1 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS AND DIPLOMACY, LECIAD AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF UK-FUNDED PROJECTS TO THE FIGHT AGAINST ORGANIZED CRIME AND NARCOTICS: THE CASE OF GHANA BETWEEN 2010 TO 2020 BY SAUDA YUSIF 10640017 THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LEGON JUNE 2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of original research undertaken by me under the supervision of and that no part of it has been submitted elsewhere for any other purpose. Further, references to the work of other persons or bodies have been duly acknowledged. ……………………………….. …..………………………………. SAUDA YUSIF PHILIP ATTUQUAYEFIO (STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 DEDICATION I dedicate this piece of work to My Family. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my foremost gratitude to God, and to my supervisor for his continuous support and contributions throughout the process of this dissertation. I thank him for his useful suggestions and guidance which have helped shape this document. I am also grateful to my entire family, for their unwavering support, throughout the entire process. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Table of Contents DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. 2 DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................... 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 10 1.1 Background to the Study 10 1.2 Statement of the Problem 12 1.3 Scope of the Research 15 1.4 Rationale of Study 15 1.5 Research Questions 16 1.6 Research Objectives 16 1.7 Theoretical Framework 16 1. 8 Literature Review ....................................................................................................... 19 1.. 1 The Concept of Organized Crime 19 1.8 Typology of Organised Crime 22 1.8.1 DRUG TRAFFICKING ...................................................................................... 22 1.8.2 Illicit Financial Flows ......................................................................................... 24 1.9.3 The Threat of Organized Crime to Nations 25 1.10 Sources of Data 27 1.11 Research Methodology 27 1.12 Research Design 28 1.13 Sampling Procedure 29 1.14 Sample Size 29 1.15 Data Analysis and Interpretation 29 1.16 Ethical Considerations 31 1.17 Study Limitations 1.18 Arrangemet of Chapter 31 2.1. Organized crime in Africa 33 2.2. Forms of organized crime in Africa 35 2.2.1 Drug Trafficking ................................................................................................. 35 2.2.2. Human Trafficking ............................................................................................ 36 2.3. Organized crime in Ghana 37 2.4. Scope of organized crime in Ghana 38 2.4.1. Drug trafficking ................................................................................................. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 2.4.2. Money laundering .............................................................................................. 42 2.4.3. Arms trafficking ................................................................................................ 43 2.5 Overview of UK-Funded Projects in Ghana 44 2.5.1. Impact on Law Enforcement Agencies ........................................................... 44 2.5.2. Border Security Enhancement ........................................................................ 44 2.5.3. Community-Based Interventions .................................................................... 44 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 46 3. 0 Introduction 46 46 3.1. Ghana-UK security cooperation 46 3.2 Economic and Organized Crime Office 47 3.3 Contributions of the UK to EOCO 49 3.4 Narcotics Control Commission 52 3.5 Contributions of the UK to the NCC 54 3.6 Factors impeding the fight against organized crime 58 3.6.1 Financial Constraints........................................................................................ 58 3.6.2. Logistics Challenges ......................................................................................... 59 3.6.3. Poor Inter-agency Collaboration..................................................................... 60 3.6.4. Transfers and Reassignments .......................................................................... 61 3.6.5. Legislative Constraints .................................................................................... 61 3.7. Conclusion 62 CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION .................................................................................................... 63 4.0 Introduction 4.1 Summary of Findings 63 4.2 Conclusion 68 4.3 Recommendations 69 REFERENCES 72 APPENDIX A ..................................................................................................................... 83 3.4 80 APPENDIX B ..................................................................................................................... 85 3.5 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 LIST OF TABLE(S) Table 1: Campana and Varese (2018) Manifestations of Organized Crime 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 ABSTRACT Many research and public discussions have centred on the significance of aid to country development. Without a doubt, development aid remains an essential aspect of Ghana's development narrative. It is a major financial inflow that helps to buffer Ghana's development. Over the years, the development literature is replete with donor nations' contributions aimed at augmenting developing countries' efforts toward growth and socioeconomic development. This examined the overall contributions of UK aid to Ghana's development, specifically its contributions to the fight against organized crime. The study was guided by the theory of international cooperation which highlights the gains of bilateral and multilateral relationships because of the shred benefit it presents to the actors involved. The study adopted a case study approach, which is qualitative method in the research. According to the study's findings, the United Kingdom was instrumental in the nation’s journey in fighting organized crime. Another finding demonstrated that the UK had contributed immensely to law enforcement agencies in their fight against the menace of organized crime. Another important finding is that the collaboration between the two states led to an improvement in intelligence sharing, logistical support, better training and generally a better service delivery of the Narcotics Control Commission. Aside this contribution to the Narcotics Control Commission, the UK government has also made considerable contributions to the efforts of the Economic and Organized Crime Office. The study however identified some challenges such as the lack of coordination, regional differences, legislation issues, financial challenges, and poor technical and skill capacities as some major factors inhibiting the progress made in combating organized crime. The study recommends the need for government to ensure the provision of financial, logistical and infrastructural resources to enhance and accommodate the operations of law enforcement agencies in the country. The study concludes the UK-Ghana partnership has made some considerable contributions towards the fight against Organized crime within the country. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study The idea of "organised crime" was created in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century, according to Paoli and Fijnaut (2006). Even though organised crime developed in the early twentieth century, it was in the 1950s that the phrase gained widespread acceptance in the United States. Since the phrase was first used in the United States, it has had a tumultuous history, with many, often conflicting, connotations (Paoli & Vander Beken, 2014; Varese, 2010). The United Nations (2004) defines organised crime as a band of three or more people who operate for a duration of time and act in concert to commit at least one punishable offence punishable by at least four years in prison in order to obtain a financial or other benefit, either implicitly or explicitly. According to Abadinsky (1994), organised crime is a non-ideological enterprise with a group of people in close social interaction who are structured on a hierarchical basis with at least three ranks to gain profit and power through illegal and legal operations. Hass et al. (2016) define Organized Crime as the command, coordination, and dissemination of unlawful goods and services on a domestic and regional scale. For many years, organised crime has been a major issue in every country, and the signing of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime in Palermo, Italy, in December 2000 illustrated the international community's political inclination to respond to a global threat with a global reaction. According to the FBI (2020), prominent core operations within Organised Crime businesses include drug trafficking, counterfeit goods, migrant smuggling, extortion, illegal gaming, human trafficking, cultural property smuggling, wildlife, and cybercrime. Even though University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 organised crime encompasses a wide range of activities, this study focuses on Illicit Financial Flows and Drug Trafficking. According to the Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2016), illicit financial flows are incomes that are illegally generated, distributed, or used to cross international borders. Although Hongbo et al. (2016) said there is no widely recognised definition of illicit financial flows, the authors agreed that the term largely referred to the profits of commercial tax evasion, criminal activity revenues, and public corruption. Illicit financial flows broadly refer to unreported funds obtained, transferred, or used illegally due to criminal activity or corruption (Thiao, 2021). According to Cobham and Jansky (2017), the most danger to security is illicit cash flows in general. That is, states' ability to prevent or eliminate individual, community, environmental, and political insecurity (Cobham & Jansky, 2017). Money laundering, commercial mis-invoicing, and cross-border cash trafficking are all examples of illicit financial movements (Global Financial Integrity, 2021). Because of the size and harmful influence of illicit financial flows on a country's growth, illicit financial flows are gaining more attention. In empirical research, large sums of money have been alleged to have unlawfully left the African continent (Kar & Spanjers, 2014; ECA, 2013). According to recent information from Global Financial Integrity (2021), the yearly value of trade-related illegal financial flows in and out of third-world nations amounts to around 20% of their overall trade with industrialised countries. Drug trafficking, a kind of organised crime, is a lucrative business for various actors, including gangs, drug cartels, and other criminal groups (Kassab & Rosen, 2019). The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2017) defines drug trafficking as a global unlawful enterprise involving the cultivation, manufacturing, distribution, and sale of substances that are prohibited by law. Drug trafficking has increased due to globalisation and the ease of travel, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 communication, and free flow of wealth across borders (Passass, 2003). According to Channing's (2017) "Transnational Crime and the Developing World" research, cocaine trafficking was the most valuable of all organised crime activities, with an estimated value ranging from USD 426 billion to USD 652 billion annually. Even though drugs remain a major source of money for organised crime groups, business models are evolving. New technologies and networks, such as the Darknet, are being used by criminals to change the nature of the illicit drug trade and the types of people engaged (UNODC, 2017). The consequences of drug trafficking on human and national security are unfathomable. Drug trafficking impacts society's political, social, and economic fabric. West Africa is increasingly becoming a centre for drug trade and trafficking (Anning, 2007; Shehu, 2009). Yearly cocaine seizures in West Africa climbed from around 273 kilos to almost 47000 kilos between 2001 and 2007. (Cocayne & Williams, 2009). According to Bonsu (2011), the West African sub- region has become a fruitful field for drug trafficking activities. Ghana finds itself amid this domain, which serves as an outlet for drug trafficking. Even though illicit drug manufacturing and consumption have not reached extreme levels in Ghana, the country is increasingly being exploited as a transit point (Atta-Asamoah, 2014). Notably, Ghana was designated as a major transit site for narcotics destined for the United States of America, Europe, Asia, and other destinations in 2005. (Tahiru, 2018). 