University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION SCHOOL OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES A STUDY OF UNDERGRADUATE JOURNALISM EDUCATION IN GHANAIAN UNIVERSITIES BY CAROLINE ABA ANANE (10508810) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF PHD IN COMMUNICATION STUDIES DEGREE JULY, 2022 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I do hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that it contains no material which has been previously submitted for any other degree in this university or elsewhere. I also declare that sources of information used in this work have been duly acknowledged. CANDIDATE: CAROLINE ABA ANANE 27/07/2022 SUPERVISORS: PROF. MARGARET AMOAKOHENE 27/07/2022 PROF. ISAAC ABEKU BLANKSON 27/07/2022 DR. KINGSLEY NYARKO 27/07/2022 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT For four decades (1959-2000) only two educational institutions offered recognised journalism education in Ghana – the Ghana Institute of Journalism and the then School of Communication Studies at the University of Ghana. The former, until 2001, offered journalism programmes at the diploma level, and the latter offered journalism programmes at the post graduate level. Since 2005, Ghana has witnessed a significant increase in university education in journalism. Journalism courses are offered in at least fifteen public and private universities with programmes ranging from diploma through undergraduate to graduate degrees. The fast pace of growth in journalism programmes at universities calls for quality checks especially, in this era of rapid evolution and disruption in the media ecology. This study therefore inquired into the content of journalism training offerings in Ghanaian universities. The study examined the structure of undergraduate journalism education as well as assessed the content of the curriculum in relation to international standards. It also examined the journalism course content vis a vis industry and job market skill needs to ascertain whether there is a fit between them. Data were sourced from eight universities and ten media organisations in Ghana. Adopting a mixed methods approach, qualitative and quantitative methods were used to analyse data sourced essentially from interviews, document reviews, and survey. The data from the questionnaires were used to triangulate the findings from the interviews and content analysis to provide a holistic view of the journalism courses ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh taught in universities in Ghana. The concept of quality assurance and Holland’s Job- fit theory underpinned this study. The key findings that have emerged from the study are that there are differences in journalism programmes among universities. The journalism courses taught in universities rely on international journalism standards. Similarly, journalism courses take into consideration industry skills requirements in developing curriculum, indicating a positive relationship between them. However, though the journalism courses take into consideration local skills requirement, there is no absolute fit between the skills taught and the skills required. A significant difference was found with four of the five skills categories namely: Reporting skills, Leadership skills, Reading and Numeracy skills, and Entrepreneurship and ICT skills. Writing was the only skill that there was no significant difference between what was taught and what was required. The study concluded that policy makers should consider standardising journalism education in universities in Ghana through the provision of subject- benchmark statements. The study has provided guidelines for developing benchmarks for communication/journalism education at the university level in Ghana. More collaboration between universities and industry will address the skills gap. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To my Encouragers iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My heartfelt gratitude goes to my Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ for sustaining me through this arduous but rewarding PhD journey and helping me achieve my aim. I sincerely appreciate the efforts of my supervisors, Professors Margaret Amoakohene and Isaac Abeku Blankson and Dr. Kingsley Nyarko for their patience, direction and general supervision of this work. Your supervisory styles have brought finality to this work. I am also grateful to the entire staff of the Department of Communication Studies of the University of Ghana. I am very grateful to Mr. Louis Appiah Gyekye of Accra Technical University for helping me a great deal with the entire work; your contributions were priceless. I am grateful to Mr. Ebenezer Quayson, also of ATU, for his professional support. Thank you so much. My special thanks go to the Heads of Departments and lecturers in the Communication / Journalism departments of the eight universities who graciously helped me to get data for this study. Special thanks equally go to the media organizations who participated in the study. Without all of you, there would have been no study. Your willingness to help has produced this and it is greatly appreciated. Finally, tons of gratitude goes to my family: Mom, for staying long enough to witness this stage in my life; Mike, for being my emotional support; Nana, for your super ‘high tech’ support; and all my siblings, for your encouragement. Not forgetting all my friends who were there for me in diverse ways. I say God richly bless you all. “Medawonasi, Shidaa ahanye”. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .......................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................ iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... xii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. xvii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................... xviiix LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................................... xxi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 1.0 Background to the Study ............................................................................... 1 1.1 History of Journalism Education ................................................................... 2 1.1.1 Global Perspective of University-based Journalism Education ............ 3 1.1.2 Journalism Education in Africa…………………………………………...7 1.1.3 Contemporary Approaches in Journalism Education worldwide…… 10 1.1.4 Journalism Education in Ghana .......................................................... 12 1.1.5 Journalism Education and Standards .................................................. 20 1.1.6 Journalism Education and Job Market Needs ..................................... 30 1.2 Problem Statement ...................................................................................... 32 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................... 