabie them to perform better in class. However, the loaded syllabus, .:0  
f : 
whicb they bad to complete in a short time. made it difficult for them to pause to 
ask questions during kuons. The ISSue of 'time' came up severa1 times during the 
di$C~ion. The teacben explained that the Ghana Education Service expeeted 
them to teach a minimum of twenty-eight.. forty-minute periods each week. At the 
mel of e.ach term. teachers were expected to band in grades for twelve marked 
assignments wbicb comprised clau work, project work, class assignment/tests and 
homework 
When all the English language teachers of the school were interviewed, 
most of them said thM they taugbt five claues with an average clais siu of forty-
five students. Therefore, grading took much of their time and prevented them from 
thinking about strategies which could help their student,. It was diJcovercd during 
the discuuioo with the srudents that eight of the assig:nmtnt types, which were 
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given to them as eitbel' class or homework. were DOt a true reflection of their 
ability since they copied &om friends because they did no( understand the work. 
From the discuuion above, it is clear that teachers and students alike need 
belptocopewithtbesituation. Bothteachersaodltudentsrecognizethatthereisa 
gap belween the proficient and the less proficient srudent, which needs to be 
bridged.. There is therefore the need to come up with teaching strategies that will 
addreiS the necdi of large mixed ability claises. These strategies sbould also help 
teachers to use effcttively the short time available for language teaching. In 
additioo, assignmeuts must a1so be scco as useful tools inthc leaming proccss, and 
teachers need guidance in making sucb work interesting and useful, f ' 
To enable the researcher to have a first-hand information about the 
s.ituation that both the itUdenta and teacberi described. teaching was observed for 
one tenn and the textbook uaed wu evaluated. The findings 3re discussed below. 
4.4 The Effectiveness of Teaching Methodi and Textbook 
This 5CCtioo describes and assesses the teaching methods used by both tcachers 
andevahwesthetextbookJusedintermsoftbeiuueofbeterogeneity 
4.4.1 ClassroomObservation 
Both teachers either stood or aat iD 600t of the c1au andtausht lessons by 
following the textbook very cloeely. 10 faI;t they went through tbe book &om one ,. 
,I 
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page to another. The teachers usually asked a srudent to read relevant portions of 
the book to the clus I:Dd e:xplalned points made. The blackboard, which is a usefuJ 
tool in the clusroom for varying 8Ctivities as well as getting students to actively 
participate in class. was mainly used during grammar tessOOJ to explain some 
grammar points. In the aru class, for example, the teacher seldom wrote OQ the 
blackboard. 1'bismay place "'visual people" at a disadvantage. Such people like to 
iet:thelaoguagewrittc:odownforanaIysis. 
Group work was Dot organized for students. This limited active .. 
involvement by students. For example. most of the questions wed during the .,~.   
period of observation were teacher initiated. Thus cooperative learning. student r 
directed learning, and smaIl group interaction were not encouraged. Questions 
mostly came from tbe teechen and were usually answered by students who 
volunteered to do 10. Some students therefore did not actively participate in 
lessoruthroughouttbeperiodofobterVltioo. 
Some aspecIS of the English syUabus received more attention than others. 
A great deal of time was spent on the teaching of granunar and rt'ading 
comprehension. No time was ipCnt on speech work and very little attent ion was 
given to writing activities. The teachen, during an interview, said that much 
Ittention was not paid to speech work. because they bad very little time to cover ~ 
the grammar and reading comprehension sections of their textbook which was 
rather extensive. Perhaps ifteacbers adapt a more integrative approach to the 
teaching of English in the clas.sroom by paying equal attention to aU components 
of the Ianguaae.,they may cater for the varied DeeCk and interest ofth; students. 
. I ~'" ~ 
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They will abo help students to see the link between the varied aspects of the 
Englishlaaguoge. 
Since both leacbers strictJy adhercd to the textbook. there was very linle 
differente in the leaching method they used. During grammar lessons. the 
teachers explained the grammar points to the class. and students were asked 
questiom based on what had been taught as well as on the previous lesson. The 
milting thing about these grammar Ieuom wall that it seemed that students always 
bad problems answering questions baed on previous granunar leiSOllS taught. 
Teachers verbally expreued their disappointment v.rhen students could not. for 
example. tell what a clause ..... as. Grammar was taught in a very traditional way, so 
a lot of attention was paid to the ruJes of grammar 
Owing comprehell$ion leuont students who could read well were asked to 
read aloud after which the questions in the course books were answered orally. 
For their homework, students were alto liked to answer some of the questions in 
writing. Again. during these lessons it was observed that only particular siudents 
VOIWlleered 10 answer questions while the rest of the students ut down and 
Hstened. 
Having disawed WNlt happened in the classes observed. this work will 
now examine the contents of the textbook., since it teemI to play a key role in the 
tcacbinlaodlearninlProcesS. 
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4.4.2 The Senior Secondary Core Enpisb Textbook 
The Curriculum Research and Developmeot Division (CRDO) and some 
examinen of the West AfrK:ao Examination Council prepared the syUabus on 
wbicbtbetextbookiJbIIed. 
ACCOfding to the autbors, a necdsanalysis was conducted and the results, 
which appear on the first page of the syllabus, form the objective of the Senior 
Secondary Core EDglisb progranune, whK:b every student is expected to study. 
The authors hope tbatthe textbook would: .. 
> 
Remedy the deficiencies in the Senior Secondary School products' 
conunWlicativecompeteoce; 
Reinforce aDd develop further those language skills and competencies 
wbicb were acquired at tbe Junior Secoodary School level; 
Genemc in studentaa love for ceading for enjoyment. 
4. Revi5e students' level of proficiency in English usage to enable them to 
Wlderstand what they hear and read and to conununicate ably with OlhCT 
UlCl&ofEngllih; 
Prepce them 10 be able to function effectively either i) on their own or ii) 
iDoffic:eslDdotbcrworklituatioasorili)intertiaryinititutions; 
Enable all products of the Senior Secondary School to have access to the 
accumulated knowledge of their ch05eD fielda and allO to facilitate their 
sharing and be:nefitiofsuchknowledge withotbcn. 
(1991:1) 
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CRDO propoied that the textbook should include activities that help 
studeoU to describe upetts of Ghanaian cWtural practice in appropriate 
ways to improve studePts' spoken Eoglish. English literature is introduced 
in the textbook to generate in ItUdcnts a love of reading for enjoyment and 
to give tbem theopportunilY to see language in use. 
4.4.2.ICooteat 
The textbook U5CS an integrated approach. A unit may therefore contain •)  
lessons in reading comprehension.. vOCIbuJuy. language study (which is mainly 
grammar but sometimes discunes appropriate use of language for writing 
activities). speecb work, note taking. composition writing and literature. To 
perhaps prevent monotony, each unit of the course does not follow one particular 
pattern of sequence. For example. while Unit One starU with "language study" , 
Unit Two starts with reading and unit six swtI with ''writing''. 
Books 2 oflbe Senior Secondary SchoQI Enllish textbook which was used 
in both classes observed contains activities that have been written or selected for Iti 
their functional and inlerest value. Relevant material hued on the Ghanaian 
situatioo andcultwe is familiartoleameriaadtbcrcfore creates the opporturutyto 
UIC authentic language. For example the book has pusasa on health care, ~ 
foott.ll, MMlotberday-to-day activities. It ilevident from the selected passages 
tlW tbc aUlbors of the book tried to select somepassage5 to swt thc backgrounds 
oflcemen. 
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Even though the activitiell provided in the textbook might help students to 
actucveCOOUllW1icativeskiUs.tbey are ootenough. There are eertain aspects of 
tbc book which need to be carefully looked at. and the5e are discussed below. 
The uneven spread of topics in the rndividuaJ unitll may reveaJ that some 
topics receive very little attention. An examination of the textbook used revealed 
thattbere u; only ooe guided conversation activity, two note-taking activities, six 
compositioo writing exercises., five selections OD literatw'e, and eight speech work 
activities. Ontheotberhand,twentyrudingactivitie5bavebeenpresented,while 
twenty-five activities have been devoted to language study, mainly grammar. If 
teachers are to strictly follow thebook,then this is a cause for worry. 
Even though a textbook may emphasize certain aspects of English over 
others, teachen mual learn to constantly find out what students need most by 
asking them to say wblt thcy really have problems with. Tberesponse received 
dwing the interview showed that students needed more writing activities 
Even. though. the developers of the syllabus emphasize the need to 
conunWlicate, writing activities and conversation practice exercises are given very I~ • 
little attention. Secoodly, the textbook encourages a teacher-eentered approach. 
whicb gives very little opportunity for studcnta to inter3ct in groups. Points are 
usually explained afterwhidt studenta are asked to aDJWer questions. Therefore 
leamers with different learning stylet are not given the chance to work on a 
variety of activities. 
ControLled grammar practice features significantly in the textbooks. Again 
this may have to be carcfully looked ataincerec:cat researcb.seems to agree with 
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Ellis (1990:192) tMt 'controlled practice appears to have little long term etr~t on 
accuracy with wbieb new Sb'UCt\UCs are performed'. Even though controlled 
practice is good. too much of it does not help the learner to experiment with the 
language. 
The hold on the learners and the teachers by the writers of the textbook 
seems to be too rigid. For example, specific instructions. as opposed to guidelines, 
are sometimes given to show how the clas sbould be managed. On page 139 of 
Book 2 for example. the textbook writCl'S give students the following instructions: 
Draw a line down the middle of one page of your exercise 
book, &0 that the page is divided anto two sections ... What 
you are domg an thiii exercise is leaming how to group the 
poiDtsthat beloogtogethcr 
This assumes that students could not arrive at the same conclusion by 
using their own preferred learning styles. Leamen should be left to make 
discoveries for themselves because there are several learners who learn bener that 
way. Rutherford and Sbarwood-Smith (1988) assert tbat the role of the classroom 
and of teaching materials is to aid the learner to make efficient use of the 
resources in order 10 facilitate sclf-discovery. Tomlinson (1994), Bolitho and 
TomliDloo (1995) and Prodromou (1995) hive expreued similar views. Different 
leamen have differmt learning styles 10 teacben must ensure that just as thi! 
style of teaching is sWlable for those who are dependent learnen, students who 
are more independent and want to learn from that own experience should have 
their needs catered (or al oDC time or tbc other. This Unplies that language 
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inicrudioa. as much as pouible, has to be based OIl a variety of cognitive styles 
(Lanen-Fm:mao and Long 1991) and teachers must be helped to vary their 
teaching style by drawing 00 information from leamer's background. 