1.2 Statement of the Problem Given the danger of organised crime, different governments in West African nations are investigating ways to combat the problem (Anning, 2010). Because organised crime is a multinational activity involving multiple participants with varying responsibilities, several tactics have been used to combat the threat. Ghana and other nations have collaborated in tackling the threat of organised crime to satisfy bilateral and international obligations in the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 fight against organised crime. Ghana has partnered with the United Kingdom due to increased worries about organised crime in and out of the country, with the former functioning as a target destination. Organised crime has continued to rise in Ghana from 6.02 in 2020 (Global et al., 2020) to 6.04 in 2021 (Statista, 2021), despite the massive investment by donor partners and the attempt to strengthen institutions through intelligence sharing and capacity-building initiatives. Within this context, there exists a knowledge gap in how international assistance creates the enabling environment for the fight against organised crime and how domestic institutions such as the EOCO and the Narcotics Control Commission, among others, effectively respond to preventing or combating organised crime such as illicit financial flows and drug trafficking among others. On this background, the study conducts a case study of the Narcotics Control Commission (NCC) and the Economic and Organised Crime Office (EOCO). Organised crime and narcotics trafficking pose sizable challenges to the steadiness and protection of nations. Like many countries, Ghana has not been proven against the adverse consequences of these criminal sports. Organised crime networks engaged in drug trafficking, cash laundering, unlawful mining, and digital waste dumping have no longer best threatened the rule of law; however, they have undermined governance systems in the United States of America. The effect of prepared crime on governance in West Africa is a multifaceted issue that demands interest and concerted efforts to address. Global cooperation and help have turned out to be vital to fight these challenges. The United Kingdom, recognising the worldwide nature of organised crime and narcotics trafficking, has been actively involved in investment tasks to support international locations like Ghana in their warfare against those crook activities. This dissertation focuses on the UK-funded initiatives that have performed a vital function in combatting opposition to prepared crime and narcotics in Ghana. The United Kingdom, as a key participant in the international arena, has been dedicated to assisting international locations University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 in their efforts to fight organised crime and narcotics trafficking. This help is part of a broader approach to beautify international protection and promote the rule of regulation. UK-funded tasks in Ghana have taken numerous forms, including monetary aid, technical help, and ability- building programs. These tasks have aimed to strengthen law enforcement groups, enhance intelligence sharing, enhance border safety, and promote judicial cooperation, all of which can be essential to an effective response to prepared crime and narcotics trafficking. This dissertation explores the impact and effectiveness of UK-funded initiatives in Ghana's fight towards prepared crime and narcotics. It will observe the nature and scope of those initiatives, their goals, and the techniques used to gain them. Furthermore, this study will examine the results and challenges encountered all through the implementation of those projects. Through a complete analysis, this look aims to offer insights into the contributions of UK-funded initiatives to the wider intention of improving governance and security in Ghana. The importance of this research lies in its ability to inform policymakers, international companies, and students about the function of foreign help in addressing transnational crook threats. It also contributes to the growing literature on the nexus of organised crime, narcotics trafficking, and governance in growing countries. By examining the specific case of Ghana, this dissertation gives treasured classes and hints that can be implemented in different countries going through comparable demanding situations. The following chapters of this dissertation will delve into the information of UK-funded initiatives in Ghana, their implementation, and their impact on the combat towards prepared crime and narcotics. Chapter 2 will evaluate the literature on organised crime, narcotics trafficking, and global efforts to combat these problems. Chapter three will outline the techniques used in this research, which include records collection and evaluation techniques. Subsequent chapters will gift the findings, examine the results, and offer guidelines primarily based on the research results. The conflict opposing prepared crime and narcotics trafficking is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 a worldwide enterprise that calls for collaborative efforts from international locations worldwide. The United Kingdom's guide for Ghana in this undertaking is a testament to its commitment to selling peace and protection. This dissertation aims to shed light on the impact and effectiveness of UK-funded tasks in Ghana, contributing to our knowledge of ways worldwide assistance can contribute to the fight against organised crime and narcotics. 1.3 Scope of the Research UK-funded projects in Ghana span various sectors and fields. Specifically, the study examined the contributions of UK funding to the Narcotics Control Commission (NCC) and the Economic and Organized Crime Office (EOCO). 1.4 Rationale of Study The study will be useful for policymakers and academics. Policymakers will be more informed about foreign aid and its effect on national development. The findings will also inform policymakers and beneficiaries about policies maximising the benefits of UK-funded projects. This is because studies believe that better policies will help maximize benefits from foreign aid. Additionally, practitioners will find diverse and strategic ways to execute funded projects by identifying loopholes that may be overlooked to achieve their target. This can lead to an increase in the foreign aid programs that will help the country's development. Finally, this study will contribute to the literature since there is little research on the perspective of the key stakeholders (including beneficiaries) on the effect of foreign aid on the country's growth. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 1.5 Research Questions 1. To what extent does UK aid contribute to the development of Ghana through the fight of organized crimes? 2. What factors impede the efforts of law enforcement agencies against organised crime in Ghana? 3. What steps can be taken to dissolve the barriers impeding the progress against Organized Crime? 1.6 Research Objectives 1. To identify the importance of UK aid towards the development of Ghana. 2. To investigate the factors impeding the fight against organised crime. 3. To identify practical solutions to the factors impeding the efforts made against organised crime 1.7 Theoretical Framework The theory of international cooperation underpins the study. There are various schools of thought on cooperation. Milner (1992) observed that International cooperation is the change made at will by a country to their economic plans and programs so that they can handle the disagreement and reach some equally auspicious result. Credit is given to Joseph Nye, Robert Keohane, and Alexander Wendt as individuals who have made scholarly contributions to the theory. The first assumption of this theory is that it leads states to obey the rules of procedure and respect international law and other institutions (Labarre, 2007). The second assumption is that there can be joint security through international cooperation. The term "joint" implies that other states must defend one state's safety or security during war or violence. Kupchan and Kupchan (1991) observed that the ability of the attacking state has to be neutralised by the joint ability University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 of all other states. Thirdly, international cooperation improves communication and knowledge sharing among states in the international systems. This creates a workable framework for addressing common problems and mutual concerns (Barrett, 1999). Cooperation is often supported by collective interests, the engagement of several minor players joining together with a well-defined strategy for future protection when needed. Cooperation is only feasible when the different governments involved understand that the objective of the cooperation is to serve a common interest. Essentially, this theory seeks to show that, to shape shared understanding between/among parties, the conduct must be adjusted to the actual or predicted preference for others via policy harmonisation (Fearon, 1998). Cooperation can occur in various forms, either implicit, explicit or imposed. Cooperation is implicit when it takes place with no formal communiqué or accord. Cooperation is considered explicit when it results from a process of bargaining or negotiation. Finally, collaboration may be coerced or compelled. A more powerful side in a negotiation may compel the opposing party to change its viewpoint. Cooperation is considered to have happened when the more powerful party changes its posture or plans to attain a shared objective. A significant criticism of the theory of international cooperation is realism. The basic assumption of realism is that nation-states are principal actors in international relations. Hence, states are the fundamental units of analysis, and each state possesses the monopoly of legitimate force to settle conflict arising from individuals and groups within its territory (Donnelly, 2000). Realists recognise non-state actors like the UN, multi-national corporations and transnational actors but are of secondary importance. For realists, states are unitary and rational actors. Moreover, the international system is anarchical. Hence, states coexist in an international anarchy with no centralised authority, and each state strives to survive in a self-help system (Guzzini, 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 According to realists, collaboration is challenging because the international system is anarchical and devoid of sovereign power, making it seem impossible for nations to trust or collaborate (Buzan et al., 1993). The primary goal of a state is to maximise power; so, in the absence of an authority to guarantee binding agreements are followed, the international arena becomes a battleground for survival (Buzan et al., 1993). States attempt to defend themselves by forging alliances and improving their military capabilities to ensure their existence. However, this poses a security conundrum. Such efforts by one state to increase its security may result in similar steps by other nations, producing more significant anxiety in the first state and a recurrence of these activities by both governments. For these reasons, realists feel that collaboration is difficult, if possible, to accomplish. Liberals, on the other hand, think that collaboration is possible if anarchical circumstances are minimised. International institutions that promote peaceful change, disarmament, and international rules must be established since they are critical to enabling collaboration. International institutions impose norms and standards on nations, which they are required to follow and preserve. Regardless of the theory's shortcomings, it explains the possibility of cooperation between states of equal and unequal power. The theory also explains the costs and benefits countries gain from cooperating. In this instance, the theory of international cooperation provides the appropriate framework to discuss Ghana-UK relations in security and national development. