University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES GOVERNMENT RESPONSE TO GENDER INEQUALITY IN GHANA’S FOURTH REPUBLIC (2001-2016) BY EUNICE OWUSU-MENSAH (10048441) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN POLITICAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE JULY, 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, solemnly declare that apart from documentary and other sources of material cited and duly acknowledged in this work, I am solely responsible for the authorship, errors and omissions that might appear in this work, despite the advice and suggestions I have received from my supervisors. I also declare that this work has never been submitted by me or any other person to the University of Ghana, Legon or to any other University for the award of any degree. ………………………………….. EUNICE OWUSU-MENSAH (STUDENT) SUPERVISORS …………………………….. DR MAAME GYEKYE JANDOH …………………………… (PRO RANSFORD EDWARD VAN GYAMPO) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this to my lovely family for the wonderful and immense support throughout this time in my life. God bless you Kwaku, Nana Kwasi, Kofi, Awurama, Gloria, Prince my children, Dr. Isaac Owusu-Mensah my loving and supportive husband. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The task of undertaking this research work has been quite immense and very demanding, especially pursuing work on government response to gender inequality in Ghana‟s fourth republic. To all those who‟s extensive support has helped to the completion of this work, I wish to acknowledge you for your support. I thank God for the favor he has shown me throughout the years. Second, to my supervisor, Dr Maame Gyekye Jandoh and Prof. Ransford Edward Van Gyampo , I express my deepest gratitude for the able sand tolerant manner they supervised me, their establishment of a relationship beyond expectation . I am really indebted to all those who gave me the technical support needed; the Director and staff of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, members of Parliament, the staff of WiLDAF, Mr Kaakyire Frempong and madam Gloria Ofori. To my family, Isaac, Kwaku, Nana, Kofi, Awurama, Gloria and Prince. I appreciate the support both tangible and intangible you expressed in your understanding, and prayer in the challenging times I went through. God Bless You all iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women = CEDAW Domestic Violence Victims Services Unit = DOVVSU East African Community = EAC Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy = EDPRS Female Genital Cutting or Mutilation = FGC Federal Glass Ceiling Commission = FGCC Forum for African Women Educationalists = FAWE Government of Ghana = GOG International Federation of Women Lawyers = FIDA Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty = LEAP Leadership and Advocacy for Women in Africa = LAWA Millennium Development Goals = MDGs Ministry of Women and Children‟s Affairs = MOWAC Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection = MoGCSP National Gender and Children‟s Policy = NGCP National Council of Women = NCW New Partnership for Africa‟s Development = NEPAD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development = EOCD Platform for Action = PFA Southern African Development Community = SADC Sustainable Development Goals = SDG iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Unified Growth Theory = UGT United Kingdom = UK United Nations = UN United State of America = USA Women In Development = WID v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... x ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. xi CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ..................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................................ 7 1.4 Research Questions .............................................................................................................. 8 1.5 Conceptualization of the Study ............................................................................................ 9 1.6 Government Response to Gender Inequality Issues in Ghana ........................................... 10 1.7 Intervention Theory ........................................................................................................... 14 1.8 Significance of the study .................................................................................................... 15 1.9 Scope of the Study ............................................................................................................. 16 1.10 Study Organization .......................................................................................................... 16 1.12 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 18 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 18 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 18 2.2 Theoretical Review ............................................................................................................ 18 2.3 Definition of Concepts: Gender Inequality and Gender Equality ...................................... 24 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.1 Historical Synopsis of Gender Equality .......................................................................... 25 2.4 Government Response to Gender Inequality Issues in Africa: Rwanda ............................ 29 2.5 Socio-Political Status of Women in Ghana ....................................................................... 31 2.6 Identity and Self-Perpetuating Subordination .................................................................... 32 2.7 Statistical discrimination .................................................................................................... 34 2.8 Domestic Responsibilities .................................................................................................. 35 2.9 Traditional institutions and globalization .......................................................................... 36 2.10 Other Socio-Economic and Political Challenges of Women in Ghana ........................... 37 2.10 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 38 CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 40 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 40 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 40 3.2 Research Approach ............................................................................................................ 40 3.3 Research Design................................................................................................................. 41 3.4 Population .......................................................................................................................... 42 3.5 Sample Size ........................................................................................................................ 42 3.6 Sampling Technique .......................................................................................................... 43 3.7 Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 44 3.8 Sources of Data .................................................................................................................. 44 3.8.1 Primary Data ................................................................................................................... 44 3.8.2 Secondary Data ............................................................................................................... 44 3.9 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 45 3.10 Ethical Consideration ....................................................................................................... 45 3.11 Limitations of the study ................................................................................................... 46 3.12 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 47 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 48 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................... 48 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 48 4.2 Demographic Variables ..................................................................................................... 48 4.3 Awareness of Gender Inequality Concept ......................................................................... 51 4.4 ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA ......................................................................... 70 4.4.1 Interpretation of Interviewees Data .......................................................................................... 71 4.5 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND FINDINGS .............................................................. 80 4.5.1 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSE .............................................................................................. 82 4.5.2 POLICY RESPONE ................................................................................................................ 83 4.5.3 PRACTICAL RESPONS ......................................................................................................... 84 4.5.3.1 Addressing Domestic Violence by the Ghana Government and the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection ............................................................................... 85 4.5.3.2 Affirmative Actions.................................................................................................. 86 4.5.4 Constraining Factors ................................................................................................... 88 4.5.4.1 FINANCIAL RESPONSE ....................................................................................... 89 4.5.4.1a Budgetary Allocation to the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection 89 CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 94 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, THEORETICAL...................................................................... 94 IMPLICATION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................ 94 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 94 5.2 Summary of Findings ......................................................................................................... 94 5.3 Theoretical Implication ...................................................................................................... 96 5.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 97 5.5 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 100 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 103 APPENDIX ONE (1) ............................................................................................................. 113 APPENDIX TWO (2) ............................................................................................................ 115 APPENDIX THREE (3) ........................................................................................................ 117 APPENDIX FOUR (4) .......................................................................................................... 120 APPENDIX FIVE (5) ............................................................................................................ 126 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Summary Statistics of Background Characteristics (demographic information) of Parliamentarians ....................................................................................................................... 49 Table 4.2: Table showing participants‟ view on government commitment to bridge gender inequality.................................................................................................................................. 55 Table 4.3: Table showing ways in which gender policies have impacted females in society . 61 Table 4.4: Table showing Ministry‟s efforts in addressing gender issues ............................... 61 Table 4.5: Table showing participants‟ views on achievement of the Ministry ...................... 62 Table 4.6: Table showing participants‟ views on whether the Ministry can do more to ensure promotion of gender equality in the country ............................................................................ 63 Table 4.7: Table showing participants‟ views on what can be done to enhance gender equality issues ........................................................................................................................................ 64 Table 4.8: Table showing participants‟ views on Ministry and Government quest to promote gender equality ......................................................................................................................... 65 Table 4.9: Table showing factors that hinder gender equality issues in the country ............... 66 Table 4.10: Table showing institutions‟ inability to implement women empowerment programs .................................................................................................................................. 67 Table 4.11: Table showing inadequate budgetary allocation as a factor hindering gender equality issues in the country ................................................................................................... 67 Table 4.12: Table showing participants views on the exclusion of the Ministry from cabinet68 Table 4.13: Table showing participants‟ views on institutions to address gender gap ............ 68 Table 4.14: Table showing participants‟ views on the future of the nation regarding gender issues ........................................................................................................................................ 69 Table 4.15: Table showing participants‟ views on ways to improve gender issues ................ 70 Table 4.16: Table identifying the interviewees of the study .................................................... 71 Table 4.17: BUDGETARY ALLOCATION TO THE MINISTRY OF GENDER, CHILDREN AND SOCIAL PROTECTION .......................................................................... 92 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Fig 4.1: Bar chart showing participants‟ awareness of the concept of gender inequality ....... 52 Fig 4.2: Pie chart showing participants‟ level of knowledge on the concept of gender inequality.................................................................................................................................. 53 Fig 4.3: Bar chart showing medium through which participants learnt about gender inequality.................................................................................................................................. 54 Figure 4.4: Pie chart showing participants‟ personal commitment to gender equality ............ 56 Figure 4.5: Bar chart showing participants‟ views on government effort to ensure gender equality ..................................................................................................................................... 57 Figure 4.6: Pie chart showing participants‟ awareness of government policies ...................... 58 Figure 4.7: Bar chart showing participants‟ views on government policies to ensure gender equality ..................................................................................................................................... 59 Figure 4.8: Bar chart showing participants‟ views on the effectiveness of government policies .................................................................................................................................................. 60 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The study sought to investigate government responses to gender inequality in Ghana‟s Fourth Republic from 2001-2016 using the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs/Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection as a case for the study. It further examined how government has responded to gender issues in the Fourth Republic with specific reference from 2001-2016 and subsequently assessed gender policy measures Governments have put in place to address gender inequality issues from 2001-2016. The study went on to examine the extent to which Governments have implemented gender policies with the formation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs from 2001-2016 and further evaluated the work of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection from 2013-2016 in addressing gender inequality. The mixed method methodology with the use of a semi-structured questionnaire and an interview guide were employed to collect the participants‟ data for. Fifty-one (51) members of parliament were sampled for the quantitative data whilst interviewees from academia, civil society groups and the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection were also sampled for the qualitative data. At the end of the study, it was found out that government of the Fourth Republic has responded positively from 2001-2016 as far as gender issues in the country are concerned. The study further established that each and every government has structured some gender policy measures to address gender inequality issues from 2001-2016. Moreover, it was found out that government has done remarkably well in implementing some of the policies and measures after the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs from 2001-2016. On the evaluation of the work of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection from 2013-2016 in addressing gender inequality issues, the study found out that the Ministry has xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh done a lot in addressing gender issues in the country during the years under review. On the constraining factors that hinder gender equality issues in the country, the study found a number of constraining factors that hinder the quest to promote and ensure gender equality in the country but the two outstanding ones are cultural practices and inadequate budgetary allocations resulting in financial challenges. The study finally made some suggestion to government, the Ministry and all stakeholders in gender issues on the best way that will help in addressing and achieving the goal of gender equality that has eluded the nation for so many years now. xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Gender inequality continues to be one of the topical issues that have plagued nations and societies across the African continent for years now. The different responsibilities of men and women in various communities, the social structure and strict adherence to customs and traditions in patriarchal African societies have made the fight against gender inequality and the call for women empowerment very difficult, to say the least (Tsikata&Seini, 2004). In spite of all these cultural and societal barriers to gender equality issues on the continent, some African countries like Rwanda have done the unthinkable by overtaking most developed countries like the United States and United th Kingdom on gender inequality (Kelly, 2009). Rwanda, ranks sixth (6 ) on the Global Gender Report which was released in 2015 being beaten only by countries like Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden and Ireland (World Economic Forum, 2015). This remarkable feat by Rwanda, a country that was recently torn apart by genocide has become a wake-up call to other African countries to step up their efforts in their quest to ensure gender equality. While sex is a biological construct that defines if a person is a male or a female, gender, like race or ethnicity, has been construed by society to define and separate the different responsibilities of both in every given society. The main biological difference between both genders in society mostly further defines their various roles (Carol, 2003). The term gender, thus, is used to analyze the roles, opportunities, constraints and responsibilities of both men and women. Nonetheless, it is no secret 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that in most societies in the developing as well as the under-developed world, boys and men are given more access to opportunities, capabilities and resources that help enhance their lives as compared to their female counterparts. These hindrances that curtails the full economic as well as social development of the female have led to the call for affirmative action that will be aimed at empowering the female to overcome these stereotypical difficulties in realizing their full potentials (EAC, 2009). Gender equality, the equality between females and males encompasses the roles and responsibilities that guide various societies (Odame, 2010). Gender equality entails the different behaviors, attitudes, goals, aspirations and needs of both males and females considered and valued equally. It does not necessarily call for both males and females to be the same, rather their opportunities, rights and responsibilities shouldn‟t depend on their sex. In that regard, numerous scholars as well as stakeholders in gender issues have tried to define what entails gender equality/inequality. According to Sen (2001), gender inequality is “not one homogenous phenomenon, but a collection of disparate and interlinked problems” (pp.22). Sen (2001) considers some of the gender inequality issues as unequal access to schooling for girls, unequal access to professional training for females, unequal salary or income between males and females for the same work done as well as others. Ghana, like other nations across the globe has treated the issue of gender equality with all the seriousness it deserves. This is evident from the fact that right after independence in 1957 and upon attaining Republic status, the National Council of Women was formed by the then president, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah. This Council was tasked with the creation of nursery schools, vocational training centers and 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh educational programs for women. In terms of leadership, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah reserved „special‟ seats for women in the parliament, so that the first parliament of the Republic of Ghana saw ten (10) women taking seats in the house (Tsikata, 2009). Other forms of affirmative action such as, putting an end to forms of pay discrimination, the introduction of maternity leave which comes with pay and the creation of employment opportunities for women are some of the ways that issues concerning gender equality had been dealt with. On institutional framework, the National Council on Women and Development (NCWD) was created in 1975 in response to the United Nations‟ call on member countries to create institutions to understand the problems of women, initiate programs to promote the emancipation of women and to monitor progress of such programmes (Tsikata, 2009). The National Council on Women and Development (NCWD) became the main institution that was mandated to deal with issues concerning gender and gender inequality. The National Council on Women and Development (NCWD) gave way to the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children‟s Affairs (MOWAC) in February 2001 and given legal backing by Executive Instrument (EI18). This resulted in the then National Council of Women and Development (NCWD) becoming Department of Women and Children Affairs (Tsikata, 2009). The Ministry‟s mandate comprises of creation of policies, making plans and coordinating affairs. Also the significance of the Parliamentary Select- Committee on Women and Children and the Parliamentary Caucus on Gender is really needed. Again, the establishment of the Domestic Violence Service Unit (DOVVSU) within the Ghana Police Service to protect women and children against domestic violence are also some of the institutional measures to ensure that gender issues are tackled with the seriousness they deserve. