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Abundance of African invader fly, Bactrocera invadens drew, tsuruta and
white (diptera: tephritidae) and influence of weather parameters on trap
catches in mango in the Volta regio...
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DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-2644-0
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Adzim et al. SpringerPlus  (2016) 5:968 
DOI 10.1186/s40064-016-2644-0
RESEARCH Open Access
Abundance of African invader fly, 
Bactrocera invadens drew, tsuruta and white 
(diptera: tephritidae) and influence of weather 
parameters on trap catches in mango in the 
Volta region of Ghana
Charles Amankwa Adzim1*, Maxwell Kelvin Billah2 and Kwame Afreh‑Nuamah3
Abstract 
The seasonal abundance of African Invader fly, Bactrocera invadens and the influence of temperature and rainfall on 
fly catches was determined in two agro ecological zones; moist semi‑deciduous forest area and the coastal grass‑
land area of the Volta Region of Ghana for year of mango production. Traps containing methyl eugenol were used in 
monitoring the abundance of the Africa invader fly, Bactrocera invadens where data on both temperature and rainfall 
were collected from Meteorological Services of Ghana in Volta region. A total of 49,322 organisms captured, 45,829 
were identified as Bactrocera invadens and 3493 were non‑fruit fly. There were significant differences (p < 0.05) in the 
number of Bactrocera invadens captured between the agro ecological zones with relative fly densities of 5.06 F/T/D in 
moist semi deciduous forest area and 2.38 F/T/D in the coastal grassland zone. The result shows that climatic factors 
affected Bactrocera invadens differently in different agro ecological area. There was negative correlation and highly 
significant (p < 0.001) correlation between fruit flies and temperature whereas there was negative correlation and 
high significant (p < 0.01) difference between rainfall in the moist semi deciduous forest area. In the coastal grass‑
land area, there was negative correlation and highly significant (p < 0.001) between Bactrocera invadens for both 
rainfall and temperature. Bactrocera invadens activities peaked differently during the study period due to favourable 
climatic conditions. The activities of Bactrocera invadens peaked during weeks 7 and 29 in the moist semi deciduous 
forest area while their activities peaked during weeks 3 and 24 for the coastal grassland areas. Both agro ecological 
zones recorded the presence of Bactrocera invadens, their number and proportion varied considerably with associ‑
ated effects of the weather parameters on their abundance. The effect of weather parameters on the abundance of 
bactrocera invadens requires the development of degree day models to manage them.
Keywords: Bactrocera invadens, Agro ecological zones, Correlation, Rainfall, Temperature
Background (Vayssieres et  al. 2008). However, fruit fly pests cause 
Mango continues to be an important tropical fruit for economic damage in terms of direct produce losses, 
Sub-Saharan African economies, serving as a major as well as interception, seizure, and banning of infested 
source of nutrition for the rural population, playing a fruits destined for export (Ekesi and Billah 2006; Vays-
role in reducing poverty and a potential export product sières et  al. 2013). The Africa Invader fly, Bactrocera 
invadens, the most devastating of the Sub-Saharan fruit 
fly pests, was first detected in Africa in 2003(Lux et  al. 
*Correspondence:  adzimcak@gmail.com 
1 2003; Drew et  al. 2005) and first detected in Ghana in  African Regional Postgraduate Programme in Insect Science, University 
of Ghana, Accra, Ghana 2005 (Billah et  al. 2006). After its detections in Ghana, 
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
© 2016 The Author(s). This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License 
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, 
provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, 
and indicate if changes were made.
Adzim et al. SpringerPlus  (2016) 5:968 Page 2 of 8
the flies have almost completely replaced existing species Methods
of fruit flies spreading in over thirty (30) African coun- Study site and experimental design
tries (De Meyer et  al. 2011) and causing direct damage The study was conducted in two agro ecological zones; 
ranging from 30 to 80  % of the crop depending on the moist semi-deciduous forest and coastal grassland zone 
cultivar, locality and season (Ekesi et  al. 2006; Rwom- in the Volta region of Ghana for forty-three weeks (43). 
ushana et  al. 2008; Vayssieres et  al. 2009). Weather fac- Two mango producing farms were selected in each zones; 
tors such as relative humidity, rainfall, and temperature Volta Integrated Agricultural Development- Kingdom 
and wind velocity have great influence on fruit fly popu- fruits, Tafi in the moist semi-deciduous zone and the 
lations. For instance, outside the optimum temperature Ghana Libyan Arab Agricultural Company-(GLAACO), 
range of approximately 18–27 °C mortality increases and Morkordzi farms located in the coastal grassland zone 
there are upper and lower lethal thresholds beyond which as shown in the Fig. 1. The study was conducted in one 
no individuals survive long enough to complete develop- hectare plot each of two mango varieties; Kent and Keitt 
ment (Fletcher 1987). According to Rwomushana et  al. with planting distances between trees of 10 ×  10  m. In 
(2008) the B. invadens survives well in moist weather and each plot, the first tree was selected and tagged, and then 
high temperatures. tenth tree was also counted tagged as second tree. The 
In the West Africa sub region, mango production third and four were also selected after a count of ten trees 
increased from 15,000 to over 22,000 tonnes a rise in a square form in the hectare plot. The fifth tree was 
of about 7000 tonnes in 2012 to the European market selected at the centre of the four trees in the field.