A look at the book helps DOe to see why some students are dissatisfied 
with the clasaroom activities. The mlterW. do not offer the learners the much-
needed variety. For example, students could be encouraged to do some pair and 
group work. Independent learning as well as cooperative leaming should be 
encowaged ill clau $0 that the learning proce$S will be more effective. 
AdditionaUy, it i. imporlaDt that learners are given the opportunity to interact for 
KVeI8.I raaons. If learners are given the opportuDity to use the target language in 
several ways, they will be helped to chec.k the effectiveness of their internal 
bypotbeaes especiaUy if activities encoucagc them 10 use language slightly above 
their aamm proficiency (Swain 1985). Sharwood-Smith (1981) also adds that 
communicative interaction among students provide opportunities for leamers to 
pick up language from the DeW input generated by students themselves while 
learners output becomes an lnf'ormaUve source of input. Knowledge of theories 
such as theie helps one to undeI'5tand wbal students miss when cooperative 
learning ianot encouraged inclau. lntbe final chapter of this work, tasks based 
on tbe.etbeories will besugested rorcluaroomuse. 
While Hadfield (1992) ODd Ur (1996) offer leache" practicol guidelines 
on bow to teach mixed ability groups in their English langtllge textbooks, 
GbaDai.811 teachers have been left alone in this matter which CODCcms them. If all 
GbaDaian teachers were trained in ELT methods and therefore had lOme 
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t.ckgrouod lmow1edse on bow to bindle such classes. and if there were teacher 
handbooks and supplementary instruetional materials. then the currmt textbook 
would be considered adequate. However. since many of the teachers are not 
experU in ELT , it ii crucial for them to be assisted in handling such classes 
effectively. Tbc textbooks thai they are expected to use should provide such help. 
4.5 Coad.sioa 
1ltis chapter :5OuJht to examine the naMe of heterogeneity in two-second 
year claues oftbe Tema Melhodist Day Secondary School. 
By means of questioonairu, interviews and classroom observation, the 
srudy revealed thai the classes were made up of mixed Ibility groups of learners, 
whose beckground SC'emed to have something to do with their proficiency levels 
Knowledge of this should help the teacher to provide faci lities which enhance 
stuOeDtJ' communicative skills in the classroom. Again the interviews revcaJcd 
thltstudeots'leamingstylesandneedswerenotbewgcateredforandthatcouJd 
be: one oftbe causes for the poor performanc.c in EogiiJh. FiDaUy. a look at 
textbooks and teaching methods adopted by the teachers revealed a lack of variety 
in c1aiiroom activities, md of effeaive methods of assessing studenu' work. If 
teachers orpnizcd feedbliek seuiooa, tome of the frustration experienced by the 
leamen aDd teecbers could be eliminated. This calli for a learner-untered 
at.mospbere in spite of the number of students in each clan and the short lime 
within wlucbteacben: are supposed to complete tbcsyllabus. 
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lndeeda lookattbeteacbingtbatweot on in both classes revealed certain 
lapses which Deed to be addressed if students should be helped to communicate 
effectively in English. Students must be assisud to be more open. and to express 
their needitoteacbets. 
In the 6aaJ chapter of this study, suggestions wiU be offered to help 
te8cher.; to bandJe more effectively large heterogeneous classes in Ghana. 
"': 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
WAYS OF DEALING WITH LARGE HETEROGENEOUS CLASSES 
5.1 INTRODUCTION 
Rinvoluncri (1986), who has studied mixed ability cJasiCS. bas ope 
importaDt thing to &iy about them. He says the idea of teaching unitary lessons is 
odd and eluteS aboukI be considered as having separate individua1s and not a 
group. This is to ..y  thIl any teacher who does not vary his or her teaching style 
is not doing the rigbttbing. Brown (1987:95) reiterates this point by saying that 
'"The teacher needs to recognize and lUlderstand a multiplicity of cognitive 
variables active in the second language process and to make appropriate 
judgements about individual learners, meeting them where they are and providing 
them with the best possible opportunities for learning". 
I 
The assertions made by both Rinvohmcri and Brown above seem to 'J 
suggest that if allltudeDts in large heterogeneous classrooms should benefit from 
their English lessons, and be able to comnllmica.te more effectively, then teachers 
must plan a variety of appropriate lessons 10 meet the needs of learners. This 
chapter therefore looks at how teachers caa vary cla.uroom activities to suit the 
needs of learners in theie mixed ability CIUiCl. 
Reeommeodatiooa for the improvement of the teaching and learning 
situation io the SSS classes wiD be done in the: light of the following limitations 
identified. 
CalibreofTcochas 
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a) The teacher of the arts class investigated is • graduate teacber who read 
Frcoeh and specialized in the teaching ofFreoch. 
b) The teacher of the science class is a graduate of the University of Science 
and TecbookPgy, wbo read Eoglish and French at the wUversity level but 
bas DO bKkground in Educ:ation. 
2) Textbooks 
a) Hmdbooks for teachers. which &bauJd go with the recommended 
textbooks forthecowse, are not available. 
b) No provision bas been made in the textbook for low achievers or high 
achiC'VC1"5. 1be books have: been written for learners who can learn at the 
c) Lack of SupplemenlAl)' readers and teaching equipmenl 
3) Recommendations by GES 
a) Syllabus: Tune for the compLetion of the heavily loaded sylblbus is too 
abort. 
b) Work Load: GES insists that teechers tcaeb 8 minimum of twenty-eight 
periods per week. Teacben hlDdJe five classes with an average of forty-
five JtUdmts. Thus the miDimum number or students each teacher 1eac:hes 
is two buodrt:d and twenty-two. Again, tbe.ae atudcnta are to present al 
least. twelve Il$.liignments for matking and recordina for continuolU 
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assessment. This adds up to at least, a total of 2.475 scripts for each 
teacher for each term. 
In spite oftbese issues raised. the teacher in the Ghanaian secondary 
school must be helped to teach leamen in the short teaching time available. The 
teachers hive to Idopl.mthods which will keep their learners motivated while 
ensuringlhat all leamers in the cJass are taugbt effectively, in spite oftbeirvaried 
beckgrolmd. 
Suggestions offered in thii chapter include the use of the following: 
A culturelbackaroUDd lCDiitive pedagogy. 
2} Effective cta.oom lDtetaction. 
3) Texbing methods and nutcrials to mit the needs ofleamers 
4) Gtoup-work ill lap het<roaeoeous cl ...... 
It is hoped that these suggestions will bring together the differences 
exhibited by each learner and_ allow_ thes e differences to twn into the mength ==~k '~-C) 
S.2.1 CultaftlBadq:roaad Se.sittve Pedalogy ~~~ 
A culh.lrelt.ckground 9CftIitive peciaao8Y requires the teacber to 
investigate the background of lamer. in an infonnaJ way .... tile the 
mformation in innovative ways to help tbcm ~ develop their "'suap skills 
effectively. 
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1lliJ recommc:Ddatioa is bucd 00 the fact that learners do not go 10 the 
classroom with DO knowledge of the world. Their cultural and linguistic 
t.ckgrourul, amoog otbns. will help them view the content of lessoos from 
variousanglcs. Some students ina particuJarelassmay understaDd lessons lIught 
because they are familw with the issues addressed . Other students may struggle 
witbthose iamccooccpts, muely bccause of their limited IinguiSlic exposw-e and 
knowledge of the world. which provide appropriate schema fot uoderstandlng the 
text used in Ibeclat. 
As bas alRad.y been dilCussed, ItUdenIS who come from a fairly affluent 
background, who have been helped by their parents to aCQuire a reading cultw"e, 
may be familiar with ieveral issues rai5ed in daIS and therefore may oo.Iy have 
few problems Ln the English Iaopaage: class. On the other hand. students who 
have not had that opportunity will nOl only bave to try 10 Wlderstand lIle grammar 
point taught, but the <:ODleXt in which the language is learnt. Thi. is not to suggest 
that the rrlICft pro6cieal: students will alwa}'1 be at an advantage. 1bere are times 
wben they will be baDdielpped because the lcuon may perhaps be based on 
aaivities or cultural practices which the Jess proficient Inmers are more familiar 
with. 
A culturelbackground sensitive pedagogy should take these issues into 
considetatioa aDd explole the previous knowledge: of JlUdcDts before any lason. 
Te.chers are required to uk several quatiODS, not only based on wh.ac WU learnt 
in the previous leuoo (u bas beeD the usual practice) but on the text to be used 
While studears talk about whit they know, the tcacbct can use that oppal"tWl.ity 10 
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help all students to lilt appropriate language to lIolk .bout their culture. This. if 
well done. may equip studeats to use the English language in real situations wbich 
tbeyare likely to encounter. Studenuwith limitcd exposure will also be 
privileged to add to their knowledge of the world if the teaeher cre.te. added 
opportunjties for them to use the oew language ia different coD1exti . Tbereeding 
passage on pile 23 of the course book fOf example may be used to illustrate this 
point. The pasaage dID extract from Richard Wright's Black Boy. It detcribes 
the home of the boy and introduoet readers to members ofrus family . Quite a kM 
is said about his strict father wbo be feared and had DO real relationship with. 
Qucstioos that have been asked in the book are purely conlent questions. 
