Effect of thermal and non-thermal processing on Technofunctional,
nutritional, safety and sensorial attributes of potato powder

Muhammad Waseem a,b,1,**, Saeed Akhtar b, Tariq Ismail b, Tawfiq Alsulami c,
Muhammad Qamar b, Dur-e-shahwar Sattar b, Raheel Suleman b, Wisha Saeed b,
Crossby Osei Tutu d,1,*

a Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Agriculture & Environment, Islamia University Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan
b Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Food Science & Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan
c Department of Food Science & Nutrition, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
d Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana

A R T I C L E I N F O

Keywords:
Solanum tuberosum
Processing
Value addition
Microwave
Pesticides
Antinutrients

A B S T R A C T

Potato is a highly nutritious staple food however, it also contains some antinutrients like alkaloids, phytates,
tannins, oxalates as well as pesticide residues. Therefore, this study was conducted to reduce the loads of
antinutrients and pesticides in potato powder (PP) using thermal and non-thermal processing techniques.
Nutritional analysis revealed that the raw PP contained significantly (p < 0.05) higher magnitudes of dietary
proteins (10.2 %), fibers (6.3 %), Na (50 mg/100 g), Ca (62 mg/100 g) and K (988 mg/100 g) when compared
with the processed PP. The results demonstrated that all thermal and non-thermal processing techniques
significantly reduced the antinutrients and pesticide residues. However, microwave heat treatment anticipated
the highest reduction in alkaloids, oxalates, tannins and phytates contents from 60 to 14 mg/100 g (76 %
reduction), 31–6 mg/100 g (80 % reduction), 91–15 mg/100 g (84 % reduction) and 45–8 mg/100 g (82 %
reduction), respectively. Additionally, microwave heat processing also exhibited the highest decline in imida-
cloprid, cypermethrin, bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos and deltamethrin contents by 87 %, 76 %, 63 %, 79 % and 81 %,
respectively. Later, microwave-treated PP (the most effective treatment) was used to develop unleavened flat-
breads (i.e., chapatis) @ 2–10 %. Organoleptic evaluation of supplemented flatbreads suggested that 5 % sup-
plementation with microwave treated PP has the highest overall acceptability. Therefore, it is concluded that
thermal and non-thermal processing techniques are effective tools to reduce loads of antinutrients and pesticide
burden in potatoes. Moreover, the study also suggests, PP can be efficiently used as natural food supplement for
development of value-added foods.

1. Introduction

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), a nutrient enriched food crop which
belongs to family Solanaceae, is ranked at fourth after the wheat, rice
and maize (Guo et al., 2023). With a global cultivation area of 17.3 MH,
production statistics reveal global production of potato is about 359
million tons, while for Pakistan it is recorded as 5,872,960 tons
(FAOSTAT, 2021). The leading potato producing regions around the

globe include People’s Republic of China, Indo-Pak region, Ukraine and
Russia (Waseem, Akhtar, Ahmad, et al., 2022). Potatoes have gained
global attention due to attractive nutritional profile as the tuber contain
significant magnitudes of dietary fibers, essential proteins (i.e., essential
amino acids), vitamins (B1, B6, B9, C, E and K) and minerals (Mn, Na, Ca,
P, K and Mg) (Akonor et al., 2023; Franková et al., 2022; Mi et al., 2022;
Akonor et al., 2022). Potato proteins are quite comparable with cereals
and egg proteins. Therapeutic properties of potatoes are known to be

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author at: Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Agriculture & Environment, Islamia University Bahawalpur; Department of Food
Science & Technology, Faculty of Food Science & Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan.

E-mail addresses: muhammadwaseem9499@gmail.com (M. Waseem), tariqismail@bzu.edu.pk (T. Ismail), Talsulami@ksu.edu.sa (T. Alsulami), dsattar@bzu.edu.
pk (D.-e.-s. Sattar), dr.raheel@bzu.edu.pk (R. Suleman), coseitutu@ug.edu.gh (C. Osei Tutu).

1 These authors contributed equally to this work.

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry: X

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/food-chemistry-x

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101896
Received 12 September 2024; Received in revised form 6 October 2024; Accepted 10 October 2024

Food Chemistry: X 24 (2024) 101896 

Available online 16 October 2024 
2590-1575/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ). 

mailto:muhammadwaseem9499@gmail.com
mailto:tariqismail@bzu.edu.pk
mailto:Talsulami@ksu.edu.sa
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linked with its health promoting phytonutrients such as anthocyanins
(malvidin, peonidin, delphinidin, cyanidin and petunidin), polyphenols
(flavonoids), carotenoids and patatin protein (Kita et al., 2013; Sun
et al., 2021; Osei Tutu et al., 2024), which exhibit crucial role in the
management of numerous health disorders such as diabetes, cardio-
vascular disorders, inflammation, obesity, hyperlipidemia, hyperten-
sion, allergy, neurodegenerative problems, cancers and viral infections
(Kowalczewski et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2023; Osei Tutu et al., 2023).
Higher water absorption and swelling capacities and better starch di-
gestibility, potatoes are viable ingredients are supposed as viable choice
in a wide array of food applications. Modes of dietary uses of potatoes
are dehydrated powders for gravies, soups, cakes, bread, noodles, cur-
ries, sausages, beverages, snacks and gluten-free cookies (Osei Tutu
et al., 2024; Akhobakoh et al., 2022; Kowalczewski et al., 2022; Whitney
& Simsek, 2020).