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh th On legislation, the 4 Republican Constitution of Ghana clearly and explicitly abolishes any discrimination based on ones gender. In that regard, the fifth chapter of the Constitution has been dedicated to outline and describe the Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms of the citizens of the country irrespective of their origin and gender. To be precise, Article 12 sub-section 2, Article 22 (property rights of spouses) and Article 27 sections 1-3 (women‟s rights) touches specifically on gender empowerment in the country. The Constitution also touches on the protection of other rights such as; the right to life, respect for human dignity, equality and freedom from discrimination, economic rights and the rights of disabled persons. More so, law has been implemented to cater for shortfalls in the Criminal Code of 1960, Act 29 in connection to a couple of the bad and negative cultural practices such as wicked widowhood rites, Trokosi (ritual servitude) and Female Genital Cutting or Mutilation (FGC/M). Again, a much debated and anticipated Domestic Violence Act, was also finally approved by Parliament in May 2007. The National Gender and Children‟s Policy (2004) which also aims at mainstreaming gender issues into the whole national development framework in order to aid, improve and enhance the social, legal/civic, political, economic and cultural conditions of the people of Ghana, particularly women and children has also been implemented by the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection. Despite all affirmative action, institutional and legal frameworks that were creates to cater for gender inequality and empower women, Ghana continues to perform poorly on all international gender indicators relating to gender equality. Whilst Rwanda rank th rd sixth (6 ) on the Global Gender Report, Ghana rank sixty third (63 ) (World Economic Forum, 2015), which is very bad for the country considering the various 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh institutions and legislations that have been dedicated to ensure gender equality. It is therefore imperative that a holistic study be conducted to find out the factors that are militating against gender inequality in spite of the institutional and legislative institutions dedicated towards this goal and what can be done to remedy the situation. 1.2 Problem Statement Gender inequality is a major hurdle confronting a large number of countries, and Ghana is no exception. Even though a lot has been done by the country during and after independence to reduce gender inequality through the establishment of institutions and promulgations of legislation, the goal of achieving gender equality continues to elude the country‟s leadership (Tsikata, 2009). Whilst African countries like Rwanda continue to get universal acclamation as far as gender inequality is concerned, Ghana, despite its efforts to control gender inequality, is yet to be recognized for this. Moreover, Ghana, being the first country in Sub-Saharan Africa to gain independence, took steps to reduce gender inequality and empower women. In that regard, the National Council of Women was established in 1960 and this institution was to ensure gender equality and empower women. In 2001, the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs (MOWAC) was also established to deal mainly with issues concerning women. In 2013, the name of the Ministry was again changed to the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection with an oversight responsibility of reducing gender inequality and empowerment of women. Legislation and gender policies have been passed and implemented to deal with all forms of gender inequality. One remarkable legislation that was passed in relation to 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh this was the Domestic Violence Act which was passed in 2007. All these efforts have been aimed at ensuring gender equality and empowering women but this goal continues to elude Ghana. It continues to perform very poorly on the Global Gender Report and issues of gender violence and discrimination fill our airwaves occasionally. Regarding political leadership, gender equality is also not manifested. According to Ghana„s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Report published in 2013, in the Judiciary, only 29% of the Supreme Court Judges and 25% of High Court Judges are women. In the Civil Service, 24% of Chief Directors are women. Further, at the local government level, only 14 of the 170 Municipal Chief Executives (MCEs) and District Chief Executives (DCEs), representing 8.2% are women. In Parliament (2013), the proportion of women is 10.9% as against 22.3% average for the Sub- Saharan region (National Gender Policy 2015). th It must also be realized that the percentage of women cabinet Ministers in the 4 Republic has not been encouraging. According to available data, the National Democratic Congress (NDC) under Former President Jerry John Rawlings had only 3 women cabinet Ministers out of 19 cabinet Ministers which represented a paltry 15.8%. The New Patriotic Party (NPP) government under Former President John Agyekum Kufour also had 3 women cabinet Ministers out of 19 cabinet Ministers which also represented 15.8%. The National Democratic Congress (NDC) regime under Former President, the Late John Evans Atta Mills also had 3 women cabinet Ministers out of 19 cabinet Ministers which again represented 15.8%. The same National Democratic Congress (NDC) regime under Former President John Dramani Mahama had 6 women cabinet Ministers out of 19 cabinet Ministers representing 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31.6% and the current New Patriotic Party (NPP) government under President Nana Addo Dankwah Akuffo-Addo has 4 women cabinet Ministers out of 19 cabinet Ministers representing 21.1% (Field Report, Political Science Department, University of Ghana, 2017). This shows how equal gender representation has eluded various governments that have governed this nation during the Fourth Republic. Adequate consideration of who gets what, when and how is therefore crucial to the attainment of gender equality in Ghana. It is against this backdrop that the research seeks to investigate the extent to which the Government of Ghana (GOG) has addressed gender inequality in Ghana‟s Fourth Republic from 2001-2016 through the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection. This study therefore looked at the various factors that continue to hinder the nation in respect to gender inequality in the face of all the efforts made so far. It will also suggest remedies on what can be done to ensure there‟s gender equality in the country. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The main aim of the study is to investigate government response to gender inequality in Ghana‟s Fourth Republic from 2001-2016 using the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection as a case study. In view of that, the specific aims of the study were; 1. Identify how government has responded to gender inequality in the Fourth Republic with specific reference from 2001-2016. 2. Assess gender policy measures governments have put in place to address gender inequality from 2001-2016. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. Examine the extent to which governments have implemented gender policies with the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs from 2001- 2012. 4. Evaluate the work of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection from 2013-2016 in addressing gender inequality. 5. Examine the factors hindering gender inequality in Ghana. 6. Suggest recommendations for attaining gender equality in Ghana. 1.4 Research Questions The study sought to answer the following questions: 1. What has been Ghanaian governments‟ response to gender inequality in the Fourth Republic with specific reference to 2001-2016? 2. What have been the policy measures put in place by the government to address gender inequality from 2001-2016? 3. To what extent have these policies been implemented since the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs from 2001-2012? 4. How is the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection addressing gender inequality differently from the Ministry of Women and Children‟s Affairs? 5. What are the factors hindering gender inequality in Ghana? 6. What measures can be put in place to improve gender equality in Ghana? 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Conceptualization of the Study The Government of Ghana since independence in 1957 has done a lot to ensure women‟s empowerment and reduce gender inequality in the country. The efforts of previous governments in ensuring gender equality and women empowerment have been multi-faceted and all these have been geared towards responding to the calls to ensure gender equality in the country. Government response in this context is defined as the actions taken by government in the quest to address gender inequality in the country. According to Tsikata and Seini (2004), government response to gender inequality has taken various forms and ways. Government response can be seen in the signing of both international and regional treaties and in the passing of legislation to promote gender equality and reduce or completely eradicate any form of institutionalized gender discrimination. A number of governments across the globe have responded to gender inequality in various ways (Giridhar, 2012). According to Giridhar (2012), whilst most developed countries in the world have legislation put in place to promote gender inequality, only few countries in the developing world have enacted such policies. More so, according to Adomako (2008), most sub-Saharan African countries face many challenges with the enactment of legislations that could ensure that the governments in these countries respond to gender inequality. This is because there are cultural as well as social barriers to these laws. In spite of all the cultural and social barriers that hindered government response to gender inequality on the African continent, by 2013, twenty-one governments on the continent had responded to gender inequality issues by passing laws to ensure gender equality and empowerment (Giridhar, 2012; Ortiz-Barreda&Vives-Cases, 2013). 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Government Response to Gender Inequality Issues in Ghana The Government of Ghana has done a lot to ensure the reduction in gender inequality in the country. In this regard, various governments made a lot of efforts in promoting gender equality in the country. Some of these efforts have ranged from signing on to International treaties and ratification of these treaties. On the signing of international treaties, Ghana signed on to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1980 and it was again ratified by the nation in 1986 without reservation (CEDAW Concluding Observations: Ghana, 2006; Tsikata, 2009). Also, in 1995, the Government of Ghana in line with 188 other countries, signed and adopted the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (PfA), which identified inequality between women and men in the sharing of power and decision making at all levels of government (Tsikata, 2009). The Beijing Conference among other things called for ensuring gender equality and women empowerment by all signatory states (Tinker, 2004). More so, Ghana again signed onto the Millennium Development Goals in 2000 where Goal 3 specifically talks about gender equality and women‟s empowerment in all spheres of life. Ghana‟s signing on to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) showed the nation's commitment to tackle gender issues with all the seriousness it deserves (Tsikata, 2009). Ghana is also a signatory to the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa also known as the Women's Protocol (Tsikata, 2009). Ghana‟s signing on to all these international treaties and declarations and also ratifying most of them is an indication of the nation's commitment to ensure gender equality in every section of the nation and to give women a prominent voice in 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh governance and leadership. It is worthy to note that previous governments of Ghana did not end these efforts with only the signing of treaties but complemented these with the establishment of institutional frameworks and institutions to ensure the attainment of gender equality goals. In this regard, the government enacted a National Gender and Children‟s Policy in 2004 spearheaded by the Ministry of Women and Children‟s Affairs. The goal is to mainstream gender concerns in the national development process in order to improve the social, legal/civic, political, economic and cultural conditions of the people of Ghana, particularly women and children (Tsikata, 2009). Again, in order to demonstrate the nation's commitment to promoting gender equality, cabinet in 1998 issued a White Paper on an affirmative action policy which established a 40 percent quota for women‟s representation on all government boards, commissions, committees and other official bodies (Tsikata, 2009). Even though this is yet to fully materialize, it all points to government commitment to gender equality in the country. The policies and goals meant to reducing gender inequality and empowering women in the country can never be attained if there are no strong institutions in place to implement and monitor the progress of these policies and goals. In that regard, right after independence, the country established institutions to ensure that the goals of gender equality and women empowerment are fully attained. To ensure the full implementation and monitoring of gender policies, the National Council of Women was established in 1960 with the core aim for creating nursery schools, vocational centers and educational initiatives for females. This was later changed to the National Council on Women and Development in 1975 with the added responsibility to study the conditions of women, initiate programmes to promote the emancipation of women 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and to monitor the progress of gender empowerment policies (Tsikata, 2009). More so, the Ministry of Women and Children‟s Affairs (MOWAC) was established in February 2001 and given legal backing by Executive Instrument (EI18). The previous institutions handling issues of women and children, the National Council of Women and Children, became Departments of Women and Children‟s Affairs. The establishment of the Domestic Violence Victims Services Unit (DOVVSU) within the Police Service is to protect women against domestic violence and other forms of violence from the opposite sex. This department within the Ghana Police Service is staffed with resource persons knowledgeable in domestic violence issues and as such, are able to go to the aid of such victims. In 2013, the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs (MOWAC) was again changed to the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection. The nation‟s commitment to gender equality is reflected in Article 17 (3) of the 1992 Fourth Republican Constitution. The Constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender and the main provisions on gender in the constitution are outlined in Chapter 5 which describes the Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms. Specifically, Article 12 sub section 2, Article 22 (property rights of spouses) and Article 27 sections 1-3 (women‟s rights) deal directly with gender (Tsikata, 2009). Moreover, legislation has been passed to address lapses in the Criminal Code of 1960, Act 29 in relation to some harmful traditional practices such as Trokosi(ritual servitude) and Female Genital Cutting or Mutilation (FGC/M). The Domestic Violence Act was approved by Parliament in May 2007. The passing of the Domestic Violence Act made the establishment of the Domestic Violence Department of the Ghana Police Service possible. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Matrimonial Causes Act regulates the dissolution of marriage, and the 1998 Children‟s Act criminalizes forced and underage marriage. It also fixes the minimum age of marriage at eighteen years. This has led to a drastic reduction in forced child marriages by school going females thereby increasing their ability to pursue higher levels of education. In spite of all these efforts by government to reduce gender inequality and empower women in the country, the budget allocation and the staffing of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection is very small compared to other similar ministries. In 2006, the Ministry was allocated 27,971,000,000 cedis, which is roughly equivalent to US$ 310,788. Compared to other similar ministries, MOWAC‟s share of budgetary allocations ranged between 0.23 percent and 0.41 percent of the national budget (Tsikata, 2009). The designated Ministry has been tasked to enforce the laws and legislation as far as gender equality and women empowerment issues are concerned. Nonetheless, many years after the promulgations of laws and policies on gender inequality, the problem of gender inequality continues to elude the nation. Women‟s representation in government and leadership continues to be very poor despite having a female Chief Justice. More so, the disparity in male-female ratio in terms of education is not closing at the expected pace and domestic violence is also not reducing at the expected pace as well (Tsikata, 2009). Even though a number of scholars (Tsikata, 2009; Odame, 2010; Abankwa&Abebe, 2011; Amoako, 2011) have conducted studies bordering on gender inequality in the country, none of them aimed to find out government response to gender inequality. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Therefore, this study seeks to fill out the gap in the literature regarding what government has done to reduce or completely eradicate gender inequality in the country especially during the Fourth Republic. More so, the study seeks to find out why gender inequality continues to plague the country and what can be done to address gender inequality in Ghana. 1.7 Intervention Theory This study was guided by the intervention theory because it looked at government intervention in promoting and ensuring gender inequality in the country. In that regard, the intervention theory has been propounded as the main theory that can better explain the study. According to Argyris (1970), the intervention theory is aimed at defining the ongoing relationships, or to come between or among people or groups with the sole aim of offering them some form of aid or assistance. It has also been stated a number of reasons may account for ones motivation to intervene and that some of the reasons do include helping someone to make his own decisions in regards to the decisions they make or pushing them to do what the intervener wants (Argyris, 1970). An intervener in this sense focuses on activities and actions that eventually (not necessarily immediately) provide the people with opportunities to enhance their competence and effectiveness and to do away with all forms of barriers and hindrances that plague the people personal growth and development. Such a person may also help the society to becoming more effective and efficient in problem solving and implementation. Based on these views of the intervention theory in relation to government response to 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh gender inequality, the study sought to examine the degree to which government intervened by instituting policies and passing of laws aimed at removing all barriers and hindrances that handicap gender equality and empowerment. If all the policies and legislations passed by the government are backed with actions and commitment, it will go a long way to promote gender equality. Government response is measured by the extent to which it has taken active interest and intervened in issues of gender abuse, domestic violence against women, gender discrimination among others and show massive commitment in fighting these with every possible tool available. 1.8 Significance of the study The findings of the study will help inform the government, Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, Civil Society Groups as well as Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) with interests in gender issues on the role and the response of government to gender inequality in the country. This will go a long way to guarantee that women and girl‟s empowerment problems are put at the forefront in all national policies to ensure parity in numbers from both sexes across all sectors of the economy. The findings of the study will also provide insight into the challenges that confront government response to gender equality policies in the country so that comprehensive steps can be taken to address these challenges. More so, the findings of the study will contribute to ongoing research on the link between government or institutional response to gender inequality and the implementation of policies and legislative instruments to reduce gender inequality in the country. This will ensure that the government gets an accurate measurement data on its achievement pertaining to gender inequality in the country. In practice, the 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh study will provide practical measures to the Ministry on how to ensure gender equality in governance. Finally, the findings of the study will serve as a reference material for future studies that will be conducted on similar topics or issues. The findings of the study will be published in relevant articles and journals so that stakeholders in gender issues in the country and outside can avail themselves of the contents of the study as a guide to them in addressing gender inequality in the country under the Fourth Republic. 1.9 Scope of the Study The study was conducted from the period that the Ministry of Women and Children‟s Affairs was created to 2016, that is from 2001 up to 2016. A trend analysis was used to assess the improvement in gender issues and to establish the time within which gender inequality recorded remarkable improvement. Thus, the timeline boundary for the study is between 2001-2016 which falls under the Fourth Republic of Ghana. 1.10 Study Organization The study comprised five chapters. The first chapter which is the chapter one considered the background of the study, the problem statement, the objectives of the study, the research questions guiding the study, the significance of the study and the scope of the study. The second chapter which is the chapter two also touched on the review of the necessary literature of the study. In that regard, it considered the various concepts and variables of the study. Chapter three considered the methodology of the study and also touched on the various ways and means by which the study was conducted. Chapter four looked at the analysis of the relevant data and interpretation 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of the collected data for the study whilst chapter five which is the last chapter also looked at the concluding remarks of the study by looking at the summary of findings of the study, the conclusion as well as the recommendations of the study. 1.12 Conclusion This chapter looked at the introduction of the study by considering the background of the study, the statement of the problem of the study, the aims and objectives as well as the research questions posed by the study. It also looked at the conceptualization of the study, the theory that guided the study, the significance of the study, the scope of the study and the limitations of the study. All these helped to put the study into perspective by setting the tone of the study. The next chapter will look at the review of the relevant literature related to the study. It will also look at the various concepts related to gender inequality and what has been done in other countries as far as gender inequality is concerned. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter presents a review of relevant literature related to the concepts of gender and gender inequality. It looks at the theoretical underpinnings relating to the concept of gender inequality, the definitions and concepts of gender , history of gender equality, gender inequality in Africa and narrowed down to gender inequality in Ghana and other important terms relating to the concept of gender inequality. The country is and has been governed by the fundamental ideals of freedom and justice which subsequently endorses the concept of equality for each and every citizen in the country. Even though this may look simple and straightforward, it is a concept that has eluded a number of regimes and governments that has been at the helm of affairs of this nation. 