UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY AND JOB CRAFTING AS PREDICTORS OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT; A STUDY OF SELECTED BANKS IN GHANA BY JOHANES FRANCIS KUWORNU (10419305) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL IN INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY DEGREE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY OCTOBER, 2020 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DECLARATION This is to confirm that this thesis is the final product and a true reflection of a research conducted by Johanes Francis Kuwornu in pursuant to an award of MPhil. Degree in Industrial and Organisational Psychology at the Department of Psychology, University of Ghana. This thesis was supervised by Dr Maxwell Asumeng and Dr Collins Badu Agyemang. This thesis has not been presented in whole or in part and the ideas of other persons used in this study have been duly acknowledged. Date: 28 /10/2020 Johanes Francis Kuwornu 10419305 (Student) This thesis has been submitted for examination with the approval of: Date: 28 /10/2020 Dr Maxwell Asumeng (Principal Supervisor) Date: 28 /10/2020 Dr Collins Badu Agyemang (Co-supervisor) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION To God almighty, my parents and my siblings for their prayers and unwavering support. Finally, to myself, for not giving up, being hopeful and industrious to the very end. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT To my supervisors, Dr Maxwell Asumeng and Dr Collins Badu Agyemang who were of great help with their guidance, timely responses, patience and contributions towards this work. I am highly appreciative of the support they offered me. Finally, to the heads of the various banks and participants of this study, I thank you for your acceptance and willingness to be part of my study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v CONTENTS DECLARATION ii DEDICATION iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv ABSTRACT ix LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xi LIST OF ABBREVIATION xii CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background to the Study 1 Established Dimensions of Employee Engagement 5 1.1.1 Workplace Spirituality-WPS. 7 1.1.2 Job Crafting-JC 10 11 1.2 An Overview of the Banking Industry in Ghana 12 1.2.1 Highlights after the Banking Sector Reform 13 1.2.2 The Effects of Technology on the Employees of the Banking Sector 14 1.3 Statement of the Problem 15 1.4 Objectives of the Study 18 1.5 Relevance of the Study 19 1.6 Organization of the Thesis 19 CHAPTER TWO 21 LITERATURE REVIEW 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Theoretical Framework 21 2.2.1 The Social Exchange Theory (SET) 21 2.2.2 The Job Demand Theory (JD-R Theory) 24 2.2.3 Relatedness of Theories 28 2.3 Empirical Review 29 2.3.1 Employee Engagement: A General Overview 29 2.3.2 Similarity and Distinction from other Organisational Constructs 30 2.3.4 Workplace Spirituality (WPS): A General Overview 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 2.3.5 Job Crafting-JC 34 2.3.6 Job Crafting and Employee Engagement 36 2.3.7 Workplace Spirituality and Employee Engagement. 41 2.3.8 Demographics and Employee Engagement 44 2.3.9 Summary of Literature Review 46 2.4 Rational for the Present Study 47 2.5 Statement of Hypotheses 48 2.5.1 Conceptual Model 49 49 2.5.2 Operational Definition of Terms 50 CHAPTER THREE 51 METHODOLOGY 51 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Research Design 51 3.3 Research Settings 52 3.4 Study Population and Sample 52 3.5 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria 54 3.6 Sampling Procedure 54 3.7 Sources of Data 55 3.8 Data Collection 56 3.8.1 Data Collection Method 56 3.8.2 Data Collection Measures 56 3.9 Reliability 58 3.9.1 Pilot Study 58 3.10 Procedure for Data Collection 59 3.11 Ethical Considerations 60 3.12 Procedure for Data Analysis 61 3.13 Conclusion 64 CHAPTER FOUR 65 RESULTS 65 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Participants 65 4.3 Preliminary Analysis 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 4.3.1. Data Screening and Examination 68 4.3.2 Missing Values Analysis 69 4.3.3 Investigation of Outliers 69 4.3.4 Test of Data Normality 69 4.3.5 Reliability and Validity Test 70 4.3.6 Exploratory factor analyses (EFA) 71 4.3.7 Validity Analyses for (CFA) 72 4.4 Structural equation modelling (SEM) 73 4.4.1 Structural equation modelling results (Measurement and Structural) 75 4.4.2 Validation of Test of the Structural Model 77 4.4.3 Inter-Correlation Matrix 78 4.4.4 Test of hypotheses 80 4.5 Summary of Findings 85 CHAPTER FIVE 86 DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION 86 5.1 Introduction 86 5.2 Discussion of Findings 86 5.2.1 The Impact of Job Crafting (task crafting, cognitive crafting, relational crafting) on Employee Engagement 86 5.2.2 The Impact of Workplace Spirituality on Employee Engagement 89 5.2.3 Workplace Spirituality as a Mediator between Job crafting and Employee Engagement 90 5.2.4 Tenure, Age and Employee Engagement 91 5.2.5 Engagement Among Employees of Public and Private Banks. 93 5.3 Limitations of the study 94 5.4 Recommendations for future research 95 5.5 Practical Implications for the Practice of I/O Psychology. 95 5.5.1 Theoretical Implications of the Study 97 5.6 Conclusion 98 REFERENCE 99 APPENDICES 133 APPENDIX A - DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT 133 APPENDIX B - ETHICAL CLEARANCE LETTER 137 APPENDIX C – LETTER OF INTRODUCTION 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii APPENDIX D – DATA ANALYSIS OUTPUT 140 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix ABSTRACT Employee Engagement has become a very crucial issue at organizations due to its positive outcomes. It has become an area of interest for many researchers because in recent times employers have identified its key role in the lives of their employees. This study examined how workplace spirituality and job crafting predicted engagement among some selected employees of banks in Ghana. Two hundred and twenty-one employees were sampled using purposive and convenient sampling techniques in Greater Accra. The study employed a quantitative design, specifically, a cross-sectional approach and questionnaires were used to gather data. Structural equation modelling, One-way ANOVA and independent t-test were used to analyse the data. The results showed that workplace spirituality had a significant positive relationship with employee engagement. Task and cognitive crafting positively predicted employee engagement. Workplace spirituality mediated the relationship between job crafting and employee engagement. Also, there were significant differences between engagement levels of employees in public-owned banks and private-owned banks. The study concluded that employers must create avenues for employees to craft their jobs as this has been identified to predict engagement also behaviours that cultivate workplace spirituality should be encouraged. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Categorization of Featured Employees of Respective Banks 54 Table 3.2 Reliability of Study Variables from Pilot Study using Cronbach’s Alpha 59 Table 4.1 Socio-demographic Characteristics of Participants 65 Table 4.2 Summary of Normality of Variables in the Study 70 Table 4.3 A Summary of the Result of Convergent and Discriminant Validity Test 73 Table 4.4 A summary of the model fit indices for the validation of the measurement model 76 Table 4.5 A summary of the model fit indices for the validation of the structural model 78 Table 4.6 Inter-Correlation Matrix of main Study Variables 79 Table 4.7 A summary of the table showing the relationships between the study variables 80 Table 4.8 A Summary of the table showing the Direct and Indirect Relationships Between the Study Variables 82 Table 4.9 A summary of the mediating effect of workplace in the relationship between job crafting and employee engagement 82 Table 4.10 Summary of One-way ANOVA test comparing Tenure of Service on Employee Engagement 83 Table 4.11 A Summary of the Independent t-test comparing Younger and Older Adults on Employee Engagement 84 Table 4.12 A summary of the Independent t-test comparing Public and Private Banks on Employee Engagement 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Model of Workplace Spirituality by Milliman et al., (2003) 9 Figure 1.2 Hypothesized Model of Job Crafting. (adapted from Berg et al., 2007; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001) 11 Figure 2.1 A Schematic Representation of the Hypothesized Relationship Between the Predictor Variables and the Criterion Variable 49 Figure 4.1 Detail of the Results for Both the Measurement and Structural Models 75 Figure 4.2 Path Analysis of Hypothesized Model 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii LIST OF ABBREVIATION JC Job Crafting EE Employee Engagement WPS Workplace Spirituality SET Social Exchange Theory BoG Bank of Ghana GDP Gross Domestic Product PwC PricewaterhouseCoopers POS Perceived Organizational Support HR Human Resource JD-R Job Demand Resources University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Current trends in the world and its sustainable development greatly depends on the activities of humans within it. Similarly, in the business space, the sustainable development and survival of economies and businesses depend on a competent, active, dynamic and healthy workforce, this makes the human resource a high-profile asset within organizations (Ehsan Malik et al., 2012). Additionally, economies around the world are also witnessing a change in industry-based employment structures towards service-oriented sectors that provide larger populace and organizations for goods and services (Teoh et al., 2013). Juxtaposed to other relevant sectors, the service sector thrives greatly on human capital for their survival as compared to other sectors that depend on naturally occurring resources more (ECSIP Consortium, 2014). Some activities associated with the service sector include banking which is the target area of this study. Here in Ghana, the banking sector which falls under the service sector has been identified to be a key component when it comes to the development of the country’s economy (Bawumia et al., 2008). Classified as a developing country, Ghana calls for a need for a robust, competent and efficient workforce in the quest to adapt, withstand and survive the global competition. This could be a starting point to sustaining competitive advantage which could boost the capacity of industry potential as well as strengthen the economic growth metrics of the county amidst the global economic development space. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 However, the world today with Ghana not being an exemption is faced with several challenges, for example, general market value depreciation, structural reforms in economies, shrinking of labour sizes in organizations, and the devaluation of neighbourhoods and extended family systems leaving workers feeling demotivated, marginalized, drained and socially disconnected (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Beck, 2014; Laabs, 1995). In response to environmental, social and economic pressures, organizations are also in search of novel ways to equally achieve and sustain competitive advantage on an equal footing therefore not being left behind. To gain this edge, most companies initially focused on implementing scientific methods such as product nature or price level in their organizations; but in recent times, the spotlight has shifted to the employees instead. Many more employers in the 21st-century now prescribe a workplace where employees are fully engaged and their self is immersed in the work rather than engaging their strength and abilities only; thus, their physical, spiritual and emotional components are all at play at the workplace. At this point it is safe to note that occupational health and safety of employees should be a priority to most employers; because most employees today are constantly putting in potentially noticeable differences in aspects of novelty, competitiveness, productivity and general profitability at the organizational level (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008). Employees are getting stressed by the day at their respective workplaces with less fringe benefits to match up their efforts at work. In addition, employees get exposed to various occupational hazards. Examples of these hazards include; physical, ergonomic, emotional, psychosocial hazards, inter alia, cognitive and social hazards. This, in the long run creates negative work environments or perceived negative work environments as well as pose direct health problems for employees, which affect their wellbeing and consequentially their levels of engagement (Leka & Jain, 2010). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 The aspect of these occupational hazards that have been identified to affect employee engagement mostly include psychosocial hazards. Psychosocial hazards have been identified by Asumeng et al. (2015) to contribute to the detrimental health and safety conditions of employees to the extent of making them less productive at work. Psychosocial hazards refer to the dimension of hazards naturally occurring at the workplace, that affect an employee’s psychological well-being, and their ability to function in a normal work environment amid other employees (Brun & Milizarek, 2007). They elaborated more on this concept by adding that it encompasses all facets of the aesthetics of a piece of work, the manners and ways in which the work is organised and managed, the economic and social dimensions of the work, and these aspects are tied to the psychiatric, psychological and/or physical damages to the individual employee. In response to the above, one method organizations leverage their employees on is by putting in place initiatives to optimize their performance and contributions to the workplace. This is achieved by creating positive organizational climates that will freely permit workers to give out their best. Every organisation wants all its employees to be proactive, to exhibit initiative, to engage one another at various levels, and to exhibit a strong allegiance to high-performance expectations put in place (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008). This study focuses on novel ways to build positive work environments devoid of psychosocial hazards, by using workplace spirituality and job crafting as personal resources for employees; in a quest to make employees engaged at work. Given this, both researchers and practitioners have identified employee engagement as a viable mechanism to aid in boosting the competitiveness of every company or economy (Baumruk, 2004; Masson et al., 2008). Consequently, increasing numbers of employers across various sectors are now investing in novel ways to improve engagement, particularly certain organisations choose to hire the services of consultants whose efforts could boost the engagement of their employees. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 After identifying the value of employees being engaged in their work given the demands of this 21st century, coupled with the already alarming rate of disengagement among the workforce, every employer or manager is very much concerned about how to get their employees engaged or increase levels of existing engagement. To understand adequately strategies that help boost engagement, we will first understand the meaning of employee engagement. Consulting groups in the human resource field also offer a variety of perspectives on the concept, employee engagement. The Gallup organization defines employee engagement as the involvement with and enthusiasm for work (Gallup Inc., 2010). The group likens the concept of positive employees’ emotional attachment and employees’ commitment (Dernovsek, 2008). The most widely used definitions of engagement, those of the Utrecht Group (Schaufeli et al., 2002) and Kahn, (1990) share several commonalities, in that both regard engagement as multifaceted and as comprising three dimensions: an affective, a cognitive and an energetic dimension. Gallup (2013), classified employee engagement into three main types namely; 1. Engaged 2. Not Engaged and 3. Actively Disengaged. The basis of the classification is in terms of involvement and role of the employee in the organization. An engaged employee is one who drives the organization in a positive direction. Not only are they interested in performing their tasks, but they also help realize organizational objectives and are classified as the core of organizational success. Schaufeli (2015), noted that engaged employees possess values that are similar to that of the organization and engage in positive organisational behaviour over and beyond what is expected of them. Employees classified as not engaged only care and are concerned about their work and not the overall objective or goals of the organization neither its success. According to Reilly and Tushman (2004), such employees lack zeal, spirit, energy, passion in their work and are generally uncooperative in their dealings. Their contribution to the overall development and success of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 organization is marginal. Actively disengaged employees are undisciplined and lack purpose. According to Kahn (1990), disengaged employees do not conform with organizational goals, thus, are emotionally absent and passive about their roles. Such kinds of employees carry the organisation in the negative direction and these have a direct effect on organisational success (Vazirani, 2007). Employee engagement (EE) is seen as one of the enforcement strategies for modern employers to achieve organizational success. It’s been found that in an organisation where employees are considered to be engaged in their work it relates as well to both emotional and spiritual areas of employees within the specific piece of work as well as the overall work environment and organisational values (Saks, 2011). The dimensions of employee engagement are discussed into details below. Established Dimensions of Employee Engagement There are three established dimensions of employee engagement which reflect the extent to which workers are connected with their work namely; Vigor, Dedication, Absorption (Salanova et al., 2005; Schaufeli & Bakker 2004; Schaufeli et al., 2006). A. Vigor This is characterized by a sense of physical or mental strength, intensity and activeness exerted into an activity. Employees who possess this trait though are faced with difficulties exhibit high levels of persistence to perform work roles. Thus, the strength to complete tasks and resistance are associated with this aspect of engagement. The direct opposite of this trait is exhaustion, a dimension of burnout. Regular and exercise and about 7 to 9 hours of sleep daily have been identified to revitalize energy levels (Dworak et al., 2010). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 B. Dedication Employees classified as dedicated possess a strong sense of inspiration that translates into devotion or commitment sometimes extremely sacrificial towards organizational goals or completion of tasks. Employees are zealous and proud of their work also even in the face of challenges and difficulties in task completion. This makes them feel significant and intrinsically motivated to do more (Rayton & Yalabik, 2014). C. Absorption When employees are absorbed, they are intensely immersed in their work or by the work role, and extremely attentive towards work leaving them detached from the external environment (Rayton & Yalabik, 2014). They do not pay attention to time and find it difficult to be detached from their work (Demerouti et al., 2015). Their attention is fully invested in their work and their work environment. In other words, such employees get lost in their task completion and delivery of services. Such employees do not have an issue with staying a little later after work or taking work home just to complete the work. Employers are more concerned because, Gallup (2013), found out in their country study that an alarming rate of only thirteen per cent (13%) of employees around the world were found to be engaged in whatever work they do. That same study revealed that out of the total number of employees around the world; 63% of them are not engaged, which meant that they were not in any way inspired and will be indifferent in exhibiting behaviours towards the attainment of the laid down organizational goals. Beside this, the study revealed that another 24% of employees in various organizations are actively disengaged, meaning they have negative emotions towards their work, dissatisfied and are likely to exhibit traits of presenteeism at work which will consequentially affect other employees negatively. In the same report, nine hundred million University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 employees across the world were identified to be not engaged with another three hundred million workers being actively disengaged from their jobs globally. Away from world statistics, highest levels of workers who are termed to be actively disengaged were situated within the Middle East and North Africa as a unit and the Sub-Saharan African regions at 35% and 33% respectively. The essence of engagement and the demonstrated lack of engaged employees have pushed researchers and managers to focus on methods to uplift employees’ engagement levels in various workplaces. Thus, a substantive reason why factors that could aid employees be engaged at their workplace and generally be engaged to their work need to studied. Several antecedents have been identified to boost employee engagement; however, this study focus on workplace spirituality and employee engagement as strategies that employers that leverage on to help make their employees engaged at the workplace. 1.1.1 Workplace Spirituality-WPS. Identifying and understanding an individual’s intent and significance is a good attribute and a source of psychological power (Seligman & Csikszentimihalyi, 2000). Workplace spirituality stands for harnessing and developing a distinct organizational environment that respects and acknowledges the spiritual needs of their workforce. Such acknowledgements come with unique rewards for both employers and employees. Employers get employees who are loyal and dedicated to their work, this, in turn, reduces turnover intentions and the cost of recruiting new employees, employees are more effective and efficient at work in turn affecting their performance levels. This generally translates to the achievement of company targets leading to higher profit for organizations (Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002). Employees, on the other hand, can deal with the stress associated with their work, they generally experience an optimal work environment both on an individual and team level thereby boosting their morale (Daniel, 2015). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 Most professionals who consult for organizations appreciate the essence of experiencing spirituality at the workplace, and they use that as a unique chance to educate organizations they consult for. Hicks (2003), has uncovered answers and opinions from diverse perspectives that the factors listed below are key in the interest in workplace spirituality. For this work, a specific number of them will be discussed below: A. Heightened Job Insecurity Employee-employer relationship harmony breaks and is probably broken when the trust between them is broken as a result of the layoff of employees due to economic shocks. This effect unfolds in two directions. First and foremost, aside from the fact that it devalues that sense of mutual trust and loyalty, it also lowers the expectation that employees’ hold concerning their organisations having their best interests at heart. Secondly, such layoffs discussed to put the surviving employees in an overwork environment. For instance, in a classic case where several workers were laid off during the cleaning of the banking sector in Ghana, the effects to be observed can range from discourages workers to a reluctant to form meaningful relationships with co-workers the workers may not know when they will be a transfer or another layoff due to other factors. This leads to the creation of a workforce that is demoralised and living in fear. Other negative factors that can emanate include stress, insecurity and thoughts of impermanency at post. This builds a negative environment for the workers. B. An Emerging Paradigm The birth of this new paradigm spurred from the shift from the scientific view of work and scientific management styles where managers were considered to be ‘impersonal instruments to achieve material ends’ (Ashmos & Duchon 2000, p. 135). Biberman and Whitty (1997), argue why and how the spiritual paradigm replaces the early-modern paradigm. The modern paradigm posits that employees are moved by a strong sense of self-centeredness and competition with co-workers University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 due to inadequate resources (for example fewer positions at the top). Biberman and Whitty (1997), argue that in future years the spiritual paradigm will thrive and environmental factors and other economic shocks may serve as a catalyst for the transformation of organizations into ones that factor in spirituality at the workplace, just as personal challenges led to personal spiritual growth and transformation. As an emerging field, there is the need to embark on a more detailed and specific study of the behaviours, principles and thoughts that appropriately depict what spirituality at work means. Therefore, allowing for the vast and multifaceted meanings associated with workplace spirituality be simplified and make direct because, Krishnakumar and Neck (2002, p. 153-154) in their works have noted that “there is debate as to what exactly the term ‘spirituality’ means” and that “several definitions and perspectives of spirituality appear within the literature.” For this study, workplace spirituality will be defined by using the three dimensions of workplace spirituality as proposed by Milliman et al., (2003) in the model below. Figure 1.1 Model of Workplace Spirituality by Milliman et al., (2003) According to Milliman et al., (2003), when employees experience meaningful work, they enjoy their tasks and the role they play at work because their work is of value to them and society. As a Individual Level (Meaningful Work) •Enjoy Work •Energised by work •Work gives personal meaning and purpose Group Level (Sense of Community) •Sense of connection with co-workers •Strong Support Systems •Common group purpose Organisational level (Alignment with Organizational Values) •Feel connected to organization's goals •Identify with organization's mission and values •Organization cares about employees University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 result of this, they derive energy from the work they do and it is through that they attain mastery and derive meaning in work. With sense of community, employees have to be able to form meaningful and equitable connections at work be it with their supervisors or their coworkers. Also, these bonds serve as support groups. Finally, when employees experience a connection between their value and that of the organization, an alignment with organizational values is attained. Therefore, the organization cares about the well-being of employees. 1.1.2 Job Crafting-JC Employers have always focused on designing the work of employees until recently. To encourage higher levels of engagement among employees, employers are now approaching job design from a bottom-up approach (Berg et al., 2010). Job crafting refers to enterprising behaviors employees engage in to effect significant changes within their work environments. Specifically, their working conditions, relationship with coworkers and supervisors and perceptions of their work (Dutton & Wrzesniewski, 2001). Berg et al. (2013), discussed 3 components of job crafting namely; task, cognitive and relational crafting. Task crafting refers to employees having the opportunity to consciously alter tasks at work by introducing new elements or removing redundant ones. In some instances, employees alter the time needed to complete specific tasks. Cognitive crafting refers to employees changing their perceptions associated with their work or the perceptions they generally hold towards their work. Cognitive crafting of jobs can easily compare to the other forms of job crafting which need physical efforts to attain them (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Relational crafting refers to employees’ active efforts to make alterations in their relationships at work. Here, employees choose whom, when and the manner to interact with employees whiles executing their tasks at work (Berg et al., 2013). According to Berg et al. (2013), once employees succeed in making such significant changes in their work, they are likely to experience meaningful work, they University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 enjoy their work, negative experiences are suppressed and they build resilience through mastery of skill and growth. Though other researchers have proposed other models for job crafting, this study adopts the hypothesized model of job crafting (Berg et al., 2007; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Figure 1.2 Hypothesized Model of Job Crafting. (Adapted from Berg et al., 2007; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001) Motivations to Craft Needs and desires for: Control over one’s job and meaning of work. Positive self-image Human connection Meaningful interactions with others associated with work Feeling passion Ability to cope at work Dimensions of Crafting Task Crafting: Actively changing tasks (number, type, or nature) Relational Crafting: Actively changing interactions with others Cognitive Crafting: Actively changing cognitions associated with work (or, perceptions of work) Outcomes Changes in meaning of work Changes in one’s work identity Positive experiences, such as achievement, enjoyment, and meaning. Negative experiences (unintended), such as stress and regret Resilience through increased competence, personal growth, and ability to cope. Potential Moderators Perceived opportunity to craft, Efficacy, Job features, Individual orientation towards work, Motivational orientation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 1.2 An Overview of the Banking Industry in Ghana The banking sector of Ghana comprises of a national network of licensed and statutory financial organisations which have been engaging in the banking business under the banking laws of Ghana as regulated by the Bank of Ghana, the central bank and sole regulator of the financial sector. As of 2012, the total registered Deposit Money Banks (DMBs) stood at twenty-six (26) with that of Non-Bank Financial Institutions (NBFIs) being fifty-two (52) (Nkegbe & Ustarz, 2015). By June 2017, the banking sector in Ghana comprised of thirty-six (36) banks, meanwhile, nineteen (19) of them were domestically-controlled (Bank of Ghana, 2019). The seventeen left were controlled by foreigner ownership. The total number of branches across the country stood at 1,377 (Bank of Ghana, 2019). over the past few years, the sector has recorded some significant reforms in the form of liberalizations, deregulation, the introduction of the universal banking and listing of all banks on the country’s Stock Exchange; which is a smart move to attract investors generally. The introduction of the Universal Banking Business License (UBBL) in 2003, rebranded the face of banking in Ghana as this introduced a lot of regulation and order into the industry. The Universal Banking Business License (UBBL) refers to a laid down corporate system where banks are allowed to offer elaborated financial services aside from their traditional banking services for example sale of insurance to the public, bond trading, management of portfolio or assets, investment in equities, offering financial advice and tip bits to customers (Ayagre et al., 2014; Benston, 1994) accepting remittances from other countries via Western Union Money Transfer and the introduction of Mobile Money services to mention but a few. There has also been the implementation of many other reforms which have led to the vibrant growth of the sector and the development of new banks in the private sector (Ametei & Quagraine, 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 In the year 2015, the financial sector recorded some shocks, however, to a large extent, this could be attributed to the severe energy crises the country faced during that period as well as Non- Performing Loans (NPLs). 1.2.1 Highlights after the Banking Sector Reform These reforms have had impacts on organisations and employees as well. Aside, revocation of licenses, mergers and take-overs and some banks going bankrupt, at the employee level, lots of employees have been recorded to have lost their jobs. Though there is an absence of an empirically conducted survey to provide the country with reliable statistics as to the exact number of jobs lost, job losses as a result of this massive exercise cannot be overlooked. In a country already suffering from unemployment, this further stresses the laid-off workers and frustrates the existing workers as they may keep looking over their shoulders forever. The main purpose of this reform might have been positive; however, it has had some negative effects on the workforce of the country generally. The Bank of Ghana (BoG) in 2017 carried out a comprehensive reform agenda intending to clean up the financial sector in a quest to boost the regulatory as well as supervisory standards to create a more resilient sector. In light of that, a new minimum capital directive was set. This led to the reduction of the total number of registered banks to twenty-three (23) with the collapse of nine banks as well as three mergers involving six banks and three exits. In essence, there has been a reduction in the number of universal banks by 11. Some of the non-existent banks are The Royal Bank, UniBank Ghana, Beige Bank, Sovereign Bank Limited among others. Currently, the number of locally owned banks are 9, with 14 of them owned by foreign nationals (PricewaterhouseCoopers Ghana Limited, 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 The effects of the reforms in the sector have led to banks being in the position to participate in higher transactions, this allows banks the opportunities to widen asset base and increase profits. As an indication to performance, a survey was conducted and out of the banks that participated, a significant increase by 11.3% (as observed by 2017) to 80.64 billion Ghana cedis in Ghana’s total operating assets was observed in 2019 (PricewaterhouseCoopers Ghana Limited, 2019). 1.2.2 The Effects of Technology on the Employees of the Banking Sector Innovation is a key component in a rapidly evolving banking sector. Due to the rapid advancement of customers, banks are pressured to also catch up with customers by innovating. Since the introduction of electronic commerce (E-commerce) into the financial sector, there have been both positive and negative effects tabled to hit the sector globally. 