Plant origin antinutrients such as tannins, phytic acids, oxalates,
enzyme inhibitors and saponins interfere with the minerals and
adversely affect their bioavailability and absorption(Akonor et al.,
2023). These intrinsic toxicants are of serious concern where legumes,
cereals, pulses and fresh vegetables are consumed as staple diets, which
however; may cause deleterious health effects like micronutrient in-
adequacies, kidney stones, hepatic issues and neuro problems (Faizal
et al., 2023). Pesticides are abundantly used in fruits and vegetables as
sustainable means of controlling insects, pests and weeds to overcome
the ever-rising plant diseases (Tang et al., 2023). According to recent
global statistics, the use of pesticides has exceeded over 4.1 million tons
per year, of which herbicides reveal about 71.4 % use, followed by
fungicides, insecticides and rodenticides by 10.4 %, 18.2 % and 17 %,
respectively (Centanni et al., 2023). Indiscriminative use and over
dependence on pesticides to overcome agricultural insects and pests’
leads to the accumulation of pesticides in edible food crops, which
consequently affects neuro functionalities, reproductive organs, liver
functioning, kidney, respiratory system and cancer (Rani et al., 2021).
The maximum residue limits (MRL’s) of different pesticides including
imidacloprid, cypermethrin, bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos and deltamethrin
for potatoes have been documented by FAO/WHO, Codex Alimentarius
Commission range between 0.01 and 2 ppm (CAC, 2011). Potato tubers
are among the vegetables which are considered among the most sus-
ceptible food crops towards the attack of insects and pests. In the same
sense, potatoes have been listed among the ‘dirty dozen’ fruits and
vegetables holding the highest levels of pesticides (Nguyen et al., 2020).
Earlier studies report the presence of pyrethroids (deltamethrin and
cypermethrin) and organochlorines (γ-chlordane, lindane, heptachlor
and dimethachlor) in potatoes beyond their allowed MRL levels (Terfe
et al., 2023). Globally, indiscriminate use, weaker legislative controls
and dietary exposure to pesticides have raised a number of health
challenges in humans (Terfe et al., 2023), including kidney failure,
neurotoxicity, obesity, bronchitis, musculoskeletal abnormalities,
bronchitis, infertility problems, congenital malformations, endocrine
alterations, neurodegenerative issues, neuropsychiatric disorders, gen-
otoxicity, behavioral disorders, liver dysfunction and cancer (Cancino
et al., 2023; Panis et al., 2022).

In recent years, scientists have explored new approaches like thermal
and non-thermal processing to mitigate the ever increasing burden of
intrinsic and extrinsic toxicants in fruits and vegetables to improve their
nutritional quality (Waseem, Akhtar, Qamar, et al., 2022). Retrospective
studies are evident of employing the thermal, non-thermal, physical,
chemical and biological food processing techniques including blanch-
ing, boiling, acid soaking, saline soaking, alkaline soaking, freezing,
fermentation, frying and drying (Acheampong et al., 2024; Faizal et al.,
2023; Tang et al., 2023), peeling, washing, baking and juicing (Nguyen
et al., 2020; Terfe et al., 2023) as viable, cost-effective and labor-less
techniques to reduce the pesticides and antinutrients burden in vege-
tables. Recent studies have indicated that microwave heat processing
and autoclaving as the most effective thermal techniques in declining
antinutrients in vegetables typically attributed to the leaching and

rupturing of plant cell walls (Natesh et al., 2017; Samtiya et al., 2020).
Available literature have endorsed the great potential of microwave heat
processing and blanching as viable techniques in mitigating the loads of
antinutrients in vegetables when compared with the various processing
methods like soaking and resulted in decline of about 90 % of the
antinutrients and pesticides and improved the safety of vegetables for
the human consumption (Javed et al., 2024). Likewise, earlier studies
have also validated the use of blanching, microwave heating, acid
soaking and base soaking to exert significant reduction in intrinsic
(antinutrients like phytates, tannins, oxalates and alkaloids) and
extrinsic toxicants (i.e., pesticide residues) between 80 and 92 % in
vegetables (Waseem et al., 2024).

Plethora of useful information is available on nutritional and anti-
nutrient indices of raw potatoes and its food uses. However, earlier
studies have identified a gap in the availability of a comparison of
detoxification techniques for the efficient detoxification of potatoes and
their effects on the physicochemical and technofunctional characteris-
tics of the processed versions of potatoes. Therefore, this study was
strategized to investigate the impact of thermal and non-thermal pro-
cessing to detoxify antinutrients and pesticide residues in potatoes to set
maximum allowable limits and to utilize the detoxified PP in the
development of unleavened flatbread with better sensory acceptability.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Procurement of raw materials, chemicals and reagents

Fifteen kilograms of disease, insect and pest-free fresh potatoes were
purchased from Dua Enterprises, Agro-Farm, Multan, Pakistan. The
potatoes were manually washed with clean drinking water, peeled with
a knife, sorted and graded for quality and sliced with a household slicer
in the laboratory of the Department of Food Science & Technology,
Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan. Reagents and chemicals used in nutritional, tech-
nofunctional and physicochemical trials were all analytical grade and
procured from local distributors of Sigma Chemical Co., Ltd. (St. Louise,
MO) and Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). Standards used in the determi-
nation of antinutrients including alkaloids, oxalates, tannins and phy-
tates, minerals (Ca, Na, K, Fe and Zn) and pesticide residues
(cypermethrin, imidacloprid, bifenthrin, deltamethrin and chlorpyr-
iphos) were purchased from BDH Chemicals Ltd. (Shanghai, China).

2.2. Processing treatments of potatoes

2.2.1. Microwave heat processing and blanching
After preliminary operations potatoes were microwave heat pro-

cessed at 1.1 kW for 2 min (Waseem, Akhtar, Ahmad, et al., 2022),
blanched in clean distilled water at 100 ± 2 ◦C for 1.5 min. On
completion of blanching, the slices were removed from distilled water
and pre-dried using absorbent paper.

