Kortei et al. Agric & Food Secur            (2018) 7:83  
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0235-8 Agriculture & Food Security
RESEARCH Open Access
Survey of mushroom consumption 
and the possible use of gamma irradiation 
for sterilization of compost for its cultivation 
in Southern Ghana
Nii Korley Kortei1*, George Tawia Odamtten2, Mary Obodai3, Michael Wiafe‑Kwagyan2 and Juanita Prempeh4
Abstract 
Background: Mushroom cultivation is increasingly becoming a serious agribusiness in Ghana, especially at the time 
when entrepreneurship is being encouraged to reduce the pressure of employment in the government sector and 
also due to its nutritional and medicinal attributes.
Methods: A survey was carried out using the rapid appraisal method to review the existing methods of sterilization, 
use of gamma radiation in substrate sterilization and food preservation, preference of mushrooms in Ghana by con‑
sumers and nutritional and medicinal attributes of the mushroom.
Results: The survey demonstrated the popularity of drum (moist heat) technique of sterilization in Ghana. Majority 
(64%) of the respondents were dissatisfied with the method of sterilization of compost and spawn substrate, while 
36% indicated the method was alright by them. Majority (82%) of the respondents had never heard of sterilization of 
substrates for cultivation and its subsequent preservation of food or mushroom by gamma irradiation technique. All 
consumers (100%) desired to see their favorite mushroom produced all year round, and this constituted a significant 
(p < 0.05) viewpoint. Furthermore, a significant (p < 0.05) majority (90%) of the respondents were all for promotion of 
the consumption of mushroom, while a small percentage (10%) were noncommittal.
Conclusion: Information and knowledge on the gamma irradiation technique for substrate production and con‑
sumption patterns of P.ostreatus mushrooms were not widely disseminated as anticipated.
Keywords: Moist heat, Gamma radiation, Compost, Mushroom, Survey, Ghana, Consumption
Background as mushrooms, boletes, earthstars, stinkhorns, bird nest 
Mushroom cultivation has become a profitable com- fungi, jelly fungi, bracket or shelf fungi and rusts and 
mercial agribusiness in many developing and developed smuts [2]. The mushrooms are sought eagerly for human 
countries such as the USA, Great Britain, China, Asia, consumption. Consequently, the medical community 
Japan and Europe. Many indigenous and commercial widely recognizes the health-stimulating properties of 
cultivation methods have been employed over the years mushrooms [3].
to domesticate many species of edible mushrooms for Mushroom cultivation as an agribusiness has gained 
human consumption [1]. Fungi in the Basidiomycota are some modest success in Ghana because many of our for-
large and diverse which include forms commonly known est reserves which support rich wild growth of the mush-
rooms are depleting fast in rich biodiversity of indigenous 
mushroom species. It has now become necessary to 
*Correspondence:  nkkortei@uhas.edu.gh adopt modern mushroom cultivation strategies to sustain 
1 Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Allied Health Sciences, supplies of the species for human consumption in Ghana 
University of Health and Allied Sciences, PMB 31, Ho, Ghana
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article such as those obtained in the developed economies.
© The Author(s) 2018. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License 
(http://creat ivecom mons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, 
provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, 
and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creat iveco mmons .org/
publi cdoma in/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Kortei et al. Agric & Food Secur            (2018) 7:83 Page 2 of 7
The evolution of technical knowledge for commer- production, popularity of gamma irradiation technique, 
cial cultivation of mushrooms was a product of human etc. A total of 150 volunteers were interviewed.
need to extend the period of availability (seasonality) Consumers were interviewed from the following loca-
and reduce the inherent risk of mushroom hunting, thus tions: Ofankor, Adenta-Frafraha, Cape Coast Polytech-
meeting the growing demands for diverse culinary mush- nic, Somanya, Nkawkaw, CSIR-FRI, Shiashie, Graduate 
rooms [4]. Some modern pretreatments of substrates School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences, Kwabenya, Uni-
for mushroom cultivation include the use of chemical versity of Ghana, Abelemkpe and Dome market, etc. 