2.2 Theoretical Review The theoretical explanations espoused on the subject of gender inequality can often come under the economic development and institutional schools of thought. The first proponents of the ideals of gender equality which was focused solely on modernization theory, strongly points out development pertaining to economic as one of the most important contributors to gender equality. Crucial to note however, that there has been substantial shift in the global economy during the past few centuries. There has been a massive shift in the global economy in these few decades. Coupled with this development is the massive increase in the global GDP per capita even 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh though this development is unevenly distributed globally (Bolt and van Zanden 2014). The massive surge in Industrialization which began over two centuries ago, nonetheless, played a very crucial role in transforming most of life domains such as; the rate and means of production, division of labor, structure of the household, fertility behavior among others (Bolt and van Zanden 2014). Such transformations taking place as far as the global economy is concerned have had so much impact on the role and the position of women in this whole global transformation and industrialization. The advent of technology made it imperative that technological skills rather than sheer strength became the benchmark for employment and that most employment was based on skills rather than strength (Christy 1987). Again, technological advancement has made domestic chores easier than it used to be which has resulted in women having more time to engage in professional development (Eswaran 2014), thus the Unified Growth Theory (UGT) have postulated that growth in technological advancement has also increased the cost of having and raising children thereby invariably leading to the reduction in birth rates across the globe (Galorand Weil 1996; Murtin, 2012). Linked to this, is the erroneous impression that gender inequality has direct connection to the scarcity of resources and that females are automatically relegated to the background as far as resources such as food, education, employment and healthcare are concerned. It is therefore established that an improvement and increase in these resources will invariably point to a massive decrease in the rate and occurrences of gender inequality in most societies (Kabeer and Natali 2013: 21). It has been postulated that economic development is one of the major indicators known to enhance gender equality through channels such as enhancing female education, creating employment opportunities for women which further results in a 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh paradigm shift from mostly traditional gender role of women to a more empowered roles where they can successfully compete with their male counterparts (Inglehart & Norris, 2003). Some studies have established that economic development automatically enhances gender equality (Hansatit, 2014; Pai and Vaidya, 2009). Nonetheless, the experiences of some countries such as India and China have revealed that economic development alone does not improve gender inequality. Countries such as India, China and the Gulf States despite the economic boom being experienced by all these countries continue to experience bad sex ratios. It must be noted that these disparity in the sex ratios are mostly identified in areas such as the allocation of resources like food, employment opportunities, educational advancement and healthcare (Klasen & Wink, 2003). As already stated above, the Gulf States such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait and the Iran are some of the few Muslim countries with remarkable GDP but have very poor gender equality indicators across the globe. These are some of the few countries that have given women their right to franchise and even up to date, women have very limited opportunities in these countries. Till date in these countries, women are discriminated against and maligned when it comes to marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance among others irrespective of their rich economy (Kelly 2009). More so, when women representation in parliament is considered, a number of countries in Africa and South America surpass most of the Western developed countries. It is worthy to note that whilst no Western European country has been able th to achieve over 30% of female parliamentarians in the 20 century, African country like Rwanda has attained the enviable feat of having 63.8 percent of their parliamentary seats being held by women (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2015). Again, 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan have all at one point in time had female heads of government, an achievement which had never happened in Japan or the U.S (Sen, 2001). Furthermore, considering the levels of their economic developments, countries in the Middle East and North Africa are noted for their very discouraging female participation in the labor market and this sharply contradicts the theory of economic development (Verme, 2014). It has also been noted that aside economic development, institutional environments also provides an equal rights and opportunities for both gender (World Bank 2001, 2011; OECD 2015). North (1990) defined institutions as “the rules of the game in a society or more formally are the humanly devised constraints that shape human interaction” (North, 1990:3). In that regard, institutions can be identified as formal and informal social norms, rules and regulations as well as acts that shape or restricts the behavior and choices of people (Jutting et al, 2008; North, 1990). These institutions are known to play a very crucial role in the influence and definitions of gender roles and relations among both sexes. As a result of that, Jayachandran (2015) have stated that societal norms and attitudes including son preference over daughter and the obvious worry for females “purity” indirectly enforces and elucidates the male-skewed population in India and China. More so, the covert promotions of sex- selective abortion coupled with a strong preference over daughters have resulted in skewing the sex ratio of these countries dramatically (Chen et al, 2013). In their study, Branisa et al (2013) used a nationwide regression which relied on available data after 2009 and controlled for political and socio-economic development levels. At the end of the study, it was established that most of the social institutions such as the norms, practices and laws that shows gross discrimination against females are mostly 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh associated with low levels of female education. Moreover, scholars have acknowledged that one of the key factors that promotes gender inequality are both formal and informal institutions and also, development in terms of economic standing does not in and by itself does not guarantee the elimination of discrimination against females as is evident in Middle East nations (World Bank, 2011; Cerise & Francavilla, 2012). Many studies have identified a significant positive relationship between female empowerment and democracy in a large number of countries (Inglehart et al, 2002; Beer, 2009). In the last few decades, a number of countries across the globe have experienced remarkable democratic transitions which saw them move away from dictatorships and autocratic regimes with very limited constraints on the powers of the executive to a democratic regime where the rule of law ensures that checks and balances are in place to curtail the hitherto immense powers of the executive (Murtin & Wacziarg, 2013). Such development has resulted in gender issues being given the adequate consideration it deserves and the improvement of gender issues in these democratically governed dispensations. It is in this regard that Paxton (1997) hypothesized that democracies are likely to make sure that more women are elected into the legislature since democracies automatically eliminates and or reduces factors that makes it very difficult/albeit impossible to ensure the promotion of the rights and interest of those not in power. Nonetheless, a number of studies (Kenworthy & Malami, 1999; Reynolds, 1999) established that the extent of democracy by employing the Freedom House Index as the sign of democracy does not affect the percentage of women in parliament in any way. In the same vein, scholars such as Beer (2009) have also established that females are organized in dictatorships than in democracies since dictatorial regimes make it easier to pass and implement some 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh gender progressive legislations as compared to democratic regimes. Based on this background, it can be identified that the evidence of the role of democracy on gender equality is inconclusive. Again, gender inequality has received enormous attention from scholars, religious leaders, political leaders, civil society groups and members of society in these last decades. The contrasting differences in economic and environmental conditions have been used to put in action different evolutionary paths which aid in explaining the present day outcomes (Skoloff & Engerman, 2000; Nunn, 2012). Religion has obtained some considerable attention in various literature as one of the main long- term institutions that determine both the informal and formal guidelines which mostly leads to varied gender outcomes. The Islamic religion has been noted for promoting and enforcing the disadvantaged role that females play in the Middle East and the Gulf States. A typical example is the practice of the Shari‟a law in Muslim countries which according to the law, it is only men who can initiate divorce and that females have to either travel or work with the approval of their male guardian (Moghadam, 2003). Another classic instance of long-term institutional influence is about Africa where colonial legacies are known to account for the genesis of patrilineal systems of inheritance and the obvious promotion of gender in egalitarian outcomes as far as educational attainment are concerned (Henderson & Whatley, 2014). Ghana, in line with the legislative instrument enshrined in the 1992 republican constitution, mandates to create an equal playing field in both political and economic areas of life for its citizens irrespective of gender, religion among others. The UN on its part, in guiding member nations, has developed several Conventions and Charters which seek to enjoin all nations to empower women and reduce gender inequality. The most recent are the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS), especially the 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh MDG 3, which seek to “promote gender equality and empower women” (World Economic Forum, 2015). With this all member nations, of which Ghana is one, are supposed to put in place affirmative measures to bring women to a reasonable level with their male counterparts on both political and economic fronts. However, from the literature, what is lacking in the theoretical explications is how the various policy responses from governments across the world have helped bridged gender inequality. As such, the current research sought to bring to light how Ghana in particular has responded to gender inequality. 2.3 Definition of Concepts: Gender Inequality and Gender Equality The definition of the concept of gender inequality is mostly by social science literature as well as that of economics. Gender inequality mostly portrays as a hierarchical gender relations with females being seen as less valuable and inferior as a result of their sex. Even though most studies focus on the inequality exhibited to females, sometimes males in less developed societies also suffer from stereotypical attitudes and behaviors. Such attitudes are mostly shown in the custom and attitudes of both genders. On the other hand, gender equality is portrayed in the beliefs, behaviors, attitudes and policies that reflect an equal valuing and provision of opportunities for both genders (Kelly, 2009). The quest to ensure gender equality has been an ongoing development as far as the international community is concerned. In that regard, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979. As of June 2003, 174 countries making 90% of the UN membership had signed on to the convention. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to the convention, gender inequality can be explained as “any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex….in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field”. The lack of discrimination which this definition alludes to can be identified in the difference in status between gender. For the purpose of this study, gender inequality is explained as the disparity in opportunities, roles, and responsibilities between both sexes in any given society that promotes the advancement of one gender over another. Gender inequality also entails the lack of opportunity for advancement of women in their professional as well as their educational endeavors due to restrictions society has put in place to ensure that females are denied such opportunities whilst gender equality on the other hand is the quest to ensure that all human beings are unrestricted to pursue their individual alternatives without any form of limitations, stereotypes and or prejudices. The gender inequality indicators for this study are; availability of educational opportunities, employment opportunities, protection and promotion of individual rights among others. 2.3.1 Historical Synopsis of Gender Equality “Why exclude them? Of the two sexes of which the species is composed, how comes all the natural right to political benefits to be confined to one?” Jeremy Bentham (1789). Jeremy Bentham, an English philosopher and a legal expert and reformist argued the logic behind the restriction of suffrage to only males and that females also deserve the right to exercise their franchise and must fully participate in both the legislative and the executive branches (Williford 1975). This call for equality between both genders 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh was not only restricted to politics but also echoed in education and domestic responsibilities (Chernock 2009). These calls and actions started yielding remarkable results a century after it was initiated. New Zealand became the first country on the globe to grant females universal suffrage. In 1893, the country allowed females to vote in their national elections (Williford 1975). By that time, the United Kingdom being one of the first countries in the world to practice parliamentary rule had witnessed an increasing number of suffrage campaigns and struggles for female voting. It was not after the World War I did the British parliament pass The Representation of the People’s Act which granted women over the age of 30 years the right to vote only if they met the property criteria. British women gained universal suffrage later in 1928. Centuries after the call from Bentham and New Zealand taking the bold decision to rant universal suffrage in 1893, Saudi Arabia being the last country to deny women this right, have finally accepted to allow women to partake in Municipal elections for the first time in 2015 (World Bank, 2015). This call for universal suffrage is one key area pertaining to gender equality where considerable success has been achieved. Nonetheless, gender equality has never been a single phenomenon but rather, a multi-faceted construct. Gender disparity manifest in areas such as access to economic resources, healthcare, decision making and time use in both public and private areas (Sen, 2001). In summation, gender equality therefore refers to the equal responsibilities, rights and opportunities of both genders. Attaining gender equality means creating situations in which both the social and cultural environment accepts and recognizes the equality between males and females. The world has witnessed a number of international, regional and local attempts and actions aimed at eliminating gender inequality in all domains of women‟s lives since the 1970s. The United Nations declared the UN decade of between 1976 and 1985 to 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh integrate women in development agenda putting emphasis on Women in Development (WID). The UN General Assembly further adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1979 which was used to create an agenda for national action to eliminate gender prejudice. Gender equality has nonetheless been identified as one of the key goals as exhibited by its inclusion as rd the 3 Millennium Development Goal (MDG) in 2000 (World Bank, 2001). The Sustainable Development Goal (SDGs) which was launched in September 2015 was a projection from the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) which was established in 2000. The SDG unlike the MDG had 17 goals and goal 5 explicitly states that „obtain gender equality and empower all women and girls‟. This clearly shows that the quest to achieve gender equality continues to feature predominantly on all international and regional commitments. A lot of remarkable improvements in women‟s position in various fields were also witnessed during the same period. A typical example is female enrollment in tertiary education. Universally, female‟s enrollment in tertiary education has risen very sharply over the last 55 years. Since the 1980s, the life spans of females have risen more than that of males with females being expected to live more than males. More so, a number of countries can now guarantee both genders the same rights in important areas such as inheritance, marriage and ownership of property (World Bank, 2001) In spite of the progress made as far as gender equality is concerned, gender inequality continues to exist in every part across the globe, from the U.S to China and from Africa to the Gulf (Sen, 2001). After years of struggle for equality before the law and all other areas, it has been found that in the developing world, property rights favor 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh males than females (Htun & Weldon, 2011). More so, one third of girls from developing world are given out in marriages before 18 years and one in nine are married before the age of 15 years. Again, universally, females are poorly presented in the political arena (Inter-Parliamentary Union 2015). In their report, OECD (2015) rd established that even though a lot of progress has been made as far as the 3 Millennium Development Goal is concerned, there is still a major challenge as far as the global gender gap is concerned. The report showed that whilst gender equality in admittance to basic education has been obtained in many countries, greater gender gap continues to remain in the secondary and tertiary levels (OECD, 2015). Females continue to be disadvantaged as far as salaries, occupational opportunities and education are concerned. It is worthy to note that whilst a lot of females have entered the workforce in recent times, most of them are found in the informal end of the labor market with poor earnings and insecure conditions. It is also worthy to note that females are well- represented in low paying jobs and less-represented in senior (Branisa et al, 2013). Focus has also been placed towards the attainment of gender equality for societal welfare (Branisa et al, 2013). In view of this, Ban Ki-Moon, the Secretary-General of the United Nations stated how enhancing gender equality has benefits ranging from better health to quality education. Christine Lagarde, the IMF Managing Director also highlighted the negative economic consequences of unequal treatment of women. She stated that, “In too many countries, too many legal restrictions conspire against women to be economically active…. In a world in search of growth, women will help find it, if they face a level playing field instead of an insidious conspiracy.” In their study, Teiginer and Cuberes (2014) found evidence that supports the claim by the 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh IMF Managing Director. The study contributed to the research by examining Ghanaian policy direction towards addressing gender inequality in the fourth republic. 2.4 Government Response to Gender Inequality Issues in Africa: Rwanda Africa‟s patriarchal social structure and existing cultural stereotype is the base of current gender inequalities on the continent for a long while. Nonetheless, in recent times, some countries and governments have realized the need to ensure gender equality and empowerment as a poverty alleviation strategy (Kelly, 2009). One country that has performed par excellence as far as gender issues are involved and is even envied by the developed nations in the West is Rwanda. It is also worth noting that Rwanda beat U.S and U.K as far as gender equality issues are concerned (Kelly, 2009). The success story of Rwanda stands so tall as a rallying call for other countries on the continent such that it will be wholly inadequate and incomplete to talk of gender related issues without making reference to the country. After the genocide, the Government of Rwanda took gender equality and empowerment so seriously that it featured at the top of all government policies. This is evident from the June 2003 National Constitution, the National Gender Policy, the National Gender Machineries, the ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the massive implementation of the Beijing Platform of Action (PFA), the Vision 2020 and the development of the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS), which highlight Gender as cross cutting issue. To show the Rwandan government dedication and commitment to gender equality, it adopted without reservation the Beijing Platform for Action and took active 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh interventions in relation to education, health, employment and other key strategic areas. The government again ratified a number of charters and declarations such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination (CEDAW) and a host of others (EAC, 2009). All these were achieved through the government‟s huge commitment to ensuring that all gender policies and legislations were implemented to the letter. It is also worth noting that women represent 35 % of people with integrity within the Gacaca Courts elected by the population at the level of local communities to try the crimes and acts related to the 1994 Genocide. It is also remarkable to note that the three institutions in charge of peace and reconciliation (National Unity and Reconciliation Commission; National Commission of Human Rights and Gacaca Jurisdictions) are headed by women. This also portrays the Rwandan government‟s quest to ensure that women are included in all areas of leadership and decision making (EAC, 2009). The story of Rwanda pertaining to gender equality and empowerment is one that should serve as a shining example to Ghana and other sister African countries that they can also do it if they only put their hearts to it. Rwanda is a country that was torn apart by genocide as recently as 1994, but through collective efforts and determination, has become an envy of the world as far as gender inequality is concerned, and other developed countries even come to learn from them. For once, an African nation has overtaken the Western world in human rights issues and it is time all African countries followed suit. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This study focused on Ghana and what has been done by various governments that have governed the nation during the Fourth republic in relation to gender inequality. The Rwandan success story is a wakeup call to the leadership of the country to approach gender inequality issues with all the seriousness it deserves since Ghana which is also an African country is capable of achieving what Rwanda has achieved. 2.5 Socio-Political Status of Women in Ghana According to Amoako (2011), equal participation of both genders in politics is one of the main foundations of democracy. It is in this regard that the 1992 constitution of the country has explicitly made arrangements for the full involvement of every citizen of the country. In that regard, Article 12 (2) states categorically that “every person in Ghana, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinion, color, religion, creed or gender shall be entitled to the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the individual contained in this chapter but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest” (Tsikata&Seini, 2004). It is in view of this that the participation of women in the political life of the country is very relevant and crucial to the development of the country. The situation, Johnson (2008) observed, is not better when it comes to the executive level; in 2016, only 16 per cent of ministerial portfolios were held by women. Women are also the minority, according to Amoako (2011), in the highest positions of the state: Of the 150 heads of state at the start of 2008, only seven (7) (4.7%) were women. Also, only eight (4.2%) of the world‟s 192 governments were headed by women. Ghana is no exception to the low representation of women in both local and national political arena, (Odame, 2010). After 20 years of the fourth republic, the representation of 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh women in the district and national levels is as low as 7% and 18% respectively. Against this backdrop, past and presents governments have made efforts to improve upon the situation. For instance, a whole ministry to take charge of Women and Children‟s Affairs has been created. The government of the NDC led by Prof. Atta Mills also made a pledge of 40% quota of women in positions in his government, though this is yet to be fully realized. However, the number of women who are involved in the political process both at the local and national levels is not encouraging in spite of the interventions by women‟s organized groups and organizations such as Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE), International Federation of Women Lawyers (FIDA) and ABANTU for Development, international bodies such the UN and non- governmental organizations. The quest to raise percentage of women in governance and politics in Ghana has seen some improvement under the various governments in the Fourth Republic. Nonetheless, the quest to realize a 30% allocation of women representation in governance and political life has eluded the country (Amoako, 2011). 