(ECOWAS-TEN 2012). However, the mangoes were Rainfall and temperature data were collected from 
intercepted, confiscated and destroyed in the European the Ghana Meteorological Services department at the 
harbours because of this quarantine insect, thus leading regional office in the Volta region.
to economic losses to the exporters and the whole horti-
cultural sector (ACP-EU Newsletter 2013). For instance, Preparation and setting of traps
there were over 90 interception of mango from the Two different homemade traps the mineral water bottle 
sub-region the highest from Cote d’lvoire leading with (MWB) trap (Fig.  2a) and the Yellow-Top Plastic (YTP) 
34 interceptions followed by Ghana (28) valued at 2.8 trap (Fig. 2b), with compacted fiber wood block, soaked 
million Pounds (FCFA 1.83 billion) at a rate of 30,000 in methyl eugenol marketed as “Stop Mating Block” 
Pounds per interception in the year 2012 (ECOWAS- (Stonehouse et  al. 2002) were hanged on the branches 
TEN, 2012). In light of the numerous fruit interceptions of the mango trees. In each plot of the mango orchard, 
to the major markets, especially the European Union, five (5) 500-ml mineral water bottles were deployed. 
the European Commission initiated a scoping study Two windows 3 × 2 cm were cut on opposite sides of the 
across the West African Sub-region to access the levels bottles at 7 cm from the top, and the base perforated to 
of the fruit fly damage and to partner with countries of allow water drainage. The lid of the trap was perforated 
the sub-region in combating the menace with a con- and a binding wire (diameter 0.1 cm) with a knot at 7 cm 
certed effort. Based on the outcome and recommenda- from the hook at the tip and was passed through to pre-
tions of the study, National Fruit Fly Committees were vent slipping. A cotton wick with a knot was soaked in a 
formed in the partner countries with the overall man- mixture of liquid Methyl Eugenol (ME) and an insecticide 
date or function of coordinating all the fruit fly activities (Deltamethrin) in a ratio of 4:1, and placed in the hook at 
in each country to ensure a systematic and harmonized the tip of the wire.
way of managing the pest. The stakeholder awareness The Yellow-Top plastic trap was locally made (Fig. 2b). 
creation seems not to yield the needed results because Four circular holes were perforated at the upper part 
there is relative abundance of B. invadens overshadow- of the plastic container to serve as entry point for the 
ing other species still affecting the industry after tens flies. Imported polymeric plugs or fiber wood blocks 
(10) years of its invasion in Ghana (PPRSD-MOFA 2010; (Stop Mating Block) contains methyl eugenol and killing 
COLEACP 2010). There is therefore the need to study agent (Deltamethrin) was hanged at 7 cm in small plastic 
weather factors on the abundance of fruit flies across holder and placed in the container. A nylon thread was 
so that we can monitor them based on the changes in placed through the yellow-top plastic and hanged on the 
weather. tree.
The study was to monitor the abundance of the Africa In each farm ten traps per plot (5 MWB + 5 YTP) were 
invader fly, Bactrocera invadens by using traps and as hanged at heights of 1.5–4  m above ground (depend-
well determine the effects of temperature and rainfall on ing on tree age and canopy architecture) at a distance of 
trap catches in two separate agro ecological zones of the 50  m apart to avoid interference with each other (Ekesi 
Volta region of Ghana. and Billah 2007). The traps were placed in an alternating 
Adzim et al. SpringerPlus  (2016) 5:968 Page 3 of 8
Fig. 1 Map of Volta Region showing the study site
fashion in semi-shaded spots in the upwind part of the The catches from the two farms were compared and also 
canopy such that the branches and leaves were close (but effects of weather parameters analyzed.
not touching the traps) to serve as landing places for the 
flies before entering the traps (Ekesi and Billah 2007). Solid Identification of fruit flies
Grease was smeared at middle third of the hanging wire or Taxonomic keys by White and Elson-Harris (1992), De 
trap rope to prevent ants from preying on the catches. The Meyer (1996, 1998, 2000), Billah et  al. (2007), and were 
ME in the Mineral Water bottle trap was replaced every used with aid of a Lecia EZ4 D microscope to identify the 
four weeks and the Yellow-Top trap was replaced every six various species of fruit flies collected from the traps. The 
weeks. The fruit fly catches from the traps were collected identification was done in the African Postgraduate Pro-
at weekly intervals, counted, and the counts from the two gramme in Insect Science (ARPPIS) Laboratory. Confir-
varieties and traps were put together for each farm into mation and inability to identify species were referred to 
plastic collection vials containing 70 % alcohol for preser- M.K. Billah, a Fruit Fly Taxonomist in the Department of 
vation and identification at the African Regional Postgrad- Animal Biology and Conservation Science, University of 
uate Programme in Insect Science (ARPPIS) Laboratory. Ghana, Legon.