2.2.2. Acid and alkali soaking
Uniformly sized potatoes were soaked in 2 M hydrochloric acid (HCl)

for acid soaking. Contrarily, the slices were soaked in alkaline solutions
consisting of 1 % sodium bicarbonate and, a mixture of salt solutions (i.
e., 1.5 % and 0.5 % of sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate) for a
period of 16–18 h (Waseem, Akhtar, Qamar, et al., 2022).

2.3. Raw and processed PP preparation

The protocol of (Akter et al., 2023) was followed to prepare powders
from raw and processed potatoes. Uniformly sliced pieces of raw and
processed potatoes were evenly laid over the nylon mesh (dimension =

0.186 × 0.186 m2) for cabinet drying (Pamico Tech, Faisalabad,
Pakistan) at 45 ± 2 ◦C, 12–14 h to a moisture content of 8–10 %.
Thereafter, dehydrated slices were converted into fine powders (mesh

M. Waseem et al. Food Chemistry: X 24 (2024) 101896 

2 



size = 80 mm) using heavy-duty grinder (Pamico Tech, Faisalabad,
Pakistan). PP were stored in airtight glass jars at 4–6 ± 2 ◦C for further
analyses.

2.4. Functional properties of raw and processed PP

2.4.1. Bulk density
Bulk densities of PP were estimated in accordance with the protocol

as documented by (Buzera et al., 2022). Ten grams of each powder was
filled into a 100 mL graduated cylinder and final bulk volume (V) was
measured. Bulk density was calculated as:

Bulk density (BD) =
Mass (g)

Volume (mL)
(I)

2.4.2. Rehydration ratio (RR)
PP rehydration ratios were determined as outlined by (Okonkwo

et al., 2022). Accurately measured five-gram sample was mixed in 50 mL
distilled water for 30 min. Subsequently, filtration was performed using
Whatman filter no. 41. Permeates of each sample were weighed and RR
was estimated as:

Rehydration ratio =
Rehydrated Sample Weight (g)
Dehydrated Sample Weight (g)

(II)

2.4.3. Water solubility index (WSI) and water absorption index (WAI)
WSI and WAI of dehydrated powders were measured in accordance

with the protocols as measured by (Castro-Mendoza et al., 2022).
Accurately weighed one gram of sample was added into 10 mL distilled
water and mixed for 30 min. Subsequently, the mixture was centrifuged
(Hermle Z236K, Wehingen, Germany) at 4300 rpm for 20 min. The su-
pernatant was collected in a pre-weighed dish and evaporated using hot
air oven (Memmert UNB 200, Munich, Germany) at 105± 2 ◦C for 8 h to
obtain constant weight. The results for water solubility index and water
absorption index were determined using the following eqs. (III) and (IV):

WSI (%) =
Dehydrated Supernatant weight (g)

Initial weight of dehydrated sample (g)
×100 (III)

2.4.4. Swelling power
(Moreno-Ochoa et al., 2023) method was followed to determine the

swelling power of each sample. Three grams of each sample was mixed
in 30 mL of distilled water in a pre-weighed falcon tube (i.e., 50 mL) to
make powder-water slurry and heated in water bath (WNB-29, Mem-

mert, Schwabach, Germany) at 60 ◦C for 30 min with constant stirring.
Falcon tubes containing hot slurry were centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 10
min. Subsequently, supernatants and solid residues were collected and
weighed in pre-weighed dishes and falcon tubes, respectively. Swelling
powers of all samples were calculated by using equation mentioned
hereunder (V):

Sp (g paste/g dry sample ) =
Weight of solid paste (g)
Weight of sample (g)

(V)

2.4.5. Hygroscopicity
Hygroscopicity of dehydrated powders were determined as laid

down by (Arebo et al., 2023). Two gram of powder sample was kept in
desiccator at 25 ◦C already containing saturated NaCl solution at 70 %
relative humidity. After one week, each sample was measured again for
weight and hygroscopicity values were expressed as given below.

Hygroscopicity (%) =
Gain in weight of sample (g)
Original weight of sample (g)

× 100 (VI)

2.5. Nutritional composition

Nutritional composition consisting of moisture (No. 925.10), crude
ash (No. 923.03), fat (No. 920.85), fiber (No. 32–10) and protein (No.
920.87) contents of raw and processed PP and supplemented unleav-
ened flatbread were estimated as mentioned in standardized methods of
Official Methods of Analysis (Latimer, 2019). Whereas carbohydrates
and calorie contents were calculated as;

Carbohydrates (g/100 g) = [100 − (moisture+ crude ash+ crude fat
+ crude fiber+ crude protein) ]

(VII)

Calories (kcal/g) = 4 (Protein%+Carbohydrates%)+9 (Fat%) (VIII)

However, mineral elements consisting of Ca, K, Na, Fe and Zn in
powder samples were estimated by following the method as mentioned
by (Raletsena et al., 2023).