34 1.4 Research Questions ..................................................................................... 35 1.5 Research Hypotheses ................................................................................... 35 1.6 Significance of the Study ............................................................................ 36 1.7 Key Terms Explained .................................................................................. 38 1.8 Organisation of the Study ............................................................................ 39 CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL REVIEW .................... 41 2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 41 2.1 Concept of Quality ...................................................................................... 42 2.1.1 Quality Assurance in Higher Education .............................................. 46 2.1.2 Quality Assurance Classifications ....................................................... 49 2.1.3 Quality Assurance in Ghanaian Higher Institutions ........................... 51 2.2 Holland’s Job Fit Theory ............................................................................. 57 2.2.1 Components of P-E fit theory ............................................................... 59 2.3 Educational Background and Job Fit .......................................................... 65 2.3.1 Types of Fit between educational background and job ....................... 66 CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................ 72 3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 72 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.1 The Role of University Education ............................................................... 72 3.2 Related Studies ............................................................................................ 80 3.2.1 University Education and Industry Fit ................................................ 80 3.2.2 Journalism Education and Industry Fit ............................................... 83 3.2.3 Industry skill components for Journalism Education .......................... 91 3.2.4 Related studies in Africa ...................................................................... 97 3.3 Gaps in fit studies ...................................................................................... 102 CHAPTER FOUR:METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 105 4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................. 105 4.1 Epistemological Approach ........................................................................... 105 4.2 Research Design ........................................................................................... 107 4.3 Study Area .................................................................................................... 109 4.4 Data Collection Methods .............................................................................. 110 4.5 Research Procedure ...................................................................................... 111 4.5.1 Interview with Heads of Departments ................................................... 111 4.5.2 Interview with Media Houses (Industry players) .................................. 113 4.5.3 Content Analysis ................................................................................ 115 4.5.4 Survey ................................................................................................. 121 4.6 Data Analysis Techniques ............................................................................ 122 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6.1 Qualitative Data Analysis .................................................................. 122 4.6.2 Quantitative Data Analysis: ............................................................... 123 4.7 Reliability and Validity Assessment ......................................................... 131 4.7.1 Reliability Assessment ........................................................................ 131 4.7.2 Validity Assessment ............................................................................ 133 4.8 Ethical Issues ................................................................................................ 133 4.9 Limitations and Challenges .......................................................................... 135 4.10 Summary .................................................................................................... 136 CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ................................ 138 5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................. 138 5.1 Structure of undergraduate Journalism Education ....................................... 138 5.2 Curriculum Content for the Eight Universities ............................................ 140 5.2.1 Courses offered in Year One and Year Two .......................................... 140 5.2.2 Courses offered in Year Three and Year Four ...................................... 149 5.3 Curriculum Content Categories .................................................................... 171 5.3.1 Journalism Course Classifications ........................................................ 181 5.4 Journalism Curriculum and Standards ......................................................... 185 5.5 Media Houses Skill Requirements and Courses in Curricula ................... 198 5.6 Findings from the Survey .......................................................................... 209 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6.1 Survey Results from Universities and Media Houses ........................ 210 5.7 Summary of Findings ................................................................................ 245 5.7.1 Structure and Content ........................................................................ 245 5.7.2 Journalism Courses and International Standards ............................. 248 5.7.3 Journalism Courses and Industry Skills Requirement ....................... 248 CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS ......................................... 250 6.0 Introduction ............................................................................................... 250 6.1 Research Questions ................................................................................... 250 6.2 Hypotheses ................................................................................................ 251 6.3 Structure and Content ................................................................................ 251 6.4 Journalism Education and International Standards………………………264 6.5 Industry skills requirement and curriculum fit .......................................... 260 6.6 Addressing Gaps ....................................................................................... 273 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................ 