However this passage may be used in several different waY' in the clauroom to 
enable studc:nlJ 10 share their own experiences by describing their varied home 
environments. Tbis would certainly help them use appropriate language to 
describe their OWD home cnvitonmaW: and help members of the class to learn 
morcabo~whatbapperuinotherbomes. 
Again, if1heteacher is able to find out from students how often they read, 
1itCen, and commWlicate in the Eoglith language. he/she may adopt strategies to 
whip up in~ in reading. which in tum will hetp students to improve on their 
communic.tiOll skilll. Por example, if studen" are not enthusiastic about reading 
books, newspopers and ...p zina, the _ could diJplay booka, oewsp.pet1 
and magazines which have fUttJln information on interesting issues diseuued in 
class. to illustrate bow healtby radin, habits may be aD added advantage in the 
language classroom. She coWd ~ tbe:m to tad, by ruding out intcrestina 
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portiom to the class. Another way of motivating students to read widely is to tell 
students that they will score marks for identifying, reading and summarizing short 
pieces: of information they read, whicb highlight grammar points learnt or topics 
discussedin(:W$. 
The students may alto be eocounged to write short articles based on 
IeuonJ taught for a (:ius magazine or nolice board. This will serve as a useful 
assignment which may reduce the risk of copyina:. Students may also be 
tDCOUrIIa:ed to learn 10 listen to EDgiish programmes. AI least, once a week, they 
should be given the chance to listen to a recorded VCl$lon oftbenews broadcast 
on ,.dio in class. This will be a valuable activity to improve their listening 
comprebeni.ion. Students must be eocouraged to CIIpitalite on their English 
speaking envlrOfUDCCt to refine tbeirEngiish. Perbapsthis integraled approach 10 
learning may help the SlUdents 10 see and use the target language in iCveral 
intereslingW1lYS. 
Again, teachen using cWtureIbackground pedagogy must know the 
cultural practices ofstudc:nts whic:b c:nhanu or inhibit the communication and 
learning proceues in learners' own cultural or home environmenta. Teachers can 
capitalize OIl this information 10 improve and modify their own teaching 
teclaUques. Some SlUdents. for example. come from homes where they are 
eocouraged to ex~. ideu freely with aduhs while others come &om homes 
where they have been told it is rude 10 do so. h is likely tta.t student. will display 
thc samebabits in class. Teacberssbouldthereforenot ruhlycoocludethalthose 
who do not usuaUy talk do Dot bave valuable cootributioas to make in class. 
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Teachers in the classrooms investigated. for example. admitted that they were 
tcmptedto call upon those who usually answerod questiomto do so because of 
lack of time_ lflhe clasA'OOm is where srudents learn to communicate in English. 
opportunity mUll: be given to as many students as possible 10 share idea in the 
target language. Students who will nolreadily volwtteerto speak in cla.ssshould 
be encouraged to do so in aa accommodating classroom enviromnent. Knowledge 
of the behaviour of introverts and extroverts should help the teacher to be more 
accommodatins. Studies hive shown (Kureinka 1991), for exampk:. that 
introverts get their CD.C'lg)' by beiDg alone or sharing ideas with one or two special 
people. They prefcr to react with the world on the inside by refiecting on their 
thoughts before dwio& them with others. With this knowledge. teachers must 
vary their ttthniquts by offering the opportunity for students to reflect on 
ljucs,lionsinpairsorindividually. 
Furthermore, a careful look at what happens in Ghanaian homes shows 
that many Ghanaian children learn in groups. They are made to perform many 
household tasks in pain oriD groups. UsualJythe ' leader' of the group teacbes tbe 
re5t how to perform the task. succes.&fWly whik: the other member or members of 
the group u.k for clarification tbrousb nqotiation of meaning. ID addition, 
chiLdren and adoJeICCIIb Uvc always UICd groupl U a face saving device at 
home. Ideas or requests they wish to express to parems are done through a more 
vocaIsibliDg.. It is therefore unfortun.tetbat luchskills used by studenta II. home 
are ~ot often mwn inlO languIae classes. Group-work is Ihercfore one technique 
a culturelbackground sensitive pedaaogy should take advantaae of in the 
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Gbmaian classloom. This technique may beJp to bridse tbe gap betweal the 
proficient and ias proficiCDt students ifhandled well. Group-work may also serve 
as an avenue through wbich ally or less proficient students may convey their 
valuable ideas. These ideas will be discussed in the group but conveyed to the 
clui by the leader. 
By carefully IisteninglO inI.enctioDi within the groups, the teachers can 
focUi their attention on lanpge problems studeolS come to the clUl with. They 
may therefore reduce their work load by focwing more on these language items 
thcoughi.nttte:stingactivitiC$whilepaying~attentionlopartsofthesyllabus 
whicb.studeotIarcfamilwwith. 
As a further illusb"aliooofhow me cWture seositivepedagoeY caoaffect 
ClawOOIll work, the ItUdeDtI in. the science class who ad,mjttcd that they used 
very little EngJ.isb outside clus and rarely read anything outside the 
reeomrneoded textbooks could be encounged to read and take turns to share 
interesting infol'mlltioo in the first ten minutes of the English cLasa. Apin. they 
could be usistcd 10 pey attention to bow the writers of their scieocc textbooks are 
able to convey appropriate meaningthrougb the COlTcct use of language itcms 
being learnt in clua. Such mctbod.a may ao a long way to belp solve IanguAae 
problems and provide a way for Itudcots who elMOt read storybooks because 
they have so much (0 do in 1brirlUbjea 8ICU. 
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5.2.2 EffectiveOassroomlnteractioD 
Teachers' own competcoce in English is central to effective classroom 
interaction betwee:u teachers and students sa well as between students and 
students. For examp&e, the data analyzed abow that for the majority of the subjects 
for tbiJ study. the environment for learning Englilb is the school; this suggests 
that teachen' own proficieocy sbouId be high in order that thcy can provide the 
appropriate language model. 
Teachers must remember that there arc students who learn to speak by 
listening to them. Consequently, those who do not work on their own proficiency 
will create problems for sucb students. There are ieveral wa)'i in which teachers 
can impJove on their own communication skilli. First, there are quite a nwnber of 
Engliah textbooks which are useful and contain self-help Itudy guides in many 
bookshops all ovcrtbecountry. It will be wonhwhile for teachers to buy these 
and use them to improve their own competence. Second. all teachers in the 
English depanment must be encowaged to write papers on language wuesthey 
wish to discUiS and read them at departmental &eminars every term. If this is 
done, membcn will be encowagcd to find out appropriate ways of conveying 
their ideas. Finally. it may be a useful idea for teachers to take short proficiency 
courses or regularly lilteD to good. Eagtisb language progranunes on radio. They 
may help cecb otbcr iftbey make it a poiDt to use the language they have acquired 
by speakiDa English at all times on the school compound. 
Te:acba--audent interaction can tab min)' forms. For example, teachers 
caD provide 8 rich variety or input by building on what learners say. Restating 
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itself. For example. 'Sister' or ' A sister'. "Wl1-questions ate formed in the 
wne way as Yes/No questions, but they begin with a "WH"·word. Examples of 
tbe5e are, 'when', 'where', 'wby', 'how', etc. TheiC also elicit lnfonnatioo. 
Teachers must use these question types to elicit sboft or long answers as well as 
whole clus or individual response from learners. When a student does DOt 
produce the expected answer, short prompts may help. For example, 'Tell me 
more about your aiater'. This cue will definitely make the student say more about 
her sister. If the student d0e5 not know how to begin, a further cue may help. If 
teachers constantly elicit infonnltion by using appropriate question types. 
SlUdeots are likely to learn these Ipproprilte norms which will make them feel 
more coofident when Isking their own questions. Some time should also be spent 
on teKhingthese norms. 
Instructions and explaaatiOlli must be given simply and clearly. Teachers 
should consciously WIC simple expnwions over and over again. More complex 
language can liter oa be used. Initially, the teacher must ensure that students 
understand what is beiDS said by asking some student, to say the laDle thing in 
otberacceptable ways. This strategy provides lilteningpracticewhich is useful 
and also provides studcntswith authentic Ianguagetbey will occd. 
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5.2.3 Modifying; Teac:hing Methods 10 Suit tbe Needs o( 
the MiIed Ability Class 
SiDce the current textbook used does Dol seemtomeecallthe laDguage 
neediofthe students in theciassC5 investigated,. it will be advisable fortcacbe.rs 
to look beyood the SSS textbook (or clas.sroom activities. 
The English language teacher mwt OD regular basis vary methods used in 
teaching. These must be baed 00 existing theory and practice. To be able to blend 
different methods of taching to suit the varied needs of the individuals. student-
teachers must be exposed to ClDTeD.t issues in language learning and teaching. In 
addition the Ministry of Education, through seminars, workihops and journals 
mUll provide co·goiDg training for teachers. Teachers in the clUiCI investigated 
knew ueilber the methods they were using nor the outcome of those methods. This 
seems to suggest thai such teachers need information on the variety of methods 
they caD use, aDd the: strmgths and weaknesses of such methods. This knowledge 
will help teachen know, for example. that the Audio-lingual method. which 
places emphasis 00 pattern practice drills, is not suitable (or the analytical minded 
students., who lend to prefer the Academic or Grammar Translation method. 
Aaain. while some studeob need to viJuaJize concepts, others require time to 
~flec:t at wbaI ba boen taught. TIle teacher is lherd'OJC supposed 10 reflect on his 
teac:biq: and make appropriate choices which will meet the needs of the 
individuallellmers 
What is beiDa sugaested here is that teacher-trainees require some 
lnfonDItioa in &qua. teaching so that Ihey can make informed dec:iaiollS on the 
" 
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appropriate method to use in each situation. In addition. opportunities should be 
provided forteacbers iotbc field to update tbelr knowledge and sk.iUs. 
Sincetbe students need opportunities in the classroom to practice me 
Engliah laoauage, teKhers mUit adopt a leamer-centered approach (0 teaching. 