2.6. Antinutrients

2.6.1. Determination of alkaloids
Dehydrated PP were assessed for alkaloid contents as described by

(Khan et al., 2019). Five grams of each sample was amalgamated in 10 %
ethanol-acetic acid solution (i.e., 100 mL) and were given stay for 4 h
and filtered via Whatman filter no. 41 and filtrate was concentrated
using water bath. Afterwards, filtrate was mixed with concentrated

ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) to form alkaloid precipitates. The res-
idues were given second filtration and washing using 1 % ammonium
hydroxide. Finally, the mixture was oven dried at 60 ◦C for 30 min to
record the alkaloid contents as:

2.6.2. Determination of oxalates
Two grams of each sample was digested in 190 mL distilled water

and 10 mL, 6 M hydrochloric acid in water bath. After digestion,
centrifugation was performed at 2000 rpm for 10 min and was
concentrated on hot plate to adjust the final volume up to 25 mL.
Thereafter, filtration was performed via Whatman filter paper no. 41 to

WAI (g water/g sample) =
Weight of tube with sediment (g) − Weight of tube with sample (g)

Initial weight of sample (g)
(IV)

Alkaloids (%) =
Weight of precipitates wih filter − Weight of empty filter (g)

Original weight of sample (g)
×100 (IX)

M. Waseem et al. Food Chemistry: X 24 (2024) 101896 

3 



collect the brown colored precipitates. Then, three drops of methyl in-
dicator were added followed by the addition of concentrated ammonia
to obtain faint yellowish appearance. Subsequently, 10 mL of 5 % cal-
cium chloride was added with constant stirring to precipitate the oxa-
lates and final filtration was performed. Filtrates were titrated against
0.5 % potassium permanganate until pink colored end point not per-
sisted for 30 s (Abdullahi et al., 2021). Oxalates were measured by
formula as mentioned below.

Oxalates% = *Titer value× 0.1125 (X)

*1 mL of potassium permanganate = 2.24 mg of oxalates (XI)

2.6.3. Determination of tannins
(Khan et al., 2019) protocol was adopted to assess tannin contents in

dehydrated powders. Accurately measured 0.5 g of each sample was
mixed with 50 mL of distilled water and stirred for 1 h. Thereafter, re-
action mixture was filtered and 5 mL supernatant was taken to mix with
2 mL, 0.1 M ferric chloride in a test tube. The absorbance of each sample
was measured in 10min at 395 nm on spectrophotometer (UV–Vis 3000,
Darmstadt, Germany). Final concentrations of tannins (mg/100 g) were
computed against tannic acid standard curves.

2.6.4. Determination of phytates
(Sharma et al., 2022) method was followed to estimate phytates in

PP. About 0.5 g of each sample was digested in 0.2 N hydrochloric acid
on hot plate (LMS-1003, Daihan Labtech Co. Ltd., Namyangju, South
Korea) for 30 min with persistent stirring and then allowed to stay for 10
min. Afterward, 0.5 mL of each extract was taken in test tube and
covered with stopper. Thereafter, one milliliter ferric solution (Conc. i.
e., 0.2 g ammonium iron III sulphate mixed with 2 N, HCL reaching to a
final volume of 1 L) was added to reaction mixture and heated in water
bath for 30 min and cooled to room temperature using ice water. Sub-
sequently, the mixture was centrifuged for 30 min at 3000 rpm and 1 mL
of supernatant was thoroughly mixed with 2 mL of 2,2′-bipyridine so-
lution (Conc. i.e., 10 g of 2,2′-bipyridine and 10 mL of thioglycolic acid
dissolved to a total volume of 25 mL in distilled water). Sodium phytate-
phosphorous standards were prepared for development of standard
curves. Absorbance reading of standard, reagent blank and sample was
taken at 519 nm using UV–Vis Spectrophotometer. The results for
phytates contents were expressed as mg/100 g of phytates.

2.7. Pesticide residues extraction, cleanup and determination

Precisely measured 50 g homogeneous sample of each powder was
mixed with 20 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate in 250 mL Erlenmeyer
flask. Then, 10 mL saturated sodium chloride and 70 mL ethyl acetate in
were added in it and gently mixed at 50 rpm for 1 h in orbital shaker
(MaxQ4000, Thermo Scientific TM, Waltham, MA, USA) and filtered
using Whatman filter paper no. 1. Filtered samples were stored at 2–4 ±

2 ◦C in plastic vials. Now, the extracts were passed through anhydrous
sodium sulfate column followed by activated charcoal and silica gel 7:5
(w/w) columns adjusted @ 1 mL/min flow rate for cleanup of any color
residues. Afterwards, the contents were also eluted for 2nd cleanup
using 50 mL of methanol: acetone (7:3 v/v) solution. The eluent was
collected in plastic vials and evaporated to a final volume of 1–2 mL

using rotary evaporator at 45 ◦C under vacuum. Thereafter, cleaned up
elute was now washed with high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) grade methanol. Nitrogen gas streaming was also done in
controlled conditions of pressure in petri plates for impurities removal
(Ashraf et al., 2022).

A protocol by (Hussain et al., 2020) was followed to determine the
imidacloprid, bifenthrin, cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos and deltamethrin
contents in dehydrated PP using HPLC system installed with UV–visible
detector (PerkinElmer, Series 200, Waltham, MS, USA). Twenty micro-
liter sample was injected into analytical C18 column (250 mm× 4.6 mm,
I.d.; Supelco, Bellifonte, PA, USA) by an autosampler with Methanol:
water (45:55 v/v) as mobile phase. The flow rate of mobile phase was set
at 1.5 mL/min with a run time of 20 min for each sample at 254 nm.
Standard curves of each pesticide were recorded@ 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 ppm
alongside a reagent blank. Results for pesticide residues were noted in
ppm.