Adzim et al. SpringerPlus  (2016) 5:968 Page 4 of 8
Fig. 2 Trap types used in the study. a Mineral water bottle trap, b yellow‑top trap
Data analysis Table 1 Trap captures, percentages, and  relative fly den-
All the flies captured were counted and their relative fly sity of  fruit flies in  trees of  different varieties at  different 
densities calculated based on IAEA (2003) specification locations (No. of traps was 10 each, and days of exposure 
to determine the average number of flies captured in one were 308)
trap in a day that the trap was exposed to the field. Location Variety No. of flies % Relative fly density
Relative fly density  =  total number of flies (F)/total (F) F/T/D
number of traps (T)/average number of days (D). rela- KPFL Kent 14,241 31.07 4.62
tive density =  F/T/D. The percentage trap catches were Keitt 16,930 36.94 5.50
also determined for the catches for the two locations and GLAACO Kent 7096 15.48 2.30
varieties as well. The data was analyzed using the R-Sta- Keitt 7562 16.50 2.46
tistical software version 3.2.3 and linear regression model Total 45,829 100
was used to analyze the correlation between weather 
parameters.
where reducing in numbers. The corresponding tempera-
Results ture and rainfall for the period were 23.6 °C, 23.9 °C and 
Population trends of fruit flies 152.9  mm and 235.6 respectively. Bactrocera invadens 
A total of 45,829 fruit flies were captured in the two agro populations fluctuated across the two ecological zones 
ecological zones. All fruit flies captured were identified as during the study period. The moist semi deciduous for-
Bactrocera invadens (Table 1). Moist semi-deciduous zone est area recorded higher trap catches than the coastal 
recorded 31,171 representing 68.02  % whilst the coastal grassland area over the first four weeks, during which the 
grassland recorded a total of 14,658 (31.98  %) (Table  1). numbers of mango fruits were decreasing. The captures 
A relative fly density of 5.06 F/T/D was observed at the peaked when the most fruits were available for fruit flies, 
moist semi deciduous forest whilst coastal grassland at the 29th week in the moist semi deciduous forest area 
recorded 2.38 F/T/D. The high relative fly density in the and the 24th week in the coastal grassland. There was a 
moist semi deciduous forest area shows that there is high sharp drop in catches between weeks 33 and 43, corre-
incidence of the bactrocera invadens there compared to sponding to the period of flowering and fruiting. In addi-
the coastal grassland area (Figs. 3, 4, 5).   tion, rainfall decreased and temperature increased in 
During the research, Bactrocera invadens populations both zones, which may have contributed to the reduced 
kept fluctuation throughout the study periods across catches. Overall, the catches were higher in the moist 
the two agro ecological zones. The moist semi decidu- semi deciduous area than in the coastal grassland area. 
ous forest area recorded the highest numbers in the first Also, the mean temperature and rainfall were higher 
four weeks than in the coastal grassland area. It was dur- in the moist semi deciduous forest than the coastal 
ing this period that the target substance mango fruits grassland.
Adzim et al. SpringerPlus  (2016) 5:968 Page 5 of 8
KFL GLAACO Linear (KFL) Linear (GLAACO)
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43
WEEKS 
Fig. 3 Weekly trap catches of fruit flies from moist semi deciduous forest area and coastal grassland area
Fig. 4 Abundance of Bactrocera invadens and climatic factors during the study in the moist semi deciduous forest area
Correlation between temperature, rainfall and fruit fly Discussion
catches After a year of weekly monitoring of the abundance of 
The regression coefficient for the relationship between Bactrocera invadens using trap and comparing the effects 
trap capture and temperature was negative and the of temperature and rainfall on trap catches, a total 45,829 
difference of slope from zero baseline was extremely (92.92 %) fruit flies and 3493 (7.08 %) non-fruit fly organ-
highly significant (p  <  0.001) for both the moist semi isms were identified. It was no doubt that all the flies 
deciduous forest and the coastal grassland zones captured were identified as the Africa Invader fly, Bac-
(Table 2). In addition, the regression coefficient for the trocera invadens confirming earlier works that the flies 
relationship between trap capture and mean rainfall are known to be greatly attracted to methyl eugenol (ME) 
was negative. The difference of slope from zero baseline which has both olfactory as well as phagostimulatory 
was extremely highly significant for the coastal grass- action and can attract fruit flies from a distance of 800 m, 
land and highly significant for the moist semi decidu- indicating its effectiveness in managing Bactrocera 
ous forest. invadens. (White and Elson-Harris 1992; Roomi et  al. 
