University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT OF OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION ON ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND HUMAN LIVELIHOOD: A CASE STUDY OF WEST CAPE THREE POINTS IN THE WESTERN REGION, GHANA THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE DEGREE BY FRANCIS OFOSU (10550505) INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND SANITATION STUDIES (IESS) UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON JULY, 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, hereby declare that this thesis titled “Assessment of impact of oil and gas exploration and production on ecosystem services and human livelihood; A case study of west of Cape Three Points in the Western Region of Ghana” consists entirely of my own work produced from research undertaken under due supervision and that no part of it has been published or presented for another degree elsewhere except for the permissible references from other sources which have been duly acknowledged. Signed …………………….. Date ………………. Francis Ofosu (Student) Signed ……………………… Date………………… Dr. Benedicta Y. Fosu-Mensah (Principal supervisor) Signed ……………………….. Date …………………... Dr. Daniel Nukpezah (Co-Supervisor) I University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my entire family for their unflinching support and sacrifices towards the realization of my dreams. II University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My first and foremost gratitude goes to Almighty God for his care, mercy and love towards my life throughout the study. Great thanks to my supervisors for the precious time spent in guiding and helping me throughout the study. God bless and protect their lives. Many thanks also go to the Fisheries Commission's department in the Western Region especially Miss Josephine Laryea for her absolute support and assistance. The following names of Colleagues; Mr Anthony Afful, Mr Emmanuel Bonyah, Mr. Bright Frimpong, Mason A. Koranteng and Alvin Adu-Asare are worth mentioning for their diverse contributions towards this work. III University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Ghana's oil and gas industry has been in existence for a decade now. Nonetheless, the quest for local jobs and a boost in national revenue has been a major focus with a lesser consideration for environmental and social ramifications. This study examined impact of oil and gas activities on ecosystem services and human livelihood in coastline communities West of Cape Three Points in the Western Region of Ghana. The study employed descriptive research design and purposive sampling technique. It involved a social survey and laboratory analysis of soil, sea water, borehole, hand-dug well and fish samples. Both test (main) and control samples of sea, borehole and hand –dug well water were analyzed and compared. Also analyzed were fish and soil samples. Key indicators of water quality such as pH, EC, BOD, DO, TDS and Turbidity were determined. Again were pH, Organic Carbon, EC and CEC of soil as well as heavy metals concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cr, Fe and Ni in water and fish samples. Ethos 900 Microwave and Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) were used for the quantitative determination of parameters. Data was analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 level of significance, Karl Pearson's Product Moment Correlation at P ≤ 0.05 and the Chi - Square to establish relationship between variables. There were significant differences amongst parameters such as EC, BOD and TDS and heavy metals such as Pb, Ni and Fe based on WHO standards. Trend of fish catch was noticed to be decreasing whiles demographic characteristics like gender, educational background were identified to influence perception of oil and gas impact on beach and shoreline recreation. Moreover, educational background, duration of stay and gender were noticed to influence public perception on visit to the beaches and shoreline. IV University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT Contents DECLARATION ................................................................................................................. I DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... II ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................ III ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... IV TABLE OF CONTENT ..................................................................................................... V LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... IX LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ XI LIST OF PLATES ............................................................................................................ XI LIST OFABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... XII CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................... 4 1.3 Justification .......................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Research Questions .............................................................................................. 6 1.5 Hypothesis ............................................................................................................ 6 1.6 Objective .............................................................................................................. 7 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 8 2.1 Background to Oil and Gas Exploration and Production ..................................... 8 V University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 Discovery of Ghana‟s Oil and Gas ....................................................................... 9 2.3 Concept of Ecosystem Services ......................................................................... 10 2.4 Impacts of oil and Gas Exploration and Production .......................................... 11 2.4.1 Stock of fish and marine mammals ............................................................. 14 2.4.2 Fish quality.................................................................................................. 15 2.4.3 Water quality ............................................................................................... 16 2.4.4 Soil quality .................................................................................................. 18 2.4.5 Perceptions on human livelihoods and shoreline recreation ....................... 19 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 23 3.1 Description of Study Area .................................................................................. 23 3.2 General Environmental Conditions .................................................................... 24 3.2.1 Climatic conditions ..................................................................................... 24 3.2.2 Topography ................................................................................................. 25 3.2.3 Soil .............................................................................................................. 25 3.2.4 Vegetation ................................................................................................... 26 3.3 Descriptive research design ................................................................................ 26 3.4 Data and Sources ................................................................................................ 27 3.5 Target population and Sample Size .................................................................... 27 3.6 Research Instrument ........................................................................................... 29 3.7 Sampling procedure............................................................................................ 31 VI University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.8 Social Survey...................................................................................................... 31 3.9 Sample Collection. ............................................................................................. 32 3.9.1 Sampling of Sea water, Borehole, Well water, Fish and soil. .................... 32 3.9.2 Preparation of Soil, Fish and Water Samples ............................................... 34 3.10 Determination of heavy metals in water and fish samples ............................. 35 3.11 Determination of physico-chemical parameters of water and soil Samples ... 35 3.12 Data analysis ................................................................................................... 36 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 37 4.1 Assessment of Impact of Oil and Gas on Water Quality ................................... 37 4.1.1 pH ................................................................................................................ 37 4.1.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC)....................................................................... 38 4.1.3 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)............................................................ 39 4.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen(DO) .............................................................................. 40 4.1.5 Salinity ........................................................................................................ 41 4.1.6 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) ..................................................................... 42 4.1.7 Turbidity ..................................................................................................... 43 4.1.8 Heavy metals ............................................................................................... 44 4.2 Assessment of Impact of Oil and Gas on Fish Quality ...................................... 47 4.3 Assessment of Impact of Oil and Gas on Soil Quality ....................................... 49 4.4 Assessment of the trend of fish catch between 2005 and 2014 in the enclave .. 53 VII University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5 Public perception and opinions on impact of oil and gas towards ecosystem Services and their livelihood. ........................................................................................ 55 4.6 Public perception on effects of oil and gas on beaches and shoreline recreation. 64 CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 71 5.0 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................. 71 CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................. 79 6.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 79 6.1 Summary of work done ...................................................................................... 79 6.2 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 81 6.3 Recommendations .............................................................................................. 83 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 85 Appendix 1 ........................................................................................................................ 95 Appendix 2 ...................................................................................................................... 100 Appendix 3 ...................................................................................................................... 102 VIII University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: study districts, communities, and sampling points. ........................................ 24 Figure 4. 1: Mean pH of water samples from study sites. ................................................ 38 Figure 4.2: Mean conductivity of water samples from study sites ................................... 39 Figure 4. 3: Mean BOD of water samples from study sites .............................................. 40 Figure 4.4: Mean dissolved oxygen (DO) of water samples from study sites .................. 41 Figure 4.5: Mean salinity of water samples from study sites ........................................... 42 Figure 4. 6: Mean TDS of water samples from study sites ............................................... 43 Figure 4.7: Mean Turbidity of water samples from study sites ........................................ 44 Figure 4. 8: Mean Nickel concentrations of water samples from study sites ................... 45 Figure 4. 9: Mean Chromium concentration of water samples from study sites .............. 46 Figure 4.10: Mean Iron concentrations of water samples from study sites ...................... 47 Figure 4. 11: A graph showing trends of fish catch against years in the study area ......... 54 Figure 4. 12: Respondents views on fertility status of soils in the study area. ................. 56 Figure 4.13: Respondents views on amounts of fish catch 10 years ago in the study area ........................................................................................................................................... 57 Figure 4.14: Respondents views on amount of fish catch from 2014 -2017 .................... 58 Figure 4.15: Respondents views on observed cause of fish catch levels up until now..... 59 Figure 4.16: Respondents views on mortality of fish and other marine organisms .......... 60 Figure 4.17: Respondents opinion on cause of mortality of marine organisms................ 61 IX University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.18: Respondents views on quality of fish from the Sea and Water bodies ........ 62 Figure 4.19: Respondents views on benefits from oil and gas activities in the area. ....... 63 Figure 4.20: Respondents views on whether benefit is offered by Government or Oil company. ........................................................................................................................... 63 Figure 4.21: Respondents views on whether sale of fish is lucrative or not ..................... 64 Figure 4.22: Reasons why expectations are not met upon visiting the beach and shoreline in the study area. ............................................................................................................... 70 X University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Distribution of Questionnaire in various communities…………………….....30 Table 4.1: Concentration of heavy metals in fish species from study area. ...................... 48 Table 4. 2: showing student t – test analysis of heavy metals in fish samples from study area .................................................................................................................................... 49 Table 4. 3: Descriptive statistics of soil quality parameters at sampling site ................... 50 Table 4.4: Karl Pearson‟s moment correlation analysis on some soil quality parameters 52 Table 4. 5: Demographic characteristics of respondents .................................................. 65 Table 4. 6: Chi – square test analysis on respondent perception on effects of oil and gas activities on beaches and shoreline recreation in study area. ............................................ 67 Table 4.7: Chi – Square test analysis on expectations of respondents upon visiting the beaches and shoreline. ...................................................................................................... 68 LIST OF PLATES Plate 3. 1: Focus group discussion held at Egbazo near Half Assini…………………….33 Plate 3. 2 : Preparation of fish samples for laboratory analysis………………………….35 Plate 4. 1: Fish catch below the expectation of fisher folks……………………………...56 Plate 4. 2: Low fish catch entangled in Sargassum spp. (sea weeds)……………………59 Plate 4. 