2.8. Sensory evaluation of microwaved heat-treated PP supplemented
unleavened flatbread

From the premix, fifty grams of dough of each treatment was pre-
pared using whole wheat flour (T0, control), whole wheat flour sup-
plemented with microwave heat-treated PP @ 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 % in
clean drinking water. The dough was sheeted into unleavened flatbread
and both sides of flatbread were evenly baked at 200 ± 5 ◦C for 2–3 min
on griddle. Raw and microwave heat treated PP supplemented unleav-
ened flatbread were tested for sensory acceptability by a nominated
panel of sensory experts (n = 15) known for better sensory ability.
Sensory experts were already briefed for unbiased assigning of sensory
scores for appearance, taste, color, folding ability, texture and overall
acceptability of raw and processed unleavened flatbreads in accordance
with the 9-Point Hedonic Scale i.e., 1-dislike extremely, to 9-like
extremely.

2.9. Statistical analysis

Two independent experiments of each analysis were performed.
Results for technofunctional properties, physico-chemical composition,
mineral profile, antinutrients and extrinsic toxicants i.e., pesticide res-
idues in raw and microwave heat treated PP samples were expressed as
means ± standard error (S.E.). Data obtained from the independent
experiments of raw and processed PP and supplemented unleavened
flatbreads consisting of sensory evaluation study were statistically
analyzed via analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the Statistics 8.1 software
(Tallahassee, FL) and the results of this section were also presented as
means± standard error (S.E.). Whereas mean values of all analyses were
tested for level of significance by least significance difference (LSD) test
at 5 % confidence level.

3. Result and discussion

3.1. Technofunctional properties of raw and processed PP

The data from technofunctional characteristics of dehydrated PP
reported significantly (p< 0.05) higher magnitudes of rehydration ratio,

Table 1
Technofunctional properties of raw and processed potato powders.

Treatments B.D. (g/mL) R.R. WSI (%) WAI (g/g) Sp (g/g) Hg (%)

Raw PP 0.77 ± 0.04a 6.40 ± 0.12ab 5.21 ± 0.02b 5.94 ± 0.03b 8.02 ± 0.01a 7.14 ± 0.03c

Microwave Heating 0.73 ± 0.00b 6.58 ± 0.01a 5.47 ± 0.01a 6.15 ± 0.04a 7.97 ± 0.01a 7.42 ± 0.01a

Blanching 0.78 ± 0.01a 6.00 ± 0.00c 5.07 ± 0.02c 5.90 ± 0.07b 7.83 ± 0.03b 7.21 ± 0.00c

Acid Soaking 0.69 ± 0.00c 5.89 ± 0.01c 5.00 ± 0.00c 5.58 ± 0.01c 7.00 ± 0.00c 7.32 ± 0.01b

Alkali Soaking 0.66 ± 0.01d 6.15 ± 0.04bc 5.05 ± 0.04c 5.47 ± 0.01c 6.98 ± 0.00c 6.92 ± 0.01d

Values are expressed as means ± standard error (n = 2). Mean values having similar lettering in a column are non–significant at p > 0.05; PP = Potato powder.

M. Waseem et al. Food Chemistry: X 24 (2024) 101896 

4 



water solubility index, water absorption index and hygroscopicity i.e.,
6.6, 5.5 %, 6.2 g/g and 7.4 in microwave heat processed PP when
compared with control and other processing treatments (Table 1).
However, the lowest mean concentrations of rehydration ratio, water
solubility index, water absorption index and hygroscopicity were
observed in acid soaking, acid soaking, alkali soaking and alkali soaking
i.e., 5.9, 5.0 %, 5.5 g/g and 6.9, respectively. A retrospective study by
(Rodriguez-Sandoval et al., 2012) suggested comparable findings for the
water solubility index, water absorption index and swelling power in PP
i.e., 7.5 %, 4.5 g/g, and 4.8 %, respectively. However, slight differences
in technofunctional characteristics of vegetables powders on processing
could be attributed to variation in processing conditions, morphology,
cultivars and nutritional composition of vegetables. Presence of higher
water absorption index, water solubility index and swelling power in PP
could be linked with the phosphate groups repulsion properties of
amylopectin, increased hydration ratios on weakening of bonds among
crystalline structures.

3.2. Nutritional composition of raw and processed PP

Nutritional composition of raw and processed PP portrayed raw PP to
exhibit significantly (p < 0.05) higher contents of ash, protein and fiber
contents i.e., 2.5 %, 10.2 % and 6.3 %, respectively. However, on
comparing the treatment efficacies of processing treatments, the data
elucidated higher contents of ash, protein and dietary fibers in micro-
wave heat processed PP i.e., 3.1 %, 10 % and 5.7 %, respectively
(Table 2). Earlier studies by (Das et al., 2018; Whitney & Simsek, 2020;
Yang et al., 2023) indicated the presence of comparable magnitudes of
ash, protein and dietary fibers in raw PP ranging between 2.5 and 2.8 %,
7.3–8.3 %, 1.6–11 %, respectively. Likewise, other retrospective studies
by (Hidayat, 2019) and (Nascimento & Canteri, 2018) reported the
positive correlation of blanching on ash, protein and fiber contents of
blanched PP which significantly increased from 3.5 to 7 %, 10.4–11.3 %
and 1.3–1.8 %, respectively, however, slight decrease in fat contents of
blanched PP from 0.7 to 0.6 %was also observed. The increase in protein
contents of blanched PP could be attributed to the ceased catalytic ac-
tivities of proteases and pectinolytic enzymes in blanched PP. Likewise,
slight increment in fiber contents of blanched PP could be attributed to
the residues including quinones and melanins produced as a result of
polyphenol oxidases and peroxidases actions, which are quantified as
insoluble fibers (Nascimento & Canteri, 2018). Another study by (Tian
et al., 2016) exhibited significant effect of microwave heat processing on
PP ash, protein and fiber contents i.e., 3.8 %, 6.6 % and 9.1 %. However,
the same study also portrayed significant impact of blanching on ash
protein and fiber contents of PP i.e., 4.1 %, 6.6 % and 5.5 %,

respectively. Therefore, potatoes are suggested as plausible source of
high quality proteins, inorganic elements and health promoting dietary
fibers which are known to combat numerous health disorders such as
hypertension, obesity, cardiovascular, diabetes, colon cancer, cerebro-
vascular disorders, constipation, intestinal problems and micronutrient
malnutrition (Osei Tutu et al., 2024; Singh et al., 2023; Yang et al.,
2023). On comparing the nutritional potential with the staple cereals,
potatoes are known to exhibit lower fats and high-quality proteins
(biological value = 0.99), which reveals it as a healthy food for humans
(Liang et al., 2019).