amendments, steam and gamma irradiation. (Greater Accra, Eastern and Central regions of Ghana) 
Gamma radiations come from the spontaneous disin- (Fig.  1). Questionnaires were administered to obtain 
tegration of radioactive nuclides (Cobalt 60 or Cesium information on the benefits of consumption of mush-
137) as their energy source. The high-energy gamma rays rooms, methods of preservation, qualities looked out 
have high penetrating power and pass through any mat- for in mushrooms localities where mushrooms were 
ter without leaving any radioactivity within the product. obtained, etc. A total of 120 volunteers were inter-
The deep penetrating power of gamma rays could serve viewed. The cultivators of mushroom were selected 
as a decontamination agent of food items [5]. Currently, from the members of the Mushroom Growers’ Associa-
over 34 countries are using gamma irradiation for this tion of Ghana found in the selected regions.
purpose [5]. The gamma rays can also be used as a hydro-
lytic agent due to its unique ability to enhance depolym-
erization of lignocellulose linkages without the need to Study design
aid exogenous toxic chemicals [6–9]. Convenient cross-sectional sampling method was used.
Recent studies in Ghana have demonstrated the abil-
ity of gamma radiation to depolymerize lignocellulosic 
mushroom compost into inexpensive protein per unit Statistical analysis
area of mushroom of the genus Pleurotus [10–14] and Graphical presentations of data were done with Excel 
produced quantities of the cherished mushroom. for Microsoft windows (version 10). Descriptive sta-
The use of this gamma irradiation technology to facili- tistics were employed with SPSS 16 (Chicago, USA). 
tate the cultivation of mushrooms on agricultural lig- Parameters investigated were subjected to analyses of 
nocellulose in Ghana promises to be faster and a more variance (one-way ANOVA) at significant difference 
reliable technique to reduce the humdrum tasks associ- (p < 0.05).
ated within the existing conventional production chain 
[10–14]. The objective of this paper was to assess the 
knowledge of the respondents to a questionnaire on the 
benefits of mushroom consumption and the possibility of 
the use of gamma radiation sterilization of substrates and 
spawns for mushroom cultivation.
Materials and methods
Sample area for questionnaire administration
The study areas chosen for the collection of data were 
Greater Accra, Central and Eastern regions where 
majority of the producers and consumers of mush-
rooms are located. Accra is the capital city of Ghana, 
and it is in close proximity with the Eastern and Cen-
tral regions. Majority of the studies were conducted in 
Accra because the national irradiation facility is located 
at the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC) at 
Kwabenya which was used for this study. Data from 
mushroom cultivators were collected from mush-
room farms in the above mentioned regions of Ghana. 
Questionnaires were administered to obtain informa-
tion on method of sterilization, aspect of production Fig. 1 A map of Ghana showing the various regions. Note Study sites 
which needs much attention, general perception about shown with arrows
Kortei et al. Agric & Food Secur            (2018) 7:83 Page 3 of 7
Results 80
Producers
70
Majority of the respondents (70%) use drum pasteuri-
zation (moist heat), while 26% treat the substrate with 60
unspecified chemicals. The remaining 4% use other 50
unspecified methods of sterilization (Fig.  2). Major- 40
ity of the respondents (64%) were not satisfied with the 30
sterilization methods; 36% were in agreement with the 20
sterilization procedure. The differences observed were 10
significant (p < 0.05) (Fig. 3).
0
A significant (p < 0.05) majority of 82% have not heard Yes No
of the sterilization of mushroom compost by gamma irra- Response
diation. The remaining 18% were aware of its use in steri- Fig. 3 Mushroom farmer’s satisfaction on the reliability of their 
sterilization methods in mushroom production
lization of compost before spawning (Fig. 4). The survey 
also showed that 34% of the respondents believe that 
the sterilization process needs more attention in mush-
room cultivation industry, while 50% desired the inocu- produced all year round, and this constituted a significant 
lation process to be perfected to exclude contaminants (p < 0.05) viewpoint (Fig.  9). Furthermore, a significant 
(Fig.  5). About 8% wanted more attention to be paid to (p < 0.05) majority (90%) of the respondents were all for 
packaging. The rest were noncommittal. Majority (92%) promotion of the consumption of mushroom (Fig.  10), 
of mushroom cultivators agreed to the need to achieve while a small percentage (10%) were noncommittal.
better sterilization of compost bags and other ancillary On the question of the medicinal and nutritional ben-
methods, while an insignificant (p > 0.05) minority of the efits derived from eating mushrooms, 54% stated that 
cultivators disagreed (Fig. 6).   mushrooms have medicinal values; 34% agreed mush-
Because fresh mushrooms are perishable, shelf-life rooms have nutritional attributes not excepting 10% who 
extension is vital to the industry. Exactly 54% of the assigned other unspecified benefits of eating mushrooms. 