3: Litter of sea weeds along the shoreline of Half Assini……………………….71 XI University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OFABBREVIATIONS AAS Atomic Absorption Spectrometry BOD Biological Oxygen Demand CEC Cation Exchange Capacity DO Disssolved Oxygen EC Electrical Conductivity EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EPA Environmental Protection Agency FDA Food and Drugs Authority GNPC Ghana National Petroleum Corporation GSS Ghana Statistical Service MEA Millenium Ecosystem Assessment OC Organic Carbon PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons TDS Total Dissolved Solids THC Total Hydrocarbon Content XII University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background The world‟s market for energy has developed with lots of investments into infrastructure by countries. It culminates into several countries looking for companies to take over their lands or territorial waters for exploration with the hope to find and produce oil and gas for local jobs and to enrich national coffers in terms of revenues (Kadafa, 2012). The Energy Information Administration (EIA) (2011), reports that the midstream and downstream sectors of oil and gas is ranked the largest industry in dollar terms worldwide. The oil and gas industry offers the over 7 billion population of the world more than half of their energy needs with the rest from sources such as hydroelectric power, solar, nuclear, coal, wind, tidal and biomass products. The oil and gas industry thus contributes the largest amount of energy worldwide with 32% for Europe and Asia and53% for the Middle East (EIA, 2011). The rates of consumption of other regions are 44% for South and Central America with 41% and 40% for Africa and North America respectively (EIA, 2011). Besides, the world‟s consumption of oil per year stands at 35 billion barrels with the largest being developed nations (IEA, 2016) The oil and gas industry is a major contributor to economies such as Australia and the United States in numerous ways including direct and indirect job creation, taxation, energy security, export revenue, regional development and investment which is more than a third of Australia‟s business investment (KPMG, 2015). The American Petroleum 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Institute reports that, in 2011 approximately 2.7 million jobs in U.S economy were supported by the oil and gas industry, yielding a GDP of about 7.3%. In addition, about 1.7 million new jobs were created with the energy boom and this number is expected to double by 2020 to become better than Saudi Arabia and Russia (EIA, 2011). According to the World Bank (2011), the contribution of the oil sector in Gabon is about 80% of total exports, 75% of government total revenue and a GDP of 50%. In Nigeria, it is 40%, 80% and 90% towards GDP, revenue and total exports respectively (EIA, 2011). For Ghana, it is earmarked to acquire US$20 billion from the Jubilee field in the next 20 years with an average annual revenue estimate of US$1billion (Asafu-Adjaye, 2010). The oil and gas industry has the upstream, midstream and the downstream components. The upstream component involves license acquisition, exploration and production activities. The midstream operations involve gathering, processing and transportation, storage and other technological applications to improve efficiency. Downstream embodies crude oil refining and processing, marketing and the distribution of its products. Crude Oil is a complex combination of hydrocarbon compounds varying from a low molecular weight to resins and macromolecules with metals and other elements. It has a great variation in colour, composition and consistency thus, different areas of production yield different varieties of crude oil. Oil composition is therefore measured based on density, Gravity in degrees, Sulphur Content (%) and Viscosity by the American Petroleum Institute (API). Total hydrocarbon content (THC) is a focus for research monitoring which shows the amounts of aliphatic and aromatic compounds. Low molecular weight hydrocarbons have straight chains of carbon atoms and form a large 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh percentage of fresh crude oil. Aliphatic hydrocarbons have both straight and branched chains of carbon atoms. Aromatic compounds include volatile organic compounds (VOC‟s) and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons which are toxic and carcinogenic. According to US Environmental Protection Agency, the variation in PAHs mixture that arise from oil is formed coupled with its high resistance to weathering makes the compound a factor for oil pollution and monitoring. A challenging task with oil and gas industry is the long term chronic exposures to hydrocarbons and other chemicals largely unknown (Boech et al., 1987). The accumulation of such chemicals due to oil spillage and other activities eventually become a source of concern for ecological change. Crude oil pollution occurs whenever unrefined hydrocarbons spill into the environment where it is exploited, explored or handled. Pollution is a devastating effect on biological, physical and chemical characteristics of components of an environment which further threatens human health and that of beneficial organisms (Aboribo, 2001). According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), there has been a rapid and extensive change in ecosystems over the past 50 years by humans. Many studies such as “problems and effects of oil industry on the Niger Delta” have also confirmed a loss in biodiversity and ecosystem services due to oil exploration and production activities (Agagu, A.A and Adu, F 2008, Ehrlich, 1981,Carpenter and Postel, 1997, McDaniel and Borton, 2002). “An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plants, animals and microorganism communities and the non – living environment interacting as a functional unit. Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, the goods and services derived from ecosystems that contribute towards human well-being such as food” (MEA, 2005). The 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh main forms of ecosystem services are provisioning, cultural, regulating and supporting service (IPPC, 2014;MEA, 2005). Provisioning Services are the services derived from ecosystems such as food, fuel, freshwater etc. Food is mainly obtained from the forest, marine and freshwater systems. Regulating Services involve the systems of the ecosystem that act to bring about changes in temperature, pollinator abundance, pollination rates and amount of carbon sequestration. Supporting Services of ecosystems offer habitats for various species of plant and animals. A good nutrient cycling helps plant species which animals like birds, mammals and insects depend upon. Cultural services involve intangible gains from ecosystems through experiences of spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreation and aesthetic values (MA 2005). 1.2 Problem Statement Ecological balance is one of the key premises to sustainable development as espoused by the Sustainable Development Goals twelve (12) and fourteen (14). These goals seek to reinforce efforts to safeguard the natural and cultural heritage and also minimize negative environmental effects. The Exploration and Production activities of oil and gas became intensive in the Western Region of Ghana in the year 2009 (GNPC, 2009). According to Dadzie (2015), there have since been over 21 reported cases of dead whales in the Nzema Area. Meanwhile, 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh places along the coastline of the Central, Greater Accra and Volta Regions of the country have not reported such major cases (Van Waerebeek et al., 2009). Also, there have been cases of washing ashore of Bitumen, oil discharges and disposal of ballast water with Sea weed or Sargarssum spp. (Ackah -Baidoo, 2013). As revealed by Owusu (2014), the Jubilee Field witnessed the spillage of toxic drilling mud on three occasions by Kosmos energy in December 2009. Based on this, the government issued a fine of $35 million for negligence which the company challenged the legal basis (Owusu, 2014). The above notwithstanding, fishermen are forbidden from fishing within 500 km radius around the oil rigs at the Jubilee fields in the Cape Three Points (Adjei, 2017). Hitherto, fishermen complain of poor catch even during the bumper fishing season. Little may therefore be known about the domino effect on general marine life, water bodies, coastal recreational centres and the livelihoods of members in the communities in the area etc. There are doubts of any mitigation plan implemented as proposed due to various complains from fisher folks and communities in the study area. 1.3 Justification The study will be relevant in ensuring that coastal ecosystems are safeguarded to adequately provide for human well-being and livelihood. Undertaking such a study would provide relevant information for evidence based decision making that would benefit future generations. Thus, to offer policy and decision makers with quantitative data to help maintain all aspects of socio-economic and ecological systems around us. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In recent times, Ghana‟s gold mining industry brings to the fore useful lessons of chaos, loss of government revenue and jobs as deterrent. Such lessons have apparently resulted from unregulated mining activities and externalities with no payment of commensurate compensation to affected communities which the oil and gas industry must eschew. 1.4 Research Questions 1. What impacts do Ghana‟s oil and gas exploration and production have on water, fish and soil quality? 2.Are trends in key indicators of ecosystem services such as fish catch in coastline west of Cape Three Points changing? 3. What are the public perceptions and opinions associated with oil and gas impact on ecosystem services (quality of water, soil and fish quality) and human livelihood? 4. How has the oil and gas activities affected the beaches and shoreline recreation in the enclave? 1.5 Hypothesis Null Hypotheses, H0: The exploration and production of oil and gas have no significant impact on ecosystem services and human livelihood. Alternative Hypotheses, H1: The exploration and production of oil and gas have significant impact on ecosystem services and human livelihood. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Objective The main objective of the study is to identify the impact of oil and Gas industry on ecosystem services and human well-being in coastline west of Cape Three Points of the Western Region. Specifically, to 1. Determine the impacts of Ghana‟s oil and Gas exploration and production on quality of water, fish and soil using physico – chemical parameters and some heavy metals. 2. Assess the trend of fish catch between 2005 and 2014 in the enclave. 3. Evaluate public perception and opinions on how oil and gas impact ecosystem services (quality of water, soil and fish quality) and human livelihood. 4. Ascertain the public perception on the effects of oil and Gas exploration and production on beaches and shoreline recreation in the enclave. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Background to Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Crude oil is defined as petroleum in its natural state (Ukoli, 2003). The word “petroleum” means “rock oil” or oil formed from the earth. It is a liquid mixture that contains mostly hydrocarbons, and some compounds of oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. It can be found in different forms varying from liquids to viscous semi – solid materials and also comes in a variety of colours ranging from black or green to light yellow (Ojo and Adebusuyi, 1996) According to the American Petroleum Institute it varies considerably in density and in ranges from heavy to average or light. Petroleum is formed from large molecules of fats, oils and waxes. This occurs in millions of years as marine organisms and other materials are deposited in layers of clay, silt and sand. The effects of heat and pressure enhance the formation of hundreds of compounds. The fluid nature of petroleum makes it able to move through the Earth upon formation. An underground reservoir of oil with a non-porous rock formation that holds the oil pool is ensured for economic gains in production. Drilling activities usually takes place from ships or fixed platforms to extract the oil after exploration. Sea floor damage results from anchors that hold the rig as well as the impact of well emplacement system. The use of drilling mud as lubricant and the disposal of drilling cutting is a source of environmental concern as they contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals that are toxic. The activity of drilling impacts the environment by smothering the seabed and also releases toxic substances (Swan et al., 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1994). Generally, the impact of drilling mud is within 150m of immediate surrounds of the drill site. However, Olsgard and Gray (1995) reported that heavy metals and hydrocarbon contamination from production platforms of the Norwegian shelf indicated evidence of contamination within 2 to 6 km away from the platforms. 2.2 Discovery of Ghana’s Oil and Gas Ghana‟s oil and gas industry became prominent within periods in 1970 along the Western Coast of the Cape Three Points with reference to exploratory efforts in 1896 (GNPC, 2009).In 2007, exploratory activities led to the discovery of oil and gas in commercial quantities for economic gains. After a rapid development in 2010, pumping started from two production wells in the Deep – water Tano block and the West Cape Three Points th block. The unitized blocks were named Jubilee Fields to commemorate Ghana‟s 50 anniversary as an independent nation and is located 60km (about 35 miles) offshore (GNPC, 2009). The partners to the Jubilee Field are Tullow plc (34.7%), Kosmos Energy (23.49%), Anadarko Petroleum Corporation (23.49%), GNPC (13.75%), Sabre oil and gas (2.81%) and E.O Group (1.75%). Other discovery efforts have resulted in the Tweneboa, Enyenra, Ntomme (TEN oilfields) which started production in 2014. The Jubilee Field was earmarked for a daily production of 80,000 barrels which has currently reached 110,000 almost at the expected peak of 120,000 barrels per day. According to Willy Olsen (2011), Ghana is likely to become West Africa‟s third – largest producer after Nigeria and Angola, “pumping upwards of 500,000 barrels per day”. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The oil and gas enclave is predicted to involve six coastal districts of the Western Region i.e Shama, Sekondi – Takoradi, Ahanta – West, Nzema East, Ellembelle and Jomoro. These districts have majority of their communities depending on fishing as means of livelihood. Production started without recourse to any national policy vibrant enough to strictly regulate activities of the companies (Van Alstine, 2012). There have been doubt on environmental impact assessment (EIA) undertaken to adequately consider impact on coastal communities, compensations and development of affected communities (Ackah – Baidoo, A. (2012). Hitherto, several forums have deliberated on the likely impact of the oil and gas industry on the communities and benefits citizens stands to gain. 2.3 Concept of Ecosystem Services The concept of ecosystem services has been an initiative established in 1999 to assess effects of ecosystem change on human well-being (MA, 2005). According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems which are categorized into four (4) i.e provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural services. For instance, marine ecosystem has fish stock that serves as food, provides recreation and improves the coastal landscape. The Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES) also provide a harmonized approach for ecosystem assessment (Maes et al., 2013). It adopts the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) which is more comprehensive for classifying ecosystem services than the Millennium Assessment (MA) 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity, (TEEB). The CICES uses threefold division of; “Provisioning, Regulating and Maintenance and the Cultural services”. It is designed to document services that directly contribute to human well-being hence the supporting services of Millenium Ecosystem Assessment are not included. Based on the CICES, supporting services are captured by identifying the ecosystem functions that support capacity of ecosystems to contribute to human well – being. The provisioning services are material outputs while regulating services are the mediation of aspects of the environment that affect people‟s well-being. The cultural services include non-material, intellectual benefits. The two main types of ecosystem are the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Terrestrial ecosystems are found at places except heavily saturated areas e.g. Forest, Desert, and Grassland etc. Aquatic ecosystems are water – bound with aquatic flora, fauna and water properties. The main kinds of aquatic ecosystem are the marine and freshwater. Marine ecosystem is the largest covering about 71% of surface of the Earth. About 0.8% of the Earth‟s surface is covered by freshwater which comes in forms of lentic (slow – moving water bodies), lotic (fast -moving water bodies) and wetlands in places with soil inundated with water for a long period of time. 2.4 Impacts of oil and Gas Exploration and Production The exploitation of oil and gas resource involves chemical and seismic wave generations, liquid discharges and gas flaring which are major sources of environmental degradation. According to Tyonongo (2008), environmental degradation is crucial as the 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh environment‟s capacity to sustain life is dependent on a good interrelationship of properties like soil, water, air, plants and animals. Tyonongo (2008), further states that “the environment has to possess the right temperature, needed oxygen and carbon dioxide in its atmosphere, good rich soil, water of its rivers, lakes, oceans and precipitation, vegetation and all other conditions that are necessary for the sustenance of life.” Environmental impacts result from exploration, drilling, production, development operations and decommissioning of facilities, nonetheless the nature and degree of impact may vary (Swan et al., 1994). The impact associated with oil spills occurs during transport, from pipeline leakages and vessel loss when large volumes can be released abruptly. Spills affect ecological systems as they result in unusual concentrations of oil on the environment. “An amount of oil approximately equal to that spilled accidentally by humans enters the oceans each year through natural seepage” (Kvenvolden and Cooper, 2003; National Research Council, 2003). During oil and gas production, hydrocarbon reservoirs release water known as Produced Water which is brought to the surface. “The produced water is a by-product of oil production and it is either disposed of into the ocean or may be re-injected into the well to promote oil recovery” (Swan et al., 1994). Produced water can also include sea-water injected into the well to promote recovery. However, with respect to ambient seawater, produced water may have high concentrations of heavy metals such as mercury, barium, arsenic etc. as well as radium isotopes and hydrocarbons. Usually the ratio of oil and water depends on the location but increases with time towards decommission.“The proportion of water produced per barrel of oil typically ranges from around 3:1 to 7:1 although the relative amount of PW increases over time, such that in extreme cases the 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fluid pumped from a well might be 98 per cent water and only 2 per cent oil” (Holdway and Heggie, 2000). At the platforms, produced water is taken through separation process and treated to about 30 mg/l hydrocarbon and disposed into the ocean. “Because this results in an upsurge in the absolute volume of oil discharged, efforts have been made in the North Sea to reduce to about 33% of oil discharge in produced water” (OSPAR, 2010). Produced water has a temperature of between 40ºC to 80ºC which makes it less dense compared with ambient sea water and is thus easily affected by wind current away from production platforms. The factors of mixing and dilution with seawater makes the effect of produced water greatly felt within 1km from the platforms, although plumes may be found at distances exceeding 10km from point source (Jones and Hayward, 2003). Situations of coral discolouration have been linked with produced water dilute concentrations of 12 percent (ITOPF, 2007). Hence, much consideration is given to the location of production platforms and prevailing wind currents in relation to sensitive habitats. Sea floor impacting activities such as anchor placement, drilling, construction, decommissioning and jetting with the sea floor for pipeline trenches cause permanent and irreversible damage to natural and cultural resource. The exploitation of oil and the associated damages have resulted in environmental degradation in Delta State in Nigeria. It causes water and land pollution with great effect on both human health, aquatic and terrestrial life due to the harmful nature of discharges (Wild, 1996). About 62.8 percent oil spill incidence takes place on farmlands in Nigeria (Nwankwo and Ifeadi, 1988). It often results in decrease in fish catch with havoc on water and food sources making fish 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh products very expensive. High levels of heavy metal concentration were detected in Warri area of Nigeria which endangers subsistence farming and human life (Harris – Okon, 2011). 