278 7.0 Introduction ............................................................................................... 278 7.1 Research Agenda ....................................................................................... 278 7.2 Implications of the Study .......................................................................... 279 7.2.1 Implications for Theory ...................................................................... 279 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.2.2 Implications for Journalism Education ............................................. 281 7.2.3 Implications for Practice ................................................................... 282 7.3 Limitations of the Study ............................................................................ 284 7.4 Suggestions for Future Research ............................................................... 285 7.5 Recommendations ..................................................................................... 286 APPENDIX 1 Sample Interview Guide ............................................................... 291 APPENDIX 2:Job Description From Media Organisations ................................. 293 APPENDIX 3: Intercoder Reliability Test Results .............................................. 307 APPENDIX 4: Questionnaire For Employers/Industry ....................................... 310 APPENDIX 5: Questionnaire For Educational Institutions ................................. 316 APPENDIX 6: African and Ghanaian Authors on the Reading Lists on the Communication/Journalism Undergraduate Programmes ................................... 321 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................ 326 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 1: Universities offering communication/journalism education in Ghana ........ 19 Table 2: Requirements for tertiary accreditation by the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission ................................................................................................... 53 Table 3: Industry skills requirement and competence type ..................................... 114 Table 4: Exploratory factor analysis results of course content journalism scale .............................................................................................................. 125 Table 5: Exploratory factor analysis results of international journalism standards scale .............................................................................................................. 126 Table 6: Exploratory factor analysis results of industry skills scale ........................ 127 Table 7: Confirmatory factor analysis results of course content journalism scale .............................................................................................................. 129 Table 8: Confirmatory factor analysis results of international journalism standards scale .............................................................................................................. 130 Table 9: Confirmatory factor analysis results of industry skills scale ..................... 130 Table 10: Reliability and validity of course content journalism scale ..................... 131 Table 11: Reliability and validity of international journalism standards scale ........ 132 Table 12: Reliability and validity of industry skills scale ........................................ 132 Table 13: Undergraduate communication/journalism degrees in Ghanaian universities ................................................................................................... 139 Table 14: Total courses and credit hours for entire programme per university ....... 140 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 15: First year courses for uni. 1 ..................................................................... 141 Table 15a: Second year courses for uni. 1 ............................................................... 141 Table 16: First year courses for uni. 2 ..................................................................... 142 Table 16a: Second year courses for uni. 2 ............................................................... 142 Table 17: First year courses for uni. 3 ..................................................................... 143 Table 17a: Second year courses for uni. 3 ............................................................... 143 Table 18: First year courses for uni. 4 ..................................................................... 144 Table 18a: Second year courses for uni. 4 ............................................................... 144 Table 19: First year courses for uni. 5 ..................................................................... 145 Table 19a: Second year courses for uni. 5 ............................................................... 145 Table 20: First year courses for uni. 6 ..................................................................... 146 Table 20a: Second year courses for uni. 6 ............................................................... 146 Table 21: First year courses for uni. 7 ..................................................................... 147 Table 21a: Second year courses for uni. 7 ............................................................... 147 Table 22: First year courses for uni. 8 ..................................................................... 148 Table 22a: Second year courses for uni. 8 ............................................................... 148 Table 23: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni. 1) ................................ 150 Table 24: Courses common to print journalism and broadcast journalism (uni. 3) .......................................................................................................... 152 Table 24a: Specific courses for broadcast journalism and print journalism (uni.3) ........................................................................................................... 152 Table 25: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni. 4) ................................ 153 xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 26: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni. 7) ................................ 154 Table 27: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni. 6) ................................ 156 Table 28: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni. 8) ................................ 157 Table 29: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni. 2) ................................ 158 Table 30: Common courses for all four electives (uni. 5) ....................................... 159 Table 30a: Year three courses specific to each elective (uni. 5) .............................. 159 Table 30b: Year four courses specific to each elective (uni. 5) ............................... 160 Table 31: Courses offered in universities ................................................................ 