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 1. 8 Literature Review 1.8. 1 The Concept of Organized Crime The term "organised crime" is defined differently by academics and politicians. This is because various types of organised crime will emerge in various situations (Corridi, 2007). Variations in organisational and societal penetration also lead to disagreement about what qualifies. However, there are several political and economic reasons and characteristics of organised crime that are widely understood. A weakening in one aspect of society often leads to a similar strength in organised crime. The concept can easily be referred to as a national security issue regarding all discussions, including political discussions, domestic discourses, and international levels of engagement on the matter. Organised crime can be political and pose a global national security threat (Campbell, 2014). Politically, a state is considered vulnerable to organised crime if its national institutions are ineffective or constrained (Curtis et al., 2004). Legislation will be complete and ineffectual if the government is strong. Their inability will most certainly spread to the police state, resulting in a lack of respect for the rule of law in society (Curtis et al., 2004). Poor governance causes organised crime to thrive and vie for dominance in society with national institutions through corruption and violence. Globally, Organised Crime is applied differently depending on the context under discussion and the individuals linked. Using the appropriate definition of the context and jurisdiction will augment the investigative processes of proffering solutions to syndicated crimes globally. Some scholars think the term organised crime is inappropriate in analysing certain activities like cooperation, which is directly linked with an illegal supply of goods deemed legitimate or using an illegal way to supply certain illicit goods (Finckenauer & Voronin, 2001). These scholars believed that organised crime stemmed from the laid-down structures of specific mafia University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 organisations with some calculated power and positions in society. There is no universally accepted definition for Organized Crime. Abadinsky (1990) defined Organised Crime as a non-ideological venture comprising many people socially interlinked hierarchically and on different levels for a common goal of profiteering and securing power through illegal or legal means or activities. These positions or ranks are based on skills and competencies along the chain. These levels or ranks assigned are temporary except for those at the apex of the chain with essential integral duties of the organisation's goals. Individuals involved in organised crimes mainly strive for monopoly in a particular industry or territory. This is an enclosed group where membership is very secretive and restricted; non-members are engaged in times of contingencies. Members of an organised Crime use violence or bribery to achieve their main goal and maintain some discipline. Members are restricted by rules (Written or unwritten), and at a point, murder is resorted to as a means of enforcement. The primary goal driving organised crime activities is making profits by supplying illegal goods or trades. Some scholars refer to organised crime as a "Transnational crime''; Mueller (1999) defined it as any crime that goes beyond international borders through machining a specifically organised cartel. Some scholars opined that the term "organised crime'' is vague and hence proposed "Transnational Organized Crime'' (Finckenauer, 2005; Varese, 2010; Von Lampe et al., 2006). Organised crime is a phrase that bears considerable significance, with over 200 interpretations (von Lampe, 2016). The word encompasses serious criminality, which includes destructive crimes done in patterns such as drug trafficking and mafia-type activities such as the infiltration of 'dirty' finances into the legal economy and systemic corruption of public administration and politics (Sergi, 2017). The phenomenon of organised crime conjures images of lawlessness and gang crime, but also control of economic and social enterprises, often associated with the night- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 time economy, the creative economy and its security services (Kupka et al., 2018), the construction industry, and the management of public funds and services (Dagnes et al., 2020). Different social elements, including governmental acts, all shape the phenomenon of organised crime and its control techniques in the urban setting (Hobbs, 2013). According to Smith (1975), the term "organised crime" should be expanded to include "illicit enterprises." Taking Smith's (1975) assertion into account, Campana and Varese (2018) proposed that, while this may be controversial because it excludes 'organised theft' and 'organised fraud' from the definition of Organized Crime, the authors indicated that Smith's perspective of Organized Crime enables others to acknowledge Organized Crime as a productive work of sorts, involving the production and exchange of goods and services. To that purpose, the writers divided Organised Crime into two categories: illicit product production and trade. PRODUCTION TRADE Cocaine Drug Trafficking Cannabis Human Trafficking Methamphetamine Human Smuggling Counterfeit goods Cigarette smuggling Trafficking in stolen antiquities Animal parts trafficking Buying and selling on cybercrime forums Table 1: Campana and Varese (2018) Manifestations of Organised Crime Coca cultivation and modification in Latin America (Thuomi, 2003; Zaitch, 2002) and heroin cultivation in Afghanistan and Burma are examples of illegal commodities production (Chin & Zhang, 2015). Apart from illicit commodity production, organised crime groups engage in various commercial operations. These include trafficking in persons (Campana & Varese, 2016; Campana, 2016), animal part trafficking (Wong, 2019) and human smuggling (Zhang & Chin, 2002). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 Barratt (2012) asserts that, just as legitimate Internet-based transactions are gaining traction in everyday life, a digital global market is populated by criminal merchants. On this platform, market participants may connect remotely and engage in a variety of contraband, including narcotics. Lusthaus (2012) also stated that specialised sites for these criminals to trade commodities have been formed, with stolen credit cards being the most often traded item on these forums. 1.9 Typology of Organised Crime 1.9.1 DRUG TRAFFICKING Drug trafficking is a term that refers to a global illegal trade that involves the production, manufacturing, delivery, and illegal drug trade that is prohibited under federal law (UNODC, 2016). According to the study Transnational Crime and the Developing World by Kar and Spanjers (2017), drug trafficking is the second most successful enterprise, accounting for more than a third of the overall value of transnational crimes studied in the research. According to the authors, the worldwide pharmaceutical market's yearly revenue in 2014 was anticipated to range between USD 426 billion and USD 652 billion (Kar & Spanjer, 2017). The market value of drug trafficking was determined to be between $183 billion and $287 billion for cannabis, $94 billion to $143 billion for cocaine, $75 billion to $132 billion for opiates, and $426 billion to $652 billion for Amphetamine-Type Stimulants. In his work "The Evolution of Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime in Latin America," Bagley (2013) explores the rise of the drug market in the Americas over the previous two decades. He contends that if Americans use fewer drugs, Latin America and the Caribbean could not produce or export these narcotics (Bagley, 2013). He noted that the United States remains the world's largest single consumer market for illicit drugs and that their misuse is not a uniquely "American" disease. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Nevertheless, cocaine usage increased in EU states between 1998 and 2006. (Bagley, 2013). He states that cocaine consumption has risen dramatically in other continents, including Africa and Latin America. Latin American nations, for example, used 200 metric tons of cocaine in 2010. Cocaine users in Africa ranged from 940,000 to 4.42 million in 2009 (Bagley, 2013). Global heroin production has also increased over the last decade, with Afghanistan producing 83% of the world's heroin, Myanmar producing 5%, and Mexico producing 9%. (Bagley, 2013). Singer (2008) identified three modes of operation for the illegal drug trade. These include manufacturing, transportation, and consumption (Singer, 2008). Most Latin American nations are producers, whereas West African countries serve as transit hubs to the United States and Europe (Akyeampong, 2005). Nevertheless, some regions play a dual role in the drug trade. Additionally, Akyeampong (2005) noted that transportation is a significant and profitable step in the illegal drug trade (trafficking or transiting). There are two primary trafficking pathways for cocaine. The most often utilised route is from South America to the United States through Central America, while another route is from South America to Europe via Africa (Akyeampong, 2005). Additionally, heroin is smuggled from Southeast Asia to North America through Africa, China, Malaysia, and Thailand (Akyeampong, 2005). Alternatively, Europe may be reached through Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, or the Balkan route. One significant aspect that favours illegal drug trafficking is the ease with which a criminal enterprise may be started due to the tiny investment required (Akyeampong, 2005). Since the 1980s, when crack markets emerged, much study has been conducted on drug selling and, more recently, female engagement in drug sale activities (Lartey, 2019). Drug trafficking has the highest profit margins of any trafficking and hence remains a profitable criminal activity for organised crime syndicates (Lartey, 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 Omelicheva and Markowitz (2019) researched to determine the influence of the Afghan opioid industry on terrorist violence in Central Asia, an area characterised by drug transit nations. While the use of Geographic Information Systems enabled visualisations of the drug trade and terrorism, as well as statistical tests to study the drug-terror relationship at the subnational level, the scholars' findings supported the premise that the drug trade facilitates terrorism and that the drug-terror relationship is complex and multifaceted and is inextricably linked to the state (Omelicheva & Markowitz, 2019). Mohammadi et al. (2020) did another research to examine the influence of drug trafficking on people's social security in Iran from a public policy viewpoint. The study's findings demonstrated that drug trafficking often resulted in a rise in crime, violence, and organised crime at the community level, directly jeopardising the inhabitants of Iran's social security. 