This means that just IS IlUdents were able to 18y what they needed most during 
the focus group discussion. they should periodically be encowaged by teachers to 
discuss the portions oftbe syllabus they do oot quite understand. Students are 
tben given the oppol'tUnity to perfonntasks in those areas while the teacberacts as 
a facilitator. Group work ill very usefu] here since learners will be given an 
oppornmity to Wle the taraet language to ask each other questions and also make 
relevant contributions. The tub should be interesting, and clear instructions must 
be given orally and then written on the blaekboatd for the succcuful completion 
of the tasks. 
The teacher must not only go through the recommended SSS textbook 
page by page with students but must iead whole ciass discU$$ioDs in such a way 
that many students will do more of the talking. Sby students for example can be 
encouraged to comribule in chw. This should be done in such a way that the 
leamer does not feel iDtimidated. For example, the teacher may say: "We have 
not beard from you today, Ama, What's )'OW" opinion?" Again student comments 
aDd questions should be directed hack to another student. For example: "This is • 
good. idea, Kofi; Mary, what do you think about that?". This way students will 
actively participate in the ICS$OUS. The teacher muat build upoa ideas provided in 
textbooks and allow as many students as pouible to share their ideas. 
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1betcacbermustaisoconstant1yassessShldeDI:J'leamingandprogress. 
For example, the as proficient student will lcam better if asked to answer 
queitioos vabe11y at short intervals (i.e. after each major coocepI bas been 
expIaiDed).1n addition., sbort assignments based on what has been taught should be 
given u bornework. lD the classes observed. tcacben hardly ever allowed students 
to give an overview of the leuoos. The teKber should ask several studenLI to say 
what they have pined from the lesson. Lessons sbo\lld be planned in such a way 
that learners are allowed to ask questions. This strategy will help the teacher to 
fWtherclarify ideas presented in each lesson. If students have clearly understood 
the Ieuon, the risk of copying from frieod.s will be les.5ened. When teachers 
accumulate assignmems aod dish them out to students for the sake of continuous 
lWC:SSIJlenl records. tbeD the whole purpose of assignments, which is to find out 
howwellscudents undcrstoodtbe leuon, is defeated. 
AU students in the classroom must be taught to grapple with the 
challenging tasks suggested in the syllabus siDce aJlle.amera win be made to write 
the aame finaJ examinatiom. It was therefore suggested in the rniew of ,wit-ble 
lit.cratureiDchapter two tbatindividualiz.ed1Ddopen-endedac:tivitiesas suggested 
by Ur mel Prodromou Ud to be modified to suit the Ghanaian context. This is 
bcca.- both activities higbligbl tlcx.ibility. Learners. according to the rC$W'chers, 
are allowed to decide what they want to learn when they do not fiDd the 
recommeoded tasks appealing. Teachers in Gbana may not be able to do this in 
their classes because of time coastraint and the need to complete a syllabus. 
However. these teac:bcrs may provide DpCIH:nded tasks, which the more proficient 
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Tbc: teacher must a1so constantly assess srudems' karning and progress. 
Foe example. the )ess proficient student will 1eam better if asked 10 answer 
questions verbally at short intervaJs (i.e . after each major coocept bu been 
explained), In additioo.. short a5$ignments based on what has been taught should be 
given as homework. In the classes observed, teachers bardly ever allowed SlUdents 
10 give: an overview of the lessoQS. The teKber should ask several students to say 
whit they have gained from the lesson.. Lessons thouId be planned in such a way 
that learners are aUowed to ask questions. This strategy will help the teacher to 
further clarify ideai presented in each lesson. If students have c1rarly understood 
the ICSiOD. the risk of copyiDg from friends will be leuened. When teachers 
KCUmubte usignmenlJ and dish them out to students for the sake of continuous 
asseument records, then the whole purpose of utignmentl, which is to find out 
how well stUdents undentood the lesson, is deftlted. 
All STudents in \be classroom mwt be taught to grapple with the 
challeogioa tasks SUUC$lCd in the syllabw; since alileamers will be made to write 
the same final examinatioO$. It was therefore suggested in the review of available 
literature in cbapter twotIYt individualiz.ed aDd open-eodod activitiet as sugaested 
by Ur and Prodromou had to be modified to suit the Ghanaian conlext. This is 
bcauIe both activities highlight flexibility. Leamers. accordina to the researchen, 
are allowed to decide what they want to learn when they do not find the 
recornmtoded tasks appealing. Teachers in Ghana may nol be able to do this in 
their classes because of time constraint and the need to c:omplete a .yllabus. 
However, tbcseteac.hers may provide op~ taab. whic.bthl!: more proficient 
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students may be eocourased to answer. Open-ended activities may be extended so 
thatthoieproficieotstudeotswill write their own stories intense forms introduced 
in IciiOOi, 1beie activities can be given as bomework. 'The students must be 
cocouragecl to tad some of their interesting stories to the class since they may 
serve as aD encoungement to the rest. Again. slower learners should be helped to 
gradually move &om answering c&ose-ended tasks to more open-ended ones 
instead of baviDg that optioo. all the time. ]be less proficient students may further 
be giveo short assignments on aspects of the course they have problems with. 
Teachers often complain that there is very little time available for 
individualized taski in the classroom. However, becaWie this strategy encourages 
individuals to identify areas they need to work on. a place should be foWld for 
such Ittivities especially wbcG tcacMn cannot give much iDdividual attention to 
students duringleaons because of lime and the number of students in clals, It may 
be advisable for teachers to make meaningful comments on students' work. and to 
ask them to pay careful attention to those comments. Students should be 
encouraged to improve on the quality of their work in their own private itUdy 
periods. COrrectiOlli should be marked promptly by teachers, as studmts often rely 
00 how well they do ... way of monitoring their own progrn. (n \ 
'" __W m'. ...... "_.~ 0, 
The importance of group-work C8IIOC be overemphasized. Group-work is 
aD activity which helps learners to com.mWlicate and pool togetbcr the ricb 
divenit)' of Imowledge they come to the classroom with. However. what 
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determines iU usefulness is bow it is organized and what goes into it. M2n)' 
teachcn in Ghanaian secondary schools avoId it because their classn are large 
A useful way to organize group-work in large classes is to create mixed 
ability groups of five, (since grouping by ability may slow down the progress of 
learners) IDd eDpge them in collaborative writing tasks or discussions. When a 
leuon OIl I*'grlpb writing. for example, .. tauah1, lIle tcacher may ask students 
to develop fow p&ralflphs of an esuy topic. Groups are excellent for 
brainstorming activities before individuals write essays so; students can sit in 
groups and decide what to write. They may IIso pool their ideas together and write 
fow topic sentences. Each member of the group should be asked to develop one 
topic sentence while the fifth member of the group acts as secretary. Finally, the 
lecretary 1TlI)' read wtw the group has been able to write. As this is being done, 
students may edit the work. When the group returni to the claw-oom. issues that 
emerge from their JfOUP work sboWd be discussed. Some group aecretaries 
should be allowed to rad 11 least one puagrlph to the whole class for discussion. 
For reading activities. it may be helpful for teachers to assess the reading 
level of students. Learners with similar reading problems mwt periodically be 
grouped together so that assistance may easily be offered. This must not be done 
oRen since C\'ery member of the class bas something to contribute to the otbcrs. 
Material for gTOUp-work mull be varied. In fact. subject maner shouJd 
sometimes be iD&er~plinary to eater for the varied interests of lumel'l. For 
exlll1ple, 8fOUP work must be orp.niz.cd for all aspec;ts of the English languase 
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programme 80 that some learners who are not very proficient l1\I.y have very UiCfuI 
ldcasintbeirpreferredareasofsrudy. 
To reduce the workload on leacbers, learners may sometimes be asked to 
edit lbeir friend's fin;t draft of essays. lbis will also expose learners to various 
ways of writing and give them the opportwlity to use what they have learnt in class 
in practical ways. Activities must be carefully designed so that students share their 
varied expc:riem;es. These activities allow students to initiate learning and create 
the opportunity for kamers to use the EngJish language 
For large classes, it may be useful for the Minislr)' of Education to employ 
national service personnel,or newly trained teachers as assistant teachers in future. 
1hese teachers may alio help by offering the needed assistance to groups. Again, 
marking of assigrunents may be reduced by occasionally allowing members of a 
group to present ODe essay for marking. In this case, each member of the group 
who coatributed to the work scores the same mark. To ensure that members make 
meaningful coatritMioas, the s«retary may attach a note to the completed 
assignment speUina (!ItA bow each member contributed to the work. 
Group work creates an opportunity to speak English and encourages 
students to be more involved in classroom activities. Shy students fecI more 
secure and are encouraged to contribute to the leuon. For the less proficient 
student or studeots with particular language problems. group work provides an 
opportuDity \0 Ieem &om other studentI. It is therefore an activity which mUit be 
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5.2.5 Modifyinl Tnlbook Materials 
Coosiderina the fact that • number of untrained teachers are handling 
mixed abilitycluses, textbooksbaveto be modified to meet the needs of learners. 
Additionally,tbesetextbooksmust be accompanied by handbooks. In this section 
!lOIDe suggestions for improvina the books will be offered. 
The textbook Ktivities bave to provide for the broad range of abilities and 
needs of the students. For exampie. they should promote individualized as well as 
coopcndive leamiDg.. Apart from the exm:ises provided in the book. II number of 
group work Ittivities which may also promote creativity and discovery learning 
should be introduced. For example, learners may sometimes be encouraged to 
discover some rules of grammar by themselves if they are provided with a number 
of lientences in which the language point tw. been used. Students may be 
cncowased to do tbae activitiCi as iDdividuala or in groups. For the early finisher 
of talks. the textbook mUll provide exteoded IIClivities that one can work 00.. As 
discussed incbapler fowofthis wcnk, textbooks used must also provide a model 
for expressing social and cultunlJ coacepta in Enslish through activities which 
allow students to expmls tbar point of view. 