75% of executives as well as senior staff members of banks record to have attained profitable revenue growth after they urged customers to adopt electronic channels. Thus, more traditional bank branches are projected to reduce (PricewaterhouseCoopers Ghana Limited, 2019). When new technology is introduced into the workplace, in the form of software or a machine, most often, its primary aim is to aid employees in the execution of day-to-day activities which is a positive thing. Banks in recent times have adopted the use of Online Banking Systems, Point of Sales Devices, Mobile Applications Technology to aid employees to transact business efficiently and also at their convenience and fingertips. However, these positive introductions might pose some threats to employees in the sector. Mattes (2016), holds the position that the banking profession is at risk of bank automation. In 2016, the study predicted that Automated Teller Machines will be designed in a manner to carry out the duties that any trained teller performs for example; opening accounts, processing loans, accepting cash deposits and so on. Currently, most University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 of the duties of a teller can be performed by the customer via online systems and other internet platforms. This is confirmed in the paper, Technological Unemployment in Industrial Countries by Feldmann (2013), it was concluded that as technological change increases significantly, unemployment is also going to increase over the years until structural changes are implemented. This is of great concern to both employees and employers as there is a significant correlation between hygiene factors and levels of engagement. Hygiene factors according to Herzberg (1964, 1968) were operationalized to include fair salary levels, job security, reasonable working conditions, reasonable conditions of service, healthy social relationships, ability to craft the nature of one’s tasks and the time spent on tasks, strong support systems, a sense of connection/identification with the organization's mission and values among many others; some of which are characteristics of dimensions of the construct of consideration for this study (workplace spirituality and job crafting). Emerging cross-cultural literature conducted has established that hygiene factors which are mostly extrinsic to the employees prepare suitable conditions for employee engagement at various organizational levels (Schaufeli et al., 2008; Shuck et al., 2011). Thus, when employees experience unattained hygiene factors, engagement is most likely not going to be developed. This is in line with literature which suggest that there is a relationship between a meaningful work environment and employee’s involvement in contextually meaningful work and levels of employee engagement (May et al., 2004; Rich et al., 2010). 1.3 Statement of the Problem According to Yunus et al. (2010), extreme competition among banking institutions is a 21st- century effect that needs to be strategically handled by the key stakeholders of the financial University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 industry. To handle this competition, most employers entrust the responsibility onto their employees to meet organizational targets. However, according to Gallup (2013); an alarming rate of only 13% of employees around the world were found to be engaged. That same study revealed that out of the number of employees around the world; 63% were "not engaged" at their workplace. Also, the study revealed that another 24% of employees in various organizations are "actively disengaged,". Mathematically, we have a total of 900 million employees not engaged and another 340 million employees actively disengaged globally. Gallup (2013) further posit that highest levels of workers who are termed to be actively disengaged were in the Middle East and North African countries at 35% followed by Sub-Saharan Africa at 33% with banking sector being of no exception to these figures. Generally, only 17% of workers within the formal sectors in sub-Saharan Africa were engaged. Engagement has been associated with performance outcomes like growth, profit and productivity (Crawford et al., 2010), competitive outcome (Anitha, 2014), organisational citizenship behaviour and customer satisfaction (May et al., 2004; Saks, 2006). Despite its glaring importance, scholarly research in the area is very inadequate (Wefald & Downey, 2009). On the other hand, employee engagement has similarly been identified with antecedent factors like job demands – emotional demands, workload, work environment among others (Hakanen et al., 2005; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Some studies on the financial sector of Ghana show that most employees in the banking sector work under negative psychological conditions which go a long way to impact their health and safety and their levels of engagement (Asumeng et al., 2015). This is so because, in developing countries of which Ghana is no exception, most employers pay little or no attention at all to the health and safety of employees (Asumeng et al., 2015). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 Besides, reports by Eurofound (2012), conclude that there are harsh conditions of work in the banking sector, liable to lead employees into psychosocial hazards like workload, work-stress, workplace bullying, occupational stress and so on which tend to make more and more employees disengaged from their work. The findings depict the financial sector reported increased working hours, with 65% of total employees working under tight deadlines; another 74% of them engaging in tasks that are complex to them among many others. According to Ankrah (2018), in September 2018, Acreaty Ghana, a human capital consult conducted a survey involving 14 banks and found out that over 60% of employees in the banking sector expressed turnover intentions due to poor conditions at work like low salaries, unrealistic targets, lack of incentives, unfair employee welfare policies among many others. 64.4% of the employees indicated they would want to exit the sector generally to other sectors where they thought they would be treated better. Thus, in a bid to tap into the maximum potential of the employee at the workplace, it is empirical to imbibe some personal and work resources at the workplace to help employees adequately deal with the pressures, demands and challenges that arise at the workplace; that is where it is important to enhance workplace spirituality and job crafting behaviours at the work place as they have been identified as antecedents of employee engagement. Saks, (2006) suggests that there may be some key antecedents that may affect engagement (workplace spirituality and Job crafting) therefore, there is a need to focus on those factors as they could enhance the engagement and well-being of the workforce. Regardless of this information available, in Africa and most especially Ghana, to the researchers’ best knowledge, research into employee engagement, and most especially factors such as workplace spirituality, job crafting which have been identified to significantly influence University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 employee engagement are under-researched as these are all emerging fields. This gap causes a void in the field of human capital development in both theory and practice, thus a need to have more researchers delve into the area to conduct more studies. Agyemang and Ofei (2013), posit that the concept of employee engagement in Sub-Saharan Africa has received very little attention in the literature. Therefore, the primary intent of the current study is to investigate engagement levels of employees in some selected financial institutions and the role of workplace spirituality and job crafting play. The findings of this study will direct practitioners design models targeted at improving the engagement of employees and cap factors that cause high levels of disengagement. Also, this study will bring to light latent or extraneous variables which could affect engagement in Ghana. Most importantly, the findings will contribute to the literature on employee engagement by also investigating themes related to job crafting and workplace spirituality. 1.4 Objectives of the Study In line with the research problem discussed above, this main objective of this study is to investigate the relationship that exists among WPS, JC and EE among employees of selected banks in Ghana. The specific objectives of the study are to examine: I. The relationship between workplace spirituality, job crafting and employee engagement. II. Which dimensions of job crafting would significantly predict employee engagement? III. The mediating role of workplace spirituality in the relationship between job crafting and employee engagement. IV. Significant differences on how tenure of service and age affects employee engagement. V. The difference in engagement levels between public and private banks. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 1.5 Relevance of the Study The essence of this study is to provide scientific evidence to the banking sector in the Ghanaian setting, specifically how job crafting and workplace spirituality individually and collectively affect the levels of engagement of the employees. It will give insight into how the subdimensions of job crafting as well as age and tenure of service contribute to improving engagement in the Ghanaian banking sector and to what extent they do that. Findings from this study will be a reference point for future researchers, it will drive policymakers and employers make guided decisions within the sector as well as serve as a manual for designing interventions with regards to workplace spirituality, job crafting and employee engagement. Given the premise that an engaged workforce is associated with positive behaviours and outcomes at the workplace, there are many advantages to studying strategies and approaches that would boost the engagement of employees at the workplace. Most importantly as an academic piece of work, the findings from this study will help fill the void in the literature. Employees stand to benefit from this study as well, as findings will reflect the state of employees’ engagement in the banking sector and any improvements that come will be to their benefit. 1.6 Organization of the Thesis Chapter 1: Introduction In this section, the background of the study, statement of the problem, aims and objective as well as the relevance of the study were touched on in this chapter. Chapter 2: Literature Review University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 In this chapter, the theoretical framework that serves as the backbone of the study was first discussed. Since the core of the study is study employee engagement, and how workplace spirituality and job crafting may be able to predict it, a detailed discussion was first done on the concept subsequently, relevant and related studies on these variables and how they may be associated are reviewed. Based on the gaps in the literature, hypotheses are formulated then a conceptual framework for this study is designed. An operational definition of some key terms used in the study is featured as well. Chapter 3: Methodology This section of the research throughs light on methodologies used and the specific approach employed for this study with the appropriate justifications made. The researcher provides information on the research setting, instruments, procedure for data collection and ethical considerations in this chapter. Chapter 4: Results Here, descriptive statistics of the demographic characteristics of participants, preliminary data analysis and inferential analysis are conducted based on the data collected. Hypotheses are tested using the appropriate statistical method. Chapter 5: Discussion. The entire argument of this research’s results is detailed in this chapter. The discussions are carried out, taking into consideration relevant literature, previous studies and the Ghanaian context. The chapter further touches on the contribution of this thesis, its limitations and some recommendations made by the researcher for the future. The chapter ends with a general conclusion of the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter is devoted to the evaluation of relevant literature to all phenomena being studied – job crafting and employee engagement and how this relationship is being mediated by workplace spirituality. Essentially, there are subheadings in this section namely; theoretical underpinnings of the study, empirical analysis of the constructs and proposed conceptual framework for the study. 2.2 Theoretical Framework The chapter entails the foundational roots of the relationship between workplace spirituality, job crafting and employee engagement. Commencing from the works of Kahn (1990) to Saks’ (2006) three-dimensional model of engagement, literature has proven how employee engagement is crucial to the success of every organization. 