3.3. Mineral composition of raw and processed PP

The findings onmineral elements of all PP shown significantly higher
concentrations of Na, Ca, K, Fe and Zn in raw PP i.e., 50.2 mg/100 g, 62
mg/100 g, 988 mg/100 g, 1.6 mg/100 g and 0.9 mg/100 g, respectively.
The Na concentrations varied between 43 and 50 mg/100 g among all
thermal and non-thermal processed PP (Table 3). However, Ca and K
results showed significantly higher concentration in microwave heat
processed and blanched PP i.e., 60.5 mg/100 g and 980.4 mg/100,
respectively. Non-significant (p < 0.05) effect of processing was recor-
ded in Fe and Zn concentrations of the processed PP. Dietary intake of
micronutrients like potassium, sodium and calcium could be helpful in
performing several health functions like maintaining the intracellular
fluid, osmoregulation, fluid balance, controlling high blood pressure,
bone and growth development and supports protein synthesis (Liang
et al., 2019). Retrospective studies have validated the presence of Na,
Ca, K, Fe and Zn in potato flours from 29 to 35 mg/100 g, 61–71 mg/100
g, 413–1100 mg/100 g, 2.3–2.5 mg/100 g and 2.1–2.2 mg/100 g,
respectively (Liang et al., 2019). Another study by (Rahman et al., 2015)
portrayed slight decline in K and Ca contents of PP from 413 to 400 mg/
100 g and 10–8 mg/100 g, respectively on blanching potatoes for few
minutes.

3.4. Decline in antinutrients in raw and processed PP

Antinutrients data of PP revealed the highest load of antinutrients
consisting of alkaloids, oxalates, tannins and phytates in raw PP i.e.,
59.9 mg/100 g, 31.2 mg/100 g, 91.4 mg/100 g and 44.9 mg/100 g,
respectively. Alkaloids, oxalates, tannins and phytates contents of pro-
cessed PP varied between 13.9 and 28.9 mg/100 g, 6.2–17.4 mg/100 g,
14.9–33.2 mg/100 g and 7.9–10.6 mg/100 g, respectively (Fig. 1).
Among processing treatments, microwave heat processing of raw PP
reported the highest reduction in alkaloids, oxalates, tannins and phy-
tates contents from 60 to 14 mg/100 g (i.e., 77 % reduction), 31–6 mg/

Table 2
Nutritional composition of raw and processed potato powders (g/100 g).

Treatments Moisture Ash Protein Fat Fiber Carbohydrates Caloric values (Kcal/100 g)

Raw PP 9.38 ± 0.05a 2.54 ± 0.01cd 10.22 ± 0.47a 0.90 ± 0.01a 6.26 ± 0.04a 70.69 ± 0.37b 331. 60 ± 0.28c

Microwave Heating 8.85 ± 0.04b 3.10 ± 0.07a 10.00 ± 0.00ab 0.82 ± 0.01b 5.76 ± 0.18ab 71.47 ± 0.14c 333.24 ± 0.65c

Blanching 8.11 ± 0.08d 2.73 ± 0.05bc 9.72 ± 0.04ab 0.63 ± 0.02c 5.22 ± 0.16bc 73.57 ± 0.25b 338.85 ± 0.67b

Acid Soaking 8.65 ± 0.04c 2.44 ± 0.02d 8.40 ± 0.28bc 0.54 ± 0.01d 5.55 ± 0.04c 74.42 ± 0.27b 337.03 ± 0.18b

Alkali Soaking 7.60 ± 0.03e 2.88 ± 0.01b 8.43 ± 0.02c 0.47 ± 0.02d 4.11 ± 0.08d 76.50 ± 0.04b 343.98 ± 0.26a

Values are expressed as means ± standard error (n = 2). Mean values having similar lettering in a column are non–significant at p > 0.05; PP = Potato powder.

Table 3
Mineral contents of raw and processed potato powders (mg/100 g).

Treatments Na Ca K Fe Zn

Raw PP 50.16 ± 0.59a 62.00 ± 0.71a 987.80 ± 0.57a 1.60 ± 0.04a 0.90 ± 0.02a

Microwave Heating 48.09 ± 0.29a 60.50 ± 0.35ab 974.50 ± 2.76bc 1.53 ± 0.02a 0.80 ± 0.02ab

Blanching 45.17 ± 0.59b 57.27 ± 1.22bc 980.35 ± 1.87ab 1.44 ± 0.03a 0.75 ± 0.04b

Acid Soaking 44.44 ± 0.64b 59.50 ± 0.35ab 968.00 ± 0.71c 1.50 ± 0.07a 0.82 ± 0.02ab

Alkali Soaking 43.17 ± 0.12b 55.30 ± 0.21c 974.50 ± 0.35bc 1.51 ± 0.01a 0.72 ± 0.00b

Values are expressed as means ± standard error (n = 2). Mean values having similar lettering in a column are non–significant at p > 0.05; PP = Potato powder.