162 Table 32: Facilities and teaching and assessment procedures ................................. 166 Table 33: Features of journalism curricula in eight Ghanaian universities ............. 172 Table 34: Course classifications in journalism curriculum ...................................... 182 Table 35: International and university standards in journalism education .............. 185 Table 36: Reading skill courses and topics in the eight universities ....................... 188 Table 37: Reporting skill courses and topics in the eight universities ..................... 189 Table 38: Writing skill courses and topics in the eight universities ........................ 192 Table 39: Industry skills requirement provided in courses per university ............... 199 Table 40: Industry skills requirement provided in topics within courses per university ...................................................................................................... 200 Table 41: Distribution of background information of the respondents from the universities ................................................................................................... 210 Table 42: Distribution of background information of respondents from the industry ........................................................................................................ 212 xiv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 43: Descriptive statistics showing the contents in the curricula of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana ................................................... 214 Table 44: Descriptive statistics showing the extent to which the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana follow international journalism standards ...................................................................................................... 216 Table 45: Descriptive statistics showing the perception of industry players on journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana ................................. 217 Table 46: Descriptive statistics showing the perception of industry players on journalism graduates industry skills in Ghana ............................................. 218 Table 47: Correlation analysis showing the relationship between journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and international journalism standards . 221 Table 48: Regression analysis showing the impact of international journalism standards on the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana ...... 224 Table 49: Correlation analysis showing the relationship between journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and the local industry requirements ..... 229 Table 50: Regression analysis showing the impact of the local industry requirements on the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana ..................... 232 Table 51: Correlation analysis showing the relationship between journalism courses taught at universities in Ghana and industry impact .................................... 238 Table 52: Regression analysis showing the association between journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and industry impact .............................. 239 xv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 53: Correlation analysis showing the relationship between journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and graduate students’ employability. .. 242 Table 54: Regression analysis showing the relationship between journalism courses taught at universities in Ghana and graduate students’ employability ........ 243 Table 55: Pair-sampled t-test showing the difference between the taught skills in the journalism courses and the industry skills requirement ............................... 245 Table 56: Guidelines for the development of subject benchmark statements for communication / journalism programmes ................................................... 289 xvi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 1: Conceptual and Theoretical frameworks .................................................... 42 Figure 2: Sequential Triangulation Design .............................................................. 108 Figure 3: Courses and frequencies for all universities ............................................. 173 Figure 4: Courses and frequencies per university .................................................... 175 Figure 5: Summary of Course Categories in Journalism Curriculum ...................... 182 Figure 6: Course Categories and frequencies per university ................................... 184 xvii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACCE African Council for Communication Education ACEJMC Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication AJE Association for Journalism Education ALTC Australian Learning and Teaching Council ASQ American Society for Quality AUCC African University College of Communications BC Bluecrest College CBT Competency Based Training CEAG Communication Educators Association of Ghana CPT Continuous Professional Training CSUC Christian Service University College EJTA European Journalism Training Association GIJ Ghana Institute of Journalism GTEC Ghana Tertiary Education Commission HEI Higher Education Institutions xviii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh HiOA Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences HOD Heads of Departments INQAAHE International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher education JUC Jayee University College MUCG Methodist University College Ghana NAB National Accreditation Board NCTE National Council for Tertiary Education NUC National Universities Commission PUC Pentecost University College QAA Quality Assurance Agency UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation WIUC Wisconsin International University College WJEC World Journalism Education Council xix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX 1 Sample Interview Guide APPENDIX 2 Job Descriptions from Media Houses APPENDIX 3 Inter-coder Reliability Test APPENDIX 4 Questionnaire for Employer/Industry APPENDIX 5 Questionnaire for Educational Institutions APPENDIX 6 Ghanaian and African Authors on the Reading Lists for Communication/Journalism Programmes xx University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background to the study In this technological era, transformations have gone on in the field of journalism, especially in the way news is presented, necessitating more scholarly interest in assessing educational programmes aimed at training journalism professionals since such assessments may ensure standards and relevance of curricula to journalism practice and also help the practitioners address the challenges of the profession. Furthermore, there is not much literature, especially from the African countries in general and Ghana in particular, on this subject because research has tended to focus on Journalism practice (the output) and not so much on Journalism education (the input). This study, therefore, is an enquiry into the content of journalism training offerings of eight Ghanaian universities. It examines the content of journalism training offerings vis a vis industry and job market needs to ascertain whether there is a fit between them. It also seeks to determine to what extent university-based journalism curricula conform to contemporary practices and theories in the field of journalism education in relation to standards and uses that as the basis for the evaluation. 