NO. OF CATCHES 
Adzim et al. SpringerPlus  (2016) 5:968 Page 6 of 8
Fig. 5 Abundance of Bactrocera invadens and climatic factors during the study in the coastal grassland area
Table 2 Correlation between climatic factors and Bactrocera invadens abundance in the two agro ecological zones
Climatic factors/zones Moist semi deciduous forest Coastal grassland
Regression coefficient P Regression coefficient P Regression coefficient P Regression coefficient P
Mean temperature (°C) −0.6027 2.2e−16*** −0.2893 2.2e−16***
Mean rainfall (mm) −0.1159 0.0010** −0.4134 2.2e−16***
** High significant, *** Highly significant
1993, Billah et al. 2006). The high numbers of Bactrocera temperature range of approximately 18–27  °C increases 
invadens confirms the findings by Lux et al. (2003), Billah mortality beyond which no individuals survive long 
et al. (2006), Mwatawala et al. (2009) and Nboyine et al. enough to complete development. In the weeks of the 
(2012), that the flies has dominated other species of fruit month of September and October when fruits started to 
flies since its introduction to Africa in 2003, and Ghana set after flowering and also in last week in August saw a 
in 2005. After monitoring the flies on weekly basis, the drop in the population of flies for both farms. However, 
moist semi-deciduous forest area recorded high rela- the population of flies increased in the late weeks of 
tive abundance density of 5.06 F/T/D than the coastal October through to early December when the fruits were 
grassland with 2.38 F/T/D. The relative abundance was matured for harvesting.
in the range stated by Nboyine et  al. (2012) where the According to Rwomushana et al. (2008) the B. invadens 
coastal grassland area recorded fly density of the range strives well in moist weather and high temperatures 
0.02–22.25 and 0.08–121.39 flies per trap per day and in hence the high numbers of B. invadens during weeks in 
the moist semi-deciduous zone of range 0.02–31.40 and most of months during high rainfall pattern. Heavy rain-
0.01–104.23 in the major and minor seasons. fall led to high vegetative growth of grasses and shrubs 
The analysis showed that in the moist semi decidu- in the farms making difficult for the farmers to control 
ous forest area, both climatic factors showed a negative weeds. In the moist semi deciduous forest because of 
correlation with Bactrocera invadens abundance. The the high rainfall pattern the farm was very weedy mak-
mean temperature showed extremely high significant ing it tedious to collect dropped fruits for burial on time, 
correlation while the mean rainfall showed high sig- serving as medium for the larvae to pupate in the soil for 
nificant correlation coupled with population fluctua- continuation of the life cycle. The rainfall therefore had 
tion during the study period in the area. Peaked activity influence on the numbers of Bactrocera invadens in this 
of Bactrocera invadens was observed in the weeks of the area. The coastal grassland area on the other hand it was 
months of August and November. It was observed that observed that there was low vegetation. The farmer as a 
despite the higher numbers both rainfall and tempera- good management strategies used cattle, sheep and goats 
ture reading were low indicating that they were optimal to graze in the farms where the animals ate fallen fruits 
for the abundance of Bactrocera invadens. Confirming thus breaking the life cycle of the Bactrocera invadens 
Fletcher (1987) that temperatures outside the optimum thus contributing to low numbers.
Adzim et al. SpringerPlus  (2016) 5:968 Page 7 of 8
For instance, in September a high rainfall recorded led Supervisors and Workers of Kingdom Premium Fruit Limited (KPFL) and Ghana 
to flower and fruit drops but the B. invadens catches were Libyan Arab Agricultural Company (GLAACO Farms) for their assistance during 
data collections.
still high. The influence of rainfall and temperature on B. 
invadens population does not confirm other researches Competing interests
that fruit fly catches had positive correlation with tem- The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
perature and rainfall rather a negative correlation (Sarada Funding
et al. 2001). Other authors confirmed that there is posi- The project was funded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York through 
tive correlation between temperature and negative corre- a Grant (UG‑CCNY (Phase2)/UGF/1/016/08‑13) from the University of Ghana 
under the “Next Generation of Academics in Africa” project.
lation with rainfall (Bagle and Prasad 1983, Sushilkumar 
et al. 1997). A degree day model could be a predictive tool Received: 6 December 2015   Accepted: 21 June 2016
of fruit fly abundance in an area to assist the farmer in 
effective management of fruit flies. Continuous trapping 
and monitoring of fly populations no matter the state of References
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fruit fly species from the Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) group detected in 
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