respondents were able to preserve all their produce, while The remaining 2% said that mushrooms have both medic-
46% were unable to preserve all their produce (Fig. 7). inal and nutritional values (Fig. 11). It was shown by the 
survey that majority (64%) of mushroom consumers 
Consumers obtained them directly from the market place. Interest-
Majority of consumers interviewed (72%) intimated that ingly, 34% obtained their supply from backyard garden or 
they prefer eating oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus spp.), from the farm (Fig. 12) and the remaining 2% harvested 
while 20% patronized the termite mushroom (Termito- from the wild in the mushroom season.
myces spp.) (Fig.  8). Domo (Volvariella volvacea) or the The aesthetic appearance of mushrooms contributed 
oil palm mushroom was least patronized (8%). All con- to the choice of mushroom for consumption; 34% of 
sumers (100%) would like to see their favorite mushroom the consumers considered appearance as important and 
30% considered the taste as a determining factor, while 
100
80 90
70 80
60 70
60
50
50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10
10 0
0 Yes No
Drum (steam) Chemical Others Response
Response Fig. 4 Consumer and public knowledge of the use of gamma 
Fig. 2 Method of sterilization of substrates used for mushroom irradiation in the sterilization of food and mushroom to extend 
cultivation shelf‑life
Percentage (%)
Percentage (%) Percentage (%)
Kortei et al. Agric & Food Secur            (2018) 7:83 Page 4 of 7
60 80
70
50
60
40 50
30 40
30
20
20
10 10
0 0
Innoculation Sterilization Packaging Others Termitomyces spp. Pleurotus spp. (Oyster) Volvariella volvacea(Emire) (Domo)
Response Response
Fig. 5 Aspects of production which needs much attention according Fig. 8 Types of mushrooms most patronized by consumers
to respondents
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0 Yes No
Yes No Response
Response Fig. 9 Consumer preference to see their favorite mushroom 
Fig. 6 Response of mushroom cultivators on the need to achieve produced throughout the year
better sterilization of compost and other ancillary methods used in 
the production of mushrooms
100
90
80
60
70
50 60
50
40 40
30
30 20
10
20 0
Yes No
10 Response
Fig. 10 Respondents view of the promotion of mushroom 
0
Yes No consumption
Response
Fig. 7 Percentages of farmers who were able to preserve unsold 
mushrooms (Yes) and those unable to preserve (No)
preserved by drying by 55% of the people, while 32% use 
refrigerators for preservation. The rest preserve mush-
12% considered both texture and taste as equally impor- rooms by smoking after blanching in brine (Fig.  14). 
tant. Only, 10% used texture as a criterion for choosing Exactly 45% of the respondents stated that mushroom 
mushroom and 6% considered both texture and appear- production was laborious, while 10% believed the process 
ance concurrently before choosing a mushroom for pur- was expensive. About 45% found the process and costing 
chase (Fig. 13). Currently in the country, mushrooms are normal (Fig. 15).
Percentage (%) Percentage (%) Percentage (%)
Percentage (%) Percentage (%) Percentage (%)
Kortei et al. Agric & Food Secur            (2018) 7:83 Page 5 of 7
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20
20
10
10
0
Nutritional Medicinal Others Both (medicinal 0
and nutritional) Drying Refridgerating Smoking
Response Response
Fig. 11 Respondents view on the benefits of eating mushrooms Fig. 14 What are the methods used to preserve mushrooms?
80 50
70 45
40
60
35
50 30
40 25
20
30
15
20 10
10 5
0 0
Market Collect from wild Backyard/farm Laborious Normal Expensive
Response Response
Fig. 12 Source of mushrooms for use by consumers Fig. 15 Public opinion on labor and cost of mushroom production 
in Ghana
not satisfied with their method of sterilization of com-
40
post, while 30% found it alright (Fig. 3).