2.6 Identity and Self-Perpetuating Subordination Even though the primary characteristics of hierarchical gender relations differ across cultures and societies, there is no question to the existence of gender relations hierarchy in varying degree in most cultures. This is evident in the existence of patriarchy in Africa which is in sharp contrast to that which exist in Muslim countries or Asia (Kandiyoti, 2002). It has been noted that gender hierarchy is not necessarily implied by particular gender specialization, but rather by the restricted opportunities 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and restricted perspectives for the future that this specialization typically carries with it. Such gender specific specialization may be culturally prescribed or followed voluntarily by the individual. The quote stated below which was taken from Amartya Sen truly captures this perspective on the dynamics by which the hierarchical gender specialization do interact with economics: “The insecure sharecropper, the exploited landless laborer, the overworked domestic servant, the subordinate housewife, may all come to terms with their predicament in such a way that grievance and discontent are submerged in cheerful endurance by the necessity of uneventful survival. The hopeless underdog loses the courage to desire a better deal and learns to take pleasure in small mercies”. The writer went further to talk about the notion of strength: “If we do not have the courage to choose to live in a particular way, even though we could live that way if we so choose, can it be said that we do not have freedom to live that way, i.e., the corresponding capability?” (Sen, 1993; taken from UNIFEM, 2000). On the same issue, Duflo (2005) has also stated that economic development alone cannot enhance women‟s decision making abilities due to the prevalent stereotype against the abilities of women (Duflo, 2005). This claim is always backed by the study by psychologists which shows the effect of a „stereotype threat‟. This is a phenomenon subtly enforced by society which makes women believe they are inferior to men on a number of tasks (Duflo, 2005). Spencer et al (1999) also posited that female students‟ internalization of the stereotype threat caused them to do worse than male students in a test situation. Nonetheless, if the test was started by stating that, “You may have heard that girls are less good than boys at math, but this is not true for this particular test”, the girls did as well as boys in the same test. Discrediting the stereotype affected performance immediately (Spencer et al, 1999). 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7 Statistical discrimination Women across the globe face common challenges in market economies and Ghana is no exception. One key challenge pertaining to market economies that women face all over the world is the lower wage that females tend to earn. One explanation that has been deduced to explore this anomaly is statistical discrimination. Statistical discrimination gives a holistic reason for lower wages without making the argument that women are less productive than men. In Europe, it has been postulated that women are paid an average of 80% of what men are paid. A number of studies have been conducted to identify how much of these differences in wages are as a direct result of wage discrimination. The findings from a large number of these studies only found a little aspect of these wage differences as a direct result of wage discrimination. It was also found out that the finer the classification of occupations and positions, the less discrimination appears. When looking at the same job classification, there seem to appear no difference in salary between men and women (Teignier & Cuberes, 2014). In using employees‟ data on Finnish industries, Luukkonen (2003) found out that discrimination amounts to 8% difference in the wages between men and women. This clearly indicates the most important factor for women‟s lower average income is the segregation of the job market, nonetheless, economist are finding it very difficult to explain why female-dominated occupations are valued less in terms of pay and prestige compared to that of males (Teignier & Cuberes, 2014). 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.8 Domestic Responsibilities One‟s ability to make economic choices mostly depends on ones earnings and ownership of economic resources. Thus for women to have choices in their endeavors, feminist in recent times have advocated for employment opportunities for females so that they can be economically independent. In this modern economy, gender hierarchy continues to exists in the form of gendered segregation of the job market coupled with the fact that female sectors of the economy are generally paid less as compared to male. Irrespective of the fact that a pay is involved or not, the provision of care to children and the aged, continues to be predominantly female occupation as is education below the university level. The critical role that females play in any economy has been highlighted in the work of Mokyr (2002). This scholar goes on to equate increasing knowledge of the importance of cleanliness and sanitation in the nineteenth century with the effects of the Industrial Revolution. Hitherto, disease was associated with poverty but the proliferation of knowledge about germs and the relevance of cleanliness through all levels of society have led to new emphasis on domestic chores. The therefore “invisible” work performed by women such as childcare, hygiene and nutrition suddenly became a priority. This led to a drastic reduction in mortality rates in the nineteenth century. With this recognition of the relevance of women‟s domestic duties, it was expected that they would have been accorded the needed recognition by society but this was an illusion. More so, throughout ages, it has been considered as a moral and natural duty for women to engage in domestic activities without any form of remuneration. This view has recently been questioned in most part of the developed world as women took 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh active role in the labor market. In spite of the quest to make sure that women take their rightful position in society in terms of education and employment opportunities, others continue to argue that women need to concentrate and focus on their „natural‟ duty of care giving. 2.9 Traditional institutions and globalization It has been postulated that globalization can be used as a powerful force to bring about changes in traditional institutions and networks that have hindered the quest to upward mobility of women in society. In their study, Munshi and Rosenzweig (2006) found out that globalization can be used to transform the Indian traditional institutions and the caste system practiced in the country. For the past 20 years, low caste boys in Bombay have been taught in the local language schools whilst their sisters are increasingly being sent to English speaking schools which are attended mostly by students from the higher caste. These scholars explain that the different treatment of both sexes is as a result of the fact that men are traditionally employed through same- caste male networks where the local language is spoken. This network system for the male blue collar jobs within the jatiare is highly significant whereas girls in contrast have nothing to benefit from these networks. Training in English, however, give girls the opportunity to be employed in the new white collar sectors of the economy. A great advantage of this is that it subtly undermines the caste system since it affords girls the opportunity to marry outside the jatias. In contrast, there are genuine concerns that globalization can invariably lead to other kinds of economic institutions which can oppress women. A typical example is the fact that the export processing zones employ women in very repetitive and low paying jobs. Young girls and mostly single mothers often take on these jobs temporarily, 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh most often against the wishes of their families. Critics argue that these jobs offer no long-term career track for these women and girls nonetheless, this can be used as a stepping stone by these women to gain the requisite experience and knowledge so that they can look for more advanced and better paying jobs. 2.10 Other Socio-Economic and Political Challenges of Women in Ghana In spite of the number of international and regional treaties and conventions that has been promoted and endorsed which calls for gender equality, the attainment of universal gender equality continues to evade society. It is a troubling feat that in spite of all the efforts by both the international and regional bodies and organizations to reduce gender inequality in all areas, none of the West African countries has been able to attain the 30 percent representation benchmark proposed by the United Nations (WASCI, 2009). Compared to this, other parts of the continent, especially in Rwanda exist where the representation in parliament is about 56.3 per cent. The major concept and its related practice is one of the main factors that hinder female engagement in governance and politics. According to Odame (2010), other factors that hinder female participation in governance and leadership are; low educational status, lack of confidence, patriarchy, low income levels among others (Odame, 2010). In the same vein, Carrol (2003) also reiterates that women candidates continue to face hindrances in their political career because people continue to think of females as less powerful compared to men in terms of politics. Studies have established that the media also help in promoting this stereotype indirectly or directly by giving more attention to the personal live and physical appearances of female candidates more than male candidates (Odame, 2010). 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh All these are known to one way or the other undermine female effective involvement in both the local and the national governance process. On the economic front, women encounter several challenges that affect their productive capacity to play an effective role towards the family upkeep. For instance, poverty in Ghana is said to be serious among food crop farmers of which women are the majority. Increase in out migration especially in the north also has the tendency to worsen the labour burdens of women thereby limiting their productivity. Women, even though are with limited time, considering their domestic commitments, are compelled to invest this scarce time in part time jobs to earn additional income to cater for family basic needs. In addition, the mass engagement of females in the informal sector is seen as a matter of necessity rather than choice due to the educational levels, resources and domestic responsibilities of females (Abankwa & Abebe, 2011). 2.10 Conclusion This chapter analyzed the relevant literature on government response to gender inequality in general and the phenomenon of gender inequality in Ghana. This study commenced the Ghanaian investigation of government policy interventions purported to mitigate the growing gap between both sexes. From the review, the two theoretical underpinnings of gender equality, which include economic and institutional school of thought, seem to provide some form of explanation especially on the issue of gender inequality in Ghana. The interventionist theory also provided a detailed explanation on the factors that propels one to intervene in a given phenomenon and what the outcomes of these interventions mostly are. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, from the literature, what is lacking in the theoretical explications is how the various policy responses from the Ghanaian governments have helped bridge gender inequality. As such, the current research seeks to bring to light how Ghanaian Fourth Republic governments have responded to the issue of gender inequality. Moreover, the study will seek knowledge and conduct an in-depth analysis on gender inequality and the response of the government in that regard. The next chapter touches on the methodology of the study. In that regard, it looks at the mode and method of data collection, the sample of the study and how they were selected as well as the method of data analysis. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter presents a discussion of the methodology of the study as well as the methods employed to collect data from the relevant respondents in order to achieve the aims and objectives of the study. The chapter discusses issues related to the research approach and design, the data sources and collection. The examination of collected data, variables employed in the study and the method of analysis are also discussed. ] 3.2 Research Approach This study used the mixed method to investigate government response to gender equality in the Fourth Republic from 2001-2016 using the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection as the case for the study. The mixed-method methodology was employed because it is the only methodology which provided the needed comprehensive approach to undertake the research. The study adopted quantitative method of data collection by administration of questionnaires as well as qualitative method of data collection by using structured interview to solicit information from relevant stakeholders who have in-depth understanding of government interventions of bridging the gender inequality gap. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Research Design Cross-sectional research design was used to conduct questionnaires for selected participants for the study. This was used because the study did not require further feedback from respondents after the implementation of the programme of various government response initiatives. The study administered questionnaires to Members of Parliament who represent the Ghanaian population. This is because; 1. Parliamentarians enact and pass legislations on gender issues. 2. Parliamentarians also rectify various gender treaties which Ghana Governments have committed to in the past. 3. Parliament further scrutinizes the annual budgets of the government with fair knowledge and understanding of allocations. The interviews were conducted for specially selected participants who were the key informants from the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and academicians who work on gender issues, have knowledge on cores issues of gender inequality from global and regional perspectives and its applicability to the Ghanaian environment. Two (2) members from a Civil Society Organization (CSO) were part of the study to provide their alternative views to what government ought to do, what has been done and by whom. Some of these civil society groups such as NGOs who work directly with women to improve their empowerment skills previously engaged on some initiatives. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4 Population The study population is the aggregation of element from which the sample is actually selected. It is the aggregation or the totality of all members or units from which information could be obtained (Malhotra, 2007). The population of the Ghanaian Parliament is 275 members who constituted the study population for the quantitative component of the research. For the qualitative components respondents were selected based on their in-depth knowledge as well as institutional representation. The study used as population the staff of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection at the managerial level who have better appreciation of the issues at hand. NGOs as well as other resource persons in academia who have personal commitment to gender issues in the country. This population was ideal for the study because they have an in-depth knowledge about Government commitment to gender issues by virtue of their profession and their relation with gender equality advocates. 3.5 Sample Size The study sought to interview 20% of 275 Members of Parliament which approximates to 55 Members of Parliament as the sample of the population. 20% because that provided huge yet manageable number needed to provide the required information for the study taking into consideration the fact that 67 Members of Parliament are Ministers. The study also recognized that 13% (35 of 275) of the Seventh Parliament are women who ought to be interested in issues concerning women. Consequently, 15% (9 of 55) of the respondents were allocated to women and men were allocated 85% (46 of 56) are partial reflection of the composition of 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Parliament. During the implementation of the survey more than ten (10) women parliamentarians categorically refused to answer the questionnaires after several introductions of the subject and visits to their respective offices in Parliament House. Subsequently the study administered 51 questionnaires (males 46, females 5.) but not 55 as projected. The women who refused to answer the questionnaires were members of National Democratic Congress and New Patriotic Party Members of Parliament. Two resource persons working with NGOs involved in gender equality issues were also interviewed; four (4) persons from the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection as well as two (2) academicians were also selected for the interview data. 3.6 Sampling Technique The researcher adopted probability sampling for the quantitative component where Simple Random Sampling (SRS) technique was used by providing each of 275 Members of Parliament equal opportunity of being selected to be part of the study. For the qualitative part of the study, non- probability method adopted by the researcher with expert sampling technique. The expert sampling was chosen because the researcher targeted only resource persons and key individuals who have in-depth knowledge about gender issues in the country and as such, are key stakeholders in gender empowerment projects. The key experts who were sampled for the study came from the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, NGOs as well as persons in academia or outside academia who are stakeholders in gender empowerment issues. These individuals by virtue of their position in the Ministry and profession will have an in-depth knowledge about gender issues in the country. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Data Collection This study employed both the interview guide and the questionnaire in soliciting information from the participants of the study. This source of data collection is very advantageous because it allowed the researcher to ask follow up questions in cases where clarifications are needed (Malholtra, 2007). This approach again makes it possible to learn a lot from the interviewee and the other participants. 3.8 Sources of Data The methods of data collection for this research were from both primary and secondary sources of data. The reasons for selecting the above sources of data collection among other methods of data collection can be explained as follows: 3.8.1 Primary Data In line with the research design employed for the current study, the study employed the primary data sources for the study. Primary data sources included observations, experiments, surveys and interviews. Primary data collected consisted of data originated by the researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the research problem and this mainly consisted of the interview guide used in soliciting the views from the participants of the study. 3.8.2 Secondary Data The sources of secondary data are different from primary data and included: Written materials for example: All electronic sources, books, journals, news-papers and etc. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Area based for example: Ghanaian and African publications and Journals, Published reports and professional people. 3.9 Data Analysis The quantitative data was analyzed with the help of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and presented in charts, figures and tables. The interview data collected from the participants of the study was thematically analyzed since it is qualitative in nature. The interview data acquired from the participants was first transcribed by the researcher. Themes were developed inductively to make meaning out of the data collected in line with the aims and objectives of the study and were used to answer the research questions posed. The demographic characteristics of the participants were also collected in order to assess whether they truly represent the population of the study. 3.10 Ethical Consideration Institutional approval was first sought from the institution in which the study was conducted. This was to ensure that the institution was fully aware of the proceedings of the study on their premises. The respondents of the study were also informed about the objectives and aim of the study and given the aptitude to participate in the research and also the ability to withdraw later if they not comfortable with the proceedings. The participants who participated in this study were guaranteed anonymity by the researcher. Letters of the alphabet were ascribed to them and their statements or quotations in the research were treated with the due respect they deserved. The respondents were assured that the data so collected will be used for academic purpose. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.11 Limitations of the study The study encountered a number of challenges that served as limitations to it. Some of the limitations encountered were;  Lack of cooperation from participants - Unwillingness of parliamentarians to respond to the various questions, especially when they heard the word gender, was a great impediment to the study. Some had no time to spend with the researcher in order to respond to the various questions. One thing that shocked the researcher more was the attitude of some female parliamentarians. None of the four women the researcher approached had any time to respond to the questions. One of them told the researcher she is not interested in „‟that thing‟ ‟and that was a great shock to the researcher. So I was thinking to myself; is it possible to achieve this gender equality? If the very people we are trying to fight for show this kind of attitude. The lack of cooperation on the part of the participants greatly affected the study.  Lack of literature – The apparent lack of literature on government response to gender issues globally, regionally and locally made it very difficult to access the relevant literature on the topic. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.12 Conclusion This chapter considered the methodology of the study by looking at the research design that was used for the study, the study population, the sample of the study and the sampling technique used, the method of data analysis among others. The next chapter will also look at the analysis of the collected data for the study. It will also present the demographic variables of the study participants and further discuss the results of the results of the study based on the aims and objectives of the study. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction This section presents the analysis of the results of the data collected for the study and also discuss the findings of the study. The presentation of results of the study was done in line with the aims and objectives of the study. Since the study employed the mixed method with both the quantitative and the qualitative method, the presentation of the findings of the study has been done in the same manner. Nonetheless, the demographic characteristics of the participants have been considered in both cases in order to ascertain whether they truly represent the population of the study. 