Traditional stereotypical gender rolcs offered in textbooks must be 
changed to reflect the current trend in aociety. For example. we encounter mm 
belpiDa ill the k.itdaeD and female boxen or foott.J.lm IDd these should 
sometimesbcponrayedintbcbooks 
MIp& ..d. cbarts must also be prcsmt in the textbook for visual learners 
while siJad radin, as well as reading aJoud activitiel must be provided for 
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analytic and auditory leamel'$. There must also be a b&lmcc between written and 
oral activities. while equal attention mould also be given to all componentJ of the 
subject, EWDCly, reading. writing, grammar and &peeeb work and literature. 
ComprebenIicm questions must require oot only literal responses (hat 
demooJtm:e the ability of students to understand the swface meaning of a text but 
deductive. infereotiaJ and evaluative responses. Questions in textbooks must 
incJude both opeo and c1osed-ended tasks 
Deductive tcipODiots help students to demonstrate the ability to reacb a 
logical eoDClusioo by drawS 00 personal experience beyond the Unmed.iate 
(:(101m of the puMF. For example. the meanini of idiomatic expre:iSions used in 
• puuae may be liked. Inferential questic:m belp u.chcrs to demonstrate a 
lopca.l concluaioa baed 011 information given. For example, "How do you 
know ... " types of qua&iOOB help studeota to make inferences, Finally, evaluative 
questions encourage the ability to appraise; to fonn judgements and weigh the 
issues raiied in the text. Here open-ended questions may be asked. For example, 
IitUdentJ may be uked if wuea raised also affect members of their society, etc. 
Answering reading comprebeoaioo queatioos taD be vny challenging for 
learners with limited writioe skil1a; 10 the teIrtbook writers must include self-help 
activities lhat may belp such leamen. T'bcIc mIIy include copying out and 
completing SCIdeDces from texts, aDd sequcocing Ktivilies which require students 
to Mite out sentences in loaical order. The weak ItUdenIs can begin with tbne and 
gradually move to some cbaUeap.g oncs described above. 
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Comprebension activities could be used to develop the understanding of 
structure. vocabulaty and grammar of Standard EngIisb. If tasks an: carefully 
designed itudeots with jnctividua1language needs wiU be given the owornmity to 
workootbeirproblcmareu. See appeodix 5 for useful tasks for teaching reading, 
writing, liltmiDWspeaIcing. grammar etc In the SSS class. 
~.3 Conclusion 
This study set out to inwstigate the Rllture ofbeterogeneity in two senior 
secondary cl.us.rooms and to find out what problems it created for both teachers 
atd learners in the coocext of English Languaae Teaching, 11 was discovered that 
learners came to tbe e1auroom with varied language needs and mixed abilities. 
which to a J. .g e extcrIt emerged from lheir diverse background lUChu linguistic. 
educational,c:ulturaland socio-cconomical. 
1hc: two teacbers used in the study, who strictly adhered to the SSS English 
COWK books when teaching, discovered that their students were not improving on 
their communication skIlls. nus work offers suggestions which demand thai 
tcKhen COQItG.Iy investigate the nccdJ of students and adapt teaching methods 
and materials 10 suit their nttds. Again, a culture/be(:kground ICnJitivepcdagogy 
and effective classroom interaction activities hive been proposed to meet the 
needs oftbese Ghanaian learners. Activities proposed will not pJacc extra demands 
on teachcrs who handle large classes, 
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It is recomrnendcd that te8chers we Imowledge of t.ckground of learners 
as a means of creating 8 rich clauroom eovirorunent. where students will learn 
from each other. For learners who do not communicate well in the Engliih 
lanpage because they do no( hear nor reed enough Engliih. teachers are advised 
to UK the radio in cluaroom activities and encourage reading. Lf students 
complainthattbeydooocbaveenough time to rcad. they must be mcouraged to 
read their recommended textbooks more carefully and conunent on how language 
they have learnt in the classroom has boea U$Cd in meaningful contexts. On the 
whole. the findings and recom.mmdatioos that have emerged from this research 
may be useful to English language teachers. syllabus and textbook writers. and 
policy makers. It is boped thai this work will initiate further interest for future 
researcbintbefield. 
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.\PPENDIX Ia 
TIIECOL"f OBSERVATION SCHE~fF. 
~~~. " ... '." . . ' 
.: r- _. 
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APPENDIX Ib 
THE TALOS OBSERVATION SCHEME 
~C."OOL.: ~'- . --
~~"COo;;r.'l":' '"7 
.r h! ~. 
I-;"Z- - - - it 
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APPENDIX 1 
OBSERVATIONAL FOCUS 
STYLE{S) OF TEACHERS PRESENTATION (Describe) 
Variety? ..... . 
TCIIC~centredorleamercclltrt;d? 
Use of Textbooks. 
DESCRIPTION OF STUDENTS PARTICIPATION 
Controlledpncticc? . 
Group work? '" 
Communicatioo ....... . 
Pal1ic:ipation(Otber) ..... 
MAJOR STRF.NGTH OF Lf:SSON 
Inte....ma'? .. 
N.eultunl miJuodenlandin8J? .... 
COmp"'. ....i oocbcc. ..?  
CLASSROOM ATMOSPHERE (Danib.) 
Good relationtbip between teacher md student? 
AnyunccrtaintiesaboutthcJe~n? 
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(bsuetwhichoeedtobeclarifiedbyleacher) 
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RESEARCH ON LING~OSURE OF STUDENTS 
Thiaqueatioonaire is deiigoed as part ofa research to investigate the language 
backgr<Mald ofSeruor Secondary School studeots in GblDl. 
Please be liDocre in your re.&pOOSes. Information provided will be treated as 
confidcntial8Dd will be usW for the purpose of this research only. 
TIIaokyou. 
I) PLEASE DO NOT INDICATE YOUR NAME. 
2) TICK ONLY ONE ALTERNATIVE IN EACH Of THE QUESTIONS 
EXCEPT WHERE INSTRUCTED OTHERW lSE 
How often do you read? 
a) veryoftc:o b)oftcn c) sometimes d)never 
SECTION ONE 
wruch 1oca11anguogc(,) do you speak? 
Inwbicb of your local languages c.an you read and write? 
Inwbieb IaoguaSe(I) were you brought up? 
a) Loca.Ilanguage(s)only 
b) EnaJishlanguaaeoaly 
c) Both loca1 and English 
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Gcnenlly. which Ionguag. do you speak 
home? ... 
How often do you speak Englisb at home? 
a) Veryoftcn ii-Often iiLSometimes 
iv. Rarelyv. 
b) How often does your fMber speak English at home? 
Very ofterl ii. Often iii. Sometimes 
iv. R.arelyv. Never 
c) How often does your mother speak English at home? 
Very often ii. Often iii.Sometimes 
RMelyv. 
d) How often do your brothers and sisters speak English at home? 
Very often ii. Often iii. Sometimes 
iv. Ratelyv. Never 
e) How often do your parenti correct your mistakes (Eoglish)? 
Veryoften ii. Often iii,Sometimes 
iv. Rarelyv. Never 
How often do your parents encourage you to speak English? 
Veryoftc:n ii Often iii. Sometimes 
Rartlyv. ~ 
SECTION TWO IAt!be Primary School Lev.11 
ABacbiJd.bowoftmdidyou W81C:b lV prosraIDInes? 
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a) Vcryoftm .) OftcD c)Sometima 
d) lWdye) 
As. child, bow often did you Ilstcn to Radio/news in English? 
.) Vcryoftc:n b) Often c)Sometimcs 
d) Ruelye) Never 
A,. child, bow often djd you attend English Service (Chun:hfmosquc:)? 
.) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) lUnoly.) 
As a child, bow often did you rcad newspapers? 
a) Veryoften b) Oftcn c)Sornetimes 
d) Rarclye) Never 
As a child. how often did you read magazinu wrinen in English? 
a) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rarely.) Never 
As • child, bow often did you read Englisb noveli/story books? 
.) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Ro.relye) 
A$ a child, bow often djd you read books not reconunended by your 
.) Veryoften b) Oftcu c)Sometime.i 
d) Rudy.) N"", 
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As. child. bow often did you usc the dictiorwy? 
a) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rarely 0) Never 
A.a cbild, how often did you write compositions (in English)? 
.) Veryoften b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) R.arelye) Never 
As a ebild, how often did you tell stories in English? 
a) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rarely e) Never 
11. As a cbiId, bow often did you speak Erlgljsb? 
a) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rarclye) Never 
12. As a child, how often did you speak Pidgin EnaJish? 
a) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) IWoly 0) Never 
13. As acbiJd. how oftea did you speak yourlocaJ languaae(s)? 
.) Very often b) Often c) Sometime. 
d) IWolyo) Never 
As a cbiId. how often did you participate in group discuuion? 
a) Veryoften b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rarely e) Never 
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SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL 
As a studmt bow often do you watcll TV programmes in Eogli$h? 
a) Veryoften b) Ofteo c) Sometimes 
d) Rottlye) Nevu 
As a student how often do you watch English 6lnu1video? 
.) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rarely 0) Never 
As a studc:Dt how often do you listen to radio programmes in Enghl>h':' 
a) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Ranolye) Neve< 
As a student how often do you listen 10 lUdiolTV news in English? 
a) Very often b) Oftm c} Sometimes 
d) Rottlye) 
As • student bow often do you attend seminan? 
a) Vtryoften b) Often c)Sometime.s 
d) Ranolye) 
As a studmt how often do you Iisac-n 10 public IClcturesltalks? 
a) Very oftm b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rarely e) Never 
As a student how often do you read EoaJish new.papers? 
.) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rardye) Never 
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As a student bow oftc:a do you read magazines written Ul.ED,g.liJb? 
a)Veryoftea b) Often c:) Sometimes 
d) Rarely e) Never 
As a student bow often do you read English novels? 
a) Very often b) Often e) Sometimes 
d) Rare1yo) Never 
10. As altudcnt bow ofteo do you read reoommmdcd textbooks/journals? 
a) Very ofteo b) Oftco c) Sometimes 
d) Raelye) Never 
11 . As a student bow oftea do you use books not reconunended? 
a) Very often b) Often e) Sometimes 
d) Ran:lye) N. ... 