1.9.2 Illicit Financial Flows The most often used working definitions of illicit financial flows all centre on the central notion of money transfers across borders that are connected to criminal activities in some manner (Forstater, 2018). According to Panel (2015), illicit financial flows refer to funds unlawfully generated, moved, or utilised. Additionally, Chowla and Falcao (2016) defined Illicit Financial Flows as any cross-border financial transactions that violate domestic or international law. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development gave the phrase a considerably broader scope (UNCTAD). According to UNCTAD (2014), Illicit Financial Flows cover all types of artificial arrangements made with the primary objective of evading the letter of the law. Thus, illegal, as used here, does not have to entail breaking the letter of the law but rather going against its spirit since illicit might refer to anything concealed or camouflaged. Numerous researches on capital flight and illegal financial movements have been published in the literature. While the precise volume of Illicit Financial Flows cannot be calculated with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 certainty, it is believed that the value of Illicit Financial Flows in Africa exceeds the development aid provided by OECD nations (Herkenrath, 2014). According to Kar and Spanjers (2015), developing nations lost USD 6.6 trillion between 2003 and 2012 due to illegal capital outflows. A more recent study by Slany (2020) discovered that a yearly estimated amount of USD 88.6 billion, equivalent to 3.7 per cent of Africa's GDP, was lost due to illicit financial flows. Ortega et al. (2019) used data from 56 middle- and lower-income countries from 2002 to 2013 to examine the association between illicit cash flows and human development as defined by the United Nations Human Development Index. According to the study's findings, a cumulative impact of a 10% yearly rise in the ratio of IFFs to total trade in the cluster of the most corrupt nations would result in a 21.7-point decline in the Human Development Index level over the long term (Ortega et al., 2019). The authors highlighted that the anticipated long-term impact is three times more than the average yearly gain in the Human Development Index seen for the total sample of nations during the timeframe (Ortega et al., 2019). 1.9.3 The Threat of Organized Crime to Nations Dalinczuk's (2020) research, titled "Organised Crime as a Threat to National Security," sought to examine the threat of organised crime to nations, precisely three countries in East Central Europe (Czech et al.) and several countries in the former Soviet Union (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), as a result of the pervasiveness of criminal activities in these regions. The research showed that organised crime presented a grave danger to national and international peace and human security by violating human rights and undermining governments' economic and political growth and stability (Dalinczuk, 2020). Although these findings by Dalinczuk (2020) gave credence to how illicit financial flows promote the pervasiveness of criminal activities, they failed to highlight the economic implications of illicit financial flows on the economic state of those countries. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 Witbooi et al. (2020) examined and presented the current knowledge on organised crime in the fishing industry in their review. According to the review's authors, organised crime in fisheries is pervasive. It is not limited to certain geographical places but is worldwide and has negative consequences for economies, society, and the environment. Kelshaw (2020), in her study to assess the effects of organised crime between low-income and middle-income countries, sampled 26 low-income countries and 70 middle-income countries between 2008 and 2018. Using a multivariate Ordinary Least Squares regression, the findings of the study revealed that the direct effects of organised crime on GDP and the Human Development Index are insignificant in low and middle-income countries, whilst the indirect effects (corruption, poor governance, and ethics) of organised crime harm the development of low-income and middle-income countries. This finding augmented the claims of Mete (2018), who argued that the pervasiveness of organised crime leaves a country's economic and social fabric empty and compromises its development possibilities. In a research titled "The Economic Consequences of Drug Trafficking Violence in Mexico," Robles, Calderon, and Magaloni (2013) examined the economic consequences of drug-related violence in Mexico. They show that in 2006, murders were used to evaluate the level of violence in Mexico. This is because the number of drug lords has increased to the point where officers collaborate with these cartels (Robles et al., 2013). Due to the drug situation at and near their borders, countries face security challenges. According to Robles, Calderon, and Magaloni (2013), drug lords have diversified their criminal cells and portfolios of operations, which include kidnapping, extortion, human trafficking, and oil theft, among other crimes, to increase public concern. Awudu (2016) examined the effect of drug trafficking on Ghana's national security, emphasising the human security component, using exclusively qualitative data from extensive University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 literature research and interviews. The study's findings also emphasised how organised crime affects residents' economic, health, food, personal, political, environmental, and communal security. Awudu's results also reaffirmed the tendency of drug trafficking to raise crime and violence rates in the nation, corroborating Dalinczuk's (2020) allegations and assertions. 1.10 Sources of Data Primary and secondary sources accounted for the majority of the information used in this study. Books, journals, book chapters, internet sources, and reports are examples of secondary data. Secondary data also included information found in the secondary sources themselves. Secondary data are full or complete versions of other people's original efforts. Information was gathered from secondary sources whose subject matter aligned with the project's goal and issue statement. Interviews with participants who had useful information for the research yielded primary data as well. 1.11 Research Methodology Data was collected and analysed using qualitative research methodologies. Studies that are qualitative as opposed to quantitative use a theoretical and interpretative approach (Brennen, 2017). Using quantitative methods, complicated phenomena based on human perceptions may be dissected (Brennen 2017). A desk evaluation of secondary information was conducted using a qualitative content analysis, and the study also addressed notions relating to organized Crime. For these reasons, qualitative analysis evolved as the favoured strategy. 1.12 Research Design The study employed the case study design Case studies are comprehensive examinations of a particular individual, group, event, or community. Generally, data are obtained from a number of sources and by a range of techniques (e.g., observations & interviews). Additionally, the research may continue for a long University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 length of time to allow for the study of processes and developments as they occur. Case studies enable researchers to delve into a subject in more depth than would be feasible if they were to average data from a large number of study participants (nomothetic technique). A case study, according to Bromley (1990, cited in Zucker, 2009), is a systematic analysis of an event or sequence of related events with the goal of characterizing and understanding the phenomena of interest. Case study, according to Yin (1994), is an empirical assessment of a present phenomena within its real-world context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and environment are not easily evident and relies on a range of data sources (p. 13). If one wants to analyze contextual elements, as Yin suggested, one should employ a case study approach. A case study, according to Gomm et al. (2000), is research that goes thoroughly into a few distinct situations. Despite the fact that the case study is not a research method in and of itself, researchers choose data collection and analysis procedures that provide material suitable for case studies. Observations of a person's daily routine, unstructured interviews with the subject (and those who know her), diaries, personal notes (e.g., letters, images, notes), or official papers are all acceptable data sources for a case study researcher (e.g., case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports). The vast bulk of this information is likely to be qualitative. The case study approach in terms of this study is suitable as this study seeks to understudy a phenomenon, that is, the impact of UK funded projects on Ghana’s national development. 1.13 Sampling Procedure Purposive sampling was used in this study. Purposive sampling entails the purposeful choice of informants or data on the basis of relevant qualities and characteristics (Kumekpor 2002, Wimmer, Ampers, & Dominic 2006). The researcher chose primary and secondary data that were relevant to the subject matter for this study. The data collected from books, journal University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 articles, reports, and online sources, as well as interviews with personnel from selected institutions and associations, cover a broad range of topics on Organized Crime. 1.14 Sample Size Sample Size - The study population comprised three participants from EOCO and NCC as these individuals had valuable information relevant to the purpose of this study. This number of people were selected as a result of the guidelines provided by Smith, Flowers and Larkin (2009). According to the authors, for the purpose of conducting Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, a given guideline of three (3) to sixteen (16) participants for a single study. This sample size was supported by Robinson and Smith (2010), who opined that this sample size provided a scope for developing cross-case generalities while preventing the researcher from being bogged down in data and allows for individuals within the sample range to be given a defined identity. As such this study selected three respondents for the purpose of the study. 