4.2 Demographic Variables Presented in table 4. 1 is the demographic variables of the participants of the quantitative data collected for the study. The table presented is a data on 51 MPs from th the 7 parliament of the Republic of Ghana and is used to analyze the awareness and knowledge of gender inequality among parliamentarians, a wing of government. The characteristics considered included; age, gender, occupation, marital status, educational attainment, political party affiliation and region. As stated above, table 4.1 presents some basic descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage) of the background characteristics of the 51 sampled parliamentarians. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1: Summary Statistics of Background Characteristics (demographic information) of Parliamentarians Variable Frequency Percentage Age (years) 18-30 3 5.88 31-40 32 62.75 41-50 9 17.65 51-60 7 13.73 Gender Male 46 90.20 Female 5 9.80 Marital Status Married 49 96.08 Single 2 3.92 Educational Attainment Secondary/Vocational 2 3.92 Degree/HND 22 43.14 Master 23 45.10 PhD 4 7.84 Political Party Affiliation NPP 36 70.59 NDC 15 29.41 Region Greater Accra 6 11.76 Central 5 9.80 Eastern 5 9.80 Western 6 11.76 Northern 5 9.80 Upper East 4 7.84 Upper West 4 7.84 Volta 5 9.80 BrongAhafo 5 9.80 Ashanti 6 11.76 Source: Author’s computations 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the data presented in table 4.1 above, it can be seen that 3 of the interviewed members of parliament (MPs) representing 5.88% are between the ages of 13-30 years; 32 of them representing 62.75% are between the ages of 31-40 years; 9 of them representing 17.65% are between the ages 41-50 years and 7 of them representing 13.73% are between the ages of 51-60 years. On gender, it was observed that 46 of the participating members of parliament (MPs) representing 90.20% are males whilst 5 of them representing 9.80% are females. On the marital status of the participants, 49 of them representing 96.08% are married whilst 2 of them representing 3.92% are single. On educational attainment, it was observed that 2 of the participating members of parliament (MPs) representing 3.92% had Secondary/Vocational education; 22 of them representing 43.14% of them had Degree/HND; 23 of them representing 45.10% had Masters Degree and 4 of them representing 7.84% also had their PhD. On their political affiliation, it was found out that 36 of the sampled members of parliament (MPs) representing 70.59% belong to the New Patriotic Party (NPP) fraternity whilst 15 of them representing 29.41% belong to the National Democratic Congress (NDC). From the table 4.1 presented above, 6 of the participating members of parliament (MPs) representing 11.76% are from the Greater Accra region; 5 of them representing 9.80% are from Central region; another 5 of them also representing 9.80% are from the Eastern region; 6 of them representing 11.76% are from the Western region; 5 of them representing 9.80% are from the Northern region; 4 of them representing 7.84% are from both the Upper East and the Upper West regions; 5 of them representing 9.80% are from the Volta region; another 5 of them representing 9.80% are from the Brong Ahafo region and 6 of them representing 11.76% of them are from the Ashanti region. This shows that the 51 sampled members of parliament (MPs) for the study 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were selected across all the various regions of the country and as such, each and every region has a participating member of parliament. From the demographic variables of the sampled members of parliament (MPs) presented in table 4.1 above and interpreted below, it can be observed that the participating members of parliament for the study were selected from different backgrounds and as such, will give a very diverse and rich source of information as far as the aims and the objectives of the study are concerned. This is to help the researcher capture the views and opinions from the legislature which is the arm of government where the people in the country are represented through their elected representatives. In view of that, the subsequent analysis will possess a suitable heading addressing the objectives of the study. Presented below are the participants‟ responses on the awareness of gender inequality issues in the country. 4.3 Awareness of Gender Inequality Concept When the participating members of parliament (MPs) were asked whether they are aware of the concept of gender inequality, 90% of the participants answered yes whilst 10% of them also answered no. The large number of the participants (90%) who answered in the affirmative show that a lot of the parliamentarians are fully aware of the concept of gender inequality as far as gender issues in the country are concerned. This is a positive development because it shows how conversant the members of parliament (MPs) are with gender inequality and this will help inform them on the decisions they make regarding gender inequality. This is presented in Fig 4.1 below. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig 4.1: Bar chart showing participants’ awareness of the concept of gender inequality They were further asked to rate the extent to which they are knowledgeable about the concept of gender inequality if they say they are aware of the concept. On that, 80% of the participants stated that they are very knowledgeable about the concept of gender inequality whilst 20% also said they are knowledgeable about the concept of gender inequality. None of the participants stated that they do not have any knowledge about the concept of gender inequality. With all, the participating members of parliament have an appreciable level of knowledge regarding the concept of gender inequality, it is hoped it will help them make the right decisions to ensure the complete eradication of this societal canker. This is also presented in fig 4.2 below. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig 4.2: Pie chart showing participants’ level of knowledge on the concept of gender inequality When asked the medium through which they learnt about the concept of gender inequality, 20% of the participants said they learnt about the concept in school, 50% said they also learnt about it through the print/electronic media, another 20% said they learnt about it through a sensitization program and 10% said they learnt it from other sources. The large number of participants (50%) who said they learnt about it through the print/electronic media shows that the print/electronic media which have taken over the globe as a result of technology is the best way to disseminate information as far as gender is concerned. All the other participants also stated various means through which they also learnt about the of gender concept inequality. This is presented in Fig 4.3 below. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig 4.3: Bar chart showing medium through which participants learnt about gender inequality. On their awareness of the government of Ghana‟s commitment to bridging gender inequality in any form and thus promote the role of women in societies and public institutions including their agency, 50 of them representing 98.0% answered yes and 1 of them representing 2.0% answered no. The large number of participants (98.0%) who answered yes shows that most of the participants are fully aware of government of Ghana‟s commitment to bridge the gender inequality in any form and thus promote the role of women in societies and public institutions across the country. This is a very positive development because it shows how the government is dedicated to ensure that gender inequality in societies and various institutions are reduced to the barest minimum. This is presented in Table 4.2 below. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2: Table showing participants’ view on government commitment to bridge gender inequality Frequency Percent Yes 50 98.0 Valid No 1 2.0 Total 51 100.0 The participants were asked whether they personally support a commitment to ensuring gender equality and women empowerment. On that, 90% of them responded yes and 10% responded no. The large number of participants (90%) who responded yes shows that most of the sampled members of parliament (MPs) have a personal commitment to ensure that gender equality and women empowerment are promoted. This is a good development because even though most of the participants are males (46), they are still willing to go any length to ensure that gender equality and women empowerment are promoted. This shows the level of seriousness that the members of parliament (MPs) attach to gender inequality in the country. This is also presented in Fig 4.4 below. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.4: Pie chart showing participants’ personal commitment to gender equality When asked whether the government of Ghana and other stakeholders involved in gender issues are doing enough to raise awareness to ensure gender equality, 60% of the participants answered yes whilst 40% of them also answered no. Even though most of the participants (60%) answered in the positive agreeing that the government and other stakeholders are doing enough to raise awareness to ensure gender equality, the appreciable number (40%) who answered in the negative shows that the government and other stakeholders involved in gender issues in the country are not doing enough to raise awareness to ensure gender equality and that, more can be done by these people. This is also presented in Fig 4.5 below. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.5: Bar chart showing participants’ views on government effort to ensure gender equality The participants of the study were further asked if they are aware of policies implemented by government to deal with gender inequality. On that, 70% of the participants stated that they are fully aware of policies that have been implemented by government to deal with gender inequality in the country whilst 30% of them also stated that they are not aware of any such policies. The 30% of the participants who said they are not aware of government policies to address gender inequality in the country shows that even if such policies exist, they have not been well-articulated and communicated to the legislature as should be the case. This shows that the institutions tasked with this duty are not up and doing as far as this is concerned. This is presented in Fig 4.6 below. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.6: Pie chart showing participants’ awareness of government policies When asked to name some of the policies that they are aware that government has instituted over the years to help address gender inequality issues in the country, 30% of the participants stated the enactment and the enforcement of the interstate succession law that sought to address the anomalies in inheritance issues which was depriving widows of their legal rights to the properties and other material benefits of their deceased husbands. Another 30% also stated the Girl Child Education Policy that saw the massive enrolment of females into various educational institutions and at various levels. This law made it mandatory for every parent to enroll their female children in schools. 40% of the participants also stated affirmative action as one of the tools that government used to ensure the promotion of gender issues in the country. This is presented in Fig 4.7 below. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.7: Bar chart showing participants’ views on government policies to ensure gender equality In order to find out the effect that these policies had on gender equality in the country, the participants of the study were asked whether the policies mentioned above that was instituted by government to promote gender equality effective, 70% of the participants answered in the positive meaning the policies that were put in place by the government to ensure gender equality were effective in promoting gender issues in the country. 30% of them also were of divergent view agreeing that the policies that were put in place by the government were not effective in improving gender issues in the country. This is also presented in Fig 4.8 below. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.8: Bar chart showing participants’ views on the effectiveness of government policies The participants were asked to state the ways in which they think those policies instituted and implemented by government helped to improve gender equality issues in the country. On that, 10 of them representing 19.6% stated that those policies have helped to create awareness on the importance of gender equality in the country. 23 of them also representing 45.1% also stated that those policies have helped to progressively involve women in politics and other leadership positions whilst 4 of them representing 7.8% stated that it has resulted in having a higher number of girl children in admission in various schools. 14 of them representing 27.5% were of a neutral view on how the policies initiated by government to ensure gender equality and women empowerment had on gender issues in the country. The large number of participants (45.1%) who stated women involvement in politics and other leadership position shows how effective these gender policies have been. This is presented in Table 4.3 below. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.3: Table showing ways in which gender policies have impacted females in society If yes, in what ways? Frequency Percent Creating awareness on the importance of gender equality 10 19.6 Progressive involvement of women in politics and other 23 45.1 leadership positions Valid Higher number of girl child admission 4 7.8 NA 14 27.5 Total 51 100.0 The participants were again asked whether the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection were doing enough to address gender issues in the country. On that, 38 of the participants representing 74.5% answered yes meaning the Ministry is doing enough as far as gender issues in the country are concerned. 13 of them also representing 25.5% answered no meaning the Ministry is not actually doing enough as far as gender issues in the country are concerned. The large number of participants (74.5%) who agreed that the Ministry is doing enough shows that the Ministry is doing well as far as gender issues in the country are concerned even though they have their weaknesses. This is also presented in table 4.4 below. Table 4.4: Table showing Ministry’s efforts in addressing gender issues Frequency Percent Yes 38 74.5 Valid No 13 25.5 Total 51 100.0 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh When asked to name some of the issues that the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection have been able to address as far as its mandated role in promoting gender issues and protecting women are involved. On that, 15 of the participants representing 29.4% stated that the Ministry has been able to ensure women empowerment; 2 of them representing 3.9% said the Ministry has been able to curb child trafficking; another 2 of them representing 3.9% also said the Ministry has been able to halt the „Trokosi‟ system; 2 of them also said the Ministry has been able to register health insurance for pregnant women; 12 of them representing 23.5% said the Ministry has been able to the improve upon the low level of education for notably women; 2 of them also stated the Ministry has been able to reduce unemployment among womenfolk; 3 of them representing 5.9% said the Ministry has been able to put an end to the situation where wives are sacked from their husband‟s home upon the husband‟s death and 1 of them representing 2.0% also stated that the Ministry has been able to stop the unfair treatment to female house helps. 12 of them representing 23.5% had nothing to say as far as the achievements of the Ministry were concerned in promoting gender equality in the country. This is presented in Table 4.5 below. Table 4.5: Table showing participants’ views on achievement of the Ministry Frequency Percent Women empowerment 15 29.4 Child trafficking 2 3.9 Trokosi system 2 3.9 Health Insurance for pregnant women 2 3.9 Valid Low level of education 12 23.5 Unemployment 2 3.9 Wives being sacked from their husband's house 3 5.9 upon death Unfair treatment of female househelps 1 2.0 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The participants were again asked whether they think the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection can do more to enhance gender equality issues in the country. On that, all the participants (100%) agreed to that statement stating that there is more the Ministry can do to enhance gender equality issues in the country. This is presented in table 4.6 below. Table 4.6: Table showing participants’ views on whether the Ministry can do more to ensure promotion of gender equality in the country Frequency Percent Valid Yes 51 100.0 When asked to name some of the things that the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection can do to enhance gender equality issues in the country, 34 of them representing 66.7% said the Ministry can embark on more education and sensitization on gender issues, 2 of them representing 3.9% stated that the Ministry can ensure the abolishment of bad traditional and cultural practices; 5 of them representing 9.8% stated that the Ministry can ensure that conventions are made to address gender inequality issues; 2 of them representing 3.9% said the Ministry can help mothers to re-socialize their children; another 2 of them said the Ministry can call for budgetary allocation for gender issues; another 2 of them said nothing needs to be done and 4 of them representing 7.8% said there should be more sponsorships for the girl child to remain in school. This is presented in Table 4.7 below. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.7: Table showing participants’ views on what can be done to enhance gender equality issues Frequency Percent More education / sensitization on gender issues. 34 66.7 Abolish bad traditional and cultural practices 2 3.9 Conventions must be made 5 9.8 Mothers should resocialize their children 2 3.9 Valid Budget allocation for gender issues 2 3.9 Nothing should be done 2 3.9 More sponsorships for the girl child to remain in school 4 7.8 Total 51 100.0 When asked to rate the efforts of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and the government in their quest to improve gender equality in the country, 15 of the participants representing 29.4% rated the efforts of the Ministry and the government as very good. 32 of them representing 62.7% of them also rated the efforts of the Ministry and the government as good and 4 of them representing 7.8% rated the efforts of the Ministry and the government as not good. Even though most of the participants (62.7%) rated the Ministry and the government efforts in improving gender equality in the country as good, some of them (7.8%) were not really enthused with the efforts of the Ministry and the government in their quest to promote gender equality in the country. This means that the Ministry and the government need to do more in order to promote gender equality. This is presented in Table 4.8 below. 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.8: Table showing participants’ views on Ministry and Government quest to promote gender equality Frequency Percent Very good 15 29.4 Good 32 62.7 Valid Not good 4 7.8 Total 51 100.0 The participants were asked to state what in their views generally hinder gender inequality in the country. On that, 12 of them representing 23.5% stated male supremacy syndrome as one of the main factors that hinder gender inequality in the countr; 23 of them representing 45.1% stated cultural and religious beliefs as another factor that hinder gender equality issues in the country whilst 2 of them representing 3.9% stated females belittling themselves. 3 of them representing 5.9% stated illiteracy; 4 of them representing 7.8% stated economic hardship; 5 of them representing 9.8% political actors not interested in gender equality and 2 of them representin; 3.9% stated that the approach adopted by these gender advocates is too strong. From the responses of the participants of the study, it can be seen that there are a number of factors that hinder gender inequality in the country and most of them have been stated above. This is also presented in Table 4.9 below. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.9: Table showing factors that hinder gender equality issues in the country Frequency Percent Male Supremacy Syndrome 12 23.5 Cultural and religious beliefs 23 45.1 Females belittling themselves 2 3.9 Illiteracy 3 5.9 Valid Economic hardship 4 7.8 Political actors not interested in gender equality 5 9.8 Approach adopted by these gender advocates is 2 3.9 too strong Total 51 100.0 On whether inadequate capacity of institutions to implement programs for women empowerment also hinders the quest to promote gender equality in the country, 19 of them representing 37.3% strongly agreed; 27 of them representing 52.9% agreed, 3 of them representing 5.9% showed indifference; 1 of them representing 2.0% strongly disagreed and another 1 of them also representing 2.0% disagreed. This shows that most of the participants (52.9%) are of the view that inadequate capacity of institutions to implement programs for women empowerment hinders the efforts to ensure gender equality in various institutions across the country. This is presented in table 4.10 below. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.10: Table showing institutions’ inability to implement women empowerment programs Frequency Percent Strongly agree 19 37.3 Agree 27 52.9 Indifferent 3 5.9 Valid Strongly disagree 1 2.0 Disagree 1 2.0 Total 51 100.0 When asked whether inadequate budgetary allocation also hinders gender inequality in the country, 17 of the participants representing 33.3% strongly agreed; 28 of them representing 54.9% agreed; 1 of them representing 2.0% showed indifference; 1 of them representing 2.0% strongly agreed and 4 of them representing 7.8% disagreed. From the analysis of the data, it can be seen that inadequate budgetary allocation is one of the main factors that hinder the quest to promote gender equality in the country. This is presented in Table 4.11 below. Table 4.11: Table showing inadequate budgetary allocation as a factor hindering gender equality issues in the country Frequency Percent Strongly agree 17 33.3 Agree 28 54.9 Indifferent 1 2.0 Valid Strongly disagree 1 2.0 Disagree 4 7.8 Total 51 100.0 The participants were asked whether the exclusion of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection from the cabinet in the present NPP government shows 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh lack of commitment on the part of the government to gender issues. On that, 23 of the participants representing 45.1% answered yes meaning the exclusion of the Ministry from the cabinet shows that the government is not really committed to gender issues whilst 28 of them representing 54.9% also answered in the negative saying the exclusion of the Ministry from the cabinet does not show lack of commitment on the part of the government. This is presented in Table 4.12 below. Table 4.12: Table showing participants views on the exclusion of the Ministry from cabinet Frequency Percent Yes 23 45.1 Valid No 28 54.9 Total 51 100.0 The participants were further asked whether they think the country has the required institutions to respond to the gender gap. On that, 29 of the participants representing 56.9% answered yes meaning the nation has the required institution to respond to the gender gap whilst 22 of them representing 43.1% said they do not believe the nation has the required institutions to address the gender gap. This shows the diverse views of the participants on whether the nation has the required institutions to address the gender gap. This is presented in Table 4.13 below. Table 4.13: Table showing participants’ views on institutions to address gender gap Frequency Percent Yes 29 56.9 Valid No 22 43.1 Total 51 100.0 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh When asked to state how they see the future of the country as far as genderin equality is concerned, 17 of them representing 33.3% stated that the future of the country in terms of gender inequality is very good; 29 of them representing 56.9% said the future is good; 2 of them representing 3.9% said the future is not good; 1 of them representing 2.0% said the nation do not have a future as far as gender issues are concerned and 2 of them representing 3.9% showed indifference. This is presented in Table 4.14 below. Table 4.14: Table showing participants’ views on the future of the nation regarding gender issues Frequency Percent Very good 17 33.3 Good 29 56.9 Not so good 2 3.9 Valid Do not have a future 1 2.0 Indifferent 2 3.9 Total 51 100.0 When asked to suggest ways that government and other stakeholders can come together to ensure the improvement of gender issues, 16 of the participants representing 31.4% stated that, there should be more platforms for dialogue and or higher education for females. Education is the key to unlocking opportunities and potentials so if females are given access to higher education, it will go a long way to empower them socially and economically. 