2.4.1 Stock of fish and marine mammals Crude oil contains different kinds of organic compounds with high levels of toxicity. It kills fish at a concentration of 4000 ppm (0.4%), (Okello, 2013). According to Samiullah (1985), denser oil residues deposited on seabed may smother fish habitat to affect spawning, nursing and feeding habits of several species. Critical environmental factors that directly influence oil and gas impact in aquatic organisms are temperature and dissolved oxygen concentration (Sackett et al., 1975). Increased temperature from petroleum combustion cause nitrogen gas found in air around to oxidize into nitrous oxide. The presence of nitrous oxide and sulphur in oil combine with water to form acid rain. The acid rain results in the death of trees and fish kills due to acidification of water bodies. Many studies have proven that oxygen deficit affects rate of fish metabolism and decreases their ability to withstand organic and inorganic poisons (Lloyd, 1992). Marine mammals and other fish species suffer from sound elevations by virtue of their dependence for reproduction, feeding, predation and navigation (Sakyi et al., 2012). This necessitated the issuance of a restraining order on seismic operations in the United States due to concerns over stranding of beaked whales (Gordon et al., 2004). The response of fish to oil and gas residues in water is in tandem with the general response patterns of organisms to any poisonous or stress impact. Such response patterns include stimulation, depression, loss of movement and coordination disturbances of breathing and death of 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisms (Demeke and Tassew, 2016). Seismic surveys with sound frequencies at 100Hz are known to disturb the range of hearing of marine mammals and are likely to affect other marine life (McCauley et al., 2000). Moreover, it has been established that humpback whales stay away between a distances of 7 to 12 km from operating seismic vessels with increased sensitivity (Boech et al., 19870). Borisov et al., (1994) and Kosheleva et al., (1997) also reveal that fish and other ocean mammals are highly affected by methane homologues. Similar conclusions in the Gulf of Mexico based on observation with places around offshore drilling rigs recorded extremely high levels of methane and ethane (Sackett, 1975) 2.4.2 Fish quality Environmental impact of oil and gas is usually negative due to the toxic nature of associated compounds and the devastation that affects all forms of life. Toxicity effects may vary from subtle sub lethal behavioural to localized mass mortality of marine life. The toxicity of oil is based on factors such as the concentration of light aromatic compounds and the period of exposure of compounds. According to Abarshi et al. (2017), crude petroleum oil and associated products have the presence of heavy metals, chemical additives like lead (Pb), Barium (Ba), Sulphur (S), Zinc (Zn), benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These chemicals have been reported to be dangerous to the health of living organisms when ingested or metabolized (Akutam, 2012) The less dense crude oils and their refined products like kerosene and petrol cause acute toxic effects because they have higher amounts of low molecular weight aromatic compounds. Quite a large amount of lighter toxic components is able to spread through 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh water column instead of evaporating from the sea surface. This often results in narcosis or mortality of intertidal and shallow sub-tidal benthic fauna like the bivalve molluscs, crustacean and also free-swimming fishes. According to report from the University of Lagos, samples of water from sources such as sea, river, borehole, lagoon and beach in the Niger Delta Region contains 70% of Benzo[a] pyrene, with a concentration between 0.54 to 4.0 µg/l which exceeds the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended level of 0.7 µg/l (Nduka et al., 2012). The level of the compound in the water samples further indicates that sediments which are food sources of fish and other marine organisms will have greater concentrations. The persistent nature of toxic synthetic organic compounds leads to their increased concentration at higher levels along the food chain often stored in fatty tissues due to their hydrophobic properties resulting in bioaccumulation (McGuinness and Dowling, 2009). Hence, the carcinogenic nature of Benzo [a] pyrene as an organic compound with high levels in water samples becomes crucial as past experiences consolidate increased cases of cancer and respiratory problems in line with oil pollution in the Niger Delta. According to Burger et al., (2002) fish species may be used to determine pollution of heavy metals in aquatic systems since they are found at different trophic levels to act as primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. 2.4.3 Water quality Water remains enrichment for the sustenance of plant and animal life (Gray, 1997). The United Nations reports that, the shortage of quality water could impact negatively on the economic growth of countries with repercussions such as food insecurity and global conflicts. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Oil and gas installations come with discharges such as produced water, process water, sewerage, sanitary and domestic waste, spills and leakages (E&P Forum/UNEP, 1997). The drilling of exploratory wells and the eventual crude oil production bring about these discharges. As part of the discharged fluids are complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds, trace and heavy metals (Sadiq et al., 2002). Hence, the release of produced water into marine waters and other water sources affects the levels of dissolved oxygen making it difficult for the survival of fish and other organisms (Lloyd, 1992). According to Sam-Okyere (2010), the release of waste water into water sources demands special attention as it risks the life of living organisms. The drilling process as part of the production stage of oil and gas require between 2 to 7 million gallons of source water. This affects both quality and quantity of water for aquatic ecosystem and human consumption (Entrekin et al., 2011). The high amount of water used in development of oil and gas becomes a source of concern as it interrupts with the way pollutants can be processed, decreases the quantity and compromises quality of drinking water (Hanson et al., 2005). Available records also indicate that oil spill is a major cause of water pollution, canalization and waste discharge into fresh waters, swamps and the sea (UNDP, 2006). Organic substances which form a major part of crude oil and petroleum products to a large extent increase the heavy metal concentration upon release into water bodies. Meanwhile, smaller amounts of heavy metals such as lead (Pb), Cadmium (Ca), Mercury (Hg), Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Iron (Fe) and Copper (Cu) above recommended levels are known to affect humans and the aquatic ecosystem (Bowen, 1979, Ademoroti, 1996). According to Ellis (1989) there is much emphasis on the high presence of Lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr) and Iron (Fe) as 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh their toxicity often leads to chronic exposures in aquatic animals. The occurrence of spills into freshwater and marine surroundings is shown to affect both the variety of species and numbers of macro-invertebrate‟s due to oil sorption and the coating of substrates (Blackburn et al., 2014). Also Kulkarni,(1997) indicated that, the release of high amounts organic matter pollutants into waters leads to higher levels of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), faecal coli forms and total dissolved and suspended solids with its effects on water quality and the sustenance of animal life. 2.4.4 Soil quality The toxicity of crude oil is a major source of worry that arises from every pollution related to crude oil. This is in terms of the hazardous nature of hydrogen and carbon containing compounds to soil – borne organisms as well as the possible contamination of the food chain. The presence of crude in pore spaces in soil has been reported to expel air, deplete oxygen reserves and impedes all forms of gaseous exchange between the atmosphere and soil thus limiting the survival of soil biocene as it is denied elements essential for growth and development (Ayotamino and Kogbara, 2006). According to Idoniboye (2000), crude oil pollution spells for more hazardous consequences for soil and soil -borne organisms than air pollution because whatever is absorbed by plants would be rich in the content of water soluble constituents of petroleum oil some of which are toxic to plants. Crude petroleum oil production and its potential spillage unto the soil alter the carbon – nitrogen ratio and lead to nitrogen deficiency which can in turn threaten the survival of soil biota (Jobson et al., 1974). The removal of vegetative cover and topsoil during oil and gas development hampers natural carbon sequestration enhances carbon emissions through biomass loss and soil erosion 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Bruce et al., 1999). According to Jones and Pejchar (2013), oil and gas in Colorado and Wyoming is the cause of loss of high biomass carbon as activities are carried out in areas with most of land cover rich in carbon. With reference to Osuji and Nwoye (2007), cation exchange capacity is one major basis for soil fertility thus the lack of some mineral elements in the soil becomes detrimental for plant growth. Soils under gas flaring are usually infertile due to excessive heat coupled with high acidity resulting from acid rain (Patin, 1999). This eventually renders soils unproductive as solubility and the ability to absorb nutrients is affected. According to Alakpodia and Ogidiolu (1995), exchangeable cations in soil under gas flaring is low with a mean value of far below 20 milliequivalent per 100g of soils to achieve high soil fertility status. Moreover, Atuma and Oje (2013), noted that organic matter and total nitrogen decline under gas flaring were consistent with increasing distance highly attributable to intense heat which hampers the formation processes of organic matter and nitrogen. Alakpodia (2000), in his work on “soils under gas flares in the Niger Delta” recorded low figures of 1.83% and 0.08% as mean values for organic matter and total nitrogen respectively. Alakpodia (2000), asserted that the intense heat from flares accounts for the low values recorded and besides the activity of gas flaring leads to acidity in soils with pH ranges of between 4.3 and 5.8. 2.4.5 Perceptions on human livelihoods and shoreline recreation Although coastal areas form only 10% of the total land area of the earth‟s surface, over 60% of the world‟s population use it as places of abode (Lakshimi & Rajagopalan, 2000, Tudor & Williams, 2001). However, the lack of jobs restricts the coastal population to 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh only fishing which tends to make their lives impoverished upon exploration and production activities of oil and gas. Oil exploration activities lead to income losses, migration and negative social vices such as prostitution, truancy and increased school drop outs, wars, corruption and kidnapping. The Niger Delta State has turned out to be a region of absolute confusion with influx of armed gangs noted for kidnapping and routine violence (Bloomfield, 2008). Again, Nigeria and Cameroon witnessed a challenging situation of disagreement over the oil -rich Bakasi Peninsular which attracted the intervention of an international arbitration. In many nations of oil production like Nigeria, oil exploration has impacted negatively on the marine ecology which serves as source of livelihood. The people in such oil-bearing communities suffer loss of fish catch, extreme poverty and loss of livelihood, social conflicts and community displacement. Fishermen are compelled to move away from drilling sites to allow for drilling activities that disrupts fishing activities and reduces the amount of catch. According to the World Rainforest Movement bulletin (2009), in the Philippines oil exploration has caused dwindling fish population as disappearance of local fishes is impacting negatively the livelihood of over 200,000 fisher folk. According to Eteng (1997) oil exploration and production has seriously affected the social and the physical environment of communities in the Niger Delta threatening agricultural production and the entire livelihood of the people. A World Bank report in 2011 also indicates that the Niger Delta lags behind in terms of education with the unbearable implications for the nation‟s future. Moreover, the Ogoni land is said to have suffered devastation in the hands of Shell Company and other multinationals due to 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh irresponsible extraction of oil and gas (Boele et al., 2001). This to a large extent affects the capacity of fauna and flora to thrive with a trickle – down effects on the food chain. Ghana is not an exception as communities in the oil and gas enclave cry for help on the loss of their livelihoods and other negative impacts. For instance, is the spill of about 699 barrels of oil-based mud by Kosmos Energy in December 2009 and 37 litres of oil by Tullow due to link pipe rapture in the Jubilee Fields (Owusu, 2014, Anon, 2010). Such discharges from drilling processes goes a long way to affect the marine ecosystem and undermines the efforts of fishermen in their activities as a major means of livelihood of communities at the Cape Three Points (Anon, 2010). The members and especially the youth of these fishing communities have therefore shifted attention unto commercial motor – bike riding for meagre amounts to be able to make ends meet. According to Basina (2006), oil activities has led to the washing away of shorelines in the Delta state Region due to the increased numbers of deep – sea oil and gas activities. The beaches and shoreline of coastal marine environment offer a great source of recreation with its conducive ambience. This has helped to create over 300, 000 jobs in the tourism industry (EU, 2011). However, many countries now come face to face with the problem of severe beach erosion leading to shoreline devastation caused by rising sea levels, sinking land masses and deep-sea exploitation of oil and gas. Oil activities lead to massive erosion of shoreline due to intensive marine exploration and exploitation activities (Schlacher et al., 2007). This definitely affects the number of visitors likely to visit the sea shores for entertainment and recreation with its impact on the GDP contribution by the countries tourism industry. According to Dadzie (2015), the incidence of sea weeds (Sargarssum) along the beaches of communities in the Cape Three Points 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh constitute the main visual pollution in greater quantities. The quick and the sudden spread of the sea weeds upon commencement of oil production in the enclave consolidate the belief of negative impact in the enclave. The weeds are rendering the shoreline useless as fresh air they use to enjoy now comes smelly. It therefore predisposes high sense of reluctance to potential tourists towards recreational centres in the study area. Resorts will have to take up the onerous task to promote clean and serene surroundings clients will accept (Aryeh-Adjei et al., 2015). 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Description of Study Area The study was conducted mainly in the coastline communities West of Cape Three Points (a small peninsula), which embraces the following districts: Parts of Ahanta West, Ellembelle and Jomoro districts of the Western Region. The area falls between latitude 4º.45‟N - 5º.02‟N and longitude 2º.04‟W - 2º.53‟W. The Ahanta West District is located southernmost point of the country and the entire West African Sub–Region. It is bounded to the East by Sekondi – Takoradi Metropolitan Assembly (STMA), the West by the Nzema East Municipality and to the North by Mpohor Wassa East District and Tarkwa- Nsuaem Municipality and the Gulf of Guinea to the South. The Ellembelle District shares boundaries with the Jomoro District to the West, Wassa Amenfi West District to the North and the Nzema East and Tarkwa Nsuaem to the Southeast and East respectively. The Jomoro District is also located in the South-western part of the Western Region of Ghana. It shares boundaries with Wassa - Amenfi and Aowin – Suaman to the North, Nzema East to the East and La Cote D‟Ivoire to the West and the Gulf of Guinea to the South. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.1: study districts, communities, and sampling points. 3.2 General Environmental Conditions 3.2.1 Climatic conditions The Ahanta West district is found in the south-western equatorial climatic zone of Ghana. The highest mean temperature is 34°C which is recorded between March and April with the lowest mean temperature of 20°C experienced in August (GSS, 2010). It has a bimodal annual rainfall of over 1,700 mm with the season starting in April and ending in September. Similarly, the Ellembelle and Jomoro districts lie within the semi – equatorial climatic zone of the West African sub – region with an all – year-round rainfall. The 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh average annual rainfall figures range from 1250 mm to 2000 mm with an average temperature of 29.40°C (GSS, 2010). The Jomoro district is also characterized by a high rainfall in two wet seasons and a uniformly high temperature. It has the Equatorial Monsoon and owes its rains to low pressure areas over the Sahara to attract winds from the south of the equator. 