As a Itudeot bow often do you usc the dktionary'? 
a) V~often b) Often c)Sometimes 
d) Rarely e) Never 
13. As a studcot bow oftm do you we the eoc:yelopedia? 
.) Very oftee b) Oftee 0) Somelimu 
d) Ronlye) Never 
As a studca: bow often do you wme e&a)'l? 
0) Veryoftee b) Oft .. o)Somdim. . 
d) Ran:lye) 
IS. As a SNdent howof!:en do you write reporu? 
a) V""often b) Often c)Sometimel d)Rarely e)Never 
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.) Vny oftea b) Often c) Sometimes d)Rarely e)Never 
16. As a student bowoftc:o do you give talks? 
.) Very OftCll b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rarolye) Never 
17. Asa student how often do you deliver oral reports? 
a) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rarely e) Never 
18. As a student bow often do you speak English? 
.) Very often b) Often c) Sometimes 
d) Rarolye) Never 
19. As. student how often do you speak Pidgin English? 
a) Very often b) ORm c} SometirTl¢S 
d) IWely 0) 
20. AsaJtudentbowoftendoyouspeakyow-1ocallanguaae(s)? 
a) Vcryoftco b) Often c)Sometimes 
d) Rarely e) 
As altUde:nt bow often do you participlle in group diaclWions? 
a) Vnyoft.. b) Ofteo e)Sometirnes 
d) Rarolye) Neve< 
SEC-nON TltK.· ..·  
How much EngIidt have you learnt from the foUowi.na: 
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Father.) Vcrymucb b) Much c) Not much 
d) Not very much e) Nothing 
Mother.) Verymucb b) Much c) Not much 
d) Not wry much e) Nothing 
Brothcr. Sistenandrclatives 
.) Vr:rymuch b) Much c)Notmuch 
d) Notverymuch e) Nothing 
Tcabcr/I...ecturen 
.) Vetymuch b) Mucb c) Not much 
d) Not very mucb e) Nothing 
Textbooks a) Vuymucb b) Much c)Notmuch 
d) Not~rymuch e) Nothing 
Nove" a) Very much b) Much c)Notmuc:h 
d) Nocvcrymuch e) Nothing 
Newspopcn .)Very much b) Much c)NOImuch 
d) Not vr:ry much e) Nothing 
Map.zinea a) Vcrymuch b) Much c) Not much 
d) Notvcrymuth e) Nothing 
Televisiona} Verymuch b) Much c)Notmuch 
d) Notvcrymuc.h e) Nothiag 
10. R.aWo Very much b) Muob <jN.-much 
d) Notvaymuch e) Nothing 
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Falher a) Verymucb b) Much c) Not much 
d) Not very much e) NothinS 
Mothera) Vcrymucb b) Much c:) Not much 
d) Notvcrymoch e) Nothing 
Brother.S~crsandl'Clatives 
.) Vcrymudl b) Much e)NOImuch 
d) Not very much e) Nothing 
Teaeber~ 
a) Very much b) Much c) Not much 
d} Notverymuch c) Nothing 
Textbooks a) Verymacb b) Much c)Notmuch 
d) NotveryOlU1:h e) No<hina 
Nowls .) Verymuch b) Much c) Not much 
d) NOCvt:rymucn e) Nothing 
Newspopen a)VeI)' much b) Much c) Not much 
d) Notverymuch e) Nothing 
Mapzinea a) Very much b) Much c)Notmuch 
d) Notvcrymuth e) Nothing 
Televisiona) Vcrymuch b) Much c)Notmuth 
d) Notvcrymuth e) Noching 
a) Verymucb b) Much c)Nocmuch 
d) Notwrymuc.h e) Nothing 
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FilmslVideoa) Very much b) Much c) Not much 
d) Notverymucb 0) Nothing 
12. PublicLccturesa) Ve:rymuch b) Much e) Not much 
d) NOIverymuch 0) Nothing 
13. FriendalCoUeape. a) Very much b) Much c)Notmuch 
d) Notverymucb 0) Nothing 
Aueu your writiq 
a) Very good b) Good c) Averaae d) Fair e) Poor 
2. Aua.s your written Enalisb 
a) Very JOOd b) Good c) Average d) Fair e) Poor 
3. .lndicatcyourgradeinEnBIllblJagua&eiDtbeISSexamination. 
Some students in the secondary achool$ apeak/write poor English. What do 
youthinklsresponsib1efortbis? 
Sugest ways by which Ihe writing skills of aU students in your clan can 
beu.p.o..d. 
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b) Much c) Not much 
d) Notverymucb e) Nothmg 
12. Public Lectures a) Verymuch b) Mucb c) Not much 
d) Not very much e) Nothing 
13. FrieodJIColieagues a) Very mucb b) Much c)Notmuch 
cI) Notverymucb 0) Nothing 
Any._ (picose specify) 
SECTION FOUR 
Asieu your writina 
a)Verygood b) Good c) Average d) Fair e) Poor 
2. Aucu your VoTitten Enalilh 
.)Very aood b) Good 0) Average d) Fair e) Poor 
~)'OUI'gradeinEngli.Jh"'SUlseinlheISSexamination. 
4. Some students in the secondary school; apeakfwrite poor EogJith. What do 
you think iJ responsib1e for this? 
SlJ88CSl ways by which tbe writing skil1sofall students iII)'OUr class can 
be~. 
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S£CT10NFJYt: 
Gendera) Female b) Male 
Age: a) BelowJ3years b) 13-1S c) 16-18 
d) 19-21 e) Above21 
Scboolsanended: 
Nursery: Private school Government school 
Primary: PriVllescbool Government tchool 
MiddJe: Private school Govemment school 
ISS: Private school Govenunent school 
Parents'soci~conomicclass 
a) High class b) Middle clus c) Lower clus 
d) Verylowclau 
_oducatioaa1bockground: 
FiItbcr a) Higblyeducated (i.e. University graduate) 
b) Educated c) Noteducatcd 
Mother a) Hiablyeducated (Le.Universityaraduate) 
Where did you grow up? 
Urban area b) Semi-urban area c) Rural area 
Have youcvcr lived abroad.? a) Yes b) No 
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ii) If)'tS,wberedidyouliveandforhowkMlg7 
ESSAY WR!TING 
The pwposc oftbis essay is two fold: 
To find out students' perception of the English. programme for SSS with a 
view to improving tbe progranune 
ii) TotiSessthe writingabilityofstudenlJ 
DO NOT INDICATE YOUR NAME 
Essay Topic: My Imprg!joo of (be SSS Core English Programme 
This essay should include a paragrapb which indicales bow you havclhavc not 
gained from the wge, mixed ability cWa you belong to. (Not more than (W() 
fooISGIppegct). 
PlEASE ATTACH THE ESSAY TO YOUR QUESTIONNAIRI' 
THANK YOU. 
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Interview Cuide for Teachen 
For how 1008 have you taught in this school? 
How do you compare the old system with the new? 
Does the sytlabus: enable you to UK your own ideailtc:aching methods? 
Ate you able 10 complete the syUabus on 9Chedule? 
Which teaching methods do you usually find yowselfuain,? 
What ~ults do you gain from each method? 
Are there certain things you think the coune lacks? ie. do you think the 
eourseadequatelymeetsthenoedsofstudeots? 
What is the average class size? 
How many of slJCh ctu.ses do you teacb? 
How nwoy usignments are you ~nJPPOsed to give per week/per tenn? 
What components ofEnglisb do you teac.b? 
Do you find younelfteaching a mixed ability group oflearnera? 
Do you find )'OtlfKlf CODCaJtratio& oaly on tbote who are fairly proficimt7 
How do youdcol willI1hooc wbo_extro help? 
What peruntage of the c:t. . needs this kind ofhelp? 
How muc:b time do you give studeou to uk questions? 
Do,at allow ItUdcnts time to com:ct mistakes in wrinen a'isignm('nt '> ' 
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Which compoocnl of English is emphasized? 
Which will you rather empbaslze and why? 
Do you think all students have the same language needs? Explain your 
How do you deal with this? 
What are some of your concerns? 
What are some of the challenges you face in your clas.? 
Do you think you have been able to help liiome students in your class who 
are not very proficieot? How? 
Interview Guide for Students' Interview 
(FOCUS GROUP) 
Do you think assludents learning Enalilh as aseeond language youh.ve 
pined a lot to communicate with? 
WhIt other thinga would you bave liked the coW'Se to teach? 
Coas.ideriDathe larp cJ.auesyou beJona: to. do you think your language 
oeedaaremctuindiv,dua1J? 
How would. you like your '-eben to cLtal with thil? 
WhIt are some of your problema (u ianau-ze learners)? 
A ~ of peop~ compl.aiD tbM studeDcs of loday have seriow lanauaae 
problems. 00 you think tbiI is true? If so, what in your opinion is the 
reasoa. for this.d bow do you think your teachers can solve the problem? 
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Even though you belong to the same class. do you recognize !hit SOIm 
madents in yourctass speak and write better Englisb than others? 
How do yoofeel abouttbis? 
How well do you think your teacher handles the situation? 
AnYIUBlestions? 
How have the listening, reading. writing and speaking lessons (input) 
affec:tedyourwriting(output). 