5 of them representing 9.8% also stated stakeholders engagement as the best way to improve gender inquality in the country. 11 of them representing 21.6% called for conventions and legal framework as the tool to improve gender inequality; 2 of them representing 3.9% called for the provision of vocational skills as the best way to improve gender issues; 8 of them representing 15.7% called for increase in budgetary allocation; 4 of them representing 7.8% stated 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that we should do away with bad cultural beliefs; another 4 of them also called for the allocation of resources to the rural areas and 1 person representing 2.0% said he/she does not even want gender equality. This is presented in Table 4.15 below. Table 4.15: Table showing participants’ views on ways to improve gender issues Frequency Percent More platforms for dialogue / 16 31.4 Higher education for females stakeholders engagement 5 9.8 Convention and legal framework 11 21.6 Provision of vocational skills 2 3.9 Budget allocation 8 15.7 Valid Do away with bad cultural beliefs 4 7.8 Allocation of resources to the 4 7.8 rural areas No, I dont even want gender 1 2.0 equality Total 51 100.0 4.4 ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA This section presents the analysis of the interview data collected from the interviewees of the study. In order to get a comprehensive data for the study, interviews were conducted for interviewees selected from civil society, academia and the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection. To protect the identity of the interviewees and to ensure confidentiality, alphabetical letters have been assigned to the interviewees in place of their names but these alphabetical letters have been defined so readers will have an idea who the letters represent. The definitions of the interviewees are presented in Table 4.16 below. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.16: Table identifying the interviewees of the study Interviewee Institution Organization A Civil Society Staff of Women in Law and Organization Development in Africa (WiLDAF) B Civil Society Staff of Women in Law and Organization Development in Africa (WiLDAF) C(Focus Ministry Staff of Ministry of Gender, Children Group) and Social Protection D Academia Lecturer Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration E Academia Lecturer at University of Ghana 4.4.1 Interpretation of Interviewees Data When asked whether they have knowledge about gender inequality in the country, interviewee A, who works with a civil society organization, said “Yes – gender gap between men and women (education, job opportunities before being employed and after). Salaries of workers ( in the USA men earn more than women),geographical gap between southern sector and northern sector in Ghana, at the societal level, people prefer males to females”. Interviewee B also a civil society staff also answered that “Yes- gender gap in health, workplace etc; cultural (male children are preferred to females); religious (Moslem women can’t preach and lead prayers); education (some courses are perceived to be for boys and vice versa e.g medical doctors for men and nursing for women), boys names are written first before girls, senior prefect for boys and girls prefect for only girls”. On the same question, the staff from the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection answered “Yes”. Both interviewee 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh D and E from academia also answered “Yes”. This shows that all the interviewees have good knowledge about the concept of gender inequality. When asked how they came to learn about the concept of gender inequality, interviewee A said, “Trained through work with target group, from socialization through upbringing”. Interviewee B also said “Trained through work with target groups; socialization (upbringing); as a teacher in the educational sector”. The interviewees from the Ministry also said “From literature reviews, on the field of work with both men and women”. Interviewee E stated that “Studied it – Discrimination, Upbringing, Culture”. This shows that all the interviewees have various ways and means by which they learnt about gender inequality and most of them are through direct experience with the phenomenon as in upbringing and culture. In view of this, the interviewees will have a very rich source of information as far as the issues under discussion are concerned. The interviewees from the civil society and the Ministry were asked whether gender issues are treated with the seriousness it deserves in the country. On that, both interviewee A and B answered “No”. Interviewees from the Ministry answered that “Yes – laws are fair. Awareness creation and people know their rights better now than before”. The interviewees from academia were also asked whether gender issues were given the needed attention they deserve in the country from 1993-2000. On that, interviewee D answered that “Some attention- Main government and other institutions NCWD – No ministerial status and appointment of women, WAJJU”. Interviewee E also said that “Yes –Awareness, Beijing Conference showed the UN in part rights of Platform of action promulgation, NCWD – Affirmative action committee- Bipartisan, st 1998- Affirmative action policy, NCWD and 31 December to promote gender issues, CSOs WAJJU Criminal code amended to look at female gender 1992”. This shows the 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh divergent views that the interviewees have concerning how the nation has treated gender inequality so far. Whilst the interviewees from civil society organization are of the view that the nation is not treating gender inequality with the needed seriousness, staff from the Ministry refuse to agree to that and those in academia also acknowledge the effort of the government in enhancing gender inequality. When asked the factors that hinder gender inequality being treated with the seriousness it deserves, interviewee A said “Lack of political will (there is no law on Affirmative action except policy guideline etc), Lack of financial resources, Lack of education on gender issues”. Interviewee B also said “No law on affirmative Action since 1995 except policy guideline in 1998; lack of resources; no law enforcement for policies; no monitoring of gender mainstreaming; traditional authorities are not gender sensitive; definition of gender is not understood”. This shows that staff from the civil society have a good knowledge about the factors that hinder efforts in treating gender issues with the seriousness it deserves in the country. When the interviewee from academia were asked whether the government has done enough as far as gender inequality is concerned, interviewee E said “Since 2001, Kuffour government created a ministry specifically focused on women and children Creating a ministry four women and its own problems . Development mainstream gender issues in other ministries, women have been appointed high profile positions, numbers of women ministers have increased, DOVVSU, first women speaker, Chief Justice, acting IGP , CHRAJ Acting. In terms of female representation in politics more women. Affirmative action bill has not been passed. It will force political parties to increase women politicians”. Interviewee D also said “Some in terms of passing the Domestic Violence Law, Focal persons at every Ministry to promote gender issues, 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Budgetary allocation”. From the responses of the interviewees, it can be observed that the government has done a lot as far as gender inequality in the country is concerned. When asked whether the creation of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection improve gender inequality in the country, interviewee A said “Somehow – campaign for girl child education for girls (cut off point in the Universities for girls), Introduction of Affirmative Action Bill in 1998, Appointment to public boards 40%, District Assemblies 30%, Women in agriculture, Efforts to empower women economically for example, gari processing, Setting up of departments such as National Council for Women and Development, Department of Social Welfare, etc”. Interviewee B also said “Yes- campaign for girl child education by former first lady Nana Konadu Agyemang Rawlings, Passing of certain laws and policies, Adoption of Millennium Development Goals”. The staff from the Ministry also said “Yes”. On the same question, interviewee D said “Minister of Women and Children Affairs appeared more focused on women for whom we have inequality issues. New name issues of other groups leads to the fear that gender and women aspect has been overshadowed. Can’t take of gender issues without women” and interviewee E also said “yes”. This shows that all the interviewees agreed that the creation of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection has led to an improvement of gender equality in the country. This shows that the Ministry has been able to live up to its task as far as gender inequality in the country is concerned. This is a positive development. The interviewees were queried on some of the policies the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs/Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and the government have implemented to enhance gender issues. On that, interviewee A said “It has highlighted the issue of Gender budgetary allocation, implementing instead of making of laws”. The staff from the Ministry also said “Domestic violence (Act 732) 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in 2007, Human Trafficking Act, Children’s Act (under review), Children and Family Welfare Policy, Social Protection Policy, Disability Act, National Gender Policy, Affirmative Action (Gender Equality Bill)”. Interviewee D said “Courses on gender are being introduced. Center for gender at the University of Ghana, Academic publications and Seminars by Center for Gender Studies (CEGENSA)”. Interviewee E also said “Women development fund, Helped to pass the Domestic Violence Act, Improved gender awareness issues and steps to improve gender issues, LEAP (for the aged and single mothers, WAJJU/DOVVSU”. From the responses of the interviewees, it is observed that the Ministry and the government have implemented a lot of policies to enhance gender issues in the country since the creation of the Ministry. When asked the role that scholars have played in enhancing gender inequality in the country and how those roles have performed, interviewee D said “CSOs Women based eg Abantu Women in Broadcasting, Awareness creation Programs are not all year round (resources are limited). Should be consistent. In urban areas”. Interviewee E also said “Educate; inform; sensitize and raise awareness to gender issues; advocacy for legislature and policy change”. This shows how scholars and other people in academia are trying to promote gender equality in their respective fields. When asked the role that civil society groups have played in ensuring gender equality, interviewee A said “Awareness creation, organizing training for the staff of Ministry of Gender and Social Protection, simplifying government policies, offering legal advice, literacy training”. Interviewee B also said “Translated laws into other languages, Analysis of the budget to ensure its gender sensitive, Awareness creation, Capacity building, Shadow reporting to the Convention on the Elimination of all 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) to the UN by looking at gender gaps and making recommendation, Advocacy aspects- analysis of the budget to ensure it is gender sensitive, Constitutional reviews, etc”. This also shows that civil society has tackled gender inequality with all the seriousness it deserves and as such, doing all they can to promote gender equality. When the staff from the Ministry were asked if there is any difference between the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs, the staff from the Ministry said “Yes”. When they were further asked to state the differences if there are any, they stated that the Ministry “Mandate has been expanded” and that the “Legislative Instrument are different” and also, the new Ministry caters for the welfare on “Issues of women, gender, vulnerable and the aged” and not only women as used to be the case. This means the change of name came with added responsibility on the part of the Ministry. On the same issue interviewee D said “no” and gave the same reasons as staff of the Ministry, interviewee E however said “yes”. When he was further asked to explain he stated that “the budgetary allocation was inadequate and also new responsibilities have been added”. This means the change of name came with added responsibilities which will affect the activities of the Ministry negatively The interviewees were again asked who the stakeholders of gender issues in the country are and whether they are doing enough to help government address gender inequality. On that, interviewee A stated that “The United Nation, Educational Institutions, the Judiciary, Parliament, Civil society Organizations, the Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU), Ministry of Gender And Social Protection, etc”. The interviewee went further to add that “Some of the stakeholders are doing well but not all. The African Peer Review Mechanism serves as a platform 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to check some gender issues. Some Protocols and Conventions of which Ghana is a member. However penalties for non- observance is not effective, Min. of gender is no collaborating with other stake holders”. Interviewee B also stated that “Civil Society Organizations (WiLDAF), Department of Social Welfare, DOVVSU, Parliament, Judiciary, The UN system, Ministry of Gender and Social Protection”. On whether the stakeholders are doing enough, the interviewee stated that the stakeholders are “Not doing enough. Gender ministry is not collaborating with Commission for Human Rights and administrative Justice (CHRAJ), Stakeholders are not collaborating with each other. The Chieftaincy council is pushing for women but the pace is slow. Churches using departments to indoctrinate what has been there”. The staff from the Ministry also said “Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies, Academia, Civil Society Organisations, Non- Governmental Organisations, Development Partners, Families and Traditional Authorities”. The analysis of the response shows that stakeholders in gender issues in the country are not doing enough as far as gender inequality is concerned. The responses reveals that even though all the stakeholders take active interest in fighting for and promoting gender equality, their efforts are not really yielding the needed outcome and this can be due to some constraining factors. When asked to name some of the constraining factors that affect the quest to promote gender issues in the country, interviewee A said “Patriarchy-gender dominated society, poverty, lack of political will, politics of insults (women do not want to be disgraced), Religious indoctrination”. Interviewee B also said “. Illiteracy, Patriarchy- male dominated society, Laws are not enforced, Lack of political will, No social network for women, Outmoded cultural practices, Religious indoctrination and Financial constraints”. On the same question, the staff from the Ministry said “Budget allocation, Human resource and Cultural practices”. When asked that 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh question, interviewee D said “Socio cultural, traditional barriers, money to educate both sexes”. Interviewee E also said “Socialization; traditional cultural practices; education at the secondary, tertiary and professional levels”. From the responses, it can be observed that a number of factors challenge the Ministry and other stakeholders quest to promote gender equality issues in the country and that most of these barriers are either cultural or financial challenges. This means these are the two main challenges that need to be addressed. The interviewees were again asked what in their views can be done by the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and the government to improve gender equality issues in the country. On that, interviewee A said “Effective collaboration with other stakeholders, increase resources to the Ministry of Gender and Social Protection, pass the Affirmative Action Bill, address challenges to women’s economic rights”. Interviewee B also said “Effectively collaborate with other stakeholders, Pass the Affirmative Action Bill into law, increase resources to the Ministry of Gender and Social Protection, Sustain public awareness address stereotypes about women and girls. Pass the Property Rights of spouses and intestate (Amendment) bill”. The staff from the Ministry also said “Legislation, Implement laws passed, Awareness creation and allocate needed resources (both human and financial)”.On the same question, interviewee D said “Push for Affirmative action law. Qualified personnel should employed (uninterested in women issues)”. Interviewee E said “Work with other stakeholders all the time and push for Affirmative Action Law”. From the responses given, it can be seen that there is a lot that the Ministry, government and other stakeholders do to enhance gender equality in the country. When asked how they see the future of the country pertaining to gender issues, the staff from the Ministry said “Bright future- women now occupy high positions”. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Interviewee A also said “Hazy. No district offices, some of their programs are politically motivated, lack of qualified staff, Department of Social Welfare is stagnant”. Interviewee B also said “Hazy. Human trafficking still persists, Changing of staff each time there is a change of government, new things have been added i.e social protection, Programs are politically motivated i.e school feeding and Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP), No district offices except special desks created at the various districts”. Interviewee E also said “Bright”. These shows the interviewees have divergent views on the future the country has as far as gender issues in the country are concerned. When asked how ordinary citizens can contribute to gender equality issues in the country, the staff from the Ministry said “Disabuse people’s mindset about gender issues, Socialization, Advocacy, Train children properly”. This shows every citizen has a role to play in promoting gender equality in the country. When asked whether the exclusion of Minister of Gender, Children and Social Protection from the core Cabinet of this present New Patriotic Party (NPP) government show lack of commitments to gender issues, the staff from the Ministry answered “No” and went on to say “Gender issues are already being addressed”. Interviewee D said “Yes”. Interviewee D said “Yes. It shows total engrossed lack of commitment to gender issues”. This show how divergent are the views of the interviewees pertaining to the exclusion of Minister of Gender, Children and Social Protection from the core Cabinet of this present New Patriotic Party (NPP) government in relation to their commitments to gender issues. Finally, when asked whether the exclusion will impact negatively on gender issues, interviewee E said “Absolutely Yes”. The staff from the Ministry also said “No can be 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh assessed after some time”. This shows that not all the participants agree that the exclusion will have any negative impact on gender issues in the country. 4.5 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND FINDINGS It has been posited that the varying roles of men and women in various communities, the social structure and strict adherence to customs and traditions in patriarchal African societies have made the fight against gender inequality and the call for women empowerment very difficult in Africa and specifically Ghana as a country (Tsikata&Seini, 2004). In the face of all these constraining factors hindering gender equality on the African continent, some African countries like Rwanda have done the unthinkable by overtaking most developed countries like the United States and United th Kingdom on gender equality issues (Kelly, 2009). Rwanda, ranks sixth (6 ) on the Global Gender Report which was released in 2015 being beaten only by countries like Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden and Ireland (World Economic Forum, 2015). Ghana being the first sub-Saharan African country to obtain independence, instituted some measures right after independence which were aimed at ensuring gender equality and empowering of women in the country. This was done by establishing the National Council of Women and reserving „special‟ seats in the legislature for women (Tsikata, 2009). More so, the National Council on Women and Development (NCWD) was set up in 1975 to mainly deal with gender issues and ensure women empowerment. Again, in 2001, the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs (MOWAC) was also established to deal mainly with issues concerning women. In 2013, the name of the Ministry was again changed to the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection with an oversight responsibility of ensuring gender 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh equality and empowerment of women. In spite of the creation of these Ministries, the nation continues to be plagued with gender issues and there seems to be retrogression in this aspect. From the analysis of the qualitative data, the interviewees were asked whether they have any knowledge about gender inequality issues in the country. All the interviewees responded in the affirmative indicating that they are fully aware of the existence of gender inequality issues in the country and some even went on to give some examples of occurrences of gender inequality at various levels of society in the country. Interviewee B who is a civil society staff said “Yes- gender gap in health, workplace etc; cultural (male children are preferred to females); religious (Moslem women can’t preach and lead prayers); education (some courses are perceived to be for boys and vice versa example medical doctors for men and nursing for women), boys names are written first before girls, senior prefect for boys and girls prefect for only girls”. According to Sen (2001), gender inequality is “not one homogenous phenomenon, but a collection of disparate and interlinked problems” (pp.22). Sen (2001) considers some of the gender inequality issues as unequal access to schooling for girls, unequal access to professional training for females, unequal salary or income between males and females for the same work done as well as others. On how government has responded to gender issues from 2001-2016, it was observed that the government has done a lot to improve gender inequality from 2001-2016. These findings can be grouped into policy response, institutional response, practical response and financial response. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5.1 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSE From the analysis of the qualitative data from the interviewees, it was seen that from 2001-2016, the government has enacted and passed a number of bills that are aimed at ensuring gender equality and empowering women. Some of them are; Domestic violence (Act 732) in 2007, Human Trafficking Act, Children‟s Act (under review), Children and Family Welfare Policy, Social Protection Policy, Disability Act, National Gender Policy and Affirmative Action (Gender Equality Bill). According to interviewee E “Since 2001, Kuffour government created a ministry specifically focused on women and children. Creating a ministry for women and its own problems .Development mainstream gender issues in other ministries, women have been appointed to high profile positions, numbers of women ministers have increased, DOVVSU, first women speaker, Chief Justice, acting IGP , CHRAJ Acting. In terms of female representation in politics more women. Affirmative action bill has not been passed. It will force political parties to increase the number of women politicians”. Moreover, it has been established that since 2001, government has responded positively to gender inequality by creating a Ministry specifically focused on women and children. It was also established that since 2001, women have been appointed to high profile positions in the country with specific ones being first female Speaker of Parliament, first female Chief Justice, first female Acting Inspector General of Police and first female acting CHRAJ head. Again, the number of women ministers have increased and finally, Minister of Women and Children Affairs appear more focused on women than ever before. To show the commitment of the country to gender issues, the Government of Ghana together with 188 other countries, adopted the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (PfA), which identified inequality between women and men in the sharing of power and decision making at all levels of 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh government (Tsikata, 2009). The Beijing Conference among other things called for ensuring gender equality and women empowerment by all signatory states (Tinker, 2004). Ghana signing on to all these international treaties and declarations and also, ratifying most of them shows the nation's commitment to ensure gender equality in every part of the nation and also, to give women a voice in governance and leadership. All these shows how positively the government has responded to gender inequality since 2001. 4.5.2 POLICY RESPONE On gender policy measures that government has put in place to address gender inequality issues from 2001-2016, it has been found out that government has put in place a number of policies aimed at addressing gender inequality issues in the country with specific reference to 2001-2016. From the qualitative data, the interviewees named some of the policies government has put in place to address gender inequality issues during the years under review. On that, the staff from the Ministry said “Domestic violence (Act 732) in 2007, Human Trafficking Act, Children’s Act (under review), Children and Family Welfare Policy, Social Protection Policy, Disability Act, National Gender Policy, Affirmative Action (Gender Equality Bill)”. Interviewee D said “Courses on gender are being introduced. Center for gender at the University of Ghana, Academic publications and Seminars by Center for Gender Studies (CEGENSA)”. The analysis of the quantitative data also established that some of the measures put in place to address gender inequality in the country from 2001-2016 include but are not limited to; Making sure 40% appointment to public boards are females, making sure 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30% appointment to Municipal and District Assemblies are also females, efforts to empower women economically, setting up of departments such as National Council for Women and Development, Department of Social Welfare among others. Some of the other gender policies that have been put in place by government to ensure gender equality are; establishment of Women Development Fund, passage of the Domestic Violence Act, improved awareness of gender inequality issues and steps to improve gender issues, LEAP (for the aged and single mothers and also, the establishment of WAJJU/DOVVSU to deal with domestic violence issues. Regarding government policies to enhance gender inequality, the government enacted a National Gender and Children‟s Policy in 2004 spearheaded by the Ministry of Women and Children‟s Affairs. The overall goal of the policy is to mainstream gender concerns in the national development process in order to improve the social, legal/civic, political, economic and cultural conditions of the people of Ghana particularly women and children (Tsikata, 2009). Also, cabinet issued a White Paper on an affirmative action policy which established a 40 percent quota for women‟s representation on all government boards, commissions, committees and other official bodies (Tsikata, 2009). All these are policies and measures instituted that aimed at ensuring gender equality in the country. 4.5.3 PRACTICAL RESPONS With regards to the extent to which governments have implemented gender policies with the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs from 2001-2016, the analysis of the collected data established that governments have done a lot as far as the implementation of gender policies are concerned after the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs from 2001-2016. This is evident from the 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh establishment of the Domestic Violence Service Unit (DOVSU) within the Ghana Police Service to deal with domestic violence issues, the appointment of over 40% of public board members being women and 30% of Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDA‟s) also being women among other gender implemented policies. Also, laws that aim to abolish and criminalize some bad cultural practices such as the „Trokosi‟ system and the wicked widowhood rites that negatively affected females have also been enacted. All these are clear indications of the extent that government has gone in implementing gender policies with the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs from 2001-2016. The Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection has done a lot to address gender inequality from 2013-2016. From 2013-2016, the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection has ensured the establishment of the Women Development Fund to help economically empower women. The Ministry has also helped to pass the Domestic Violence Act which aims to eliminate or drastically reduce domestic violence in various homes. Another thing the Ministry has done is to improve gender awareness through education and sensitization. Gender equality has been found to lead to an increase in the overall development and wellbeing of societies (Branisa, Klasen, and Ziegler 2013) and as such, it is imperative that society try to improve the lot of women in all spheres of society. 4.5.3.1 Addressing Domestic Violence by the Ghana Government and the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection In 1993, the United Nations General Assembly passed the Elimination of Violence against Women which became the first time that violence against women was officially defined (Llika, 2005). A meeting in the later part of the same year, the UN 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Conference on Human Rights recognized violence against women as a very serious violation of human right. This meeting made the call for all international, regional and national programmes to develop intervention and strategies to address this kind of violence against women. Ghana in responding to this call started the process of passing of legislation on domestic violence in 1998. Civil society groups such as the Leadership and Advocacy for Women in Africa (LAWA) and the International Federation for Women Lawyers (FIDA) took very active role in pushing for the domestic violence bill to be presented to parliament and subsequently be passed. The first draft bill was presented to the Attorney General for consideration in 2001 and a National Domestic Violence Coalition was also set up in 2003 and with much agitation from civil society groups, st the bill was passed into law on 21 February, 2007, nine years after the first discussion on the subject (Adomako, 2008). The passage of the bill saw the establishment of the Domestic Violence Victims Services Unit (DOVVSU) within the Ghana Police Service with the sole aim to protect women against domestic violence and other forms of violence from the opposite sex. This department within the Ghana Police Service was staffed with resource persons knowledgeable in domestic violence issues and as such, are able to go to the aid of such victims. 4.5.3.2 Affirmative Actions Tsikata (2009) defined affirmative action as “a set of measures adopted by governments and public and private institutions such as political parties, educational establishments, corporations and companies to address a history of systemic discrimination and exclusion of particular social groups or to encourage the efforts of particular social groups in the interests of certain development goals. Affirmative 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh action is expected to improve development indicators by reducing inequalities and facilitating the contribution of particular social groups to development”. Affirmative action was first used in the United States to fight racial discrimination and the success of it has made it a model strategy that has been adopted by most nations across the world. It has been posited that affirmative action is nothing new in the political dispensation of this country. Affirmative action has been used in the country since the nation attained independence to address regional and gender imbalances in access to health, education and economic development. Affirmative action has yielded very positive results in terms of addressing the male-female ratio in primary education, ensuring equal regional developments and opportunities but been less effective in improving female representation in political and public office (Tsikata, 2009). The goals and the objectives of affirmative actions have not been realized due to since the basis for affirmative action is neither shared nor its intended beneficiaries seen as people with entitlements (Tsikata, 2009). The Representation of the People‟s Act which was enacted in 1960 became the first affirmative action law to be passed on the continent and as such, Ghana again became the first country to project affirmative action on the continent. This law was a direct expression of the government‟s commitment to ensure equal representation of both genders in national decision-making. In view of that, ten (10) women were automatically admitted into the National Assembly. Affirmative action has also been implemented in every level of the educational establishment and this has resulted in more females having undeniable access to education. In healthcare delivery also, affirmative action has resulted in reducing female mortality through the provisions of 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Health Insurance Scheme to pregnant mothers so that they can access healthcare at a much reduced cost. 4.5.4 Constraining Factors On some of the constraining factors hindering gender inequality in the country, it was established that some of the main challenges hindering the quest to promote gender equality and ensure women empowerment involves but are not limited to; Lack of political will(there is no law on Affirmative Action except policy guideline, Lack of financial resources, Lack of education on gender issues, Changing of staff each time there is a change of government, New things have been added that is, Social Protection, Gender Policy Programs are politically motivated that is, School Feeding and Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) and No district offices except special desks created at the various districts. From the qualitative data, when the interviewees were asked what the constraining factors of the quest to ensure and promote gender equality was, Interviewee B said “Illiteracy, Patriarchy- male dominated society, Laws are not enforced, Lack of political will, No social network for women, Outmoded cultural practices, Religious indoctrination and Financial constraints”. On the same question, the staff from the Ministry said “Budget allocation, Human resource and Cultural practices”. When asked that question, interviewee D stated that “Socio cultural, traditional barriers, money to educate both sexes”. Interviewee E also said “Socialization; traditional cultural practices; education at the secondary, tertiary and professional levels”. All these factors were found to have a very debilitating effect on the quest to achieve and ensure gender equality and women empowerment in the country. There is therefore the need to engage in massive education and sensitization of the populace to 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ensure that they are made to fully understand the concept of gender equality and women empowerment. This will go a long way to make sure the people are abreast with information and knowledge pertaining to gender equality. The study also found out that some of the other challenges hindering gender inequality in the country are; Limited budget allocation (less than 1%), Limited human resource and entrenched cultural practices. It is very sad to note that despite the efforts of the government and other stakeholders in promoting gender equality, factors such as inadequate budgetary allocation makes it very difficult if not impossible to employ the people with the necessary skills and knowledge to get on board the gender empowerment programme. 4.5.4.1 FINANCIAL RESPONSE 4.5.4.1a Budgetary Allocation to the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection The budgetary allocation to the Ministry is so minute and inadequate that it has become one of the main issues confronting the Ministry in its quest to promote gender equality in the country and to effectively run its numerous operations. On the budget allocation to the Ministry to help run its operations and activities, it was found out that the budget allocation to the Ministry has always been less than 1% of the national budget which is far below expectation (see Table 4. below). The study found out that in spite of all the efforts by government to ensure gender equality and women empowerment in the country, the budget allocation and the staffing of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection is very small compared to other Ministries. 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In 2001, the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs was allocated GHC 6.99 billion which was equivalent to 0.05% of the national budget. In 2002, the Ministry was again allocated GHC 6.7 billion which was equivalent to 0.07% of the national budget and in 2003, the Ministry was allocated 0.08% of the national budget which was equivalent to GHC 9.7 billion. . In 2004, the Ministry was allocated 20,563 million which was equivalent to 0.083% of the national budget and in 2005, the Ministry was allocated 18, 34 billion which was equivalent to 0.05% of the national budget and in 2006, the Ministry was allocated GHC 27, 971 million which was equivalent to 0.072% of the national budget. In 2007, the Ministry was again allocated GHC 34, 064 million representing 0.06% of the national budget and in 2008, the Ministry was allocated GHC 4, 982, 677 which is roughly the equivalent to 0.7% of the national budget. In 2009, the Ministry was allocated GHC 9, 570, 785 which is roughly equivalent to as little as 0.1% of the national budget. In 2010, the Ministry was allocated GHC 8, 518, 670 which is also equivalent to 0.13% of the national budget. In 2011, the Ministry was allocated GHC 13, 349, 424 which was equivalent to 0.17% of the national budget and in 2012, the Ministry was allocated GHC 15, 688, 201 which was equivalent to 0.14% of the national budget. In 2013, the Ministry was allocated GHC 38, 596 million representing 0.13% of the national budget, in 2014, the Ministry was again allocated 91, 038 million representing 0.26% of the national budget, in 2015, the Ministry was allocated GHC 43, 631 million representing 0.11% of the national budget and in 2016, the Ministry was allocated 49, 520 million representing another 0.11% of the national budget. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From all the presented percentages of the budgetary allocations to the Ministry, it was observed that none of them in all the years of presentation was up to 1%. This confirms the findings of the study by Tsikata (2009) who found out that MOWAC‟s share of budgetary allocations ranged between 0.23 percent and 0.41 percent of the national budget (Tsikata, 2009). This clearly shows that even though the government is doing much to ensure gender equality in the country, much more needs to be done in terms of financial commitment to adequately ensure that the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection have enough financial resources to carry out their mandated duty of promoting and protecting the interest of females in the country. With enough financial resources, the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection will also be able to engage in sensitization programmes in order to hel eradicate some of the negative cultural barriers affecting the quest to promote gender equality issues in the country. The budgetary allocation to the Ministry during the years under review are presented in Table 4. 17 below. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.17: BUDGETARY ALLOCATION TO THE MINISTRY OF GENDER, CHILDREN AND SOCIAL PROTECTION Budget Allocation to MOWAC (2001 – 2016) Trend Analysis of Budgetary Allocation in Relation to the National Budget to MOWAC for the Period 2001 – 2016 Year Total payments (budget) Amount Allocated Percentage to Ministry Allocated 2001 ½13,826.7 billion ¢6.99 billion 0.05% 2002 ¢16,359.7 billion, ¢ 6.7 billion 0.07% 2003 ¢21,347.6 billion, ¢9.7 billion 0.08% 2004 ¢24,853.0 billion, ¢20,563 million 0.083% 2005 ¢34,618.9 billion. ¢18.34 billion 0.05% 2006 ¢38,972.8 billion, ¢27,971 million 0.72% 2007 GH¢54,315.9 billion GH¢34,064 million 0.06% 2008 GH¢71,071,631.3billion GH¢49,826 million 0.7 2009 GH¢97,931.0 billion GH¢95, 707 0.1 million 2010 GH¢65, 847,816 billion GH¢85, 186 0.13 million 2011 GH¢79, 262, 231.9 GH¢133, 494 0.17 billion million 2012 GH¢109, 390, 480. 2 GH¢156, 820 0.14 million million 2013 GH¢30,544.3 billion GH¢38,596,470.00 0.13% 2014 GH¢34,956.8 billion GH¢91,038,708.00 0.26% 2015 GH¢41,222 billion GH¢43,631,694.00 0.11% 2016 GH¢46,445.7 billion GH¢49,520,377.00 0.11% Source – MOFEP/MOWAC 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh All these factors are known to have a very significant effect on the quest to achieve gender equality in the country. In that regard, any effort aimed at attaining gender equality must also take cognizance of the factors raised above. The next chapter which is the last chapter of the study will look at the summary of findings of the study, the theoretical implication of the study, the conclusion of the study and the recommendations of the study. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, THEORETICAL IMPLICATION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the summary of findings generated from the study, the theoretical Implication of the study, the necessary recommendations that have been suggested based on the findings of the study and the conclusions that were drawn at the end of the study. 5.2 Summary of Findings The study sought to investigate government responses to gender inequality in Ghana‟s Fourth Republic from 2001-2016 using the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs/Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection. It tried to assess gender policy measures governments have put in place to address gender inequality issues from 2001-2016. It further tried to examine the extent to which governments have implemented gender policies with the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs from 2001-2016 and also, to evaluate the work of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection from 2013-2016 in addressing gender inequality issues in the country. The study further examined the constraining factors hindering gender equality in Ghana and subsequently, suggest recommendations for attaining gender equality in Ghana. At the end of the study, it was found out that the government has responded very positively to gender issues in the Fourth Republic with some policies and measures 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which have been aimed at promoting gender equality in the country. These policies and measures have seen a steady increase since 2001-2016 when the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection was established. The study also found out that government has put in place a number gender policy measures to address gender inequality from 2001-2016. Some of those policies were named and how they have helped in promoting gender equality issues identified. On the extent to which Ghanaian governments have implemented gender policies with the creation of the Ministry of Gender Children and Social Protection from 2001-2016, the study also found out that the government has done a lot as far as the implementation of gender policies are concerned such as the establishing quota for female enrollment in tertiary education to criminalization of wicked widowhood rites and Female Genital Mutilation. This showed the commitment on the part of government to ensure and promote gender equality in the country. On the evaluation of the work of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection from 2013-2016 in addressing gender inequality issues, the study found out that the Ministry has really made steady progress as far as gender equality issues are concerned even though a lot needs to be done. The study established that given the short period of time within which the Ministry was established and the kind of work that they have done is very impressive and worthy of commendation from all and sundry. In less than two decades of its establishment, the Ministry have worked in close collaboration with parliament to criminalize child marriages, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), wicked widowhood rites which was demeaning to the dignity of women and also spearheaded the establishment of the Domestic Violence Service Unit (DOVVSU) in the Ghana Police Service. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study further found out that there are a number of constraining factors hindering gender equality issues in the country. Nonetheless, two of the main constraining factors are cultural barriers and financial constraints. Based on these findings of the study, the recommended solutions were suggested for government and all stakeholders in gender equality issues in the country. 5.3 Theoretical Implication The quest to ensure gender equality and women empowerment has seen a number of governments across the globe responding to gender equality issues in various ways (Giridhar, 2012). In the words of Giridhar (2012), whilst most developed countries in the world have legislation put in place to promote gender equality issues, only few countries in the developing world have enacted such policies. More so, according to Adomako (2008), most sub-Saharan African countries are having a lot of challenges with the enactment of legislation which will ensure that the governments in these countries are responding to gender inequality due to cultural as well as social barriers to these legislations. According to the intervention theory, to intervene is to enter into an ongoing system of relationship, to come between or among persons, groups, or objects for the purpose of helping them (Argyris, 1970). An intervener in this sense, assists a system to become more effective in problem solving, decision making and decision implementation in such a way that the system can continue to be increasingly effective in these activities and have a decreasing need for the intervener. An intervener also focuses on activities and actions that eventually (not necessarily immediately) provide the people with opportunities to enhance their competence and 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh effectiveness and to do away with all forms of barriers and hindrances that plague the people‟s personal growth and development. Government has intervened to promote gender equality by signing on to treaties, both regional and international as well as passing legislations to ensure gender equality and empowerment (Giridhar, 2012; Ortiz-Barreda&Vives-Cases, 2013). Based on this background, it was observed from the findings of the study that government has done a lot in promoting gender equality and still continues to do more as far as gender inequality are concerned. 