M. Waseem et al. Food Chemistry: X 24 (2024) 101896 

5 



100 g (80 % reduction), 91–15 mg/100 g (84 % reduction) and 45–8
mg/100 g (82 % reduction), respectively. Antinutrients are involved in
binding of essential minerals i.e., Ca, Zn and Fe and adversely affect

absorption and bioavailability. Tannins decrease protein digestibility on
intervening with the pH mechanisms and oxalates are linked with for-
mation of kidney stones. Likewise, dietary intake of alkaloids may cause

Fig. 1. Antinutrients of raw and processed forms of potato powder.

Fig. 2. Pesticide residues of raw and processed forms of potato powder.

M. Waseem et al. Food Chemistry: X 24 (2024) 101896 

6 



neurological and gastrointestinal disorders (Thakur et al., 2019). An
earlier study by (Lakra & Sehgal, 2009) on the antinutrients of PP based
food products revealed the presence of higher magnitudes of tannins and
phytates i.e., 173 mg/100 g and 139 mg/100 g, respectively. Likewise,
another research by (Irakli et al., 2020), depicted the notable effect of
microwave heat processing (i.e., 650 W, 2 min) on the rice bran and
resulted in the decline of oxalates by 35 %. An earlier investigation by
(Gemed, 2014) showed a significant effect of blanching on Anchote
tuber flour wherein the results delineated measurable decline in phy-
tates, oxalates and tannins contents by 15 %, 51 % and 41 %, respec-
tively. In another trial by (Thakur et al., 2019), boiling of foods
anticipated 20 % reduction in phytates. The decrease in antinutrients
like oxalates on soaking, boiling and cooking could be attributed to
higher water solubility losses, leaching, lower heat stability and
considerable skin rupturing on heat processing, thermal degeneration
and complex formation (Thakur et al., 2019). Moreover, available
literature has validated the inactivation of phenylalanine-ammonia-
lyase enzyme in heat processing of PP which could be collaborated
with the reduction of tannins in thermally processed PP (Palharini et al.,
2015). Another study by (Waseem et al., 2024) anticipated significant
positive correlation of thermal (microwave heat processing and
blanching) and non-thermal (acid and base soaking) techniques to
ameliorate / decline the antinutrients (oxalates, phytates, tannins and
alkaloids) in leafy green vegetables up to 90 %.

3.5. Decline in pesticide residues in raw and processed PP

Results for the residual pesticides of PP portrayed the highest con-
tents of imidacloprid, cypermethrin, bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos and delta-
methrin in raw PP i.e., 0.610 ppm, 0.015 ppm, 0.061 ppm, 2.420 ppm
and 0.015 ppm, respectively. Contrarily, the residual contents of imi-
dacloprid, cypermethrin, bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos and deltamethrin
among processed PP varied between 0.080 and 0.430 ppm, 0.004–0.009
ppm, 0.022–0.037 ppm, 0.500–1.313 ppm, and 0.001–0.009 ppm,
respectively (Fig. 2). However, on comparing treatment efficiencies,
microwave heat processing reported the highest decline in imidacloprid,
cypermethrin, bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos and deltamethrin residues by 87
%, 76 %, 63 %, 79 % and 81 %, respectively. A previous research by
(Zhang et al., 2022) elucidated a significant reduction in chlorpyrifos,
bifenthrin, malathion, dichlorvos, hexaconazole, kresoxim-methyl,
myclobutanil, tebuconazole, triadimefon, cyhalothrin and epox-
iconazole contents in fruits and vegetables from 67 to 93 % on micro-
wave heat processing at 700 W for 2 min. A report by (Terfe et al., 2023)
showed the washing and boiling to reduce O,P′-DDT pesticide residues
by 100 % in potatoes. Also, (Randhawa et al., 2007) portrayed an
appreciable reduction in chlorpyriphos contents by 24 % and 53 % on
soaking and blanching, respectively. A study of (Kin & Huat, 2010)
demonstrated a significant reduction of pesticide residues in potatoes
from 44 to 70 %, 30–50 %, and 23–40 % on blanching, alkali soaking
and salt soaking, respectively. (Klinhom et al., 2008) showed normal
water soaking to alleviate carbaryl and methomyl contents by 88 % and
38 %, respectively. However, the study also delineated the soaking of
potatoes in a mixture of salts consisting of NaCl, NaHCO3 and acetic acid
decreased methomyl contents by 39 %, 43 % and 43 %, respectively
while, lowering the forcarbaryl contents by 91 %, 91 % and 90 %,
respectively. The reduction in pesticide contents of processed potatoes
could be linked to co-evaporation, thermal degradation and leaching
losses (Nguyen et al., 2020). Lower efficacy of acid and alkali soaking in
eliminating the pesticides could be linked with the higher skin wax, low
temperatures, iconic strengths, hydrolytic rates, volatility and water
solubility (Hussnain et al., 2021; Yigit& Velioglu, 2020). Earlier data on
detoxification of pesticide residues in vegetables have validated the use
of thermal and non-thermal detoxification techniques as viable in
mitigating the pesticide residues in vegetables ((Waseem et al., 2024).