1.15 Data Analysis and Interpretation Frankel and Wallen (2003), contend that data analysis involves the systematic synthesizing of information that the researcher gathers through data collection where the researcher draws parallel and logical lines vis-a-vis research questions and objectives. Creswell (2013) confirms these suggestions where he argued that a good data analysis must deconstruct data and create meaning out of data collected. Primary data collected through voice interviews were transcribed and used as one of the principal information sources in this study. Primary sources of data constituted interviews. Discourse analysis is often characterized by an analytical process of dissecting and analysing language use as well as the social context of language use (Wodak & Meyer, 2009). As such, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 textual analysis which is one of the approaches in discourse analysis was used to describe the structure and content of the messages contained in the text (Hoey, 2003). The data gathered was additionally triangulated. Data triangulation refers to the use of various methods in obtaining primary data (Johnson et al, 2007). This is a means of ensuring the validity of research by using a range of methodologies (Creswell & Miller, 2000). It also serves as a very good strategy to test soundness of data through the convergence of information from different sources. This is to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena (Tashakorri & Teddlie, 1998). Secondary data, obtained from existing documents-journals, books, book chapters, news websites, were analysed via qualitative content analysis. By analyzing and coding textual data, qualitative content analysis is a research approach used to establish reproducible and reliable findings. This is accomplished by methodically assessing texts such as documents, oral communication, and visuals (Elo & Kyngas, 2008). In this study, thematic analysis was employed as the interpretation strategy. Thematic analysis, is an “interpretive process where data is systematically searched to identify patterns within the data in order to provide an illuminating description of the phenomenon” (Firth 2011, p3). Hence, this work adopts the thematic analysis technique to identify common patterns, codes and themes that occurs in the data sources that were reviewed. In this research, themes such as illicit financial flow, narcotics were thematically tracked. These themes, provided the basis for analysis and interpretation 1.16 Ethical Considerations The study ensured that the respondents were adequately protected and that the privacy of the respondents was ensured throughout the course of this study. The interview guide was designed so as to not disclose any personal information of the respondent that may link the study to them. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 The author also ensured that there was no conflict of interest between the study and the researcher as well as ensuring that the acceptable practices in conducting research were observed. 1.17 Study Limitations As a limitation of qualitative data, Cartwright and Montsuschi (2014) maintained that the qualitative approach may compromise the objectivity of the research findings as the researcher may allow their biases values and partialities to influence findings of the research. Despite this lack of a quantitative approach to the study, the author ensured that the study was free from biases and free from any conflict of interest. Another limitation of the study included the sole use of qualitative data. While the qualitative approach is suitable for this study, the presence of quantitative approach would have given extra credence to the study as the quantitative approach provides statistical analysis which could be useful in giving clarity to some issues that may be largely ignored. 1.18 Arrangement of Chapters The research paper is divided into four chapters. Chapter one is made up of the introduction, the methodology that was mainly involved in gathering information that was found to be relevant for this research, and the challenges faced during the study. Chapter two focuses on the review of aid in the fight of organized crimes in Ghana. Chapter three focuses on the findings and analysis. Chapter four then gives the summary of the findings, the challenges and recommendations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF ORGANIZIZED CRIME IN AFRICA AND GHANA 2. 0 Introduction This chapter gives an overview of organized crime in Africa and Ghana, and the various forms and scopes of organized crime in Ghana, as well as a review of UK-funded initiatives inside the battle towards prepared crime and narcotics in Ghana. 2.1. Organized crime in Africa The rising threat presented by transnational organized crime to individual and state security was clearly underlined in the 2004 Report of the UN Secretary General's High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Changes, titled A more secure world: “our shared responsibility’’ (UN, 2004) as cited in Anthonio (2007). All the major cooperation programs launched and authorized by the international community in recent years with Africa in mind have operationally addressed this first crucial step in acknowledging the threat posed by organized crime. Organized criminal organizations follow precise rational rules in order to minimize risk and maximize profit. In general, the larger the risk, the higher the reward. This straightforward formula is especially applicable to illicit trafficking, which is fundamentally, if not primarily, an international operation. There are two types of risks associated with such illicit ventures: economic and judicial. The economic risk associated with illegal operations is twofold: criminal networks are vulnerable to both seizure and the resulting financial loss, as well as non- compliance by other criminal business partners with 'contractual agreements (Anthonio, 2007). While drug trafficking constitutes the most profitable intercontinental criminal activity, today's crime syndicates have broadened their portfolios to lower risks and make it tougher for law enforcement to track them down. Contemporarily, these syndicates are into trafficking of people, vehicles, natural resources, firearms, cybercrime, etc. All of these actions are linked to money laundering and corruption, which are the two most important tools criminal networks University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 must master in order to profit from their illegally obtained funds and grow their scope of operations and authority (UNODC, 2006). Criminals can gain protection from public officials, influence political choices, and enter legitimate businesses through corruption. According to 2017 report of United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC, 2017), because of competitive advantages in limiting risks and thus maximizing profits, West Africa as a whole, currently provides the ideal conditions for the creation of structured criminal networks. The permeability of national institutions to corruption, the porousness of borders, structural deficiencies in states' control of their territories and rule of law enforcement are all factors that explain both West Africa's increased importance in the map of transnational organized crime and the accelerated growth and development of West African transnational organised crime (UNODC, 2017). At the same time, the nature of the issues, combined with a chronic lack of official data, makes analysis difficult: accessible data is largely dependent on secondary sources, and analysis must rely on first-hand field experiences rather than investigation and judicial proceedings. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime provides; sole international specialized knowledge accessible in the region, with the exception of a few bilateral drug liaison officers stationed there (UNODC). The UNODC is a specialized UN program both in normative and operational functions in the sectors of narcotics control, transnational organized crime, corruption, and anti-terrorism. In a study conducted by Schultze- Kraft (2016) on the theme “Organized crime, Violence and development’’, the author concluded that organized crime in any form does not aid in development of the country. There is a negative relationship between organized crime and development in general. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 2.2. Forms of organized crime in Africa 2.2.1 Drug Trafficking According to the 2007 International Narcotic Control Report (INCR), the seashores and harbours of West Africa have become a crossroads for transatlantic cocaine trafficking (INCR, 2007). In 2007, major cocaine seizures in Benin, Cape Verde, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, and Senegal totalled more than 150 kg. According to preliminary figures for the first seven months of 2007, West African countries seized a record 4,300 kilos of cocaine, compared to 2,500 kilograms in 2006 and 1,200 kilograms in 2005 (UNODC. 2007). Seizures of cocaine shipments from and bound for Africa by European and Latin American law enforcement agencies confirm the massive use of West Africa as a cocaine stockpiling location: in 2006, the Spanish and British navies working in international waters seized about 9,800 kilograms of cocaine on five fishing vessels exiting from African ports, compared to 3,700 kilograms seized on a single ship in 2005 (UNODC, 2007). Oil trafficking networks do not only use ships to transport large amounts of cocaine to West Africa: The Venezuelan authorities seized 2,500 Kg of cocaine on a private plane allegedly bound for Sierra Leone, and in the same month, Spanish authorities recovered 800 kilograms of cocaine dropped in the sea by a small private plane allegedly taking off in the Sahara Desert (World security Network, 2007). Cocaine shipments from South America arrive in Guinea-Bissau on a regular basis. The presence and interplay of three diverse and complementary trafficking systems may be seen in the analysis of virtually daily seizures conducted both in West Africa and in destination markets. The first, led by foreign operators (Antonio, 2007); transported massive supplies of cocaine from Latin America (through Brazil and Venezuela) to West Africa, where they are diverted to final target markets, primarily in Europe, using containers, ships, private boats, and, more lately, private jets (INCR, 2007) The second is run by well-established local trafficking networks, primarily Nigerian and Ghanaian, who are otherwise paid in kind by foreign cocaine- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 trafficking operators for logistical services or buy consignments of up to a few hundred kilograms directly from overseas traffickers. The cocaine is then either sold on regional markets or diverted to final destinations via human couriers. These local trafficking networks, which can transport dozens of human couriers on a single plane flight, are the obvious successors of local drug-trafficking entrepreneurs who began operations in the region in the late 1990s and grew from small subcontractors to larger regional independents. Finally, the increased availability of cocaine at wholesale and the resulting establishment of a regional market has resulted in the emergence of a new group of operators known as "freelancers." These people, Europeans and West Africans with legitimate residents in Europe, invested their money into buying few kilos of cocaine with the intention of smuggling it into Europe. Research conducted by Antonio (2007) on the topic “Transnational Organized Crime in West Africa: Additional challenges’’, revealed that; most African leaders are in denial of the existence of organized crime within the region. This incessant denial of organized crime has potential national security implications to the countries. 2.2.2. Human Trafficking This concept is very prevalent within the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and some scholars opined that, Nigerians mostly fuel this through their bases in some selected countries like Ghana, Togo, Mali and South Africa (Afonja, 2001). In UNODC (2016 report), Nigeria was cited as the main source and transit point for these nefarious activities for both local and international trafficking. Most of the females trafficked are being used for prostitutions in other foreign countries (UN Security Council, 2011). The sale of babies is another form of human trafficking these syndicates engage in. This is well calculated occurring in most private hospitals within the continent. Despite the wide spread of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 this organized crime (Sale of babies) across the continent, the syndicates operating from Nigeria do recruit teenage girls and house them till they deliver the babies (UN Security Council, 2011). These babies are then transferred to the agent of the Syndicates and payment made. Human trafficking is still a major problem within the West Africa subregion. Ghana is being used as a transit point, and destination for some these syndicates in the human trafficking trade and primarily for forced labour and commercial sexual exploitation of women and children (US Dept. State, 2009). It occurs on both an internal and external level, the prevalence of human trafficking within the country is more that those outside the country (US Dept. State, 2011). High levels of poverty and unemployment are also enablers, as they force people to move out of their domain for productive ventures. Some scholars identified; “gender inequality and discrimination, poor governance, low educational levels, political crises, and damaging cultural behaviours’’ are all factors (Sertich, et al., 2011). 