5.4 Conclusion The study investigated government responses to gender inequality in Ghana‟s Fourth Republic from 2001-2016 using the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection as a case study. It further tried to identify how government has responded to gender issues in the Fourth Republic with specific reference to 2001-2016 and also, to assess gender policy measures governments have put in place to address gender inequality from 2001-2016. The study went on to examine the extent to which governments have implemented gender policies with the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs from 2001-2016 and also, to evaluate the work of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection from 2013-2016 in addressing gender inequality in the country. It went further to examine the constraining factors hindering gender equality in Ghana and to suggest recommendations for attaining gender equality in Ghana.  At the end of the study, it was found out that governments of the Fourth Republic have responded positively from 2001-2016 as far as gender issues in 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the country are concerned. The efforts of government from 2001-2016 in ensuring gender equality have involved the establishment of a Ministry dedicated specifically to gender issues, the appointment of more females to high offices and positions in the country, the appointment of more women to public boards and Municipal and District Assemblies, the enactment and passage of legislations to deal with gender equality issues among others.  The study also found out that government has put in place gender policy measures to address gender inequality from 2001-2016. Some of the gender policy measures include but are not limited to; the National Gender Policy which is aimed at ensuring women empowerment and gender equality. The National Gender Policy also aim at ensuring equal representation of females in both political and other public offices. The Domestic Violence Act was also passed in 2007 in order to address issues of domestic violence that were occurring at an alarming rate in the country. The passage of this Act saw the establishment of the Domestic Service Unit (DOVSU) of the police service to specifically deal with domestic violence issues.  It was established that government has done well in implementing some of the policies and measures after the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs from Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection.  The study further established that even though a number of policies have been implemented, a lot needs to be done in addressing gender inequality in the country. 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  On the evaluation of the work of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection from 2013-2016 in addressing gender inequality in the country, the study found out that the Ministry has done a lot in addressing gender issues in the country during the years under review. This is as a result of the policies such as the National Gender Policy that government put in place to promote gender equality in the country which was carried out by the Ministry.  On the factors that hinder gender equality issues in the country, the study found a number of factors that hinder the quest to promote and ensure gender equality in the country, with the key ones being cultural practices and inadequate budgetary allocations resulting in financial challenges.  It was also found out that the quest to promote and ensure gender equality will not be achieved if these two main constraining factors are not adequately addressed. The issue of culture can be addressed through education and public sensitization whilst the issue of inadequate budgetary allocation can be addressed through the increase of the budgetary allocation to the Ministry on the part of the government. The study finally made some suggestion to government, the Ministry and all stakeholders in gender issues on the best way that will help in addressing and achieving the goal of gender equality that has eluded the nation for so many years now. 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.5 Recommendations Following the findings of the study, the following recommendations have been suggested for the government and all stakeholders in gender issues as well as future researchers who will want to research on gender inequality issues in the country. Some of the recommendations suggested are;  The government as a matter of urgency must try to increase the budgetary allocation to the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection so that they will have adequate funds to carry out their mandated duty of promoting and enhancing gender equality issues. Getting sufficient funds will help the Ministry to employ expert labor who will help to meet its obligation. Having enough funds will also make it easy for the Ministry to set up offices in all Municipal and District Assemblies across the country where their representatives can effectively monitor, assess and report on all gender issues across the country.  The Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection must also try to ensure that gender offices are set up in all the Municipal and District offices across the country. This will ensure that goals and aims of the Ministry are brought to the doorsteps of the people. Having offices across the country will also enhance the awareness creation of the Ministry as far as gender equality issues in the country are concerned and also, help to educate and sensitize the populace on gender inequality and the mandate of the Ministry. 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  The Ministry must work to effectively collaborate with other key stakeholders such as Civil Society Groups and other developmental agenciesin order to ensure the promotion of gender equality issues. Close collaboration with all stakeholders will ensure that achievable goals are set and all available resources are pooled in order to attain those goals. This will greatly enhance the quest to attain gender equality in the country.  The government and the Ministry must work together to ensure the passage and the enforcement of the Affirmative Action Bill. This bill will make it imperative for the government to work towards the full attainment of female political and economic empowerment.  The Ministry must also set up Women Empowerment Fund from which funds will be made available to economically empower women in the society. Ensuring gender equality with no economic empowerment will be problematic since a lot of the women will still depend on men for sustenance, which could give some men advantage to abuse them. Ensuring the women are economically empowered will mean they are able to live independently of any man.  The Ministry, civil society, scholars and all other stakeholders must work together to increase advocacy and public education on gender equality issues so that people will know what entails gender equality and women empowerment. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Since cultural barriers were identified as one of the main challenges confronting the quest to promote gender equality in the country, traditional authorities in the various communities must take active interest in the fight against gender inequality so that with their office, they can educate and sensitize their people on the relevance of gender equality to national development. If these custodians of the cultural heritage are involved in this task, it will go a long way to achieve considerable success in that regard.  Future researchers can also look at the factors that are hindering the passage of the Affirmative Action Bill that is still in parliament.  Other studies can also look at how traditional institutions in the country such as the Chieftaincy institution and others are also working to do away with negative cultural practices that hinder gender equality issues and their contribution to ensure gender equality in the society. 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh BIBLIOGRAPHY Abankwah, V. and Abebe, M. (2011), Economic Empowerment of Rural Women in Northern Ghana. Clarion University of Pennsylvania, Clarion and Pennsylvania, Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 13(2) 106-108. Amoako, E. (2011), The Performances Of Women Candidates In The 2010 District LevelElections In The Three Northern Regions. 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(2014), Economic Development and Female Labour Participation in the Middle East and North Africa  :A Test of the U-Shape Hypothesis, The World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/06/19686510/economicdevel opment-female-labour-participation-middle-east-north-africa-test-u- shapehypothesis. Retrieved on 4th February, 2017. WASCI, (2009).The status of Women’s Leadership in West Africa. Accra, Ghana. Weyer, B. (2007). Twenty years later: explaining the persistence of the glass ceiling for women leaders. Women in Management Review, 22(6), 482-496. Williford, M. (1975), Bentham on the Rights of Women, Journal of the History of Ideas, (36), 167–176. World Bank (2001), Engendering Development, Washington DC, The World Bank. 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh World Bank (2011), World Development Report 2012: Gender equality and development. http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/E XTWDRS/EXTWDR2012/0,,contentMDK:22999750~pagePK:64167689~piPK :6416767. Retrieved on 4th February, 2017. Zhang, N. (2013). Rural women migrant returnees in contemporary China. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 40(1), 171-188. 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX ONE (1) INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ACADEMIC SCHOLARS This Interview Guide is design for academic research and is aimed at investigating government responses to gender inequality in Ghana‟s Fourth Republic from 2001- 2016. I want to thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. My name is Mrs. Owusu-Mensah, an MPhil final year student of the Department of Political Science, University of Ghana, Legon. I am interested in knowing more about the role of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection since its inception. The interview should not take more than one (1) hour. I will be taping the session because I do not want to miss any of your comments. All information that would be given will be used for academic purposes only. This means that your interview responses will only be shared with research team members like my supervisor and external supervisor and we will ensure that all the information given including our reports are used for academic purposes. Also, where you are not comfortable your identity shall not be made know . ……………………………... .……………………… (Interviewee) Date: 1. Do you have any knowledge about gender inequality issues? 2. How did you come to learn about gender inequality issues? 3. Were gender issues given the needed attention they deserve in Ghana from 1993- 2000? 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. Has the government done enough as far as gender issues are concerned? 5. Did the creation of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection improve gender equality issues? 6. If yes, what are some of the policies the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and the government implemented to enhance gender issues? 7. What role have scholars played in addressing gender inequality and how have they performed these roles? 8. Is there a better policy coordination regarding gender inequalities issues between the Ministry of Gender and Social Protection and other state agencies? What has contributed to the poor or better coordination and how has it helped in women empowerment? 9. What are the factors that hinder gender equality issues in the country? 10. Is there any difference between Ministry of Gender,Children and Social Protection and Ministry of Women and Children‟s Affairs? (See a and b below) a. If there is a difference, how is the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection addressing issues of gender inequality differently from the Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs? b. If there is no difference what is your view on the change of name of the ministry and do you think the change of name may negatively affect their role in addressing issues gender inequalities? 11. What can be done by the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and the government to improve gender equality issues? 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12How do you see the future of Ghana regarding Gender equality and empowerment of women? 13. How can scholars contribute to the improvement of gender equality in Ghana? 14. What measures can be put forward in Government‟s quest to advance gender equality in Ghana? 15. Does the exclusion of Minister of Gender, Children and Social Protection from the core Cabinet of this present New Patriotic Party (NPP) government show lack of commitments to gender issues? 16. Will the exclusion impact negatively on the quest to empower women? APPENDIX TWO (2) INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATION This Interview Guide is designed for academic research and is aimed at investigating government response to gender inequality in Ghana‟s Fourth Republic from 2001- 2016.I want to thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. My name is Mrs. Owusu-Mensah, an MPhil final year student of the Department of Political Science, University of Ghana, Legon. I am interested in knowing more about the role of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection since its inception. The interview should not take more than one (1) hour. I will be taping the session because I do not want to miss any of your comments. All information that would be given will be used for academic purposes only. This means that your interview responses will only be shared with research team members like my supervisor and external supervisor and we will ensure that all the information given including our reports are used for academic purposes. Also, where you are not comfortable your identity shall not be made know . ……………………………... .……………………… (Interviewee) Date: 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. Do you have any knowledge about gender inequality issues? 2. How did you come to learn about gender inequality issues? 3. Are gender issues treated with the seriousness it deserves in Ghana? 4. If No, what are the factors that hinder gender equality issues being treated with the seriousness it deserves? 5. Were gender issues given the needed attention they deserve in Ghana from 1993- 2000? 6. Who are some of the stakeholders when it comes to gender inequality issues in Ghana? Are these stakeholders doing enough to help government address gender inequality? Kindly explain 7. What role have civil society groups played to ensure gender equality in Ghana? 8. In your opinion, has the government done enough as far as gender issues are concerned? 9. Did the creation of the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs/Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection improve gender equality issues? 10.If yes, what are some of the policies the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs/Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and the government have implemented to enhance gender issues? 11. What are some of the factors that hinder gender equality issues in the country? 12. How can civil society groups contribute to the improvement of gender equality in 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana? 13. What can be done by the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and the government to improve gender equality issues? 14. Does the exclusion of Minister of Gender, Children and Social Protection from the core Cabinet of this present New Patriotic Party (NPP) government show lack of commitments to gender issues? 15. Will the exclusion impact negatively on the quest to empower women? APPENDIX THREE (3) INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE MINISTRY OF GENDER, CHILDREN AND SOCIAL PROTECTION This Interview Guide is design for academic research and is aimed at investigating government response to gender inequality in Ghana‟s Fourth Republic from 2001- 2016. I want to thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. My name is Mrs. Owusu-Mensah, an MPhil final year student of the Department of Political Science, University of Ghana, Legon. I am interested in knowing more about the role of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection since its inception. The interview should not take more than one (1) hour. I will be taping the session because I do not want to miss any of your comments. All information that would be given will be used for academic purposes only. This means that your interview responses will only be shared with research team members like my supervisor and external supervisor and we will ensure that all the information given including our reports are used for academic purposes. Also, where you are not comfortable your identity shall not be made known. . ……………………………... .……………………… (Interviewee) Date: 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. Do you have any knowledge about gender inequality issues? 2. How did you come to learn about gender inequality issues? 3. Are gender issues treated with the seriousness it deserves in Ghana? 4. If No, what are the factors that hinder gender issues being treated with the seriousness it deserves? 5. Weregender issues giventhe needed attention they deserve in Ghana from 1993- 2000? 6. Did the creation of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection improve gender issues in Ghana? 7. If yes, what are some of the policies the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and the government implemented to enhance gender issues? 8. Is there any difference between Ministry of Gender,Children and Social Protection and Ministry of Women and Children‟s Affairs? (See a and b below) a. If there is a difference, how is the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection addressing issues of gender inequality differently from the Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs? b. If there is no difference what is your view on the change of name of the ministry and do you think the change of name may negatively affect their role in addressing issues gender inequalities? 9. Who are some of the stakeholders when it comes to gender inequality issues in Ghana? Are these stakeholders doing enough to help government address gender inequality? Kindly explain. 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10. Is there a better policy coordination regarding gender inequalities issues between the Ministry of Gender and Social Protection and other state agencies? What has contributed to thepoor or better coordination and how has it helped in women empowerment? 11. What would you consider to be some of the constraining factors hindering gender equality in Ghana? 12. Specifically, what would you consider to be some of the constraining factors hindering the performance of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection? 13. What can be done by the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection and the government to improve gender equality issues? 14. How do you see the future of Ghana regarding Gender equality and empowerment of women? 15. How can ordinary citizens contribute to the improvement of gender equality in Ghana? 16. What measures can be put forward in Government‟s quest to advance gender equality in Ghana? 17. Does the exclusion of Minister of Gender, Children and Social Protection from the Cabinet of this present New Patriotic Party(NPP) government show lack of commitments to gender issues? 18. Will the exclusion impact negatively on the quest to empower women? 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX FOUR (4) BUDGETARY ALLOCATION TO THE MINISTRY OF GENDER, CHILDREN AND SOCIAL PROTECTION 1.6 Budget Allocation to MOWAC (2008 – 2012) Trend Analysis of Budgetary Allocation in Relation to the National Budget to MOWAC for the Period 2008 – 2012 Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 GH¢ GH¢ GH¢ GH¢ GH¢ National 7,107,163,135.93 9,793,100,000 6,584,781,600 7,926,223,191 10,939,048, Budget 025.00 MOWAC 4,982,677 9,570,785 8,518,670 13,349,424 15,688,201. Budget 00 Percentage 0.7 0.1 0.13 0.17 0.14 (%) Source – MOFEP/MOWAC Financial Performance for 2012 ITEMS (A) APPROVED AMOUNT ACTUAL VARIANCE PERC BUDGET (B) RELEASED EXPENDITURE (B- C = E) ENTA (C) (D) GE (F) COMPENSATION 1,631,045.00 1,511,697.22 1,511,697.22 119,347.78 93 GOODS & 1,713,004.00 877,398.80 877,398.80 835,605.20 49 SERVICES ASSETS 489,110.00 2,570,805.20 2,570,805.20 (2,081,695.20) 526 TOTAL GOG 3,833,159.00 4,959,901.22 4,959,901.22 (1,126,742.22) 130 DONOR FUNDS 11,840,332.00 7,692,006.84 7,692,006.84 4,148,215.11 65 IGF 14,710.00 20,333.00 5,781.00 5,623.00 138 TOTAL 15,688,201.00 12,672,241.06 12,657,689.06 3,027,095.89 81 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Financial Performance for 2014 ITEMS APPROVE AMOUNT ACTUAL VARIANC REMARKS (A) D BUDGET RELEASED EXPENDITU E (B- C) = (B) (C) RE (D) E COMPE 17,335,506 19,686,993 19,686,993 (2,351,486) The Ministry NSATIO exceeded its N budget for compensation by an amount of 2,351,486. This is because although District Social Welfare Staff are now part of the District Assembly, they were still being paid from the Ministry’s vote. * 45,000,000 20,760,449.25 18,029,310 24,239,550. An amount of GOODS 75 24,239550.75 is & yet to be released SERVIC for the ES Ministry’s operations. CAPEX 1,349,350 - - 1,349,350 The Ministry is yet to receive any release for capital 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh expenditure TOTAL 63,684,856 40,447,442.25 37,716,303 - GOG DONOR 27,336,302 23,765,203 22,565,184 3,571,099 The Ministry FUNDS received GH ₵ 23,765,203 of Donor funds. The bulk of the monies released were utilized for the LEAP cash transfer programme IGF 17,550 37,435.00 30,680.84 (19,885) The Ministry exceeded its IGF by 19,885. This is as a result of the new accounting regulations put in place Grand 91,038,708 64,250,078.98 60,312,167.57 Total 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 1. Financial Performance for 2015 (As at 25th October, 2015) Excluding Leap Transfers I T E M S ( A ) APPROVED BUDGET (B) AMOUNT RECEIVED (C) ACTUAL EXPENDITURE (D) VARIANCE (B- C) = E REMARKS COMPENSATION 13,725,775.00 13,535,219.81 1 3 ,5 35 ,2 19 .8 1 1 9 0 , 55 5 . 1 9 98.61% of the budget has been paid as at 30th Sep, 2015 GOODS & SERVICES 9 , 50 0 , 00 0 . 0 0 1,297,043.67 9 7 3 , 3 5 6 . 5 9 8,526,643.41 Out of the total budget, the Ministry has received only 13.65% of the amount. 75.04% of Amount received is spent. C A P E X 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 - - 5 0 0 , 00 0 . 0 0 The Ministry is seeking approval for the release of amount TOTAL GOG 23,725,775.00 14,832,263.48 1 4 ,5 08 ,5 76 .4 0 9,217,198.60 61.15% represents Total Expenditure of Total GoG Budget for the year . D P 19,890,715.00 7,308,917.65 7 , 3 0 8 , 9 1 7 . 6 5 12,581,797.35 I G F 1 5 , 2 0 4 . 0 0 5 0 , 3 0 0 . 0 0 1 8 , 2 5 0 . 1 0 ( 3 5 , 06 9 . 00 ) 50% of amount released (50,300.00) was sent to consolidated fund. 25,150.00 was therefore retained to be expended. Out of which 18,250.10 was actually expended. Grand Tota l 43,631,694.00 22,191,454.13 2 1 ,8 35 ,7 44 .0 5 21,763,926.95 Table B1: Financial Performance for 2016 Excluding Leap and School Feeding ITEMS (A) APPROVED AMOUNT ACTUAL VARIANCE (B- C) = REMAR BUDGET (B) RELEASED (C) EXPENDITURE E KS (D) COMPENSATION 18,206,956.00 18,276,294.25 18,276,294.25 (69,338.25) The appro ved budge t was over spent by GHS 69,338 .25 GOODS & 2,750,000.00 680,633.00 678,213.35 2,069,367.00 Out of SERVICES the total budge t the Minist ry has receiv 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ed only 25% of the amou nt. CAPEX - - TOTAL GOG 20,956,956.00 18,956,927.25 18,954,507.60 2,000,028.75 90% of the total budge ted amou nt has been releas ed DP 28,508,684.00 8,991,554.83 8,991,554.83 21,570,216.79 32% of the total budge ted amou nt has been receiv ed IGF 470,566.43 531,177.04 28,518.49 (60,610.61) 50% of GHC 57,036 .98 genera ted by Depar tment of Childr en was paid into the consol idated fund, thus, an 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh amou nt of GHC 28,518 .49 was retain ed and spent. Again, 100% of the amou nt of GHC 477,92 1.04 genera ted by the Depar tment of Social Welfa re was paid into the consol idated fund. Grand Total 49,936,206.43 28,475,659.12 27,974,580.92 21,456547.31 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX FIVE (5) List of study participants a. Quantitative Data 1. Fifty One (51) Members of Parliament b. Qualitative Data 2. Two (2) staff selected from Women in Law and Development (WilDAF) 3. Four (4) staff from Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection 4. Two (2) Lecturers from Academia 126