2.2.1 The Social Exchange Theory (SET) This conceptual paradigm gives a hypothetical premise to talk about the reason why employees turn out to be drawn in towards work. In SET, the theory posits that obligations are produced from the interactions of parties who are in a condition of a complementary relationship. According to Blau (1964), the relationship between the parties in the interaction process is a precursor to the quality of the interactions. This can be described as a unique relationship between two parties where mutual and reciprocal benefits are involved in the relationship. The central theme that exits in this interaction is perceived fairness as it is a give and take relationship. An important rule here is that the relationship advances after some time into trust, dedication and commitments which are University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 mutual as long as the players comply with the specific standards of the exchange (AbuKhalifeh & Som, 2013; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). These standards tend to lead to positive employee attitudes and work behaviours like employee engagement. When employees perceive their organization is devoting resources into helping their wellbeing and progress and presenting them with a richer ecosystem where they can learn and develop, they reciprocate with better job-related outcomes (e.g., knowledge sharing behavior, work engagement), according to SET. It has been hypothesized that an organization's help for its personnel could have a positive influence on their motives and behaviors, based on SET and the reciprocity norm enabling them to make a greater contribution to the achievement of organizational goals (Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960; Eisenberger et al., 1986). For instance, when people get financial and social resources from their organizations, they believe they owe the organisation and tend to expend extra effort in a bid to reimburse the organisation (Saks, 2006). In other words, employees will choose to increase their engagement levels to diverse degrees in light of the wealth they make from the organisation. According to Robinson et al. (2004), engagement is a dual relationship between the business (employer) and the worker (employee). It is practical to associate the social relationship to that of the employer-employee relationship in the study where the exchange is between the employee and the employing organisation and not just two (2) individuals. This is confirmed in literature as scholarly work indicates that employee perspective of high employer commitments as far as an adaptable work environment is concerned and fair treatment increase employee engagement (Moen et al., 2011). In the seminal work by Kahn (1990), the author posited that an employee will exert good effort into his/her work roles and dedicate cognitively, emotionally and physically subject to organisational actions. Accordingly, there is the likelihood that employees will exchange their University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 commitment to benefits and other resources given by their organisations. The inability of an organisation or the neglect in providing these resources might lead to withdrawal attitudes and disengagement by employees. In this way, employees who have autonomy at work, have open doors for advancement and receive good organisational support are probably going to respond by demonstrating the good amount of engagement. For instance, Saks (2006), empirically tested SET with the antecedents and consequences of job and organisational engagement subject to existing models of engagement (Khan, 1990; Maslach et al., 2001). He found that perceived organisational support (POS) is a predictor of both organisation and work engagement; likewise, procedural justice was also a predictor of organisational engagement and job characteristics predicting job engagement. The obligations fashioned by the compassionate and concerned organisation through perceived organisational support is reciprocated by employees through higher levels of job and organisational engagement. SET gives hypothetical underpinnings to relate why workers turn out to be pretty much occupied with their work and organisations. From Kahn's (1990), based on the meaning of engagement, workers may think they are indebted to their organisations and therefore get more engaged by way of compensation or exchange for the workplace spirituality resources or autonomy to craft their work from organizations. At the point when the organisation fails to offer these resources, employees will probably pull back and separate (disengage) themselves from their roles. In this way, the measure of cognitive abilities, passion, and overt resources that employees dedicate in the execution of their duties might be dependent upon the socio-emotional and financial resources obtained from the organisation. Where workers feel that they are being dealt with well and esteemed by their employer, they will probably react by applying extra effort in the interest of the business in the form of raised levels of commitment (Alfes et al., 2013) and makes it likely for the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 high penchant of employee engagement. Following the social exchange hypothesis, as examined above, employees who feel a sense of spirit at work or are crafting their own jobs as allowed by their employers will reward their organisation by detailing positive work results, for example, high engagement and high performance in the workplace. 2.2.2 The Job Demand Theory (JD-R Theory) Though (important varieties in levels of) certain particular job demands and job resources, (for example, autonomy, the pressure at work) are associates of every occupation, some job demands and resources are peculiar to some occupations. For instance, amongst staff in a university, cognitive demands are more prevalent than physical demands which are associated with jobs like underground mining. Demerouti et al. (2001), are credited for the conceptualization of the model. Since it theorizing, researchers like Janse van Rensburg et al. (2013), have identified the construct to be a useful mechanism in the conceptualization of engagement, wellbeing and performance. At the core of the model is the assumption that all jobs have specific risk factors associated with job stressors (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). The model conceptualizes that the tenets of job characteristics are grouped into two, namely; Job demands and Job resources. Demerouti and Bakker (2011), therefore argued that the outcome of the interaction between job-related resources and job demands is performance- related outcomes and job crafting behaviours. The effect of job characteristics in the model can either be directly or indirectly affected by work engagement. The antecedents of job demand like role conflict, role ambiguity, work overload and insecurity necessitate workers to exert more effort in their work which might lead to strain or burnout (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). They are by and large also the most imperative indicators University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 of such results as repetitive strain injury, exhaustion and psychosomatic health complaints among employees (Hakanen et al., 2011). The factors that aid in the management of job demands are classified as job resources. According to scholars like Bakker et al. (2005), and Llorens et al. (2006), job resources represent the social, psychological, organisational and physical characteristics of the job. Aspects of job resources are leader support, pay, interpersonal and social relations, co-worker support, career advancement opportunities, autonomy and social climate and workplace spirituality (Saks & Gruman, 2014). Employees can alter how work is conceived and executed (i.e., changing task boundaries), number of times and specific individuals or co-workers they socialize with at the workplace (i.e., changing relationship boundaries), and how they cognitively attribute value to their job role (i.e., changing relationship boundaries), (Wrzeniewski & Dutton, 2001). Workplace spirituality becomes vital as a resource because at the individual level, employees experience a sense personal meaning and purpose for which they work and despite whatever challenges they experience, they find it within themselves to significantly enjoy the roles they perform which reduces tension and stress at work place. Again, at the group level, because employees are able to connect with each other and can develop a support system among their co- workers, this serves as a coping mechanism to help employees thrive at the workplace and face challenges the work may bring. Role modelling and role clarity will occur because employees at this stage will look out for each other’s best interest. Finally, at the organizational level employees will most likely experience higher levels of engagement due to the presence of spirit at work. Therefore, when employees experience workplace spirituality as a Job resource, it enables them to experience increased levels of involvement in their roles as well as increased potential, this in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 essence leads to heightened levels of work engagement by maximizing their intrinsic motivation, job crafting skills, and devotion to work (Arokiasamy & Tat, 2020). The effects of the antecedents of job resources lead to both intrinsic and extrinsic motivational roles through the facilitation of learning, growth and development and achieving work objectives. Christian et al. (2011), conducted a meta-analysis study and their results affirmed the following precursors of job resources – autonomy, transformational leadership, task significance, feedback, task variety and positive relationships at work. These authors, therefore, concluded that the above antecedents of job resources are essential for employee job engagement. The correlations between job resources and engagement were significantly positive than with job demand antecedents like job complexity, role ambiguity, physical demands and work conditions such as temperature and noise. Furthermore, Xanthopoulou et al. (2009), incorporated personal resources into the JD-R model to cater for the interactive effects between individual and ecological factors as most psychological approaches deduce that the behaviour of humans is as a result of such an interaction (Schaufeli & Taris, 2014). According to Hobfoll et al. (2003), personal resources are seen as positive self- assessments that are connected to flexibility and allude to people’s feeling of their capacity to manage and affect their surroundings effectively. Personal resources, for example, self-viability, confidence or good faith can likewise be important for engaged employees. Consequently, the JD- R clarifies engagement on the premise that, where employees have high levels of employment- related or potentially personal resources, they will probably be locked in with their job. Xanthopoulou et al. (2009), conducted a longitudinal study and recommended that personal resources were reciprocal with job resources and work engagement after some time. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 In the JD-R theory, two reasonably autonomous processes are triggered by job demands and job resources. These two processes are the motivational process and the health impairment process. Additionally, the theory suggests that job resources are especially relevant in situations of high job demands since people draw on resources as a means of adaptation during periods of stress and strain (Bakker et al., 2007). The explanations behind these special impacts are that job demands cost exertion and expend energetic resources, whiles job resources satisfy psychosomatic mental needs, for example, independence, relatedness, and competency (Nahrgan et al., 2011). On the other hand, the impact of job resources on work engagement turns out to be more pertinent and brings about motivation as job resources become the medium to the attainment of objectives in job demands situations. Hakanen et al. (2011), in this way, postulates that the usefulness of job resources cannot be underestimated as they become the safeguard to other resources, facilitate the procedures for resource growth and averts a loss in resources in the future. The JD-R model is postulated by scholars like Bakker and Leiter (2010) to be the most important antecedent of job strain and on the other hand, motivation, commitment, engagement and job motivation are predicted by job resources. Therefore, workers who have lots of job resources can adapt better to their day-to-day job demands. Job resources have a positive effect on employee engagement as job demands tend to increase. Principally, as job demands become inimical to employee’s role performance, job resources become a respite to ameliorate the harsh conditions and this promotes commitment to roles and the job (Hakanen et al., 2005). When an employee is dedicated to his role/work and organization, engagement levels increases and this promotes retention. Linking the theory to the current study which seeks to examine the relationships between workplace spirituality, job crafting and employee engagement, literature has proven that job University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 resources lead to high job crafting abilities among employees and further improves upon the engagement levels of employees. On the other hand, job demand increases burnout and negatively affects employees’ job crafting, hence, weakens their level of engagement (Baik et al., 2018). 2.2.3 Relatedness of Theories The social exchange theory depicts that there is a give and take relationship that exists in the workplace. People's satisfaction with their spiritual life, according to SET, transcends into their work lives (Arokiasamy & Tat, 2020; Giacalone & Kolodinsky 2008). Therefore, when employers encourage or invest more in workplace spirituality of their employees this may also be a good influence on employees' attitudes at work (Gutermann et al., 2017). As a result, people who value workplace spirituality will be more engaged in productive activities at work (Rahman et al., 2016). When staff members feel their organization supports their spiritual well-being, they are much more likely to put forth the effort and in essence will be more engaged (Saks 2006; Van Mierlo & Bakker, 2018). Similarly, the JD-R model can explain the assumption that employees are more likely to be engaged with their work when they get job-related resources from the organization. According to the JD-R theory as suggested by Bakker et al., (2004) some job demands when perceived by the employees as negative tend to result in extreme levels of stress and eventually burnout, this also generally affects the employee’s perception of their roles in the organization. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 2.3 Empirical Review 2.3.1 Employee Engagement: A General Overview Although employee engagement is deeply embedded in empirical research and has been widely regarded as a practitioner-based concept until the 1990s, there is currently no specific and universally accepted interpretation to the concept and the area it encompasses (Vance, 2006). As Schaufeli et al. (2002, p. 19), noted, “probably the most important issue in defining engagement is where to draw the line?” The number of different manners in which engagement has been established implies that the concept has been exposed to manipulation (Alfes et al., 2013), generating an unsettling range of meanings and interpretations. Kahn (1990, p. 694), in his seminal linked engagement to disengagement. He accordingly defined the concept "as the harnessing of organization members' selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively and emotionally during role performances." The cognitive aspect of employee engagement concerns employees’ beliefs about the organisation, its leaders and its working conditions. The emotional aspect concerns how employees feel about each of those three factors and whether they have positive or negative attitudes toward the organisation and its leaders (Kahn, 1990). The overt component focuses on the various detectable energies employed by employees in the execution of tasks. Thus, according to Kahn (1990), employee engagement means to be psychologically as well as physically present when occupying and performing an organisational role. It emphasizes the personal engagement of workers physically, cognitively and emotionally to improve organisational performance. This means that employees who are disengaged withdraw from role performance and try to defend themselves physically, cognitively and emotionally (Saks & Gruman, 2014). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 2.3.2 Similarity and Distinction from other Organisational Constructs There is sufficient evidence to argue that employee engagement is normally affiliated to, however, unique from established organisational behaviour concepts such as organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB), job satisfaction, job involvement and flow and attitude or behaviour (Saks, 2006). OCB involves voluntary (Saks, 2006), and informal behaviours to help co-workers and the organisation (Robinson et al., 2004), but the focus of engagement is one’s formal role performance actions which are neither extra-role nor voluntary behaviour. From Robinson et al. (2004), engagement contains many of the elements of both commitment and OCB but is by no means a perfect match with either. Also, neither commitment nor OCB reflects sufficiently two aspects of engagement – its two-way nature, and the extent to which engaged employees are expected to have an element of business awareness. Some definitions and measures equate engagement with employee job satisfaction (Harter et al., 2002; White, 2008). However, other authors suggested engagement is broader than, in some cases distinct from, job satisfaction (Bates, 2004; Blizzard, 2004). Gallup (2006), in their study also suggested a connection between the concepts. They argued that the distinction between the two concepts lies in their relationship to performance. Stephen Young, the executive director of Towers Perrin, (as cited in Markos & Sridevi, 2010) also distinguishes between job satisfaction and engagement contending that only engagement (not satisfaction) is the strongest predictor of organisational performance. 2.3.3.1 Engagement and Organisational Commitment Literature is replete with the use of employee engagement and commitment interchangeably (May et al., 2004). Koscec, (2003) suggests that engagement may be an expression of employee commitment and other elements of satisfaction; however, commitment lacks a number of the qualities commonly associated with engagement, such as absorption and self‐ expression. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Saks (2006), stated that organisational commitment differs from engagement in that it refers to a person’s attitude and attachment towards their organisation. That is, it is determined by the employees’ loyalty, attitudes and attachment to the organisation and this, in turn, brings the benefit of the employment. It is more attitudinal including affective, continuance and normative domains. Commitment is conceptualized as a positive attachment and willingness to exert energy for the success of the organisation, feeling proud of being a member of that organisation and identifying oneself with it (Tummers et al., 2018). However, engagement is not merely an attitude; it is the degree to which an individual is attentive to their work and absorbed in the performance of their role (Vigoda-Gadot et al., 2012). According to Maslach et al., (2001), commitment centred on the organisation, whiles engagement is focused on tasks. 2.3.3.2 Engagement and Job Involvement Lawler and Hall (1970), defined job involvement as the degree to which the employee perceives the job situation as an important part of their life, because of the opportunity it gives to satisfy a person’s needs. According to May et al. (2004), the conceptual difference between job involvement and engagement is that the former is a purely cognitive act whiles the latter is an emotional and physical element. From this, it means that engagement is more concerned with how workers employ themselves during job performance. This also includes the employee’s energy and emotions whiles job involvement is the result of the employees’ perception of the need-satisfying abilities of the job. 2.3.4 Workplace Spirituality (WPS): A General Overview Spirituality is a very deep and vast concept with several understandings dependent on the perspective of the one defining the concept and the objective to be attained. Every area of study where the concept is mentioned uniquely defines the term. According to Case and Gosling (2010, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 p. 262), the concept “is plagued by problems of definition.” Given the above, Schmidt-Wilk et al. (2000), are of the view that the various perspectives of spirituality can be categorized into three groups; those that perceive the construct as an inner experience felt personal, those that perceive it from a position of values, and the last group that perceive spirituality as a set of overt behaviours. The interconnection around the two terms; spirituality and religiousness remain an area of concern for researchers. In some instances, within the literature, spirituality and religiousness are treated as similar constructs on other occasions, they are defined independently of one another. Religion is often projected in a negative light using negative words such as dogmatic, archaic and intolerance, compared to spirituality which is highlighted in positivity and often characterised as open and tolerant. Regardless of these positions, Mohamed et al. (2004, p.104), are of the view that it is “artificial and unnecessary” to try to make a difference between the two concepts. This is because major religions in existence possess certain components of spirituality, and this position is reiterated by Oman, (2013). 2.3.4.1 Spirituality As it Exists at the Workplace Spirituality which is exhibited at the workplace stems from the findings of various researches that have been conducted in the organisational sciences which reiterates the common assumptions that when employees practise spirituality at the workplace, it is likely to affect and influence organizational outcomes in a positive way (Jurkiewicz & Giacalone, 2004). 2.3.4.2 Possible Outcomes When Organizations Adopt Workplace Spirituality Workplace spirituality can play an important role in terms of helping establish organizational standards on three levels: meaningful work which manifests at the individual level, creating a sense of community which exists at a group level and being in alignment with established organizational values and mission (Milliman et al., 2003). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 McLaughlin (2005, p. 11), posit that should organizations feel the need to succeed in the twenty- first century they will have to imbue their workers with greater meaning and purpose within the organization. “In today’s highly competitive environment, the best talent seeks out organizations that reflect their inner values and provide opportunities for personal development and community service, not just bigger salaries.” The benefits of applying workplace spirituality at the workplace have been approached from diverse angles. Denton and Mitroff (1999), investigated the applicability of the integration of workplace spirituality into organizational management, Krishnakumar and Neck (2002), approached the benefits of spirituality from an angle where the profitability of the organization is the goal. When it comes to applying spirituality to the meaning of work to attain a productive or effective organisation as the ultimate aim, Ashmos and Duchon (2000), are credited. Other investigations have been carried on the contrasting facets of workplace spirituality and the collective effect on employee involvement (Saks, 2011), and finally, the development of an exhaustive model aimed at fostering spirituality in the workplace (Pawar, 2009). The point being made here is that fostering spirituality within work environments is likely to create a positive work environment which in turn will boost productivity and growth of both organization and employee. Also, research confirms that absenteeism, high turnover intentions and workplace stress which have bearings on deadlines are the effects of an organizational culture that does not practice workplace spirituality (Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002) as well as an improvement of employee satisfaction and commitment levels at the workplace (Kinjerski & Skrypnek, 2006). Tasks can sometimes be physically demanding and exhausting, leading to terminal illnesses such as cardiovascular diseases, mental disorders as well as psychosocial challenges. Therefore, workplace spirituality is identified as a remedy to such workplace pressures (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Neal, 2000). The literature thus proves that workplace spirituality is key when it comes to building employee-based work cultures as this will reflect in higher productivity and output, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 therefore, the organizations that can put in place measures to foster workplace spirituality are likely to build a system will lead to individual and organizational growth (Marques, 2010). 2.3.5 Job Crafting-JC A novel step to nurturing higher levels of engagement among employees is empowering them to design their jobs (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001), were the first researchers to introduce the term job crafting into literature referring to the concept as the various physical and mental modifications employees engage in the execution of tasks within their work. Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001), first published the article “Crafting a job: Revisioning employees as active crafters of their work”, many years later, job crafting continues to spur interest in researchers globally. Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001), crafted the term job crafting as constructive behaviours that emanate from the efforts of the individual employee to match their jobs with their interests and desires. They go on to say that employees can craft their jobs by altering the various dimensions the job may unfold in, for example, task delivery, the social or relational aspects of the work and finally, their perceptions and thoughts towards the work. Task crafting occurs when employees can change the scope and type of tasks they engage in at work, whereas cognitive crafting affects their general perceptions towards their work and relational crafting refers to an alteration in co-worker relationships, worker supervisor/client relationships at the work (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Such constructive improvements made to jobs by employees, according to LePine and Van Dyne (1998), tends to become the norm thus affecting the original job design. Job crafting behaviours are of interest to the researcher primarily because it has been tipped to be a predictor of work engagement especially when most workers strive to decrease their burdensome job demands by finding resources to enable them to do that (Van Wingerden et al., 2016). Studies have been University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 conducted and have established an existing dynamic relationship between the concepts job crafting and work engagement; job crafting has found in the literature to cause employees to be engaged at work (Van Wingerden et al., 2017) and in other instances a consequence of employees being engaged at work (Fritz & Sonnentag, 2009; Schaufeli et al., 2009). Employees who possess the ability to craft their job at the workplace have been tipped to be assets to their organizations; most of them are likely to be engaged at work and more likely to actualize their goals as well as that of their organization. Since job crafting requires workers to self-initiate and alter their job characteristics and its nature to attain a perfect fit between the employee’s job expectations and the actual job, Tims et al. (2012) defined the concept in line with the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory. The JD-R model segments the jobs attributes in terms of demands and resources (Demerouti et al., 2001). According to Cavanaugh et al. (2000), demands are classified as challenging and hindering. Challenging demands present employees with growth opportunities (for example a complex piece of work) and may have effects directly affecting performance when they are not too high to overcome whiles hindering demands are that which cap both individual and organization performance, consequentially reducing both effectiveness and achievement of results at individual and organizational levels (Crawford et al., 2010). Job resources can be put into two subgroups; Structural and Social (Tims et al., 2012) however, job resources generally refer to those physical, mental, work-related, and social parts of one’s job that are critical to the attainment of goals and promotion of personal growth. To this end, some researchers have concluded that to have an organization system that benefits the employees and a system likely to help meet organizational goals there is a need to accelerate social job resources (e.g., social connectedness and support, mentorship, and feedback) as well as structural job resources (e.g., independence and growth and advancement opportunities). Findings from recent studies prove that such modification at the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 workplace will affect employee’s engagement (Van Wingerden et al., 2017). In conclusion, the act of crafting one’s job refers to a willing and conscious behaviour aimed to seek resources and challenges, at the same time diminishing the job demands (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017), as well conscious efforts put in place to make existing job conditions better or thrive within work environments (Robinson & Griffiths, 2005). 2.3.6 Job Crafting and Employee Engagement Mauno et al. (2007), conducted research work in a public health care organization (which includes seven hospitals) of Finland. The study mainly focused on three different types of job demands that include: (i) time demand at work, (ii) work-to-family conflict and (iii) job insecurity. Also, it highlighted three types of job resources: (i) job control, (ii) organization-based self-esteem and (iii) perceived management quality. For the investigation, necessary questionnaires were designed and administered on healthcare personnel like doctors, nurses, researchers, cleaning and catering staff etc. over two different periods i.e. 2003 and 2005. The total number of respondents was 409 that represented 65.7% of response rate. The study revealed that work engagement (especially vigour and dedication) was frequently experienced among the participants and on an average, it remained the same across the follow-up period. The experience of work engagement also remained reasonably stable during the two years under study. Further, job resources narrated earlier predicted work engagement comparatively better than job demands. The outcome further proved that job control on dedication remained statistically significant. Previous research found evidence that employees given the autonomy to exhibit their crafting behaviour on the job, experience improved engagement (Tims et al., 2013). Job crafting behaviour might help to optimize work engagement. Employees could search for more challenge in their job, for instance by taking over tasks of colleagues, for this reason, their workload will be higher. If University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 teachers for example craft their challenging job demands, this could also result in higher levels of work engagement. Another controversial issue concerns the longitudinal bond between job crafting and work engagement. Also, some studies have shown, in line with the JD-R model (Tims et al., 2014) that job crafting predicts increased levels of work engagement over time. For example, Vogt et al. (2016), in their three-wave, three-month panel design survey, sampled 940 employees from Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. Participants were recruited through an online panel data service across sectors and occupations and demonstrated that the total job crafting score (including increasing structural and social job resources and challenging job demands) predicted engagement over three months. Similarly, in a three-wave design with one-month follow-ups, with data gathered in a chemical plant with a sample size of 288 concluded that job crafting had a positive effect on structural and social job resources which, in turn, increased work engagement (Tims et al., 2013). According to Dorenbosch et al. (2013), job crafting significantly relates to employee engagement. They were further of the view that employees who go the further step to create their job make good use of the resources in their work environment, which consequently helps them to achieve goals they have set for themselves. Again, van Dam et al. (2013) carried out a study on the importance of “leader-member exchange” and situational goal orientation as predictors of job crafting. The study examined a sample size of 260 employees across different organizations and in using the Structural Equation Modelling analysis, it found out that employees who put in less effort in crafting their job are likely not to perform well and hence, poor performance whiles employees who do their possible best to craft their jobs are normally more involved and confident with their organization, which leads to better performance. Using the 'snowball' procedure, respondents in science, telecom, IT, healthcare and banking sectors in Netherland were employed for the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 Bakker et al. (2012), in their study on proactive personality, made use of data collected on 95 dyads employees to test the role of job crafting and work engagement and how it influences employee’s performance. The results which were analyzed with structural equation modelling indicated that employees who were identified as having proactive personality are the ones likely to indulge in job crafting than those who are not. Specifically, the results indicated a significant positive relationship existing between job crafting and employee work engagement. They conclude that when workers adopt proactive adjustment behaviour in their workplace, they are more likely to engage and also perform well. Their study is an indication that for employees to adjust to job crafting, measures will have to be put in place by leadership in the organisations to ensure their engagement. The difference between the above study by Bakker et al. (2012), and the current study is that the current study is looking at the relationship between both workplace job crafting (criterion variables), workplace spirituality (mediating variable) and employee engagement (outcome variable). Similarly, Lu et al. (2014), researched the role of job crafting and job insecurity on work engagement in a two-wave longitudinal study among 246 Chinese workers of a reputable technology firm. The results of the study indicated that a significant positive relationship exists between work engagement and changes in relational job crafting. They concluded that once employees are engaged, it leads to the crafting of jobs in both physical and relational means, which also creates a better person-job-fit. The study of Lu et al. (2014), also found that job insecurity significantly relates to job crafting. This finding seems to suggest that employees are sometimes engaged by crafting their job for the fear that they may lose their jobs, this is not too far from the banking industry following the restructuring, mergers and acquisitions in the past few years. It particularly sits better with this study as it examines