2.3. Organized crime in Ghana Ghana's economy is booming, and the country is seen as an ideal of hope in a region beset by continuous civil war, ethnic conflicts, as well as poverty. Despite the difficulties that several of its neighbours have faced in recent decades, the country has remained resilient. Some scholars opined that, where Ghana has weak democratic processes, lack of proper accountability, etc its institutions will be influenced and introduce to organized crimes by syndicates (Aning et al., 2013). Most institutions in Ghana are being weaken by the incessant involvement of State officials in organized crimes; and the regular linking of some opponents to transnational crimes also has the potential of weakening this state institutions. There is prevalence of organized crime since there are no functioning legislations regulating political parties funding and raising of resources; this can influence money laundering in the system ( Aning et al., 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 In a study undertaken by Awudu (2016), with the prime focus on drug trafficking and its national security implications, he concluded that; drug trafficking has the potential of causing major national security disasters in the country. There was a negative relationship between drug trafficking and national development. The political involvement in cases of organized crime makes it very complex for the Security agencies to investigate and control. 2.4. Scope of organized crime in Ghana The issue of organized crime by some cartels of syndicates have taken diverse forms internationally and locally. The prevalent one among the various crimes in Ghana is Drug trafficking. The activities of these syndicates normally affect the security of the country as they compromise the security of the state to get their goods through to its recipients (Aning, et al., 2013). The other forms of organized crimes in Ghana include; money laundering, illegal mining, arms trafficking and human trafficking. 2.4.1. Drug trafficking This is the major form of organized crime in Ghana and this menace is fuelled the unending level of corruption among State officials and their political cohorts (Aning, 2011; Aning, 2007; Sakyi, 2013). The security agencies like NARCOB and EOCO were of the opinion that, Ghana has become a transit point for illicit drugs from other European and Latin America countries and this development is very disturbing and compromising the security of the State ( Aning, et al., 2011) as cited in Aning et al., (2013). Literature also revealed that, marijuana is mostly moved from Ghana to other European and North American countries. This is due to the fact, some cartels in Ghana are behind the illegal cultivation of the plant (Shaw, 2001). This will also increase the consumption of drugs by University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 indigenes. This development is major concern to NCC and EOCO due to the grave security implications it poses to the country. This menace is dominated by people or residents of Nigeria, as well as South Americans. It is an open secret that, the syndicates of the drug trade mostly involve Ghanaian officials due to the weak systems and poor leadership. The West African sub-region has grown in recent times as a transit and repackaging area of these drugs from Latin America being transported to North American and other markets within Europe (Aning, et al., 2013). The origins of intercontinental criminal activities within Ghana can be traced to the 1980s, where the country was experiencing massive state corruption, hardship economic management, and attendant political problems all conspired to create a monster of organized crime (Shaw, 2001). According to Ellis (2009), as a result of the harsh socioeconomic conditions, residents from Nigeria, Ghana, and other West Africans have turned to illegitimate means of survival, they resort to trading cannabis production and export in the face of rising demand in Europe (Ellis, 2009). The introduction of stringent anti-drug measures by Nigeria's then-military government, including the death penalty for drug trafficking in 1984, generated a bubble effect, moving the focus to Ghana and increasing the use of Ghanaians as couriers and middlemen in the trafficking of drugs (Bernstein, 1999) as cited in Aning, et al., (2013). Some scholars opined that, harsh economic conditions in Ghana from 1990s, which were characterised by slow in manufacturing activities, high interest rates, failure of local business, etc compelled some Ghanaians into drug trafficking and other forms of organized crimes (Akyeampong, 2005). Over two hundred and thirty Ghanaians were arrested for drug offenses between 1991 and 1995; 42 were sentenced to varying jail sentences in Thailand, etc (Akyeampong, 2005). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 According to a study conducted by Aning (2007), international drug trafficking gangs have since consolidated their operations in Ghana and included Nigerian syndicates controlling well- developed distribution networks. Drugs are transported into and out of Ghana via the the Tema and Sekondi ports, Kotoka International Airport (KIA), and the Sampa, Elubo, and Aflao border crossings on the Togolese and Ivorian borders, respectively (Aning, et al., 2013). Cocaine is frequently smuggled by deep sea, then delivered to coastal communities by local fishermen to prevent admission through larger ports. Heroin is frequently smuggled into Ghana and other West African countries via land routes from East Africa via the southern zone. Traffickers or their local allies wait for this illicit drug in villages and carry them to cities, mainly Accra, for repackaging and export to the United States, Europe, and other destinations. Despite the fact that large consignments are divided into little amounts and sent to couriers passing through Kotoka International Airport, the narcotics are commonly disguised in containers or air cargos. Drugs are often eaten by couriers or secreted in their luggage, hair, or other areas of their bodies. The numerous arrests of Ghanaians in the United States, Europe, and West Africa, as well as their deaths, which are often caused by the explosion of cocaine capsules in their intestines, demonstrate the usage of this strategy (Aning, 2007; Aning et al., 2013). According to Aning et al. (2013), Nigerians also smuggle cocaine and heroin into Kumasi, Ghana's second biggest city, through the Brong-Ahafo and Ashanti areas via Gambia and neighboring Côte d'Ivoire. According to law enforcement personnel contacted, local kingpins or barons distribute the substances for sale in local markets. According to Aning (2012), multiple large-scale cocaine shipments have been intercepted in Ghana since 2003. Despite the fact that the bulk of "known" seizures happened in the middle of the past decade, it is commonly accepted that a considerable volume of narcotics continues to transit through Ghana. In 2004, Ghanaian authorities apprehended an international drug- smuggling ring with 675 kilos of cocaine worth USD 140 million on the market (cited in Aning, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 et al., 2013). Following that, in 2005, Eric Amoateng, a Member of Parliament, was detained in the United States for plotting to transport and distribute heroin to the United States. The MV Benjamin, a vessel carrying 77 packets of cocaine, arrived at the Tema Port before daybreak in April 2006. (Aning, 2012). Thanks to a tip from inside the security services, 76 of the 77 packages were offloaded by local fisherman before being captured. In 2011, 42 drug trafficking incidents were recorded, which was the same as the 43 reported in 2010. In 2011, 29 Ghanaians, 15 Nigerians, 2 Beninois, 2 Singaporeans, 2 Ghanaian-Americans, 1 Ghanaian-Canadian, and 1 Ugandan were detained (Throup, 2011). Furthermore, anti-narcotics authorities at the Tema Port confiscated three containers with hard drugs from Brazil, Ecuador, and Panama (through the United States), while Kumasi police recently apprehended a vehicle carrying an unspecified amount of cocaine as it travelled through the Brong-Ahafo area (Aning, et al., 2013). In response to numerous of these organized crime-related problems, Ghana has tried to enhance and improve its capacities to respond to drug trafficking and fend off criminal domination over its rule of law institutions. The Narcotics Control Commission (NCC) was formed to prevent the nation from being used as a drug transit point by coordinating anti-drug activities across security and law enforcement organizations (PNDC Law 238). In 2010, Ghana's parliament passed the Economic and Organized Crime Act. The Act renamed the Economic and Organized Crime Office (EOCO) to replace the corrupt and ineffective Severe Fraud Office (SFO), and extended its mission to include combating organized crime, drug trafficking, and other significant crimes (Aning, et al.2013; EOCO Act 2010). The Money Laundering Act (2008) was also passed by Parliament, and the Financial Intelligence Centre (FIC) was established to gather, analyse, and report information on questionable financial transactions (Act 804). The Right to Information Bill, which aims to increase transparency in governance institutions, is also passed by parliament after many years. Ghana has also signed and ratified a number of regional and international anti-drug treaties, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 including the 1988 United Nations Drug Convention, the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, the United Nations Convention against Corruption, and the African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption (cited in Aning, et al., 2013). Between January and October 2010, the NCC confiscated approximately 80 kg of heroin, over 220 kg of cocaine, and over 3,000 kg of cannabis, and arrested 47 people with the help of the UK's SOCA and the US DEA; Ghanaian police also made 286 arrests during the same period (Aning, et al., 2013). Lartey (2019) posited that, among the forms of organized crimes, the syndicates make more profits in drug trafficking as compared to the others. 2.4.2. Money laundering Ghana is establishing itself as a major regional financial centre. At the same time, though, it has become a major money laundering centre. Money laundering based on trade is becoming increasingly important, and it is sometimes used to repatriate 'profits,' as well as for tax avoidance or payment of cheaper customs charges and other taxes (Kavanagh, 2013). Informal financial activity continues to account for over 45 percent of Ghana's entire economy, and fiscal accountability systems remain poor, making money laundering extremely difficult to combat. Ghana's weak compliance processes make it easy to hide illicit funds (Aning et al., 2013). When opening bank accounts, fake addresses are easy to furnish, and readily corruptible compliance officers allow funds to be transferred out of a bank quickly when suspicion is raised. Illicit cash derived from narcotics, other forms of fraud, and public corruption account for the majority of money laundering in Ghana. Its continued role as a major transit hub for cocaine and heroin bound for Europe and the United States aggravates the problem, with criminals laundering illicit funds "through investment in banking, insurance, real estate, car import, and general import enterprises" (Kavanagh, 2013; Aning et al., 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 2.4.3. Arms trafficking Ghana is gradually becoming a hub for the proliferation of small arms. The security agencies have expressed their grave concern about this development due to its national security threats (Aning, 2005). A study conducted by Aning et al (2013) uncovered that, arms trafficking in Ghana is a major component of the organized crime activities of the certain cartels operating through Ghana. This is evident in the display of weaponry during small ethnic conflicts or land related disagreements. According to Aning (2005), Ghanaians are illegally manufacturing small arms in the form of pistols, single-barrel arms, etc. This has prompted concerns regarding Ghana's ability to export weapons, especially since Ghanaian weaponry are well-known in the West African sub-region for their efficacy, low cost, and ease of use (Aning 2005; Kavanagh, 2013). Ghana's porous borders are a major transit route for illicit weapons trafficking, not just to conflict-prone areas of the country like Bakwu, Yendi Gushegu, and Bunkpurugu-Yunyoo in the north, but also to neighbouring countries like Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria. Takoradi, the capital of Ghana's western region, which borders conflict-prone Côte d'Ivoire, has long been a crucial transit point for Ghanaian weaponry smuggled to armed groups (Kavanagh, 2013). 