35 This also gave an indication of general unsatisfactory 
30 results obtained from their sterilization methods and 
25 therefore their desire to improve upon the improper or 
20 incomplete sterilization resulting in partial or incomplete 
15 elimination of contaminants. Residual contaminants 
10 from incomplete pasteurization of compost and spawn 
5 substrates could result in reduction in economic yield of 
0 mushrooms on compost substrates due to antibiosis and 
Texture Taste Appearance Texture and Texture and Taste and competition for nutrients.
taste apprearance appearance
Response Interestingly, majority of the respondents (82%) have 
Fig. 13 Choice of mushroom for consumption by consumers based not heard about sterilization of mushroom compost 
on the listed criteria using gamma irradiation (Fig.  4) although gamma irra-
diation sterilizing technique has now gained some cre-
dence among mushroom farmers in Ghana. In spite 
of this, some researchers [6, 8, 9, 11–14] have reported 
Discussion success in the use of gamma radiation to decontaminate 
Results obtained from the structured questionnaire sur- and depolymerize different lignocellulosics agrowastes 
vey (Fig. 2) demonstrated the popularity of drum (moist for P.ostreatus cultivation, thus achieving growth and 
heat) technique of sterilization both locally and interna- good of fruiting bodies yield comparable to the moist 
tionally which agrees with findings by several research- heat (drum) technique. Gamma irradiation facility tech-
ers [9, 10, 15, 16]. Majority (60%) of the respondents were nique allows a greater volume and quantity of sterilized 
Percentage (%) Percentage (%) Percentage (%)
Percentage (%) Percentage (%)
Kortei et al. Agric & Food Secur            (2018) 7:83 Page 6 of 7
compost bags per unit time, and is less laborious and research into bioconversion of lignocellulosic waste by 
more effective decontamination of substrate bags. This mushroom is making it possible to cultivate different spe-
could probably reassure the majority of cultivators of cies of mushrooms all year round with specific emphasis 
mushrooms who expressed the need to achieve better on Jun-Cao technology which involves the use of plastic 
sterilization technique for mushroom compost based on bag and agro, industrial, forest lignocellulosic wastes. 
their experience with moist heat sterilization (Fig. 6). This practice is advantageous since it is more efficient 
Shelf-life extension of mushroom is economically vital and does not require so much space. Small-scale mush-
to the industry. The most common method for the pres- room farms have emerged in Southern Ghana as a result 
ervation of mushrooms is drying since it is the most of the introduction of the National Mushroom Develop-
economical and oldest method [17]. Data from this ment Project aimed at promoting the economic welfare 
paper show that drying is the most popular preservation of rural communities [23]. Mushroom production is a 
method of mushrooms in Ghana (Fig. 14). Several edible demand-driven enterprise and so requires the appropri-
mushrooms are consumed by respondents, but the most ate technologies to keep up with its supply. Consumers 
preferred one was oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus spp.) seem to prefer mushrooms on the basis of taste, appear-
(Fig. 8). Afetsu [18] reported similar results in a survey of ance, texture or combination of these qualities (Fig. 13). 
mushroom consumption conducted in the Volta region Although production of oyster mushroom is laborious, it 
of Ghana which agrees with the results obtained in this is also very capital intensive (Fig. 15).
work. The popularity of mushroom to Ghanaian was 
shown in the survey where all respondents wanted an all Conclusions
year round supply (Fig. 9). The survey carried out showed among other things, the 
Obodai et al. [19] attributed oyster mushroom’s emerg- humdrum tasks of preparing the compost and spawn 
ing popularity among Ghanaians to its comparatively nutrient and the sterilization method, not excepting 
easy method of cultivation. This agrees with findings the short shelf-life of the harvested fruit bodies. Major-
in this paper. However, results obtained in this paper ity of the farmers were not aware of the possible use of 
(Fig.  8) contrast the findings of Apertorgbor et  al. [20] gamma irradiation for the sterilization/pasteurization of 
who reported Termitomyces spp. as the most preferred the spawn nutrient and the ‘wawa’ sawdust compost as 
mushrooms in the Eastern and middle belts of Ghana. well as the preservation of both fresh and dry fruitbodies. 
Dijk et  al. [21] made similar findings in South Camer- However, consumers prefer to see their favorite mush-
oun where they very often consumed this mushroom. room on the market throughout the year.