employees in the banking sector. The current study is examining job crafting, workplace spirituality and the relationship with employee University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 engagement. This finding is corroborated by the findings of a study conducted by Tim and Bakker (2010), on employee engagement and job crafting. The study conducted an extensive literature search with the main aim on proactive behaviour of the employees and then on job crafting. The results indicated a significant positive relationship between employee engagement and job crafting. The study concluded that organisations will benefit a lot from employees when their employees are motivated to create or craft their jobs to secure their engagement. In a study conducted by Chen et al. (2014), on job crafting and job engagement, data was collected among hotel employees who are full-time workers in Taiwan. The findings of the study indicated that individual crafting and collaborative crafting are significantly related to employee work engagement. The findings further showed that individual crafting had a stronger relationship with work engagement as compared to collaborative crafting. The findings seem to support the findings of other scholars discussed earlier who also revealed a positive relationship between job crafting and employee engagement. Generally, they concluded that more studies need to be carried out to determine the possible outcome of the relationship that exists between individual job crafting and employee engagement; thus, this is in line with the objectives of this study. Demerouti et al. (2015), also researched the role of work engagement on job crafting and extra- role behaviour. Data was collected among 294 employees and their supervisors. The results like that of other scholars indicated a positive relationship between job crafting and work engagement. According to Demerouti et al. (2015), engaged employees are individuals who are motivated to create their jobs. In a research conducted by Tims et al. (2013), on the topic “Job crafting at the team and individual level: Implications for work engagement and performance”, data was gathered on 525 employees working in 54 teams. The teams were providing occupational health and safety services. The University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 results indicated that vigorously increasing job resources and challenging job demands may be an ideal strategy to ensure increased work engagement and job performance at both individual and team level. The findings further revealed that engaging in situations that hinder job resources is a type of job crafting that may impair work engagement and could also negatively affect individual performance. They further revealed in their findings that hindering job demands may bring about frustration, which could consequently lead to stress. Harju et al. (2016), underscored in their study conducted on job crafting and increased work engagement that seeking challenges had a significant positive relationship with work engagement. This research was conducted by employing a two- wave, three (3) year design and collected data among 1630 well educated Finnish employees from various kinds of occupation from different organisations. The findings also suggested that seeking challenges at work increases work engagement and decrease job boredom. This according to Harju et al. (2016), goes a long way to create other job crafting behaviours among employees. One of the limitations of their study was that the effect of job crafting actions was very small. With regards to the current study, workplace spirituality has been identified to play a mediating role between job crafting and employee engagement which is the criterion variable. Robledo et al. (2019), investigated the influence of job crafting on the relationship between work engagement and wellbeing outcomes. A survey method was adopted for the study. 443 samples were drawn from Spanish white-collar employees who were workers in education, health, banking industry, public administration etc. The Spanish validated version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9) was adopted. Hierarchical Regression and structural equation modelling were employed in the analysis of the data. The findings revealed that the way and manner workers are engaged will decide how they will adopt job crafting behaviours in the future. Thus, the higher the engagement, the higher the level of job crafting behaviours. The findings of Robledo et al. (2019) also identified a stronger link between work engagement and job crafting University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 behaviours compared to the relationship between variables such as workaholism and burnout on one hand and job crafting on the other hand. In another study conducted by Tims et al. (2015), the study examined how employee job crafting relates to the wellbeing of colleagues in the workplace. Participants were selected from various organisations through email and phone contact. A total of 356 participants were selected for the study. Snowballing sampling technique was adopted for participant selection. In the analysis of the data, structural equation modelling was employed. It was found that, when workers try to reduce their hindering job demands on their initiative, a higher workload was reported by their colleagues and both workers report higher levels of conflict with each other. The results suggest that when an individual crafts his or her hindering job demands, it brings about a shift of tasks responsibilities which result in conflict. 2.3.7 Workplace Spirituality and Employee Engagement. Empirical studies which have examined the relationship between the two variables have shown that workplace spirituality is positively related to employee engagement (Singh & Chopra, 2016). This implies that the extent to which people feel engaged and immersed at work is therefore somewhat dependent on the extent to which they experience workplace spirituality (Breytenbach, 2016). A spiritual environment at workplace instils a love for work among employees as a result of which they become engaged in their work (Sony & Mekoth, 2017). Devendhiran et al. (2017) studied the impact of spirituality in the context of employee engagement in India. This study suggests workplace spirituality is having three dimensions that is meaningfulness in work, a sense of community or connectedness and alignment with the organization's values and they have a positive influence on employee engagement. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 Saks (2011), in the literature review paper explored the influence of workplace spirituality on employee engagement. The qualitative approach was adopted for the study. The results of the study revealed that indeed workplace spirituality influences employee engagement. It was specifically identified that meaningfulness in work could be promoted through conscious organizational behaviours that encourage task enrichment. In other words, the job resources that encourage task enrichment can elevate levels of employee engagement through their effects on meaningfulness in work. Riasudeen and Prabavathy, (2011), also researched the topic, the relationship of workplace spirituality and work attitude in a manufacturing organization among 78 employees across departments in the organizations with various levels of work experience. The study proved a significant positive relationship between the dimensions of workplace spirituality and work attitude and a negative relationship between dimensions of workplace spirituality and intention to quit. The limitation of their study was that they employed one measurement factor throughout the study; it is recommended that other organizational outcomes are tested. They also tested only senior-level employees in their study, whereas they could have carried out a cross-sectional study. Van der Walt and Swanepoel (2015), investigated the relationship between workplace spirituality and job involvement. The quantitative research approach was employed to analyze the data. A cross-sectional survey was conducted and a total of 214 participants were sampled for the study. The results indicated that a positive relationship also significant exists between spirituality at work and employee involvement at work. Specifically, the results indicated a significant positive relationship between meaningfulness to work and community (dimensions of workplace spirituality) and job involvement. They concluded in their study that organizations which adopt spiritual values and which are exhibited by its leadership are likely to have its employees become more involved in their jobs. On the other hand, an organization that does not have workplace University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 spiritual values will also have the tendency of its leadership not believing in it, which consequently will lead to a situation where employees will not involve themselves in their jobs. Similarly, Pradhan and Jena (2017) investigated the bearing existent between spirituality at work and employee engagement. Data from 172 executives working in the Indian public and private banks and insurance industries were gathered. A standardized questionnaire containing items on workplace spirituality as well as employee engagement was administered to participants. The findings revealed that a significant positive relationship exists between workplace spirituality and employee engagement. However, the study did not find gender differences in how employees perceive their organization differently in terms of workplace spirituality and employee engagement dimensions. The findings seem to suggest that meaningful work, community and alignment with organizational values in an organization helps employees to engage. Also, Pradhan et al. (2016), conducted a study and the purpose was to examine workplace spirituality and job outcomes in the information technology sector in India. The study sampled 480 workers who filled-up survey questionnaires. A standardized scale developed by Krishnan (2007), was used to solicit respondents’ views on the extent to which they experience workplace spirituality. Structural Equation modelling was employed in the running of analysis for hypothesized connections between the variables. The results indicated that workplace spirituality positively correlates with commitment. It indicated further a significant positive relationship existing between spirituality at work and job satisfaction. This implies that those who consider their job as meaningful and those who have reason and deeper purpose at work experience inner contentment and satisfaction. In other words, those who have a sense of oneness in their relations with others may provide themselves with a greater satisfaction on the job as these individuals are likely to give fair treatment to their colleagues as they see them as their companions who have the same interest to achieve common goals. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 In line with the findings of the scholars above Singh and Chopra (2016), also conducted a study on the relationship among workplace spirituality, work engagement and grit. The study was conducted among 283 participants who were full-time workers in different organizations. ANOVA was used to analyze the data. The results revealed a weak link between spirituality at the workplace, employee engagement and grit. However, the results indicated a strong relationship between meaningful work and engagement whereas that of sense of community and work engagement was fairly weak. The results also revealed a weak relationship between inner life and work engagement. This result is unique from the findings of other scholars who consistently found strong and significant relationships between the two constructs. In summary, the discussions above made a significant contribution to the body of empirical investigation by reporting that job crafting and workplace spirituality is associated with and predicted employee engagement in most cases. The previous related studies mos