2.5 Overview of UK-Funded Projects in Ghana The research revealed that the UK has been actively worried about investment and helping numerous tasks in Ghana to fight organized crime and narcotics. These projects mostly aimed to reinforce regulation enforcement agencies, enhance border security, and promote alternative livelihoods for groups vulnerable to drug trafficking. 2.5.1. Impact on Law Enforcement Agencies One of the important thing findings is that UK-funded projects have appreciably contributed to the capacity-constructing of Ghana's regulation enforcement groups. These projects provided University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 education, gadgets, and technical assistance to improve the ability of groups along with the Ghana Police Service and the Narcotics Control Board to fight organized crime and drug trafficking. As a result, there has been a boom in hit drug seizures and arrests of crucial organized crime figures. 2.5.2. Border Security Enhancement Another significant impact found was within the enhancement of border protection. UK-funded projects have supported the implementation of advanced surveillance technology and the construction of border infrastructure. This has led to more effective tracking of Ghana's borders, making it difficult for drug traffickers to function with impunity. 2.5.3. Community-Based Interventions UK-funded projects also centred on community-based interventions to cope with the root causes of narcotics involvement. These interventions blanketed vocational education, schooling, and economic empowerment programs for susceptible communities. As a result, there was a sizeable decline in the various people conducting narcotics-associated sports in these communities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 CHAPTER THREE 3. 0 Introduction The study gave a general overview of organized crime in Africa and Ghana as well the forms and scope of organized crime. This chapter analyzes the impact of cooperation of Ghana and the United Kingdom on the fight against organized crime and the impediments. 3.1. Ghana-UK security cooperation The United Kingdom has been a critical contributor to Ghana's fight against organized crime, particularly drug trafficking. In the mid-2000s, drug trafficking into and out of Ghana, mainly to the United States and European nations, notably the United Kingdom, was on the increase (Asamoah, 2014). Around 2300 kilos of cocaine on board the Maritime Vessel Benjamin (MV Benjamin), which had been offloaded at Tema Port, went missing in April 2006. Even though NCC officials and Ghana police officers had received information about the shipment, nothing was done. Alarmingly, only 30 kg were seized, five of which were sent to custody, and the other twenty-five were utilized as evidence (Tahiru, 2018). This raises questions about the NCC’s effectiveness and, as a result, reveals flaws in the structures in place to combat illicit drug trafficking. In an attempt to solve the mystery surrounding the loss of the MV Benjamin, the Ghanaian government established the Georgina Wood Committee to investigate the circumstances surrounding the narcotic drug's sad disappearance (cited in Asamoah, 2014). Following the Georgina Wood Committee's conclusions, the vessel's owner, a crewmember, five other suspects, and three Ghanaians were detained for their roles in smuggling cocaine from the MV Benjamin into Ghana. In November 2006, Ghana's government requested the UK's assistance in combating the growing threat of drug trafficking, which was tarnishing the country's image. Because of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 growing worry over the influx of illicit substances from West Africa and the Sahelian regions into Europe in general, and the UK in particular, the UK quickly reacted to the appeal (Asamoah, 2014; Tahiru, 2018). This led to the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between the two countries on fighting organized crime with much focus on Drug trafficking. This MoU was signed on November 15, 2006 under the name "Operation West Bridge''. The operation's primary purpose was preventing the influx of these syndicates into the UK; the Operation cost the UK government about £250,000 a year after its inception. Fast forward to 2007, the operation intercepted drugs amounting to £214 million at the Kotoka International Airport (Ekwow, 2011). According to Asamoah (2014), the success of Initiative Airbridge, a comparable operation in Jamaica, served as the foundation for Operation Westbridge—the operation aimed to catch drug couriers in Jamaica delivering Class A narcotics to the UK. For example, in Jamaica, the effect has been dramatic; the number of Jamaican couriers apprehended at UK airports has reduced considerably over the previous four years. The operation focuses on drug trafficking passengers and goods travelling through the airport and ports on their way to the UK. Even though it deals with illegal drug trafficking into Ghana, it does not get the attention it needs. A study conducted by Asamoah (2014), concluded that both Ghana and UK benefitted from collaborating to fight organized crime. This collaboration aided the two countries in sharing intelligence in combating organized crime, specifically drug trafficking. This finding was confirmed by Tahiru (2018), who also found a positive relationship between bilateral agreements and the prevention of organized crime in Africa. 3.2 Economic and Organized Crime Office EOCO's objective as a specialized organization is to observe and examine economic and organized crime, prosecute these acts within the Attorney General's authority, and permit the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 collection of criminal profits. Organized crime includes drug trafficking, money laundering, human trafficking, computer fraud, and any other underlying crime to money laundering. EOCO collaborates with NCC in the investigation and seizure of drug trafficking revenues. In 2016, for example, in collaboration with EOCO and with the court's authorization, NCC discovered and seized many properties characterized as proceeds of crime connected to illegal substances (Asamoah, 2014). The Economic and Organized Crime Office was set up in 1993 to head Ghana's endeavours in combating the growing threat of economic and organized crime. It is responsible for preventing, identifying, and investigating crimes, including money laundering, human trafficking, unlawful computer activity, and tax evasion (Rahman, 2019; Office of the Attorney-General and Ministry of Justice, 2018). According to Mr. Akuwetey Nortey, EOCO began as a Serious Fraud Office in 1993 and morphed into the Economic and Organized Crime Office in 2010. The respondent further added that the difference between the Serious Fraud Office and the EOCO is the enhancement of powers as the EOCO now deals with cybercrime, tax crime, and human trafficking amongst others. In the exact words of the respondent: When you look at EOCO, it has evolved over the years. it started as a Serious Fraud Office in 1993 and migrated into the Economic and Organized Crime Office in 2010. Meaning the difference between SFO and EOCO was enhanced powers. Now, we are dealing with organized crime, which includes cybercrime, tax crime, human trafficking, etc This claim by the respondent was corroborated by the promulgation of the Serious Fraud Office Act 1993 (Act 466) and the subsequent promulgation of the Economic and Organised Crime Act 2010. The function of the office is to investigate and on the authority of the Attorney-General, prosecute serious offences that involve financial or economic loss to the republic or any state entity or institution in which the state has financial interest (Rahman, 2019). According to Mr. Akuwetey Nortey, the commissioning of the Serious Fraud Office, now the Economic and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 Organized Crime Office, was just an adaptation of British law by the Ghanaian government and, as such, operated along similar lines. In the respondents' words, "The British had a Serious Fraud Office which also dealt with organized crime, financial crimes, and many others. So basically, we took the British law and tried to make it suit the Ghanaian situation. So, it operated on similar lines". As a specialized institution, the Economic and Organized Crime Office's duty is to observe and examine economic and organized crime, prosecute these offences under the jurisdiction of the Attorney-General, and enable the seizure of criminal profits (Tahiru, 2018). According to the Attorney General's Office and the Ministry of Justice (2018), the Economic and Organized Crime Office targets money laundering, human trafficking, forbidden computer activity (Cybercrime), tax fraud, and other major offences. 3.3 Contributions of the UK to EOCO In the EOCO's drive to monitor, investigate, prosecute and prevent organized crime within the country, several collaborations have ensued between Ghana and many nations of which the United Kingdom is one of its significant partners. In an interview with Mr Akuwetey Nortey, it was explained that the contributions from the UK government to Ghana in terms of organized crime could be traced as far back as the time of the Serious Fraud Office of Ghana. According to the respondent, officers from the Serious Fraud Office of Britain paid regular visits to the Serious Fraud Office, sharing experiences and helping in capacity. This, the respondent claimed, can be evidenced in the joint collaboration between the UK and Ghana in the investigation and apprehension of the famous Casola Fadola, a cybercriminal. In the exact words of the respondent: We had officers from the British serious fraud office coming over, sharing experiences and helping with capacity. Then, we had SOCA (Serious Organized Crime Agency). We also had many relations with them (b) we did joint cases including cybercrime and ……if you would remember, there was this famous University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 Asola Fadola case which was investigated. Then, we were able to apprehend the criminal (Fadola). His properties were identified, seized, and finally convicted. So, that was one successful joint operation we had with SOCA. SFO also folded down and migrated This assertion by the respondent was equally shared by Aning et al. (2013) in their study of the impact of organized crime on governance in developing countries. The respondent went on to further explain that the contribution of the UK to Ghana's fight against organized crime is in tune with the areas of capacity building, collaboration, infrastructural support, and strategic partnerships. In an interview with the respondent highlighting the capacity-building support of the UK in EOCO's fight against organized crime, offered that the UK had been influential in building capacities in money laundering, human trafficking and cybercrime. In the words of the respondent, In the areas of capacity building and then jointly working together in both investigative processes and prosecution processes. They have trained some of our court officials and judges and lately also expanding ……. They are getting to understand the seriousness and why they should not just brush over some of these crimes. So, they are building capacities in money laundering, human trafficking and building capacities in cybercrime. So there has been much training, and that is the support we have gained from the British In the area of infrastructural support, the respondent also exclaimed that “they (the UK) provide equipment, offices have received much equipment from the British. Working tools, computers, cameras, video recorders have been provided”. Another contribution to EOCO identified was the strategic partnership between STAAC (Strengthening Action Against Corruption). This initiative was a UK-funded programme designed to increase the risks associated with participating in corrupt behaviour by working simultaneously with anti-corruption agencies and accountability actors (Adamsmithinternational, 2020). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 In an interview with Mr Akuwetey Nortey, it was corroborated that there was indeed a working relationship between EOCO and STAAC in cybercrime and money laundering. In the interview with the respondent, it was explained that STAAC had been very prominent and helpful in EOCO's strategic planning and some other areas. To report this in the exact words of the respondent Yes, they (STAAC) have been working with EOCO too. Moreover, I know they have been working, and it has all been in the area of cybercrime and money laundering, and those are the areas they cover, and I know they are still working. STAAC have been very helpful. They even help us with our strategic planning and some of our handouts. So STAAC has been very prominent and has still been prominent Some specific contributions to the Anti-Human Trafficking Unit of the EOCO were also gathered. The interview with the respondent also brought out some contributions of UK-funded projects to the Anti-Human Trafficking Unit of EOCO. In the interview with the respondent, some contributions, including workshop hosting, training, seminars, joint border force and airport operations provided by the UK, were instrumental to the unit's operations. In the words of the respondent, Talking about human trafficking because of the involvement of the British capacity building seminars, workshops which bring together all stakeholders, the awareness is growing, and now we are seeing the light at the end of the tunnel because people are being prosecuted, given long jail terms and you know punishment is becoming harsher, and we hope it deters some of these criminals from exploiting victims of trafficking …………... …… With the border force and airport operations, the awareness and the training and studies have helped improve both awareness and the desire to apprehend perpetrators at the airport. From the interviews conducted and some literature reviewed (Awudu, 2016; Tahiru,2018), it was found evident that UK-funded projects have been fundamental to the growth of the Economic and Organized Crime Office of Ghana. These findings from the study were equally shared by some scholars (Awudu, 2016; Hol-Oduro, 2015; Tahiru, 2018) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 3.4 Narcotics Control Commission The Narcotic Control Board is in charge of preventing drug trafficking and other organized crime nationwide. The board's campaign against the illegal transport of narcotics. into and out of the nation is referred to as the Supply Reduction Program (Asamoah, 2014). The Board's Supply Reduction Division is tasked with severing any connection of organized crime between suspected Ghanaian syndicates and other foreign cronies. Another objective is to minimize the availability of narcotic compounds on the illegal market. These activities include obtaining information, analyzing it, processing it, and acting on it to arrest and jail farmers, traffickers, peddlers, and users, decreasing narcotic supply to a minimal minimum. The Enforcement and Operations section is in charge of ensuring that the supply of narcotics is controlled. It consists of units such as the Kotoka International Airport (KIA) Unit, the Sea Communications Project Unit (SEACOP) Unit, the Joint Port Control Unit at Tema Port, the Aviance Cargo Village Unit, the Border Post Units, the Canine Unit (joint operations with the Ghanaian Armed Forces), and the Precursor Control and Forensic Support Unit. Individually and collectively, the various units contribute to the division's and organization's overall goals and objectives. The PNDC law 236 of 1990 designates the NCC as the principal coordinating organization in dealing with the threat of illegal substances. Legislative Instrument 1507 thus states that the NCC's functions include, among other things, collecting, collating, and disseminating for government use information on narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances; receiving and referring for investigation in consultation with appropriate bodies the practices and procedures for the importation of, and dealing in, narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances by any person or authority; and liaising with foreign and international agencies on matters related to narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances (Tahiru, 2018). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 These functions by NCC were described as supply reduction by the second respondent. In an interview with the second respondent, supply reduction was interpreted to refer to measures put in place to discourage the practice of illegal trafficking. In the exact words of the respondent, Then we come to supply reduction; this is where the enforcement part comes in. This is where we are saying, okay, let us have several units, investigative units, and asset recovery units so that when you deal in drugs, we arrest you. We also try to use the court system to confiscate your properties and then seize what we can, even your monies and everything that could have been gotten from the proceeds of crime; that is another model we use in supply reduction. That one also puts you off so that you know that even if you indulge in it when you are caught, finally, we take everything away from you Aside from supply reduction, the respondent highlighted another strategy the NCC utilizes in its campaign against drug trafficking. The respondent defined this strategy as demand reduction. Demand reduction was defined by the second respondent to mean education, education that has to do with awareness creation and sensitizing the masses on the effects of drug trafficking and use as well as the dangers and ramifications associated with drug trafficking. In the words of the respondent, Okay, so demand reduction has to do with education, if you remember, the white people's demand was one of them. So, the demand reduction model seeks to ……educate people as to the dangers of the use of the drug. Educate people on the laws against drug trafficking so that if you are caught indulging in it, what you are supposed to face. Educating people against the social stigma that even will come that "this man is dealing in drugs", nobody likes that. So education is extensive from abuse to our emotions and all because, sometimes, you use drugs; those who have been addicted to drugs as examples to stay off drugs, curbing the demand. This function of demand reduction was found to be explicitly labelled in Legislative Instrument 1507, which called for the dissemination of information to educate the public on the evils of drug use and punishment for offences under the law. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 3.5 Contributions of the UK to the NCC A statement released by the British High Commission in 2014 mentioned that collaborations between the UK and NCC began in 2006 (British High Commission, 2014; Tahiru, 2018). According to Tahiru (2018), the collaboration between the UK and the NCC began in November 2006, when Ghana sought out the help of the UK in combatting the menace of drug trafficking which was fast becoming a dent on the country's image. This collaboration led to the culmination of a Memorandum of Understanding between the two parties, popularly known as Operation West Bridge, on November 15 2006 (Tahiru, 2018). In an interview with two respondents from the Narcotics Control Commission, some themes emerged on the contributions of the UK to the NCC, and these include logistical support, capacity building and training, and policy reforms. The UK government, under Operation Westbridge, made some significant investments in NCC's logistics, including the provision of equipment such as drug detection scanners and the procurement of trained canines (sniffer dogs) capable of detecting drug concealments in humans, equipment, food items, and many other concealment methods (Tahiru, 2018). In an interview with Nana Yaw Asamoah, the findings by Tahiru (2018) were also shared. The respondent in the interview identified the British High Commission together with the UK Border Force Module as some contributors to NCC, and these contributions included the provision of baggage scanners and body scanners. In the exact words of the respondent, Secondly, we are talking about logistics, and we have a lot of logistics support from the UK through the British High Commissioner and the UK border force module. And they have been very supportive, and most of the equipment and some include the baggage scan, the body scanner, sometimes these swipes and all those things, and I am aware some of them the UK gave to us, and it is beneficial. Manjeed Mumuni, another respondent, also shared these views. In the interview, Manjeed agreed that the UK had supported NCC in the area of logistics by providing body and baggage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 52 scanners and x-ray machines at the airport and the Ghana Post. Evidence of this continuous logistic support from the UK is mentioned in a news article released by Modernghana. In the news article, the United Kingdom Border Force Unit was reported to have handed over two operational vans and equipment worth USD 120,000 to the Narcotic Control Board to boost Ghana's fight against drug trafficking (Modern Ghana, 2018). In an interview with Nana Yaw Asamoah on how UK-funded projects have contributed to NCC's development, it was explained that capacity building was a key area at which UK- funded projects were aimed at capacity building. According to the respondent, capacity building entailed training officers to do their work by the book, following best practices, and cutting down on bureaucracies. In the words of the respondent Capacity building is one key area that I have to mention. It has to do with the training of officers. In this way, they carry out their duty. So it is not something new, just that they normally bring the UK practices, the best practices so that the best practices, so that we do not lose cases when we go to court so that we do not stand at our various duties posts for things to go through. In another interview with Manjeed Mumuni, the respondent shared similar views with Nana Yaw Asamoah. According to the respondent, the UK government had played a critical role in mentoring officers, especially new officers of the Narcotics Control Commission, through the officers they send to Ghana. The respondent also added that the UK government had also provided training for officers of the NCC spanning airport interdictions, pieces of training on behavioural indicators, the search and handcuffing of suspects and the use of exchange programs to offer Ghanaian officers a f