This difference in preference might be attributed to the 
availability of particular kinds of mushroom species, taste 
and/or medicinal attributes. Mushrooms have a myriad Abbreviations
of benefits derived from its consumption. Mushrooms CSIR‑FRI: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research‑Food Research Institute; 
GAEC: Ghana Atomic Energy Commission; PMB: Private Mail bag; LG: Legon.
have been found to have some medicinal values [22]. The 
Asantes and Sefwis in Ghana believe that mushrooms Authors’ contributions
lower blood pressure in hypertensive patients. The globu- NKK, GTO and MO were involved in the conception of the research idea, 
design of the experiments, data analysis and also drafting of the paper. MW‑K 
lar subterranean sclerotium of P. tuber-regium is chewed and JP participated in the design of the experiments and data collection. GTO 
by local people to alleviate heart pains, and the powder and MO provided guidance and supervision of the entire research and criti‑
is taken in warm water to lower blood pressure in hyper- cally reviewed the manuscript. NKK, GTO, MO and MW‑K read, reviewed and 
amended manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
tensive patients [23]. The medicinal value of mushrooms 
for Ghanaian consumers was evident from the question- Author details
1
naire survey (Fig.  11). Completely colonized composted  Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Allied Health Sciences, 
University of Health and Allied Sciences, PMB 31, Ho, Ghana. 2 Department 
bags are readily available for sale at numerous mushroom of Plant and Environmental Biology, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, 
farms and some research institutions such as the Coun- University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana. 3 Food Microbiology Divi‑
cil for Scientific and Industrial Research-Food Research sion, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research‑Food Research Institute, P. 
O. Box M20, Accra, Ghana. 4 Department of Food Science, Royal Agricultural 
Institute (CSIR-FRI) Ghana. With the current rate of University, Cirencester, Gloucestershire GL7 6JS, UK. 
deforestation caused by urbanization, bush fires and min-
ing companies, the collection of wild mushrooms by the Acknowledgements
We are grateful to all the participants of this study and specifically acknowl‑
rural folk is greatly threatened leaving government-pro- edge the technical assistance of our technical staffs at the University of Ghana, 
tected areas (forest reserves) as the only remaining areas CSIR‑FRI and the University of Health and Allied Sciences.
where non-timber forest products can be collected [24].
Competing interests
The depletion of our forest is a major cause of scar- The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
city of most mushroom species [20]. Rigorous scientific 
Kortei et al. Agric & Food Secur            (2018) 7:83 Page 7 of 7
Availability of supporting data  11. Kortei NK, Odamtten GT, Obodai M, Appiah V, Annan SNY, Acquah 
The data sets used and analyzed during the current study are available to SA, Armah JNO. Comparative effect of gamma irradiation and steam 
readers as in the manuscript. sterilized composted ‘wawa’ (Scleroxylon triplochiton) sawdust sawdust 
on the growth and yield of Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.Ex.Fr.) Kummer. Innov 
Consent for publication Roman Food Biotechnol. 2014;14:69–78.
Not applicable.  12. Kortei NK, Odamtten GT, Obodai M, Appiah V, Wiafe‑ Kwagyan M. 
Evaluating the effects of gamma irradiation and steam sterilization on 
Ethics approval and consent to participate the survival and growth of sawdust fungi in Ghana. Br Microbiol Res J. 
Not applicable. 2015;7(4):180–92.
 13. Kortei NK, Odamtten GT, Obodai M, Appiah V, Adu‑Gyamfi A. Wiafe –
Funding Kwagyan M. Comparative occurrence of resident fungi on gamma irradi‑
Not applicable. ated and steam sterilized sorghum grains (Sorghum bicolor L) for spawn 
production in Ghana. British. Biotechnol J. 2015;7(1):21–32.
Publisher’s Note  14. Kortei NK, Odamtten GT, Obodai M, Appiah V, Abbey L, Oduro‑Yeboah C, Akonor PT. Influence of gamma radiation on some textural properties 
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub‑ of fresh and dried oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus)(Jacq. Ex. Fr) 
lished maps and institutional affiliations. kummer. Ann Food Sci Technol. 2015;16(1):12–9.
 15. Obodai M, Cleland‑ Okine J, Vowotor KA. Comparative study on the 
Received: 30 August 2018   Accepted: 7 November 2018 growth and yield of Pleurotus ostreatus mushroom on different lignocel‑
lulosic by‑products. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 2003;30:146–9.
 16. Owusu‑Boateng G, Dzogbefia VP. Establishing some parameters for the 
cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) on cocoa husk. J 
Ghana Sci Assoc. 2005;7(1):1–7.
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