3.2.2 Topography The Ahanta West district is found on the coastal belt of the country at an elevation ranging between 0 and 121m above sea level (GSS, 2010). The land is generally flat with a few isolated hills between 20 to 40 meters above sea level at some towns notably Cape Three Points, Princess Town and Egyambra which has a plateau. However, the Ellembelle district is generally undulating with the highest point at about 450 ft. above sea level (GSS, 2010). The Jomoro district has as part of its south – central part an area of rolling granite with steep – sided small round hills rising from 200 m – 600 m. The coast is made predominantly of flat upland areas and steep valleys with few highlands. 3.2.3 Soil The Ahanta West district has four main categories of rocks; lower Birimian, Dixcove granite, Cape Coast granite and Tarkwaian. These have resulted in the formation of sandy, clay, loam and moderately well drained clayey loam for production of cash crops such as Cocoa, Rubber, oil palm and food crops. The soil in the Ellembelle is mainly ferric acrisols with about 98% dysric fluvisols (GSS, 2010). The Jomoro district forms a uniform sandy clay with the coastal sand consisting of very young sand and alluvial deposits along and behind the shoreline. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.4 Vegetation The Ahanta West district lies within two broad vegetation belt, the strand and Mangrove and the Rainforest. The northern part falls largely within the high Rainforest Vegetation Zone and thus supports growth of rubber and oil palm while the part within the strand and mangrove supports coconut growth. The Ellembelle district has a moist semi – deciduous rainforest in the northern part but turns into secondary forest southwards mainly due to anthropogenic activities such as deforestation (GSS, 2010). It has several timber species and other non – timber forest products like rattan, bamboo among others. The Jomoro district lies within the forest belt of Ghana. It bears a Tropical Rain Forest with evergreen scenery with vast variety of plant species. There are also major areas of swampy forest which remain uncultivated due to waterlogged conditions for most times of the year (GSS, 2010). Research Design 3.3 Descriptive research design The descriptive research design was used. The descriptive design allows the researcher to combine qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection. Descriptive research organises, tabulates, describes and depicts events based on a gathered data (Glass & Hopkins, 1984). The study was mainly conducted in three coastal districts of the Western Region namely: Ahanta West, Ellembelle and Jomoro district all found in the oil and gas enclave. These districts were selected due to their closeness to the oil and gas fields and also the large stretch of shoreline in the coast. The study involved the determination of physico- 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh chemical parameters of water samples (seawater, borehole water, well water) and soil as well as heavy metals in fish samples as proxy indicators of oil and gas impact on ecosystem services including a social survey. Test and control samples were taken from different sites in the study area based on accessibility to the sites and proximity to the oil fields. The test samples were collected from the coastline where oil and gas activities were undertaken. The control samples were however collected from areas where oil and gas activities were not undertaken. The control samples of sea water were taken from the Shama district because it is about 200 km from the oil fields. On the other hand, control samples for boreholes and hand dug wells were taken from Tikobo (II), Asasetre and Nuabesa (12.4 km, 9.7 km and 13.6 km respectively from the coastline). A social survey conducted involved the use of questionnaires, focus group discussions and interviews of the respondents. 3.4 Data and Sources The study relied on both primary and secondary data. The primary data were collected through, questionnaires, interviews, focused group discussions, field observations and the results of laboratory analysis. Secondary sources of data on oil and gas and ecosystem services were from content analysis of literature gathered from various journals, publications and other relevant materials from institutions such as the Environmental Protection Agency, (EPA), Fisheries Commission, Friends of the Nation, Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). 3.5 Target population and Sample Size Target population comprised local fishermen, farmers, district environmental officers, community leaders as well as beach resort managers. All the categories were considered 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for the study because of their association with the oil and gas production and services of ecosystem. The target population helped to obtain more insightful information to support the study as varied views was acquired and compared. An estimated total household of 1,115 across Ahanta West, Ellembelle and Jomoro Districts was considered as the sampling frame. The below statistical model known as the Slovin’s formula was used to determine the sample size at a 95 percent (%) confidence level with 5 percent (%) margin of error. i.e n = N/(1 +N(e^2 ) ) n = 1115/ (1+ 1115(0.05²) n = 1115/3.7875 n = 294.39 ≈ 294 Where n = sample size N = Sampling frame/Population size e = error of margin/level of precision 1 = a constant According to Anderson et al., (1998), with emphasis on a large sample distribution theory, reliable estimates can be obtained from samples above 100. This notwithstanding, 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh similar studies in the area by have used a sample size beyond 100 to gain acceptable valid and consistent results (Yeboah et al., 2012). Hence, 294 persons constituted the sample size that was interviewed in five communities selected from each of the three districts. Communities selected from the Ahanta West district were; Cape Three Points, Princess Town, Miamia, Egyambra and Ntakrom. The Jomoro district had, Half Assini, Egbazo, Kabenlasuazo, Ezinlibo and Bonyere. The rest from the Ellembelle district were; Atuabo, Essiama, Eikwe, Kikam and Asanta. These study communities were selected based on accessibility and close proximity to the oil and gas fields. 3.6 Research Instrument Questionnaires, interviews and focused group discussions were used to collect or retrieve information from the respondents. A total of two-hundred and ninety-four (294) persons were interviewed using open and closed - ended questions to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. The various sections of the interview schedule for data collection were demographic characteristics, oil and gas activities and quality of water, fish and soil, the trends in fish catch and impact of oil and gas on human livelihood and shoreline recreation. (Appendix 1). The distribution of questionnaire amongst communities in the various districts was based on size of population. (Table 3.1) 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh S/N NAME OF COMMUNITY NO. OF QUESTIONNAIRE DISTRICT 1 Half Assini 21 Jomoro 2 Egbazo 20 Jomoro 3 Kabenlasuazo 18 Jomoro 4 Bonyere 20 Jomoro 5 Ezinlibo 18 Jomoro 6 Atuabo 20 Ellembelle 7 Eikwe 20 Ellembelle 8 Essiama 21 Ellembelle 9 Kikam 20 Ellembelle 10 Asanta 18 Ellembelle 11 Ntakrom 18 Ahanta West 12 Egyambra 20 Ahanta West 13 Miamia 20 Ahanta West 14 Princess Town 20 Ahanta West 15 Cape Three Points 20 Ahanta West Table 3.1: Distribution of Questionnaire in various communities 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Sampling procedure The study relied on purposive (judgmental) sampling technique as a selective method with particular groups as target. Three coastal districts (Jomoro district, Ellembelle and Ahanta West) were selected from which targeted groups (Farmers, local Fishermen, Beach Resort Managers, District Environmental Officers and Community leaders and members) were obtained based on quotas. Questionnaire was administered in five (5) communities in each of the three (3) districts of the study area. (Table 3.1) 3.8 Social Survey The questions were interpreted in the local languages (Akan, Ahanta and Nzema) for the respondents who could not read or write. This ensured effective communication and made information retrieval more easy and accurate. Aside the use of questionnaire as the major instrument for the study, a focused group discussion was also held including other informal discussions to serve as additional source of information. The survey process lasted for a period of two (2) weeks and the total number of questionnaires retrieved was two-hundred and sixty three (263) due to reluctance on the part of some respondents. The focused group discussion was organised at Egbazo, a coastal community in the Jomoro district. The forum discussed the trend of fish catch in the area, impact of oil and gas activities on livelihood and ecosystem service indicators such as amount of fish catch, quality of fish and water. Also, were influence of oil and gas activities on shoreline recreation and visits to the beaches in the study area, (Plate 3.1). Respondents at the time exhibited their absolute disgust towards happenings such as the loss of livelihood and how making ends meet in a day has been challenging. Other members hesitated to join 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the discussion since according to them, there has been several surveys without any feedback. Plate 3. 1:Focus group discussion at Egbazo near Half Assini 3.9 Sample Collection. 3.9.1 Sampling of Sea water, Borehole, Well water, Fish and soil. Sampling was undertaken for both test and control samples of sea water, borehole water and well water from different sites in the study area as well as sites outside the study area away from the coastline. Thus, Half Assini and Kabenlasuazo communities were selected from the Jomoro district, Atuabo and Eikwe from Ellembelle district whiles Cape Three Points and Princess Town were selected from Ahanta West district. As earlier indicated 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh communities distant away for control samples were: Tikobo (II), Asasetre and Nuabesa, a community from each district. A half - litre plastic bottles washed with detergent and rinsed with distilled water were used to collect two (2) test samples each of Sea water, Borehole and Hand –dug well water from sites in the communities in each of the three districts of the study area. To serve as control were two (2) samples each of Borehole and Well water taken from pristine distant communities (i.e. Tikobo (II), Asasetre and Nuabesa) away from the coastline and also two (2) samples of sea water collected from different sites in the Shama District. The soil samples were taken at regular intervals at two sampling sites also in each of the three districts where a triangular quadrat was thrown and soil collected from it extremes using a soil auger at a depth of between 0 to 20cm and content placed into sampling bags. The communities selected for soil samples were based on close proximity to the oil and gas fields. In total, Six (6) test samples each of sea water, borehole and hand-dug well water were obtained with their six (6) corresponding controls. Also were six (6) soil samples, two each from the three districts in the study area. The sampling process was carried out for two consecutive times for the samples of fish. Three (3) samples of fish made of two (2) fish species; Blue fish (Pomatomus saltatrix) and Weak fish (Cynoscion regalis) were obtained from contracted commercial catches by th th the local fishermen on the 6 and 7 of March at ,Essiama, Half Assini and Shama. The Blue fish was obtained from Shama whiles the weak fish was obtained from Essiama and Half Assini communities. The water and fish samples were kept in ice chest at 4°C to avoid microbial activity when they were being transported to the Ecological laboratory of 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the University of Ghana. The samples were identified, labelled and kept in a freezer for analysis. 3.9.2 Preparation of Soil, Fish and Water Samples The samples of soil were air-dried, grinded and passed through a 2 mm sieve. They were kept in a poly bag and labelled appropriately at the Ecological laboratory of the University of Ghana for the physical and chemical analysis. The fish samples were taken from freezer and allowed to thaw. They were washed with distilled water and dried on a tissue paper. A portion of the edible muscle tissue from the dorsal part, gills and intestines were removed and homogenized for each of the species. A 10.0 g of the homogenized amount of each species of fish was kept in 25 ml Nitric acid overnight followed by digestion on a heating mantle after the addition of a 10 ml Sulphuric acid until a clear light-yellow solution was obtained (Plate 3.2). Plate 3.2: Preparation of fish samples for laboratory analysis 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 A 3 ml of 65% HNO3 and 4 ml of per chloric acid were added to 100cm distilled samples of water. The resulting solution was placed in an Ethos 900 Microwave for 30 minutes at 250 W for digestion. The digested solution was topped up to 200 ml by adding distilled water. The solutions were aspirated in the spectrometer following specifications outlined for each element in the manual of the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS). 3.10 Determination of heavy metals in water and fish samples Standard procedures were followed for the quantitative determination of heavy metals. The dissolved heavy metal concentrations in the water and fish such as Iron (Fe), Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Nickel (Ni) and Chromium (Cr) samples were determined using direct flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) of model PinAAcle 900T by using different Cathode lamps. 3.11 Determination of physico-chemical parameters of water and soil Samples All the water analyses were carried out using the appropriate certified and acceptable international procedures outlined in the standard methods for the examination of water (APHA, 1998). The physical parameters such as dissolved solids (TDS) and turbidity were determined. Also, were the chemical parameters such as pH, Electrical Conductivity, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Salinity. Turbidity was measured using turbidimeter (Model HACH 2100P) NTU and total dissolved solids (TDS) measured with a portable digital TDS meter (Model HI 99301) whilst salinity was measured using a hand – held refractometer. For soil were Organic pH, Organic Carbon (OC), Conductivity and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) using HACH model multi – probe meter (U – 50 series). 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.12 Data analysis Raw data collected for physico-chemical parameters of sea water, borehole, fish species and hand dug well as well as soil and social survey were entered into Microsoft Excel spreadsheet version 2010. The data was finally imported into Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 22.0 for statistical analysis. The means, maximum and minimum ranges for the various parameters and frequencies were generated. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95% confidence level (5% level of significance) was used to test for the significant differences in concentrations among the various water and soil sources as well as fish species. Statistical significance was accepted at P ≤ 0.05. Karl Pearson‟s Product Moment Correlation analysis was carried out to establish the strength and direction of relationship between the parameters of the water samples and soil samples. A correlation coefficient of r ≥ 0.5 was deemed statistically significant. The Chi-square test was also used to establish the relationship between the effects of oil and gas exploration and production and shoreline/beach recreation based on public perception. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 RESULTS This chapter presents the results on the findings of the study. The results are sectioned into four (4) parts; the impact of Ghana‟s oil and gas exploration and production on ecosystem service indicators (water quality, soil quality and fish quality). As earlier indicated, the study used physico-chemical variables as proxy indicators of ecosystem quality and the extent to which they have been affected directly or indirectly by the oil and gas exploration and production activities. The trend of fish catch from 2005 to 2014 in the enclave, public perception and opinions on how oil and gas exploration and production has impacted ecosystem services and human livelihood as well as the beaches and shoreline recreation in the enclave. 4.1 Assessment of Impact of Oil and Gas on Water Quality 4.1.1 pH The mean pH values of test water samples ranged from a minimum of6.1 (borehole) toa maximum of 7.6 (sea water) (Figure 4.1). The pH of the control water samples for sea water, hand dug wells and boreholes showed higher variations compared to the test water samples used to determine the impacts of oil and gas due to release of produced water etc. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95% confidence interval showed that the pH differed significantly among the different water sources (P≤0.05) (Appendix 2). When the Bonferroni pair wise multiple comparison was used to separate the means, it showed that, there were no statistically significant differences in pH among test and control water samples from borehole and hand dug well and also the samples of sea water(Appendix 3). 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 8 8 7.3 7.6 7.6 6.8 7 6.1 6 5 4 Main 3 Control 2 1 0 Borehole Sea water Hand dug well Water source Figure 4. 1: Mean pH of water samples from study sites. 4.1.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) The mean conductivity of the water samples ranged from a minimum of 623µS/cm (hand dug well) to a maximum of 4618.9 µS/cm (Sea water) (Fig 4.2).The control samples from all the water sources used to determine the impact of oil and gas exploration recorded low variations in conductivity compared to the test (main) water samples. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95% confidence interval showed that conductivity differed significantly among the different water sources (P≤0.05) (Appendix 2). Bonferroni pair wise multiple comparisons showed that, there were statistically significant differences in conductivity among sea water, hand dug wells and boreholes with that of corresponding control samples (Appendix 3). 38 Mean pH University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6000 4618.9 5000 4000 2900 3000 Main 2000 Control 1000 246.8 623 350 133.3 0 Borehole Sea water Hand dug well Water source Figure 4.2: Mean conductivity of water samples from study sites 4.1.3 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) The mean BOD ranged from 4.31 mg/l (Sea water) to 6.08 (borehole) (Figure 4.3). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95% confidence interval revealed statistically significant differences in BOD among the water sources, (P≤0.05) (Appendix 2). The BOD of the control water samples were relatively lower compared to the water samples that were used to determine the impacts of oil and gas on water resources. Bonferroni pair wise multiple comparisons, showed that there were no differences in BOD between borehole water and hand dug well water but were significantly different from sea water. 39 Mean EC(µSm/cm) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 6.08 6 4.55 4.31 4.14 5 4 2.73 3 1.8 Main Control 2 1 0 Borehole Sea water Hand dug well water source Figure4. 3: Mean BOD of water samples from study sites 4.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen(DO) The mean DO of the test water samples ranged from a minimum of 8.29mg/l (Hand dug well) to a maximum of 10.37mg/l (borehole) (Fig 4.4). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95% confidence interval showed the dissolved oxygen did not differ significantly among the different water sources (P≥0.05) (Appendix 2). However, the DO of water samples showed higher variations compared with the corresponding control samples. The Bonferroni pair wise multiple comparisons, showed that there are no significant differences between the samples (Appendix 3). 40 Mean BOD (mg/l) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 13.4 16 11.6 14 10.37 12 10 10 8.42 8.29 8 Main 6 Control 4 2 0 Borehole Sea water Hand dug well Water source Figure 4.4: Mean dissolved oxygen (DO) of water samples from study sites 4.1.5 Salinity The mean salinity ranged from a minimum of 0.08mg/l (borehole) to a maximum of 29.9mg/l (sea water) (Fig 4.5).The salinity of the sea water samples and corresponding control samples showed higher variations compared to that of borehole and hand dug wells. Analysis of variance at 95% confidence interval revealed statistically significant differences in salinity among the water sources (P≤0.05) (Appendix 2).Bonferroni pair wise multiple comparisons, showed that there were no differences in salinity between hand dug wells and boreholes but was significantly different from sea water. 41 Mean DO(mg/l) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 29.9 29.2 30 25 20 15 Main Control 10 5 0.08 0.01 0.3 0.24 0 Borehole Sea water Hand dug well Water source Figure 4.5: Mean salinity of water samples from study sites 4.1.6 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) The mean TDS of the test water samples ranged from a minimum of 161mg/l (borehole) to a maximum of 2766.7mg/l (Sea water) (Fig 4.6).The control samples from all the water sources used as reference samples to determine the impact of oil and gas exploration recorded low variations. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95% confidence interval showed that TDS differed significantly among the different water sources (P ≤0.05) (Appendix 2). Bonferroni pair wise multiple comparisons showed that, there were statistically significant differences in conductivity among test and control samples of sea water, hand dug wells and boreholes (Appendix 3). 42 Mean salinity(mg/l) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3500 2766.7 3000 2500 2000 1440 1500 Main Control 1000 399.67 500 161 67.7 170 0 Borehole Sea water Hand dug well Water source Figure 4. 6: Mean TDS of water samples from study sites 4.1.7 Turbidity The mean turbidity of the test water samples ranged from a minimum of 0.64NTU ( borehole) to a maximum of 12.1 mg/l (sea water) (Fig 4.7).The turbidity of the sea water for both the test samples and their corresponding control samples showed higher variations compared to that of borehole and hand dug wells. Analysis of variance at 95% confidence interval revealed statistically significant differences in turbidity among the water sources (P≤0.05) (Appendix 2). Bonferroni pair wise multiple comparisons, showed that there were no differences in turbidity between hand dug wells and boreholes but was significantly different from sea water (Appendix 3). 43 Mean TDS(mg/l) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 12.1 16 14 10.2 12 10 8 Main 6 Control 4 2 0.64 0.87 0.1 0.22 0 Borehole Sea water Hand dug well Water source Figure 4.7: Mean Turbidity of water samples from study sites 4.1.8 Heavy metals 4.1.8.1 Nickel (Ni) The mean Nickel levels of the test water samples ranged from a minimum of 0.44mg/l (hand dug well) to a maximum of 0.77 mg/l (sea water) (Fig 4.8).The nickel levels of the sea water for both the test sites and control sites showed higher variations compared to that of borehole and hand dug wells. Analysis of variance at 95% confidence interval revealed statistically significant differences in nickel levels among the water sources (P≤0.05)(Appendix 2). Bonferroni pair wise multiple comparisons, showed that there were no differences in nickel concentrations between hand dug wells and boreholes but was significantly different from sea water(Appendix 3). 44 Mean Turbidity(NTU) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0.77 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.52 0.6 0.5 0.44 Main 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.21 0.24 Control 0.2 0.1 0 Borehole Sea water Hand dug well Water source Figure 4. 8: Mean Nickel concentrations of water samples from study sites 4.1.8.2 Chromium (Cr) The mean Cr levels of the test water samples ranged from a minimum of 0.07 mg/l ( sea water) to a maximum of 0.12 mg/l (borehole) (Fig 4.9). The Cr levels of the test water samples for sea water, hand dug wells and borehole showed higher variations compared to that of their controls. Analysis of variance at 95% confidence interval did not show any statistically significant differences in Cr levels among the water sources (P≤0.05) (Appendix 2). 45 Mean nickel Conc(mg/l) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 0.16 0.12 0.14 0.12 0.09 0.1 0.07 0.08 0.05 Main 0.06 Control 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 Borehole Sea water Hand dug well water source Figure 4. 9: Mean Chromium concentration of water samples from study sites 4.1.8.3 Iron (Fe) The mean Fe concentrations of the test water samples ranged from a minimum of 0.31 mg/l (borehole) to a maximum of 64.54 mg/l (sea water) (Fig 4.10). The Fe concentrations of the test water sample for sea water and control showed higher variations in Fe concentrations compared to that of hand dug wells and boreholes. Analysis of variance at 95% confidence interval did not show any statistically significant differences in Fe concentrations among the water sources (P≤0.05) (Appendix 2). 46 Mean chromium(mg/l) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 90 64.54 80 70 60 50 33.58 40 Main 30 Control 20 10 0.31 0.1 0.68 0.28 0 Borehole Sea water Hand dug well Water source Figure 4.10: Mean Iron concentrations of water samples from study sites 4.2 Assessment of Impact of Oil and Gas on Fish Quality 4.2.1.1 Heavy metal in Fish sample The heavy metal concentrations in the muscles and gills of two different species of fish, namely; Pomatomus saltatrix and Cynoscion regalis were determined. With the exception of Cd and Cr that were not detected in the two fish species studied, Pb, Cu and Fe however were detected at varying concentrations. The mean Pb levels in Pomatomus saltatrix fish species ranged from a minimum of 1.54-2.22ppm with a mean value of 1.86±0.19ppm, Fe levels ranged from 124.50-138.96ppm with mean value of 132.82±4.31ppm and Ni levels ranged from 1.45-2.2ppm with mean value of 1.95±0.25ppm. That of Cynoscion regalis also recorded Pb levels ranging from a minimum of 2.18-2.62ppm with a mean value of 2.44±0.13ppm, Fe levels ranged from 190-210ppm with mean value of 200.26±5.72 and Ni levels ranged from 2.89-3.28ppm with mean value of 3.13±0.12ppm (Table 4.1). 47 Mean Fe(mg/l) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1: Concentration of heavy metals in fish species from study area. Heavy Metal Fish Species Mean ± SD Min. Max. Lead Pomatomus 1.86 ± 0.19 1.54 2.22 saltatrix Cynoscion 2.44 ± 0.13 2.18 2.62 regalis Cadmium Pomatomus ( ND) 0.00 0.00 saltatrix Cynoscion (ND) 0.00 0.00 regalis Chromium Pomatomus (ND) 0.00 0.00 saltatrix Cynoscion ND 0.00 0.00 regalis Nickel Pomatomus 1.95 ± 0.25 1.45 2.24 saltatrix Cynoscion 3.13 ± 0.12 2.89 3.28 regalis Iron Pomatomus 132.82 ± 4.31 124.50 138.96 Saltatrix Cynoscion Regalis 200.26 ± 5.77 190.00 210.00 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ND-not detected When the student t-test statistics was used to determine whether statistically significant differences exist in concentrations of heavy metals between the two fish species, the results showed that, there was a significant differences in Fe, Ni and Pb concentrations between the two fish species at 95% confidence level (P≤0.05)(table 4.2). Table 4. 2: showing student t – test analysis of heavy metals in fish samples from study area One – sample test (test value 1) t-value df p-value Mean 95 % Confidence level difference Lower Upper Lead 6.854 5 0.001* 1.15000 0.72 1.58 Nickel 5.260 5 0.003* 1.54333 0.79 2.29 Iron 10.734 5 0.000* 165.5433 125.89 205.19 *Significant (P≤0.05). 4.3 Assessment of Impact of Oil and Gas on Soil Quality 4.3.1.1 Analysis on physico-chemical parameters of soil The soil quality parameters in soil samples of two communities each from Jomoro, Ellembelle and Ahanta West close to the oil and gas fields were determined to ascertain direct and indirect impact of oil and gas. The results showed the mean pH of soil ranging 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from 6.53±0.26mg/kg at Jomoro sampling sites to a maximum of 7.47±0.18mg/kg at Ellembelle sampling sites. The conductivity of the soil samples ranged from 161.33±3.21mg/kg at Jomoro sampling site to a maximum of 1951±30.51mg/kg at Ahanta West sampling site. The conductivity of the soil sample ranged from 161.33±3.21mg/kg at Jomoro sampling site to a maximum of 1951±30.51mg/kg at Ahanta West sampling site. The Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) also ranged from a minimum of 1.62±0.032mg/kg at Ellembelle sampling site to a maximum of7.31±0.44mg/kg at Ahanta West sampling site and the organic carbon ranged from 0.83.3±0.002mg/kg at Ellembelle sampling site to a maximum of 1.71±0.06mg/kg at Ahanta West sampling site (Table 4.3). Analysis of variance at 95% confidence level revealed statistically significant differences in pH, conductivity, cation exchange capacity and organic carbon levels among the sampling site (P≤0.05)(Table 4.3). Table 4. 3: Descriptive statistics of soil quality parameters at sampling site Descriptive Parameter/Districts Mean ± SD Min Max Jomoro 6.53 ± 0.26 6.48 6.57 pH Ellembelle 7.47 ± 0.18 7.25 7.84 Ahanta West 7.34 ± 0.70 7.20 7.42 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Jomoro 1818.67 ± 35.87 1768.00 1888.00 Conductivity Ellembelle 161.33 ± 3.21 159.00 165.00 Ahanta West 1951.00 ± 30.51 1890.00 1983.00 Cation Jomoro 4.41 ± 0.31 4.25 4.66 Exchange Ellembelle 1.62 ± 0.032 1.56 1.67 Capacity Ahanta West 7.31 ± 0.44 7 .25 7.40 Jomoro 1.21 ± 0.006 1.20 1.22 Organic Carbon Ellembelle 0.83 ± 0.002 0.78 0.86 Ahanta West 1.71 ± 0.006 1.70 1.72 4.3.1.2 Correlation between soil quality parameters To investigate the association, the direction and strength of the soil quality parameters, Pearson‟s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMC) was used. Considerable numbers of significant positive correlation were observed between the following 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh variables; CEC and conductivity (r=0.891, P<0.01), organic carbon and conductivity (r=0.859, P<0.05), organic carbon and CEC (r=0.996, P < 0.01) (Table 4.4). Table 4.4: Karl Pearson’s moment correlation analysis on some soil quality parameters Cation exchange Organic Parameters pH Conductivity capacity carbon pH Pearson 1 Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N 9 Conductivity Pearson -.507 1 Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .163 N 9 9 Cation exchange Pearson ** -.105 0.891 1 capacity Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .788 0.001 N 9 9 9 organic carbon Pearson * ** -.034 0.859 0.996 1 Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .931 .003 0.000 N 9 9 9 9 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Assessment of the trend of fish catch between 2005 and 2014 in the enclave Figure 4.11 shows the trend of fish catch in the study area with a comparison made between four (4) out of the six (6) coastal districts in the oil and gas enclave. The districts included; Jomoro, Nzema East, Ahanta West and Shama. The Ellembelle was replaced with Nzema East due to lack of catch data for analysis according to the Fisheries Commission‟s Department, Western Region. The Fig. 4.11 reveals that the Jomoro district lies very low from year 2008 to 2014 although it recorded appreciable levels before year 2008 at almost 20,000 tonnes per year of fish catch. The Nzema East district also recorded higher levels of fish catch before 2007 when exploration had not started with a sharp decrease from 2008 to 2011. The Ahanta West district shows an undulating trend in fish catch with a maximum level of 70,000 tonnes per year in around 2007 and a minimum of 7,000 tonnes per year in somewhere 2011. The Shama district however, portrays a consistent trend in fish catch almost throughout the ten year period with a least amount of catch of 30,000 tonnes per year in 2011. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TREND IN FISH CATCH (2005 - 2014) 80000 70000 60000 SHAMA 50000 AHANTA 40000 WEST 30000 NZEMA EAST 20000 JOMORO 10000 0 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 YEAR Source of Data: Fisheries Commission, Western Region. Figure 4. 11: A graph showing trends of fish catch against years in the study area Plate 4.1 below confirms the fact of low fish catch by fishermen after a search for fish in the Jomoro district. At the far end of the fishing net is a heap of sea weed (Sargarssum spp.) from which fish have to be sorted out. 54 AMOUNT OF FISH CATCH/TONNES University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh How do you rate fertility status of soils in your area? 10% 9% 21% 60% No response very fertile fairly fertile not fertile Figure 4. 12: Respondents views on fertility status of soils in the study area. With reference to figure 4.13,Out of the total number of 263 questionnaires retrieved from respondents, 236 representing 90% claimed emphatically that the amount of fish catch 10 years ago was very good with 21representing (8%) indicating a good catch. Only 3 of the respondents representing 1% answered satisfactory without any response for poor catch. How would you rate amount of fish catch in your area ten (10) years ago? 250 236 200 150 100 50 21 3 3 0 56 No response Very good Good Satisfactory University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.13: Respondents views on amounts of fish catch 10 years ago in the study area Figure 4.14. Shows respondents‟ views on the amount of fish catch from year 2014 up to 2017. The majority of 195 (74%) indicated “poor” with only 4 of the respondents representing 1.5% claiming to have a very good catch. The number of respondents satisfied with the catch levels was also 57 representing about 22%. As depicted in plate 4.2, the amount of fish obtained by the fishermen is woefully not up to expectation. The catch constitutes virtually of sea weeds thus rendering the efforts on fishing highly unfruitful. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.15 shows respondents‟ views on the cause of low fish catch levels with 212 indicating oil and gas activities representing about 81%. Other factors as part of respondents claim were fishing method and climate change with 43 and 1 respondent respectively. What have you observed to be the cause of fish catch level up until now? 250 212 200 150 100 50 43 4 1 3 0 No response fishing method oil and gas climate change others activities Figure 4.15: Respondents views on observed cause of fish catch levels up until now. Figure 4.16 shows respondents views on experiences of mortality of fish and other marine organisms with 61% indicating "yes". Respondents without any experience on mortality were 32%. However, 7% of the respondents had no answer for observed cause of mortality. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Has there been experiences of fish mortality and other marine organisms? 7% 32% 61% No response Yes No Figure 4.16: Respondents views on mortality of fish and other marine organisms Figure 4.17 shows respondents opinion on the cause of mortality of marine organisms in the study area. The number of respondents who attributed cause of mortality to oil and gas activities were 136 representing 52% whiles 106 respondents had no response to the question. The rest of the respondents associated the death of marine organisms to the influx of foreign vessels with propellers and other factors not known to them. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh What in your opinion is the cause of mortality? 160 140 136 120 106 100 80 60 40 20 13 3 5 0 No response oil and gas fishing method foreign vessels others activities Figure 4.17: Respondents opinion on cause of mortality of marine organisms. Figure 4.18 shows respondents views on the quality of fish they consume. The majority of 65% of them answered with affirmation whiles 27% were not satisfied with the quality of fish obtained from the sea and surrounding water bodies. The rest of the respondents of 8% gave no response to the question. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Do you still enjoy the fish obtained from the Sea and other water bodies? 8% 27% 65% No response Yes No Figure 4.18: Respondents views on quality of fish from the Sea and Water bodies Figure 4.19 shows respondents views on major benefits obtained from the oil and gas production as residents. A majority of 51% gave no response to the question with 31% indicating there has been no benefit at all. However, 12% and 6% of the respondents claimed to have gained scholarships and social amenities respectively. What has been the major benefit derived from the oil and gas activities in your area? 31% 51% 6% 12% No response Scholarships Social Amenities None 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.19: Respondents views on benefits from oil and gas activities in the area. Figure 4.20 shows respondents views on whether benefits obtained are from the Government or oil company. The very few constituting only 9% indicated to have had their benefit from the Government whiles 13% had it from oil and gas companies or partners. However, the majority of 78% gave no response to the question. Has the benefit been offered by the Gov't or Oil company? 9% 13% 78% No response Oil company Government Figure 4.20: Respondents views on whether benefit is offered by Government or Oil company. Figure 4.21 shows respondents views on whether the sale of fish in their communities is still lucrative and to their expectation. Most of the respondents answered "No" to the question whiles only 7% responded in the affirmative. However, 36% gave no response to the question. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Is the sale of fish in your community still lucrative and to your expectation? 36% 57% 7% No response Yes No Figure 4.21: Respondents views on whether sale of fish is lucrative or not 4.6 Public perception on effects of oil and gas on beaches and shoreline recreation. The study ascertained whether demographic characteristic of respondents (Table: 4.5), are significantly associated with perception on the effects of oil and gas on beaches and shorelines recreation in the enclave. The study revealed that gender was significantly associated with the perception (χ2 = 21.39, P = 0.001). Educational background of respondents was found also to be significantly associated with perception (χ2 = 36.09, P = 0.001). However, there was no significant association between marital status and duration of stay in the locality to perception in the bivariate analysis at 95% confidence level (Table 4.6). 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.5: shows details of demographic characteristics of respondents in the study area based on gender, age, marital status and educational background. The others are occupation and the duration of stay in a locality. Most respondents had their occupation to be fishing as reflected in gender with majority being males. The majority of 97% of respondents had stayed in their locality for more than ten (10) years with MLSC/JHS being the educational background of most respondents. Table 4. 5: Demographic characteristics of respondents Variables Frequency Percentage (%) Gender Male 188 71.5 Female 75 28.5 Total 263 100 Age 20-29 37 14.0 30-39 86 32.6 40-49 83 31.5 50-59 36 13.6 60-69 12 5.0 70-79 8 3.0 80-89 1 0.3 Total 263 100 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Marital Status Married 202 76.8 Single 32 12.2 Separated 22 8.4 Divorced 7 2.6 Total 263 100 None 24 9.1 Primary 59 22.4 Educational Qualification MSLC/JHS 150 57.0 SHS 17 6.5 Tertiary 13 5.0 Total 263 100 Fishermen 104 40.0 Farmer 65 25.0 Occupation Trader 50 19.0 Public Servant 1 4 5.3 Student 6 2.3 Self Employed 24 9.1 Total 263 100 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Below 5yrs. 3 1.0 Duration of 5 - 10 yrs. 5 2.0 Stay Above 10yrs. 255 97.0 Total 263 100 Source: Field Survey, 2017 The findings revealed that gender, educational level and duration of stay in the community significantly influenced expectations of respondents upon visiting the beaches and shoreline (P≤ 0.05). Marital status of respondents however, was found not to be significantly associated with expectations of respondents upon visiting the beaches and shoreline at 95% confidence level (P≥0.05)(Table 4.6). Table 4. 6: Chi – square test analysis on respondent perception on effects of oil and gas activities on beaches and shoreline recreation in study area. Variable F(%), χ2 P-value n=263 Gender 21.39 0.001* Male 164(62.4) Female 63(37.6) Total 227(100%) Educational level No formal education 21(7.98%) 36.09 0.000* Some formal education 206(78.33%) Total 227(100%) Marital status 13.59 0.093 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Single 57(21.67%) Married 166(63.12%) Total 223(100%) Duration of stay in locality 27.92 0.06 >5yrs 2(0.76%) 5-10yrs 4(1.52%) >10yrs 85(32.32%) Total 91(100%) *Significant (P<0.05) Table 4.7:Chi – Square test analysis on expectations of respondents upon visiting the beaches and shoreline. Are expectations met upon visiting the beaches and shoreline Variable F(%), n=263 χ2 P-value Gender 26.41 0.001* Male 54(20.53%) Female 33(12.5%) Total 87 Educational level No formal education 16(6.08%) 53.22 0.000* Some formal education 71(26.99%) Total 87 Marital status 18.83 0.08 Single 25(9.5%) Married 60(22.8%) Total 85 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Duration of stay in locality 47.7 0.00* >5yrs 3(1.1%) 5-10yrs 1(0.38%) >10yrs 222(84.4%) Total 226 *Significant (P<0.05) 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 DISCUSSION The borehole test water sample recorded a mean pH value of 6.1 which was below the recommended limit. Besides, all other water samples fell within the WHO range for surface and ground water systems of 6.5-8.5. The results obtained indicated neutral to alkaline conditions and this may arise due to the bedrock of the area. The bedrock may be rich in limestone and sandstone which contains higher levels of carbonate and bicarbonates ions. These ions have high buffering capacity and can resist acidity, therefore may have accounted for the high pH levels recorded for the period. The mildly acidic pH levels recorded in the test borehole sample might be due to the dissolution of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during water withdrawal or the presence of high level of organic matter within the soil zones whose oxidation releases carbon dioxide that reacts with water to produce a weak carbonic acid (Alakpodia, 1995). This was further confirmed by the Bonferroni pair wise multiple comparisons used to separate the means. It showed statistically significant differences in pH among test and control samples of water (Appendix 3). The conductivity recorded for borehole and hand dug wells for both test and control water samples exceeded the WHO recommended limit of 250mg/l for drinking water. However, the fact that the test samples recorded higher conductivity values than the control is an indication that anthropogenic factors may be at play and could be attributed to direct pollution from the oil fields such as produced water discharge and drilling fluids. Oil and gas installations come with discharges such as produced water, process water, sewerage, sanitary and domestic waste, spills and leakages (E&P Forum/UNEP, 1997). 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The idle fishermen desperate for livelihood alternatives now engage in commercial motor riding from one community to another which comes with dirty engine oil. Others are sale of agro-chemicals, metal scraps and general inputs for building construction. Based on the WHO recommended guideline for TDS, water with a TDS less than 1000mg/l and 30,000mg/l for drinking water and saline water respectively is acceptable. However, the mean values for TDS for test samples were higher than the controls which also suggest a measure of higher turbidity. It is an indication of pollution from direct and indirect point sources and the effects it is likely to have on the marine ecosystem. The mean values of BOD were high compared with the controls. This also indicates a high measure of organic matter contamination in test samples. Generally, a higher BOD in a sample translates into a lower DO. In Fishes, an average of 5 mg/l of dissolved oxygen (DO) is required for them to survive (Diaz et al., 2014). Thus decreased levels of DO may result in fish kills and stressful experiences by fish and other organisms. Factors that affect DO levels in natural water include presence of oxidisable substances, salinity, turbulence, temperature, and pressure (Lloyd 1992). Amongst these factors may be contributing to the high Biological Oxygen Demand with its replica effect on the amount of Dissolved Oxygen and the survival of marine organisms. The mean levels of heavy metals in water, Nickel and Chromium levels were low compared to quality guidelines in Ghana of 0.5. However, these metals had values higher than the control samples. This may be an indication of change in the environment due to precursors such as heavy metals as may be associated with the oil and gas activities. Iron with a permissible level of 10mg/l had a mean value far above that of the control sample. Such high levels of iron may be linked with acid mine drainage and acid deposition/rain. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Organic substances which form a major part of crude oil and petroleum products may to a large extent increase the heavy metal concentration upon release into water bodies. Smaller amounts of heavy metals such as lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg), Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Iron (Fe) and Copper (Cu) above recommended levels are known to affect humans and the aquatic ecosystem (Ademoroti, 1996).According to Ademoroti, (1996) and (Bowen 1979), traces of heavy metals such as chromium, lead, iron and mercury above stipulated levels are toxic to aquatic ecosystems and human well- being. Neff (2000) also revealed that produced water for ocean discharge contains up to 48 parts per million (ppm) of petroleum, because it usually has contact with crude oil in the reservoir rocks. The analysis of heavy metals in fish samples found Pb, Ni and Fe to be present in fish species sampled and exceeded the recommended limit set by the European Union (EU). As stated earlier, the samples of fish were collected based on proximity to the oil and gas fields. The Pomatomus saltatrix (Blue fish) were sampled from the Shama district 210 km west of the oil fields whiles the Cynoscion regalis (Weak fish) were from the Jomoro and Ellembelle districts which are 60 km away from the fields. The higher mean values of heavy metals in the weak fish could possibly be an indication of prevalence from the sampling site in the Jomoro district as compared to the Blue fish from the Shama sampling sites. It was confirmed by the student t-test analysis which showed significant differences in Pb, Ni and Fe concentrations in the fish species at 0.05 confident level. According to Burger et al., (2002), there are two main routes of heavy metals exposure. The primary route of intake of these metals is through the gills or transport of dissolved contaminants in water across biological membranes and ionic exchange. The secondary 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh route is through ingestion of food or sediment particles with subsequent transport across the gut. The aquatic micro flora or micro fauna which constitute the food chain for fish species accumulate these metals in their living cells from the environment. The fish consume them and gradually get enriched with heavy metals through bioaccumulation which may subsequently affect humans on the food chain. These metals are known to produce adverse effects on aquatic biota and human health (Akan, 2012). However, as revealed by Yang et al., (2010), fish have been reported to be very much sensitive to Pb and its uptake increases with increasing concentration in the environment. Fish living in contaminated sediment showed higher concentration of Pb in gills and muscles of fish also in a study by Abarshi et al., (2017) which is in consistent with the findings of this study. Beyer et al. (2000) postulates that "Cr at sublethal concentrations in fish mainly accumulates in gills and liver". The effects of these metals in fish include reduction of growth and reproductive capacity. The increase in contamination of metals in fish may be due to metal contaminated diet which may come from discharge of oil residue and produced water which contains high levels of heavy metals (Forstner et al., 2012). The study found a strong negative correlation between pH and Conductivity, a negative correlation between pH and CEC and also pH and Organic Carbon. However, there was a positive correlation existing between Conductivity and CEC, Conductivity and Organic Carbon and also Organic Carbon and CEC. Cation exchange capacity is the total capacity of a soil to hold exchangeable cations. It influences a soils ability to hold unto essential nutrients to be able to provide a buffer against soil acidification. Thus, organic matter and soils with a higher clay fraction have higher CEC. Thus, sandy soils rely heavily on the high CEC of organic matter for retention of nutrients in the topsoil. According to Osuji 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and Nwoye (2007), cation exchange capacity is a very important soil property that influences soil structure, nutrient availability, soil pH and soil reaction to fertilizers. The negative correlation between pH and CEC therefore suggest a low cation exchange capacity of soils as pH recorded were generally high. This establishes the fact that coarse sandy soil in the study area lacks the capacity to hold essential nutrients for plants growth. It also confirms the views of the respondents that soils in the area are fairly fertile. However, the fair fertility of soil may not be blamed on oil and gas activity as established by Atuma and Oje (2013), that organic matter and total nitrogen decline were consistent with increasing distance from oil fields to hamper formation processes in soil. With regards to the trend of fish catch in the study, the results suggested that the Jomoro district had a vast and great reduction in catch levels although it showed some appreciable or improvement in years 2005, 2006 and 2007 which were before the intensive oil activity (See Fig. 4.11). It is the part of the study area 60km from the oil fields and may therefore be attributed to the effects of smothering by oil residue deposited unto the sea bed which affect spawning, nursing and feeding habits of fishes (Samiullah, 1985). The same can be said about the Nzema East district with a gradual reduction from 2008 throughout the years up to 2014. Its 2009 and 2010 amounts of fish catch recorded were the poorest amongst all the years in focus. This could be expected as the period marked the beginning of intensive oil production in Ghana. The Ahanta West District had its worse performance in 2010 and 2011 although there was a great boost in 2007 which may be attributed to exploratory activities with massive seafloor perturbation then before production started. Thus, the commencement of intensive oil and gas production is linked 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with the dwindling effect on amount of fish catch in the area. According to Demeke and Tassew (2017), the response of fish to oil and gas residues in water is highly associated with loss of movement, coordination and death of organisms. Generally, the Ahanta West and Shama Districts seem to have achieved consistent catch levels during the period with catch in Shama being very stable. The consistency in fish catch from such districts can however, be linked to their far distances of about 200 km to the Jubilee Fields. The other oilfields, which on the other hand are closer to the Jubilee Fields are Jomoro, Nzema East and even parts of Ahanta West (Cape Three Points) being a probable source of the inconsistency in fish catch. On the public perception of oil and gas impact on ecosystem services and human livelihoods, the survey revealed diverse opinions from the respondents. For instance, the fertility of soil was said to be fair based on crop harvest respondents obtain from their farmlands. According to Jobson et al. (1974), the alteration of carbon - nitrogen ratio by oil residue leads to nitrogen deficiency and threatens the survival of soil biota. Besides, the oil and gas exploration and production in the area has led to varying forms of soil degradation due to onshore installations. The amount of fish catch before the oil production ten (10) years ago in the study area as established by the survey conducted was very good which according to respondents met their needs. However after an intensive oil and gas activity, the amount of fish catch as expressed in the survey is very poor. Such a drastic change in fish catch may therefore be attributed to oil exploration impact as a major factor of ecosystem variation (World Rainforest Movement Bulletin, 2009). Moreover, the survey revealed mortality experiences of fish and other marine organisms to be high with most respondents associating it to the production of oil and gas 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh offshore (Anon, 2010). The quality of fish in terms of taste was suitable to respondents as revealed in the survey but its sale by the fisher folk was indicated as not lucrative at all due to the dwindling levels of fish catch recorded by fishermen. The survey also confirmed that respondents have not benefited from the oil and gas production as residents in the enclave whose surroundings are being exploited. This has brought to the fore absolute disgust and disappointment in the minds of respondents which reflected in their reception towards the survey team. The study also sought to ascertain public perception on effects of oil and gas on beaches and shoreline recreation. From the analysis of results, gender was found to be significantly associated with public perceptions. Thus, gender influenced how respondents perceive oil and gas impact on beach and shoreline recreation. Based on the social survey, there was 71.5% of males which establishes the fact that the males believed the oil and gas industry has effect on beach and shoreline recreation. The educational background of respondents was also found to highly influence perceptions of respondents. Thus 91% of respondents perceived the oil and gas activity had impact on beach and shoreline recreation. However, the marital status and duration of stay in locality had no relationship with respondent‟s perception and oil and gas effects on beach and shoreline recreation (See Fig. 4.5). Again from the results, some demographic characteristics were noticed to influence the expectations of respondents upon visit to the beaches and shoreline. Gender, educational level and duration of stay in locality were identified to influence respondent‟s expectations. This meant that, males, those with formal education and those who had stayed in the area over 10 years that oil and gas activity were categories that determined 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh expectation at the beaches and shoreline. Nevertheless, the marital status of respondents was found to have no influence on expectations of visits to the beach and shoreline. This was probably due to the fact that marital couples will visit the beach at moments to relax and share off stress from their busy schedules and thus was less concerned about the impacts of oil and gas. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX 6.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter presents a summary of work done and the major results and findings made from the study. Also, are conclusions and recommendations stated in line with the purpose of the research. 6.1 Summary of work done The idea of oil and gas production in Ghana is accepted with enthusiasm by all due to the benefits the nation stands to gain. However, concerns have been raised from the communities in the oil and gas enclave. Such concerns centre on loss of livelihood and ecosystem services among fisher folks, widespread sea weed incidence and death of marine mammals amongst others. For these reasons, test and control samples of water (sea water, borehole water and hand – dug well), soil and fish were collected from the Jomoro, Ellembelle, Ahanta West and the Shama districts which is about 200 km away from oil and gas fields of which analysis proved consistency in fish catch yield. The samples were analysed using proxy indicators of ecosystem service quality to determine both direct and indirect impact that may result from the oil and gas exploration and production activities in the area. With the support of the Fisheries Commission‟s department in the Western Region, data was obtained for the assessment of fish catch trend in four (4) coastal districts in the area including the Shama district. A social survey conducted for 294 respondents elicited diverse views as perceptions on oil and gas activities on ecosystem services and human livelihood, beach and shoreline recreation and expectations upon visit to the beach and shoreline. The results from the study suggests that the pH of water samples could not be directly associated with oil and gas 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh activity which therefore be due to the composition of bedrock which has buffering ability. However, mean conductivity of water samples could be blamed on oil and gas activity from discharge of produced water, drilling muds etc. Also, could possibly be linked to some alternative livelihood activities undertaken by community members. Such activities are the sale of agro-chemicals, metal scraps and general inputs for building construction. Moreover, mean BOD values of water samples indicated pollution which based on the results might have affected parameters such as dissolved oxygen, salinity and turbidity levels. Heavy metals such as Nickel and chromium recorded higher concentrations in test samples relative to corresponding control samples. Generally, heavy metals are known to form part of produced water especially with Nickel which is used in gas pipelines and an ideal material for propeller shaft in boats. Heavy metals prominent in fish samples were lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe). The Pomatomus saltatrix (Blue fish) sampled from shama recorded lesser concentrations compared to the Cynoscion regalis (Weak fish) from the Half Assini sampling site. With respect to soil quality, the Bonferroni multiple test confirmed a strong negative correlation between pH, conductivity, cation exchange capacity and organic carbon whiles a positive correlation existed between conductivity, cation exchange capacity and organic carbon. Trend of fish catch in the enclave for the past 10 years was observed to be decreasing depending on a communities‟ closeness to the oil and gas fields. Livelihoods have also been impacted negatively. They no more obtain the fish catch left alone to enjoy and attract visitors to their serene and cosy beaches on their shoreline. 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2 Conclusion The study indicated a possible contamination of water from organic pollution. This was confirmed by the high and EC and TDS in water (test and control) samples relative to WHO recommended limits. The pollution could be attributed to both direct and indirect anthropogenic sources of impacts such as the discharge of produced water resulting from the oil and gas activities. Others maybe from offshore sources such as oil discharge or spillage and alternative livelihood activities of the idle fisher folks onshore such as piggery production. This to a high extent confirms the resentments on poor catch levels and the death of marine organisms expressed by the residents. A high TDS and BOD have a direct relationship with DO to affect the growth, reproduction capacities, quality of fish and the survival of marine organisms. The levels of heavy metals such as lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni) and Chromium (Cr) found in water samples brought to bear an ecosystem change in the enclave. These metals are associated with crude oil with other likely sources emerging from the sale of metal scraps by community members. Fish samples from communities closer to oil and gas fields may have been polluted with heavy metals. Weak fish (Cynoscion regalis) samples recorded higher concentrations of heavy metals compared to the Blue fish (Pomatomous saltatrix). Thus, fish and other marine organisms coupled with such a pollution possibility could be a source of the dwindling expectations for fish catch and death of marine organisms by residents. The study also established that the soil in the enclave was not fertile but could not be blamed on the oil and gas activities. Predominantly, sandy soil containing little organic matter was found in the enclave which might have resulted in decrease in the cation exchange capacity of the soil. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study showed a decreasing trend in the amount of fish catch. Coastal communities very close to the oil and gas fields had a record of very poor catch compared to distant communities of about 200 km away from the fields. It was confirmed from the perception of respondents that the fairly fertile status of soils could not be blamed on oil and gas activities. They expressed the fact that, the productivity of soil in the enclave was dependent on the type of crop a farmer decides to cultivate. The quality of fish was acceptable as it could not be associated with any disease or ailments. It could however be ascertained that the livelihoods of residents have been affected as their sole source of income of fishing was no more lucrative. It had also been difficult to find an alternative source of livelihood which had rendered living in communities in the area extremely unbearable. There had not been any benefit received with respect to the oil and gas production as immediate inhabitants of the surrounding communities. They could not boast of any community development agenda or projects offered to their communities. It was further established that gender and educational background influenced public perception on the effects of oil and gas activities on beach and shoreline recreation. Thus, males and those with formal education associated mortality occurrences of marine organisms and littering of sea weeds on shoreline with oil and gas activities. However, marital status and duration of stay in a locality had no influence on such perception. In addition, the perception on expectations upon visit to the beaches and shoreline were highly influenced by gender, educational background and duration of stay but not marital status of respondents. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Based on the above facts and findings, the null hypothesis (HO): “Oil and gas exploration and production have no significant impact on ecosystem services and human livelihood” is proved to be rejected, whiles the alternative hypothesis, H1: “Oil and gas exploration and production have significant impact on ecosystem services and human livelihood” fails to be rejected. 6.3 Recommendations Based on the findings from the study, the following recommendations are suggested: 1. The Ministry for Fisheries and Aquaculture Development in conjunction with the Food and Drugs Authority must consistently check on the quality status of fish from our waters. 2. The EPA and other service research institutions such as the Water Research Institute (WRI), Soil Research Institute (SRI) must conduct a periodic monitoring to regularly ascertain water and soil quality in the enclave is within permissible limits. 3. The EPA must trace the source of the sea weeds and stop their spread. Besides, further studies must consider an investigation into Total Hydrocarbon Content of the sea weeds and fish species as increased concentrations can affect consumers along the food chain. 4. The Ministry for Fisheries and Aquaculture development should investigate the causes of low fish catch in the enclave. Such an investigation will aim to discover other contributing factors of low fish catch apart from oil and gas production to be able to offer lasting remedies. 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. The recently passed Petroleum Exploration & Production Law must be strictly enforced to the latter to ensure sustainability of the oil and gas industry on one hand and the development of the country as a whole. In this sense, oil and gas companies could be made to carry out post – impact assessment annually. 6. Alternative livelihood activities should be offered to the fisher folks in the enclave who are currently idle. 7. The Oil and Gas companies / partners must be compelled based on policies to adopt the communities /districts within which they operate and meet their needs. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Aboribo, R.I., 2001. Oil Politics and the Niger Delta Development Commission. The Tussle for control and Domination. Afr. J. Environ. Studies, 2: 168 – 175 Ackah-Baidoo, A. (2012) Enclave development and „offshore corporate social responsibility‟: implications for oil-rich sub-Saharan Africa, Resources Policy, 37 (2),152–159. Ackah-Baidoo A (2013). 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A QUESTIONNAIRE ON SOCIO-CULTURAL VIEWS ON OIL AND GAS IMPACT ON ECOSYSTEM SERVICES (PROVISIONING AND CULTURAL) IN COASTLINE WEST OF CAPE THREE POINTS IN THE WESTERN REGION OF GHANA. Dear Respondents, The administrator of this questionnaire is a research student at the University of Ghana, Legon, seeking general information on the impacts of the oil and gas exploration and production on ecosystem services (fish stock, fish quality, water quality, soil quality and ecotourism and recreation) in coastline west of Cape Three Points. Therefore, whatever information you provide shall be treated with confidentiality and used only for academic purposes. Please tick [√] the correct option to the questions or spaces provided where necessary. Thank you. BACKROUND INFORMATION TOWN: ……………………………………………………………………… DATE: ………………………………………………………………………. (A).PERSONAL INFORMATION NAME: ……………………………………………… SEX: M [ ]/F [ ] AGE: ……... 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.0MARITAL STATUS: (a) Married [ ] (b) Single [ ] (c) Separated [ ] (d) divorced [ ] 2.0 EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION: (a) None [ ] (b) Primary [ ] (c) MSLC/JHS [ ] (d) SHS [ ] (e) Poly/University [ ] 3.0 OCCUPATION: (a) Farmer [ ] (b) Fishermen [ ] (c) Trader [ ] (d) Civil/Public Servant (e) Student [ ] (f) Self-employed [ ] (g) Others [ ] 4.0 HOW LONG HAVE YOU LIVED IN THIS LOCALITY? (a) Below 5 yrs. [ ] (b) 5 – 10 yrs. [ ] (c) above 10 yrs. [ ] 5.0 WHAT IS THE GENERAL OCCUPATION OF THE PEOPLE? (a) Farming [ ] (b) Fishing [ ] (c) Trading [ ] (d) Public Servants [ ](e) Others [ ] (B).OIL AND GAS ACTIVITIES AND QUALITY OF WATER AND SOIL 6.0 What is the main source of drinking water in your area? (a) Pipe – borne [ ] (b) River/Stream [ ] (c) well [ ] (d) Rainwater [ ] (e) Others 7.0 Is the source wholesome for human consumption? YES/NO 8.0 If No, what is the nature of the water source? (a) Poor taste [ ] (b) Bad smell [ ] (c) colour change [ ] (d) toxic [ ] (e) Others [ ] 9.0 What has affected the nature/quality of the water? (a) Oil residues [ ] (b) Soap residues [ ] (c) Mercury residues[ ] (d) Pesticides [ ] 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (e) Others [ ] 10.0 What maybe the source of the contaminant into the water? (a) Oil and Gas activities [ ] (b) Mining activities [ ] (c) Fishing activities [ ] (d) Farming [ ](e) Others [ ]. 11.0 What soil type do you have in your area? Is it productive? YES/NO 12.0 If No, what have you observed to be the cause? …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13.0 How do you rate the fertility status of soils of your area? (a) Very fertile [ ] (b) Fairly fertile [ ] (c) Not fertile [ ] (d) Others [ ] (C). TRENDS IN FISH CATCH / STOCK AND QUALITY 14.0 How would you rate fish catch in your area 10 yrs ago? (a) Very good [ ] (b) Good [ ] (c) Satisfactory [ ] (d) Poor 15.0 How would you rate fish catch in your area from 2014 to now? (a) Very good [ ] (b) Good [ ] (c) Satisfactory [ ] (d) Poor [ ] 16.0 What have you observed to be the factor behind the fish catch levels up until now? (a) Fishing methods [ ] (b) Oil and Gas activities [ ] (c) Climate change [ ] (d) Foreign vessels [ ] (e) Others [ ]. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17.0 Has there been experiences regarding mortality of fish and other marine organisms?YES/NO 18. If yes, what do you think is the cause of such experiences in your area? (a) Oil and gas activities [ ] (b) Fishing methods [ ] (c) Foreign vessels [ ] (d) Climate change [ ] (e) Others [ ] 19.Do you still enjoy the fish obtained from the sea and other water bodies by the fishermen?YES/NO 20. If No, what have you observed from the fish species made available by the fishermen? (a) Poor taste [ ] (b) colour change [ ] (c) Bad smell [ ] (d) Toxic [ ] (e) Others (D). OIL AND GAS IMPACT ON HUMAN WELL BEING/LIVELIHOOD AND ECOTOURISM /CULTURAL SERVICES. 21. What has been a major benefit derived from the oil and gas exploration and production in the area? (a) Scholarships [ ] (b) Social amenities [ ] (c) Employment [ ] (d) Urbanization [ ] 22. Is the sale of fish in your community or town still lucrative and to your expectation? YES/NO. What is the reason for your answer? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……… 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23. Has there been any form of compensation payments for properties to deserving community members? YES/NO If no, why has there not been payment of compensations? 24. Were the recipients satisfied with the levels of compensation issued? YES/NO Ifno,why? ……………………………………………………………………………… 25. Has the beaches/shoreline been a place for relaxation, recreation and tourism? YES/NO Ifno,why? …………………………………………………………………………………. 26. Do people still visit the beaches for relaxation, recreation, tourism and other activities? YES/NO Ifno,why? ………………………………………………………………………………… 27. Are people‟s expectation met upon visiting the beaches or shoreline? YES/NO Ifno,why ………………………………………………………………………………...... 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 2 Table APX 1: ANOVA TABLE Sum of Squares df Mean Square F P-value pH Between Groups 8.741 5 1.748 5.835 .003 Within Groups 4.494 15 .300 Total 13.236 20 Electrical Conductivity Between Groups 83510782.964 5 16702156.593 12.682 .000 Within Groups 19754462.274 15 1316964.152 Total 103265245.238 20 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Between Groups 30.316 5 6.063 10.252 .000 Within Groups 8.871 15 .591 Total 39.187 20 Dissolved Oxygen Between Groups 67.562 5 13.512 2.237 .104 Within Groups 90.623 15 6.042 Total 158.185 20 Salinity Between Groups 4504.469 5 900.894 11.745 .000 Within Groups 1150.528 15 76.702 Total 5654.997 20 Total Dissolved Solids Between Groups 29490067.238 5 5898013.448 12.884 .000 Within Groups 6866774.762 15 457784.984 Total 36356842.000 20 Turbidity Between Groups 647.749 5 129.550 3.590 .025 Within Groups 541.244 15 36.083 Total 1188.993 20 Lead Between Groups .000 5 .000 . . Within Groups .000 15 .000 Total .000 20 Cadmium Between Groups .000 5 .000 . . Within Groups .000 15 .000 Total .000 20 Nickel Between Groups 1.015 5 .203 4.372 .012 Within Groups .696 15 .046 Total 1.711 20 Chromium Between Groups .031 5 .006 .632 .679 Within Groups .147 15 .010 Total .178 20 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Iron Between Groups 18329.034 5 3665.807 1.026 .438 Within Groups 53619.095 15 3574.606 Total 71948.130 20 Table APX 2: A table showing analysis of variance on some soil quality parameters. ANOVA Sum of Mean P- Parameter Squares df Square F value pH Between 1.557 2 .778 19.329 0.002* Groups Within .242 6 .040 Groups Total 1.798 8 Conductivity Between 5967172.667 2 2983586.333 1343.017 0.000* Groups Within 13329.333 6 2221.556 Groups Total 5980502.000 8 Cation exchange Between 48.741 2 24.371 1283.420 0.000* capacity Groups Within .114 6 .019 Groups Total 48.855 8 organic carbon Between 1.177 2 .589 913.362 0.000* Groups Within .004 6 .001 Groups Total 1.181 8 . 