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A TF.ACHING GUIDE FOR THF. SSS 2 TEACHt:RS I:\; I Af{G~ 
HF.TF.ROGENEOUS CLASSES. (COMPR":HF.~SION WRITING 
LlSTENINGISPF.AKlI'iG GRAMMAR F.XTENDEU "ND 
(INDIVIDUALIZED ACTIVITIES> 
Recommended 
Typeofstudent(l) Note for fhe Tucher Reading 
Comprebension 
Acth:ities(QuntioDS} 
1) Copy01Jlpartofa 
Nocveryproficiem, ForstulknlsWlthlimilN 
slowleamer scoteoceand ......nlin*,skllts. I varic1yof 
cornpieteilinyour Ippfo.cbatnl), be used 10 
own wonts familillTiuthnnwiththe 
kinds orllr\lCtUr'e't uscrul for 
2) Writeoutsentencei 
in logical order ==~S~~~I"f" w lbeir 
(5eQuencing) l«ofllmcndod~1bIIy 
heJp.{Wnlirc;lIIlrMniD 
3) Auwer questions in taJdullyconlfollt-d 
)'OUl own words. cOndjhOf'l~' 
1) __1 110 
MDooproficieatlllUden' ProvideadditionaJ 
wboiaalJo .. euly ptOYideadditional tasks,'extendedactivlty. 
finish<r questions. 
2) Writc8 IICWIpaper 
artic:1e.U. ... 
iDformation in text. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh l 
experienceocexpress 
point of view 
Ifsucba range ts 
Mixed ability clas.s with provided, all students 
stucienuwithvaried Provide.varieryof will at least be able to 
le:tmingstyles tasks:Sentmce provide answers for 
completion,muJtiple some of the questions 
choice,truelfalse asked. 
questions requiring 
complete answers. Also 
literal,deductive, 
inferentiaJand 
evaluativequeslions 
mustbeuked. 
Encouraae students to 
di5cussanswers Wc lass. 
Encourage peer-editing. 
StudaJ ... .bould 
sometimes correct each 
other',work. 
Sometimes texts can be 
discussed inc1ass but 
ask students to write 
answersatbome. 
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Note for Ibe Teacber 
TypeofStudeat(l) Recommended 
Reading 
Comprehension 
Activities (RHdiD' 
Activities) 
Not veryproficieut, 1) Attcotion of student I) Stude.tsshould bc 
slowUDer. sbouJdbedrawntoa given interesting 
variety of styles., passages. Their rnding 
structutes, senres,etc. shouldbcdcwloped 
lhrough tbe use of 
2)Thcyshouldaltobc progressively more 
iotroduced tomodem cha11enginl.oo 
fiction. texts from a demandingtcxts. la.oofe 
varietyofcwtures. sequence io lextbook if 
it does not follow this 
3)TraDiattionaltcxts pattern. 
mUll also beuscd in 
eJass. 2) Teacb variety of 
readiogstntegics 
4) Reodinlfordiffaall a)Scarehrtading i e. 
-More proficient student purposes and at skimming and scanning wboilalwanearly diffcrcntspccdJ (for information mustbetaugbt. locat ion) b) Detailed reading ...... .................... . 
:!::I::~with S.. _ ions above 
leamingstylco 
.... .. ... ......... ,.. .. ............ . 
M3.k~ suresometirneis 
SJl'.!nl ongeningthe 
lcamersloWldentand 
reading skills taught 
(lhroughpractice) in the 
first few weeks. 'They 
will then be able to 
apply skill. on their own 
for the rcsI of the time. 
." .-~ ' "\ 
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TypeorStudeal(l) Rec:ommended NoterorlheT~lCher 
Rudin, 
Comprehension 
Activities (MuniDa:) 
Not very proficient. a) In ciassroom Help lcamen to read fur 
i low leamer. disc:ussionandwriting.. .......mg. 
students must sbowthat 
theyundemandthe 
mainsupporungKleas 
and can provide the gist 
of the passage 
More proficient studeot b) StudentJ must be b) Encowq.c i tudents to 
wboisalsoan_1y .....u ragodtodevdop write answen in 
fiDisber. Ihcir uocIenwxIing of oomp~sentcDccs. 
tbepammar,structure lIIin&opproprioIo 
ondvocabuluy. suruladEnglish. 
c)~ c) Dopre-rooding, 
Prediction-discuss durinareadina;aodpost-
unfamiliarconlentftdeas reading activities. 
MixodabiJitycluswilh ~ 
ItUdeDlSwilh_ d)QuestioIll, which 
ieamin&"Y1cs drawllteDtionto 
(Provideclosc:andopen-
.......mg endodtuks) 
~ 
UsiDlleXtas roodel for 
tbeUOWDwritina.Also 
askstudenutorelat.e 
text totbeir own 
experiences-during a) At the end of the 
wboledassdiscuaaion. lesson, it may be helpfuJ 
.... ..... ........... .. .. .... foryoutodrawstudenu 
IDlSmV!i~b attcntiootobowlOll)e 
Time:saver5 BuiId ... thcirl!J1'lDDW grammarpoiols 
ondwritiogWlhduring -poovious 
...w.gC<lalp<d>aWoa kMonabavcbeenuscd 
'-. in meMin&ful context. 
b)A40dnwthe~ 
atteGtioatoperq:n.ph 
structuro. 
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Type ofStudul(S) Recommended Writinc Nott for tbe Teacbtr 
Activity (Pre--writiD&) 
Not very pro6cicoL. Based 00 tbe fact that 
slowk:arner prior experience or 
koowiedgeofasubjeci 
giveieatnenconfidence 
andbelpthemlo 
perform better. provide 
experieooetbrough 
sharinaofideas in class. 
'The euay topics may be 
diiocUi$Od and outIine.s 
maybewrinenm 
groups. 
Provide more tbanone 
More proficient student questioa baed on topic 
wboisalsoanearly soatudent chooses a 
finisher moredemaodingonesif 
they wish. 
A variety of essay 
topicalque.ilioosmuslbe A discussion ofaU 
provided. Students topica will expose all 
sboWdbe giveo the ttudeniJ to experiences 
Mixed ability clUi with optiootocbootcwhicb tbeybove_hadlll 
otudeuIswitbvoriod tbeywaottodealwitb.. opportulUtylO 
le:am.ingstylcs However, aU topic:t musl experience. 
bed.dl;uqedioclus 
TimestlvLTS .... ~io;.~~ ·~d~;~ 
outliDcalpLonoC ....y  
C-opportwUtylOdo 
tpakinaIlisteninahere 
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Typeo(StudeDt(s) R«Gaameoded WritiO& Note for the Te.cber 
Activity (Writiog) 
Notveryproficienl. Student to be 1) Group work is wefuJ 
slowlcarocr. And encouraged through for bclpina studco.IS to 
Mixed ability class with group work to learn bow us~ each other to write 
studmtswithvaried towntcpartsofbislber portions afanesuy. 
learnin&ltylu essay. Here. Mkas are Part skills may be taught 
cxchangcdforplanning and in pairs oraroups 
thc essays as weU. studentscanbc 
encowaged to write 
eilhertbe introduction or 
coocluaioooftbeir 
eua~. 
More proficient student MoreproficicnlltUdeots 
Sometimes it will be 
can be asked aet as useful to ask some of who is also an early 10 
finisher groupsecretarics. They 
the more proficient 
mayalsoassislmpeel students to tell the clau 
cditmg wbat tbey usually do to 
achieve good results. 
Pcer_hing may be 
doncoutsidcclassboun 
and diJcuIaioo ofwbat 
learners have eome up 
with may bcdisc:ussed 
in class 
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Types ofStudeat(s) R«ommeDded Writiug Note for tbe Teacber 
Activity (Editing) 
Nocverypro6cieDt. a) Teacber may ask 
slowleamer. studcntsloeditcssays in 
group• . 
More proficieot student 
who is also. early b)lndividualessays 
finisher marked by teacher must 
notjUltbavegeneraJized 
Mixed ability class with commmts. Specific 
$Ndentswitbvaried guidelines to help 
leamingltyles. students improve or 
writebcttereuayamUlt 
be provided 00 separate 
sheets of paper . 
.. ............................ 
TimeSflVer$ Pusing such comments 
may seem a wasleof 
lime but will eventually 
save a lot of time since 
students will begin to 
work on their problems 
identified. 
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Recommended Nole for tbeTeacber Type ofStudeat(.) 
Listelling/Speaking 
Activities 
NOC""'YP""-' Learners must be given As students do group 
sIowleamer. the opportunity to listen diSC:UiSioDS,tcacbcr 
to more proficient class mU5t i<kntify language 
mcmben talking about a problems wbi<:b stem 
booktbeyrcadoran fromtbeirfintlonguage. 
intetatiP&progwnmc These should be ..u gbt. 
0Cl T.V. ctc. In groups, 
MoreproficieatJtudent less pro6c:icntIelmen b) Listening and 
wboiJalso .. etrly mayalsoJbareideasoD speakinsac:tivities 
finisher. tbeircuJtureetc. sbouJd help sturlCDts to 
use appropriate language 
Mixed ability class with toexpres.aiOCiaJand 
studeotswitbvaried cUllwalconce:ptsm 
learning styles. EnglisbJanguagc. 
lnstead ofdcvoting a 
whole lC$son to listcning 
T;ntlstJ~'s andspcakinaactivitics. 
ten minl4el oftaeh 
Jeuoo may ~ct1y be 
U5Cdforit 
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Note fortbe Teacber 
Type ofSr.dnt(,) RecommC!ndw 
ListeDin"Speakin~ 
Activities 
Not very pro6cient. a) Students answer ListeninglopeakiDa 
slowleamer. queJtioll5 which deal Iessoos maybe uacd for 
with their language evaluoaioglhe 
problems. programme. The 
leachlngmethod, used 
b) Studenls must be may be discussed and 
helped 10 prooomce learnel'1 must be 
More proficient student words properly sotbat encowaged to express 
wftoisalioanearly there will bc:no themselves clearly 
finisher problems of ambiguity 
Mixed abilityclus with 
studenuwitbvaried 
1eaminlltytes. 
··· 1···· 
TuoesavU'5 Teacbcrmay causethil 
oppcxtunityto reOea on 
rus!ber1eadUng methods 
used. 