3.6. Sensory qualities of microwave processed potato powder (PPmw)
supplemented unleavened flatbreads

Sensory evaluation of microwave heat processed PP supplemented
unleavened flatbreads indicated variable impact on the sensory traits.
The data reported the highest sensory scores for color, taste, texture and
overall acceptability for control i.e., 7.7, 7.7, 7.9 and 7.8, respectively.
However, among treatment groups the highest sensory scores were
assigned to T2 (i.e., 5 % supplementation) for color (7.3), taste (7.2),
texture (7.3) and overall acceptability (7.3) followed by T1 (i.e., 2.5 %),
T3 (7.5 %), and T4 (10 %), respectively (Fig. 3). The sensory scores for
texture and folding ability showed non-significant (p < 0.05) effect of
addition of microwave heat processed PP in the supplemented unleav-
ened flatbreads. The results exhibited the highest sensory acceptability
of the finished product ≤5 % supplementation level. Earlier studies by
(Das et al., 2018) and (Rahman et al., 2015) have revealed the sensorial
acceptability of PP supplemented biscuits <15 % supplementation
levels. Likewise, another study by (Chakraborty et al., 2015) depicted
better sensory scores for color, flavor and taste of PP supplemented
cookies i.e., 6.9, 7.2 and 7.4, respectively and exhibited the best sensory
acceptability of the supplemented cookies <10 % replacement. Simi-
larly, a study (Akter et al., 2023) depicted the highest sensory accept-
ability of dehydrated PP incorporated composite cakes @ 4 % compared
with the control. The varied levels of PP sensory acceptability between 4
and 15 % could be attributed to the hydrophilic nature of patatin pro-
teins, weaker gluten networking and hygroscopic nature of PP starches
which results in poor sensory scoring of PP value-added food products

Fig. 3. Sensory qualities of microwave processed potato powder (PPmw) sup-
plemented flatbreads.

M. Waseem et al. Food Chemistry: X 24 (2024) 101896 

7 



beyond 15 % supplementation (Jian et al., 2021; Tao et al., 2021).
Sensory evaluation results further suggest the use of PP up to 5 % for
value addition food products other than baked items like in snack food
products, nuggets and confectionery.

4. Conclusions

The key results of this study suggest PP as a plausible carrier of health
featuring phytonutrients such as high-quality proteins, dietary fibers
and essential minerals, which can contribute significant health amelio-
rating features when consumed in combination or alone. Contrarily,
presence of higher levels of antinutrients and pesticides above the
allowable limits in tuber crops results in acute to chronic health mala-
dies and nutritional disparities. This study anticipated all the processing
techniques to diminish antinutrients and pesticide loads of PP and
consequently improved the overall nutrients of all processed PP. Present
study suggests a new finding i.e., the microwave heat processing at 1.1
kW for 2 min not merely improved the nutritional status but also
resulted in the highest reduction of antinutrients and pesticide residues
in potatoes. In conclusion, the study also refers to microwaved heat
processed PP as a natural food supplement that is culturally acceptable,
sustainable and cheaper source to ameliorate micronutrient inequalities
and protein energy malnutrition. Further, the future perspectives of the
PP elucidate its utilization in novel food recipes like gravies, soups and
curries with improved technofunctional attributes.

Ethical approval

Informed consent of all participants was obtained before partici-
pating in the sensory evaluation of samples. Appropriate protocols for
protecting the rights and privacy of all participants were utilized during
the execution of the sensory evaluation. All tested samples were safe for
consumption. This study is covered by ethical clearance from the Ethics
Committee of the College of Basic and Applied Science (ECBAS), Uni-
versity of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana, for the sensory evaluation using
trained assessors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Muhammad Waseem: Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing –
original draft, Methodology. Saeed Akhtar: Conceptualization, Project
administration, Visualization, Supervision, Resources. Tariq Ismail:
Conceptualization, Supervision, Visualization, Resources. Tawfiq
Alsulami: Writing – review & editing, Data curation. Muhammad
Qamar: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation,
Supervision, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis.
Dur-e-shahwar Sattar: Writing – review & editing, Investigation.
Raheel Suleman: Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Wisha
Saeed: Writing – review& editing, Methodology, Investigation. Crossby
Osei Tutu: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Software, Resources,
Methodology, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

The data associated with this study are included in article/supp.
material/referenced in article.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to Researchers Supporting
Project number (RSPD2024R641), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia.

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	Effect of thermal and non-thermal processing on Technofunctional, nutritional, safety and sensorial attributes of potato powder
	1 Introduction
	2 Materials and methods
	2.1 Procurement of raw materials, chemicals and reagents
	2.2 Processing treatments of potatoes
	2.2.1 Microwave heat processing and blanching
	2.2.2 Acid and alkali soaking

	2.3 Raw and processed PP preparation
	2.4 Functional properties of raw and processed PP
	2.4.1 Bulk density
	2.4.2 Rehydration ratio (RR)
	2.4.3 Water solubility index (WSI) and water absorption index (WAI)
	2.4.4 Swelling power
	2.4.5 Hygroscopicity

	2.5 Nutritional composition
	2.6 Antinutrients
	2.6.1 Determination of alkaloids
	2.6.2 Determination of oxalates
	2.6.3 Determination of tannins
	2.6.4 Determination of phytates

	2.7 Pesticide residues extraction, cleanup and determination
	2.8 Sensory evaluation of microwaved heat-treated PP supplemented unleavened flatbread
	2.9 Statistical analysis

	3 Result and discussion
	3.1 Technofunctional properties of raw and processed PP
	3.2 Nutritional composition of raw and processed PP
	3.3 Mineral composition of raw and processed PP
	3.4 Decline in antinutrients in raw and processed PP
	3.5 Decline in pesticide residues in raw and processed PP
	3.6 Sensory qualities of microwave processed potato powder (PPmw) supplemented unleavened flatbreads

	4 Conclusions
	Ethical approval
	CRediT authorship contribution statement
	Declaration of competing interest
	Data availability
	Acknowledgments
	References