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 3 Multiple Comparisons Bonferroni multiple test comparisons 95% Confidence Depende Mean Interval nt Difference P- Lower Upper Variable (I) Site (J) Site (I-J) Std. Error value Bound Bound * pH Borehol Sea water -1.57464 .34309 .004 -2.6893 -.4600 e Hand -dug -.72417 .41807 .533 -2.0825 .6341 well control -1.16750 .41807 .113 -2.5258 .1908 borehole Control sea * -1.96250 .47404 .009 -3.5027 -.4223 water Control * hand- dug -1.55750 .47404 .047 -3.0977 -.0173 well * Sea Borehole 1.57464 .34309 .004 .4600 2.6893 water Hand -dug .85048 .37773 .272 -.3767 2.0777 well control .40714 .37773 .883 -.8201 1.6344 borehole Control sea -.38786 .43888 .945 -1.8138 1.0380 water Control hand- dug .01714 .43888 1.000 -1.4088 1.4430 well Hand - Borehole .72417 .41807 .533 -.6341 2.0825 dug well Sea water -.85048 .37773 .272 -2.0777 .3767 control -.44333 .44693 .914 -1.8954 1.0087 borehole Control sea -1.23833 .49969 .192 -2.8618 .3851 water Control hand- dug -.83333 .49969 .571 -2.4568 .7901 well control Borehole 1.16750 .41807 .113 -.1908 2.5258 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh borehole Sea water -.40714 .37773 .883 -1.6344 .8201 Hand -dug .44333 .44693 .914 -1.0087 1.8954 well Control sea -.79500 .49969 .616 -2.4185 .8285 water Control hand- dug -.39000 .49969 .967 -2.0135 1.2335 well * Control Borehole 1.96250 .47404 .009 .4223 3.5027 sea Sea water .38786 .43888 .945 -1.0380 1.8138 water Hand -dug 1.23833 .49969 .192 -.3851 2.8618 well control .79500 .49969 .616 -.8285 2.4185 borehole Control hand- dug .40500 .54738 .973 -1.3734 2.1834 well * Control Borehole 1.55750 .47404 .047 .0173 3.0977 hand- Sea water -.01714 .43888 1.000 -1.4430 1.4088 dug well Hand -dug .83333 .49969 .571 -.7901 2.4568 well control .39000 .49969 .967 -1.2335 2.0135 borehole Control sea -.40500 .54738 .973 -2.1834 1.3734 water Electrical Borehol Sea water - - - * 719.29047 .000 Conducti e 4372.10714 6709.0590 2035.1553 vity Hand -dug - -376.25000 876.48679 .998 2471.4277 well 3223.9277 control - 113.41667 876.48679 1.000 2961.0943 borehole 2734.2610 Control sea - -2653.25000 993.84260 .140 575.7130 water 5882.2130 Control - hand- dug -103.25000 993.84260 1.000 3125.7130 3332.2130 well * Sea Borehole 4372.10714 719.29047 .000 2035.1553 6709.0590 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh water Hand -dug * 3995.85714 791.91274 .002 1422.9579 6568.7564 well control * 4485.52381 791.91274 .001 1912.6245 7058.4231 borehole Control sea - 1718.85714 920.11946 .456 4708.2960 water 1270.5817 Control * hand- dug 4268.85714 920.11946 .004 1279.4183 7258.2960 well Hand - Borehole - 376.25000 876.48679 .998 3223.9277 dug well 2471.4277 Sea water - - - * 791.91274 .002 3995.85714 6568.7564 1422.9579 control - 489.66667 937.00379 .994 3533.9621 borehole 2554.6288 Control sea - -2277.00000 1047.60208 .305 1126.6258 water 5680.6258 Control - hand- dug 273.00000 1047.60208 1.000 3676.6258 3130.6258 well control Borehole - -113.41667 876.48679 1.000 2734.2610 borehole 2961.0943 Sea water - - - * 791.91274 .001 4485.52381 7058.4231 1912.6245 Hand -dug - -489.66667 937.00379 .994 2554.6288 well 3533.9621 Control sea - -2766.66667 1047.60208 .147 636.9591 water 6170.2925 Control - hand- dug -216.66667 1047.60208 1.000 3186.9591 3620.2925 well Control Borehole 2653.25000 993.84260 .140 -575.7130 5882.2130 sea Sea water - -1718.85714 920.11946 .456 1270.5817 water 4708.2960 Hand -dug - 2277.00000 1047.60208 .305 5680.6258 well 1126.6258 control 2766.66667 1047.60208 .147 -636.9591 6170.2925 borehole 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Control - hand- dug 2550.00000 1147.59059 .284 6278.4853 1178.4853 well Control Borehole - 103.25000 993.84260 1.000 3332.2130 hand- 3125.7130 dug well Sea water - - - * 920.11946 .004 4268.85714 7258.2960 1279.4183 Hand -dug - -273.00000 1047.60208 1.000 3130.6258 well 3676.6258 control - 216.66667 1047.60208 1.000 3620.2925 borehole 3186.9591 Control sea - -2550.00000 1147.59059 .284 1178.4853 water 6278.4853 * Biochemi Borehol Sea water 1.76536 .48201 .023 .1993 3.3314 cal e Hand -dug * 1.93917 .58735 .045 .0309 3.8475 Oxygen well Demand control 1.52583 .58735 .158 -.3825 3.4341 borehole Control sea * 4.27750 .66600 .000 2.1137 6.4413 water Control * hand- dug 3.34750 .66600 .002 1.1837 5.5113 well * Sea Borehole -1.76536 .48201 .023 -3.3314 -.1993 water Hand -dug .17381 .53068 .999 -1.5504 1.8980 well control -.23952 .53068 .997 -1.9637 1.4846 borehole Control sea * 2.51214 .61659 .010 .5088 4.5154 water Control hand- dug 1.58214 .61659 .166 -.4212 3.5854 well * Hand - Borehole -1.93917 .58735 .045 -3.8475 -.0309 dug well Sea water -.17381 .53068 .999 -1.8980 1.5504 control -.41333 .62791 .984 -2.4534 1.6267 borehole Control sea * 2.33833 .70202 .043 .0575 4.6192 water 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Control hand- dug 1.40833 .70202 .383 -.8725 3.6892 well control Borehole -1.52583 .58735 .158 -3.4341 .3825 borehole Sea water .23952 .53068 .997 -1.4846 1.9637 Hand -dug .41333 .62791 .984 -1.6267 2.4534 well Control sea * 2.75167 .70202 .014 .4708 5.0325 water Control hand- dug 1.82167 .70202 .159 -.4592 4.1025 well * Control Borehole -4.27750 .66600 .000 -6.4413 -2.1137 sea *Sea water -2.51214 .61659 .010 -4.5154 -.5088 water Hand -dug * -2.33833 .70202 .043 -4.6192 -.0575 well control * -2.75167 .70202 .014 -5.0325 -.4708 borehole Control hand- dug -.93000 .76903 .826 -3.4285 1.5685 well * Control Borehole -3.34750 .66600 .002 -5.5113 -1.1837 hand- Sea water -1.58214 .61659 .166 -3.5854 .4212 dug well Hand -dug -1.40833 .70202 .383 -3.6892 .8725 well control -1.82167 .70202 .159 -4.1025 .4592 borehole Control sea .93000 .76903 .826 -1.5685 3.4285 water Dissolve Borehol Sea water 1.95543 1.54061 .796 -3.0499 6.9608 d Oxygen e Hand -dug 2.07733 1.87729 .871 -4.0219 8.1766 well control -3.04933 1.87729 .596 -9.1486 3.0499 borehole Control sea .34400 2.12865 1.000 -6.5719 7.2599 water Control hand- dug -1.31100 2.12865 .988 -8.2269 5.6049 well 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sea Borehole -1.95543 1.54061 .796 -6.9608 3.0499 water Hand -dug .12190 1.69615 1.000 -5.3888 5.6326 well control -5.00476 1.69615 .086 -10.5155 .5060 borehole Control sea -1.61143 1.97075 .960 -8.0143 4.7915 water Control hand- dug -3.26643 1.97075 .577 -9.6693 3.1365 well Hand - Borehole -2.07733 1.87729 .871 -8.1766 4.0219 dug well Sea water -.12190 1.69615 1.000 -5.6326 5.3888 control -5.12667 2.00691 .169 -11.6471 1.3937 borehole Control sea -1.73333 2.24380 .968 -9.0234 5.5567 water Control hand- dug -3.38833 2.24380 .664 -10.6784 3.9017 well control Borehole 3.04933 1.87729 .596 -3.0499 9.1486 borehole Sea water 5.00476 1.69615 .086 -.5060 10.5155 Hand -dug 5.12667 2.00691 .169 -1.3937 11.6471 well Control sea 3.39333 2.24380 .662 -3.8967 10.6834 water Control hand- dug 1.73833 2.24380 .968 -5.5517 9.0284 well Control Borehole -.34400 2.12865 1.000 -7.2599 6.5719 sea Sea water 1.61143 1.97075 .960 -4.7915 8.0143 water Hand -dug 1.73333 2.24380 .968 -5.5567 9.0234 well control -3.39333 2.24380 .662 -10.6834 3.8967 borehole Control hand- dug -1.65500 2.45796 .982 -9.6408 6.3308 well Control Borehole 1.31100 2.12865 .988 -5.6049 8.2269 hand- Sea water 3.26643 1.97075 .577 -3.1365 9.6693 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh dug well Hand -dug 3.38833 2.24380 .664 -3.9017 10.6784 well control -1.73833 2.24380 .968 -9.0284 5.5517 borehole Control sea 1.65500 2.45796 .982 -6.3308 9.6408 water * Salinity Borehol Sea water -29.82500 5.48934 .001 -47.6597 -11.9903 e Hand -dug -.22500 6.68900 1.000 -21.9574 21.5074 well control .06500 6.68900 1.000 -21.6674 21.7974 borehole Control sea * -29.12500 7.58462 .016 -53.7672 -4.4828 water Control hand- dug -.22500 7.58462 1.000 -24.8672 24.4172 well * Sea Borehole 29.82500 5.48934 .001 11.9903 47.6597 water Hand -dug * 29.60000 6.04357 .002 9.9646 49.2354 well control * 29.89000 6.04357 .002 10.2546 49.5254 borehole Control sea .70000 7.02199 1.000 -22.1142 23.5142 water Control * hand- dug 29.60000 7.02199 .008 6.7858 52.4142 well Hand - Borehole .22500 6.68900 1.000 -21.5074 21.9574 dug well *Sea water -29.60000 6.04357 .002 -49.2354 -9.9646 control .29000 7.15084 1.000 -22.9429 23.5229 borehole Control sea * -28.90000 7.99489 .025 -54.8751 -2.9249 water Control hand- dug .00000 7.99489 1.000 -25.9751 25.9751 well control Borehole -.06500 6.68900 1.000 -21.7974 21.6674 borehole *Sea water -29.89000 6.04357 .002 -49.5254 -10.2546 Hand -dug -.29000 7.15084 1.000 -23.5229 22.9429 well 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Control sea * -29.19000 7.99489 .024 -55.1651 -3.2149 water Control hand- dug -.29000 7.99489 1.000 -26.2651 25.6851 well * Control Borehole 29.12500 7.58462 .016 4.4828 53.7672 sea Sea water -.70000 7.02199 1.000 -23.5142 22.1142 water Hand -dug * 28.90000 7.99489 .025 2.9249 54.8751 well control * 29.19000 7.99489 .024 3.2149 55.1651 borehole Control * hand- dug 28.90000 8.75796 .046 .4457 57.3543 well Control Borehole .22500 7.58462 1.000 -24.4172 24.8672 hand- *Sea water -29.60000 7.02199 .008 -52.4142 -6.7858 dug well Hand -dug .00000 7.99489 1.000 -25.9751 25.9751 well control .29000 7.99489 1.000 -25.6851 26.2651 borehole Control sea * -28.90000 8.75796 .046 -57.3543 -.4457 water Total Borehol Sea water - - - * 424.08030 .000 Dissolve e 2605.71429 3983.5377 1227.8909 d Solids Hand -dug - -238.66667 516.76033 .997 1440.2712 well 1917.6045 control - 93.33333 516.76033 1.000 1772.2712 borehole 1585.6045 Control sea - -1279.00000 585.95114 .301 624.7366 water 3182.7366 Control - hand- dug -9.00000 585.95114 1.000 1894.7366 1912.7366 well * Sea Borehole 2605.71429 424.08030 .000 1227.8909 3983.5377 water Hand -dug * 2367.04762 466.89704 .002 850.1140 3883.9812 well control * 2699.04762 466.89704 .000 1182.1140 4215.9812 borehole 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Control sea 1326.71429 542.48534 .202 -435.8033 3089.2319 water Control * hand- dug 2596.71429 542.48534 .003 834.1967 4359.2319 well Hand - Borehole - 238.66667 516.76033 .997 1917.6045 dug well 1440.2712 Sea water - - * 466.89704 .002 -850.1140 2367.04762 3883.9812 control - 332.00000 552.44003 .989 2126.8601 borehole 1462.8601 Control sea - -1040.33333 617.64673 .561 966.3812 water 3047.0479 Control - hand- dug 229.66667 617.64673 .999 2236.3812 1777.0479 well control Borehole - -93.33333 516.76033 1.000 1585.6045 borehole 1772.2712 Sea water - - - * 466.89704 .000 2699.04762 4215.9812 1182.1140 Hand -dug - -332.00000 552.44003 .989 1462.8601 well 2126.8601 Control sea - -1372.33333 617.64673 .284 634.3812 water 3379.0479 Control - hand- dug -102.33333 617.64673 1.000 1904.3812 2109.0479 well Control Borehole 1279.00000 585.95114 .301 -624.7366 3182.7366 sea Sea water - -1326.71429 542.48534 .202 435.8033 water 3089.2319 Hand -dug 1040.33333 617.64673 .561 -966.3812 3047.0479 well control 1372.33333 617.64673 .284 -634.3812 3379.0479 borehole Control hand- dug 1270.00000 676.59810 .451 -928.2457 3468.2457 well Control Borehole - 9.00000 585.95114 1.000 1912.7366 hand- 1894.7366 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh dug well Sea water - - * 542.48534 .003 -834.1967 2596.71429 4359.2319 Hand -dug - -229.66667 617.64673 .999 1777.0479 well 2236.3812 control - 102.33333 617.64673 1.000 2109.0479 borehole 1904.3812 Control sea - -1270.00000 676.59810 .451 928.2457 water 3468.2457 Turbidity Borehol Sea water -11.45786 3.76503 .073 -23.6903 .7746 e Hand -dug -.22167 4.58785 1.000 -15.1275 14.6841 well control .44833 4.58785 1.000 -14.4575 15.3541 borehole Control sea -9.57500 5.20214 .471 -26.4766 7.3266 water Control hand- dug .42500 5.20214 1.000 -16.4766 17.3266 well Sea Borehole 11.45786 3.76503 .073 -.7746 23.6903 water Hand -dug 11.23619 4.14516 .131 -2.2313 24.7037 well control 11.90619 4.14516 .099 -1.5613 25.3737 borehole Control sea 1.88286 4.81624 .999 -13.7650 17.5307 water Control hand- dug 11.88286 4.81624 .195 -3.7650 27.5307 well Hand - Borehole .22167 4.58785 1.000 -14.6841 15.1275 dug well Sea water -11.23619 4.14516 .131 -24.7037 2.2313 control .67000 4.90462 1.000 -15.2650 16.6050 borehole Control sea -9.35333 5.48353 .548 -27.1692 8.4625 water Control hand- dug .64667 5.48353 1.000 -17.1692 18.4625 well control Borehole -.44833 4.58785 1.000 -15.3541 14.4575 borehole Sea water -11.90619 4.14516 .099 -25.3737 1.5613 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hand -dug -.67000 4.90462 1.000 -16.6050 15.2650 well Control sea -10.02333 5.48353 .478 -27.8392 7.7925 water Control hand- dug -.02333 5.48353 1.000 -17.8392 17.7925 well Control Borehole 9.57500 5.20214 .471 -7.3266 26.4766 sea Sea water -1.88286 4.81624 .999 -17.5307 13.7650 water Hand -dug 9.35333 5.48353 .548 -8.4625 27.1692 well ontrol 10.02333 5.48353 .478 -7.7925 27.8392 borehole Control hand- dug 10.00000 6.00691 .572 -9.5163 29.5163 well Control Borehole -.42500 5.20214 1.000 -17.3266 16.4766 hand- Sea water -11.88286 4.81624 .195 -27.5307 3.7650 dug well Hand -dug -.64667 5.48353 1.000 -18.4625 17.1692 well ontrol .02333 5.48353 1.000 -17.7925 17.8392 borehole Control sea -10.00000 6.00691 .572 -29.5163 9.5163 water Nickel Borehol Sea water -.253000 .135052 .453 -.69178 .18578 e Hand -dug .080000 .164567 .996 -.45467 .61467 well ontrol .315000 .164567 .431 -.21967 .84967 borehole Control sea .220500 .186601 .839 -.38576 .82676 water Control hand- dug .284000 .186601 .657 -.32226 .89026 well Sea Borehole .253000 .135052 .453 -.18578 .69178 water Hand -dug .333000 .148687 .277 -.15008 .81608 well ontrol * .568000 .148687 .017 .08492 1.05108 borehole 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Control sea .473500 .172759 .124 -.08779 1.03479 water Control hand- dug .537000 .172759 .065 -.02429 1.09829 well Hand - Borehole -.080000 .164567 .996 -.61467 .45467 dug well Sea water -.333000 .148687 .277 -.81608 .15008 control .235000 .175929 .762 -.33659 .80659 borehole Control sea .140500 .196695 .977 -.49856 .77956 water Control hand- dug .204000 .196695 .898 -.43506 .84306 well control Borehole -.315000 .164567 .431 -.84967 .21967 borehole *Sea water -.568000 .148687 .017 -1.05108 -.08492 Hand -dug -.235000 .175929 .762 -.80659 .33659 well Control sea -.094500 .196695 .996 -.73356 .54456 water Control hand- dug -.031000 .196695 1.000 -.67006 .60806 well Control Borehole -.220500 .186601 .839 -.82676 .38576 sea Sea water -.473500 .172759 .124 -1.03479 .08779 water Hand -dug -.140500 .196695 .977 -.77956 .49856 well ontrol .094500 .196695 .996 -.54456 .73356 borehole Control hand- dug .063500 .215469 1.000 -.63655 .76355 well Control Borehole -.284000 .186601 .657 -.89026 .32226 hand- Sea water -.537000 .172759 .065 -1.09829 .02429 dug well Hand -dug -.204000 .196695 .898 -.84306 .43506 well ontrol .031000 .196695 1.000 -.60806 .67006 borehole 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Control sea -.063500 .215469 1.000 -.76355 .63655 water Chromiu Borehol Sea water .049786 .062101 .963 -.15198 .25155 m e Hand -dug .024833 .075673 .999 -.22103 .27069 well ontrol .069167 .075673 .937 -.17669 .31503 borehole Control sea .120000 .085805 .727 -.15878 .39878 water Control hand- dug .114500 .085805 .763 -.16428 .39328 well Sea Borehole -.049786 .062101 .963 -.25155 .15198 water Hand -dug -.024952 .068371 .999 -.24709 .19718 well ontrol .019381 .068371 1.000 -.20275 .24152 borehole Control sea .070214 .079440 .945 -.18788 .32831 water Control hand- dug .064714 .079440 .960 -.19338 .32281 well Hand - Borehole -.024833 .075673 .999 -.27069 .22103 dug well Sea water .024952 .068371 .999 -.19718 .24709 control .044333 .080898 .993 -.21850 .30717 borehole Control sea .095167 .090447 .892 -.19869 .38902 water Control hand- dug .089667 .090447 .914 -.20419 .38352 well control Borehole -.069167 .075673 .937 -.31503 .17669 borehole Sea water -.019381 .068371 1.000 -.24152 .20275 Hand -dug -.044333 .080898 .993 -.30717 .21850 well Control sea .050833 .090447 .992 -.24302 .34469 water 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Control hand- dug .045333 .090447 .995 -.24852 .33919 well Control Borehole -.120000 .085805 .727 -.39878 .15878 sea Sea water -.070214 .079440 .945 -.32831 .18788 water Hand -dug -.095167 .090447 .892 -.38902 .19869 well ontrol -.050833 .090447 .992 -.34469 .24302 borehole Control hand- dug -.005500 .099079 1.000 -.32741 .31641 well Control Borehole -.114500 .085805 .763 -.39328 .16428 hand- Sea water -.064714 .079440 .960 -.32281 .19338 dug well Hand -dug -.089667 .090447 .914 -.38352 .20419 well ontrol -.045333 .090447 .995 -.33919 .24852 borehole Control sea .005500 .099079 1.000 -.31641 .32741 water Iron Borehol Sea water - -64.148500 37.474120 .545 57.60372 e 185.90072 Hand -dug - -.381833 45.663848 1.000 147.97856 well 148.74222 ontrol - .149833 45.663848 1.000 148.51022 borehole 148.21056 Control sea - -33.277500 51.777937 .986 134.94737 water 201.50237 Control - hand- dug .017000 51.777937 1.000 168.24187 168.20787 well Sea Borehole 64.148500 37.474120 .545 -57.60372 185.90072 water Hand -dug 63.766667 41.257648 .643 -70.27812 197.81145 well ontrol 64.298333 41.257648 .635 -69.74645 198.34312 borehole Control sea - 30.871000 47.937055 .985 186.61696 water 124.87496 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Control hand- dug 64.165500 47.937055 .760 -91.58046 219.91146 well Hand - Borehole - .381833 45.663848 1.000 148.74222 dug well 147.97856 Sea water - -63.766667 41.257648 .643 70.27812 197.81145 ontrol - .531667 48.816707 1.000 159.13559 borehole 158.07226 Control sea - -32.895667 54.578738 .989 144.42891 water 210.22025 Control - hand- dug .398833 54.578738 1.000 177.72341 176.92575 well ontrol Borehole - -.149833 45.663848 1.000 148.21056 borehole 148.51022 Sea water - -64.298333 41.257648 .635 69.74645 198.34312 Hand -dug - -.531667 48.816707 1.000 158.07226 well 159.13559 Control sea - -33.427333 54.578738 .988 143.89725 water 210.75191 Control - hand- dug -.132833 54.578738 1.000 177.19175 177.45741 well Control Borehole - 33.277500 51.777937 .986 201.50237 sea 134.94737 water Sea water - -30.871000 47.937055 .985 124.87496 186.61696 Hand -dug - 32.895667 54.578738 .989 210.22025 well 144.42891 ontrol - 33.427333 54.578738 .988 210.75191 borehole 143.89725 Control - hand- dug 33.294500 59.788012 .992 227.54385 160.95485 well Control Borehole - -.017000 51.777937 1.000 168.20787 hand- 168.24187 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh dug well Sea water - -64.165500 47.937055 .760 91.58046 219.91146 Hand -dug - -.398833 54.578738 1.000 176.92575 well 177.72341 ontrol - .132833 54.578738 1.000 177.45741 borehole 177.19175 Control sea - -33.294500 59.788012 .992 160.95485 water 227.54385 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. 117