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TypesorShldtDI(.) Rtc:ommendtd Note rorthe Teac:ber 
Listening/Speaking 
Adivities(Using 
Audio-VilWlls) 
Notveryproficitnt. Once a week (alleasc) Teacbermustfiodout 
slow learner. srudeotsmustbemade bowmucb they are able 
to listen to DeWS 011 tobearfromtbesetwo 
ntdioiDcJ-saand.,oocc 5OW'CCSand help tbem 
a mooth,watch an overcome their problems 
educational programme throll8hfurthcrdriU,. 
onlelevision. 
More proficient studenl 
wboisalsoanearly 
finiiher 
Mixed abiJity class witb 
studenti witb varied 
leamingstylCi 
I·· 
1beoe~aod Refer to 'lime savers' 
TiffVlPO'S opeokinaootivitieamay for comprebemioo. 
be_IOreiJIforoe 
gnmDWpomtsl. ..... 
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TrpesorStudut(a) Rec:ommended Note rorlbe Teacber 
Listeni.JIglSpuking 
Activities (Using 
Audio-Vuuaals) 
Notverypro6cient. Once a week (at least) Teacher must find out 
slow Icamer. stUdents must be made how much they are able 
to listen to Dt:W$ 00 to bear from these two 
nKiio in class and. oocc soUICcsandhclptbem 
a mool.h,watch an overcome their problems 
educational programme throll8h fiu1hcr drills. 
on television. 
More profic:icD1 studenl 
wbo is also an early 
finisher 
Mixed ability class with 
students witb varied 
kamingstylei 
....... ....... ..... ..... ... 
TbeaelillaliDgand Refer to 'time savers' 
opeokioaootivitiesmay forcompreheniioo. 
be~lOreinforce 
grammar poUlts I...".. 
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Type o(Stade_C(s) Recommellded NoterortheTeacber 
Gramm.rActivities 
(Objectives to be 
considered) 
NOlveryprofident. a) Activities which Englisb uacd by students 
slow learner. eoable students to use mUJt be correct, clear 
language appropriately andintelligiblc: 
to express meaning. 
a)lIlWliiil>ililY 
b) Group work will (Convc:yingones 
c:ncourageopiniongap messageman 
tasks. appropriate way). 
Studentssbould 
exchange ideas iD b)Qyj!y 
groups (penonsabilityto 
tmderstaDdthemesu.ge I 
Moreproficientstudenl or be understood. 
wboi.a1aoanearly 
finisher I 
Mixcdabilityclauwilh c)~ 
studentJwitbvaried ·Examplesusc:dmuslbe (What ii appropriate in I 
leamingstyles draWDfrombockgrouod one SituatiOD may not be 
ofstudmts appropri.atein anotber-
Grammar MOl must not I 
betaugbtinilolatioobut 
cootextJlDUIlbccratcd 
lohelp_. I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
- - - - - - - - - I 
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Recommended Note for the Teacher T)'pes ofStudcDt(s) 
Qn:rnmar Activities (For 
aJlSlUdeOU) 
Not very proficient, Step 1: ~ 
slow leamer. Students listen to _model (i .e . 
examples provided WBttstrueturein 
context) in a short 
dialogue or short story 
S!ml.; 
More proficient INdent Isolate item and explain 
who is also an carly bowtbcyfunction, what 
finisher. tbey mcao and rules that 
govern them (use Lr 
backgroundwbere 
appropriate) 
S!mJ; 
Praetice-Letleamers 
show understanding by 
Mixed ability class with Students wotk out how produc:iJ1gexamples 
students with varied the gramnw- works through drills· 
learning styles. (Joodforanalytic transfonnations, gap 
students.) 6iHngexemsesetc. 
TCKbcr providea model 
IDdstudents.,....;de ·aimatlJ1ldually 
language in cootroUcd allowina leamcrs to gain 
COIdeXtsi.e. JlP611ing. a measure of autonomy 
tranJf~ctc. as arammar is leant 
- crute sbort ICIJtmteS 
- write tbon paragrapb 
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TypeorStudmt(s) Rccommeoded Note for the THcher 
Grammar Activities 
Not very proficient, Grammarlessoo Use pait and group-
slow leamer. worktoprac:ticetarget 
ruueture. 
-Give leamers ti.me to 
tbink after structure bas 
been taught. 
Morepro6cicntstudent -Provide blackboard 
wboisalJoaoearly work for leamers who 
finisber. necdtoaeethcstructure 
- Providewritten 
exercises for thole who 
need practice 
Mixed ability class with 
5tUdentswitbvaried • Help leamm produce 
learning 5tyles. corrcctanswersby 
pcovidingappropriare 
oneo. 
luoc:savers. 
-Donot1eavethem 
alone to make mistakes. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
TypeofStude.at(s) Rttommtoded NoleforlbeTucber 
Edendtdllndividua-
liudActivitirs 
Not very proficient. Pro\·iden::adersforClch 
slowleamu level. 
- Primarysebool 
Each students mould be reaciers,oew.papcrs. 
eocounged to read the mlpzWCI. a variety of 
Morc proficieat student materials available. Ens1ishlanguage 
who is also an early These may help 10 te)(tbooksmay bc 
finisher. improve thcir work displlyedforstUdeotsto 
choose from, 
Teachcrmayuseone 
Mixed ability class with of the free period. 
studcntswithvaried 00 school timetable 
learning styles. to answer individual 
queitionsandattend 
to individual needs 
(II i. likely that the 
more analytical 
seience.tudcntswill 
like to work on their 
own. But encourage 
them to tlilk). 
Time savers. Studemsmustbe 
eDCOIJI'I&CCltomooitor 
theiJownpropaaond 
diSCUllfurtbotriuues 
wi1h_. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
TypeofStudeDt(.) Rero.muded ReadiDg Note/or the Tescher 
Activity. 
NotW!ryp'ojic;wnt.s/ow Read an mterestin& sectioo. of boob or newspaper 
Jearner. frOlllsemi-urbon to increase knowledge ofthc world' of students. 
orruro/bockgrollltd Thismay mcrcascthcirdesirctorccordontncir 
No radios tests should be given. Reading 
shouJd be a plca.surab&e activity. 
Moreproficilnlstudtnt Providcbooks fordiffercnt levels. 
who is aLso 011 eor/y 
finisher 
Mu.ed abiJJIy doss, ProvideavarittyofgcmCi. All literature have 
,twkltU with lIOI'Jed apceiftC cooventiou aDd uniquc styles. ThUlODCC 
/earning$tylu. uadenIOodlhrouabrepcated....,ins.studcauwili 
bo IbIc to dUcua""'-iDS f_ .ftho boob 
Ibcy ........... Thoywililisobeexpooedtowoys 
of'M"itiDaDewtpaperartidetete. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Type ofStudcot(.) Reall:llmeDdrd Rudiog NO(~JOT(h~ Teachu 
Activity. 
NOI very !"ofici.rU. slow Read an interesting section of boob or newspaper 
learneT•  ./rOtrf$."'i-urooli to lncrease knowledge of the world' of students. 
OI'ruTolbockgrovnd 1bis may increase their desire to record on their 
No reading tests sbould bc given. Reading 
sbouJd bc I pleasurable ICtivity. 
More profideni $tuMnf Provide books fordiffemJl levels. 
who is QUO an .arly 
jillUMT 
MvcedClbilltyclass, Provide a varictyofgenres. All litcraturehave 
$n.MnIS wlJh varJed lpetific convCllliOOJ and wUquc ayles. TIna ODCC 
I.aming stylu. uodenIoodlhrouab~read;"g.studculswill 
be able to w.a. iateresting features ofthc books 
tbeyuverad. Tbeywill allobeexpotedtoways 
ofwritinaoCWlpaperarticletetc. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
TypeofStudaII(l) Recommeodltion Reading Not. for Ih~ T~DCMr 
Activity. 
NOIlAef)lprofic"nI. 
siow/~ar1tlr.frOlfl lfstudents who Mite better Eoglisbcame from a 
semi-W'banor rurQ/ 'reading bockgrouod' then, it will be .... fiII to 
bockground encourage alileamers to read interestio, books lXUt:d 
at their own level. They may be encouraaed; to borrow 
these books and wnte summaries. At least. once in 2 
weeks.slUdentsmuslbeem;ollnlgedlositinpoups 
while reading. Teacher may then discuss reading flluJtl 
and how to read more eft'ectively with students 
Moreprojicienl As students, discuss boob they have read, teach them 
shldenl who isQ/so coDveotionsoftheaenresi.e.laoaualc,cbaractertypes 
aneariyjinishtr and character development. Also, issues on plot. 
setting, dialogue. mood etc. may be discussed. 
Mixtd abill/y class. 
stwdentrwllhvarW 
leartfi"lsty/n 
HelpiolltUdcoll to fonn healthy 
reading habits win help them 
commoo.icate better in the 
EngJUbI_ge, 
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TypeofStudmt(s) Reco[IllDCOdation Reading Not, lor (M T,och.r 
Activity. 
NO/W'I'}'p'ojidcnl. 
slowlHlT7J6l',frOlf'l [f students who write better Engliah came &om a 
s«ml·UTbotrOl'rwaJ ·readiD&bockground·thcn. it will be .... fuJ to 
backgrtnmd encourage an learners to read interestiDa books J)tgged 
at thClf own level. They may be encouraged 10 borrow 
these books and write summaries. AI least,oncein2 
weeks. sludents must be encouraged to sit m groups 
while reading. Teac.hermaythendiscussreadingflults 
and bow to read mon: effectively with students. 
MoreprojicietJI As students, discuss books they have rcad. tetch them 
studetJIwho isQlso conventionsofthcgenrcsi.e.languaae.eballctertypcs 
tlIJ.arly/inisher and character development. Also, issues on plot. 
setting,diaJogue, mood etc. may be discussed. 
Mixed ability class. 
ltudntaw
learning ,fiylhi.w, ried 
Helping students 10 fonn htalthy 
readtngbabitswHlhelplhem 
conununicate better in lhe 
English language 
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