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The century 20th witnessed a distinct trend toward university education for journalists in both Western and non-Western countries – a trend which continued into the 21st century and has resulted in a veritable boom in journalism education at universities globally (Hanusch & Mellado, 2014). In Ghana, for instance, the decade 2006-2016 saw a significant increase in university-based education in communication studies broadly with journalism as a core component. According to the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission (GTEC, 2020), journalism programmes are offered in twenty public and private universities. This surge in numbers is in sharp contrast to the period prior to this decade when for four decades only two educational institutions offered recognised journalism education in Ghana (Ghana Institute of Journalism and the School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana). In order to better understand the reason for this and related developments, section 1.1 gives a history to university- based journalism education which is discussed under various perspectives, from global to local. Other issues treated in this chapter are the statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions and research hypotheses. The significance of the study and an explanation of key terms follow directly. The chapter closes with a sub-section on the organisation of the study. 1.1 History of Journalism Education This section throws light on the background to the thesis. Beginning with a discussion on the history of university-based journalism education from a global perspective, it narrows down to journalism education in Ghana. This is followed by 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh an observation of standards in journalism education and employment demands in the labour market. 1.1.1 Global Perspective of University-based Journalism Education University-based Journalism education emerged in France, Germany and the United States of America (US) around the beginning of the 20th century and quickly spread to China, Australia and into Latin America by the 1930s. Many countries started offering journalism education at the university level after the Second World War (Obijiofor & Hanusch, 2011). Hitherto, journalists in a lot of countries learned their skills on the job after completing secondary education (Obijiofor & Hanusch, 2011). In view of this, journalism training was predominantly apprentice-based which is a system of learning the skills of a craft or trade from experts in the field by working with them over a period of time in order to gain the experience and start practising the trade. Dickson (2000) posited that the “apprenticeship system” was used because journalism was regarded more as a trade or vocation than a profession and therefore much emphasis was placed on the practical component. This on-the-job training, which was a typical feature of the Anglo-Saxon model (Deuze, 2006) continued until the early 20th century when formal journalism schools were established in universities for the training of would-be journalists; thereby, making on-the-job training a supplement to formal training. Most of the history of journalism education has played out in the US. In view of this, university-based journalism education is the dominant model in the US (Foote, 2008). The first School of Journalism in the US was established at the University of Missouri in Columbia in 1908 by Walter Williams at 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the urging of Joseph Pulitzer, a Hungarian-American journalist and newspaper publisher who was known as the father of Journalism. Today his name is best known for the Pulitzer Prizes, which were established in 1917 as a result of his endowment to Columbia University. The prizes are given annually to recognise and reward excellence in American journalism, photography, literature, history, poetry, music and drama. Other pioneers were Michigan State University, the University of Wisconsin at Madison, and Kansas State University (Morris, 2010). The continuing efforts at professionalising journalism around the world then resulted in a veritable boom in journalism education at universities globally. By the year 2000, university-level journalism education courses were nearly universal. A census of journalism education organised in 2007 by the World Journalism Education Council (WJEC), which is a coalition of academic associations worldwide involved in journalism and mass communication at the university level and dedicated to advancing the field (wjec.ou.edu), reported that registered on the census database were close to 3,000 global programmes, with majority of these programmes evenly spread between North America, Europe and Asia with nothing on Africa. However, journalism education at the university level had started in South Africa in 1959 at Potchefstroom University (now North-West University), making it the country with the oldest university-based journalism education system in Africa. (De Beer et al., 2017). There was not much information from Africa, even though some of their journalism programmes had stated before the census, since there were no official data on journalism programmes in Africa. Therefore, an initiative for developing countries 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and emerging democracies by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) in the same year helped to bring journalism education programmes in Africa to the fore. This initiative was the “Identification of Centers of Excellence in Journalism Education and Training in Africa” which helped to identify journalism training institutions in these regions and served as a data base for future reference. In 2013, UNESCO, per the initiative, indicated the number of journalism programmes in Africa to be 18. The details were as follows: Ethiopia: School of Journalism and Communications Addis Ababa University Ghana : School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana Ghana Institute of Journalism African University College of Communications Morocco: ESJ-Casablanca/Ecole Supérieure de Journalisme et de Communication Tunisia: ESJ Tunis / Ecole Supérieure de Journalisme Institut de Presse et des Sciences de l'Information Ecole de journalisme et Cinéma Tunisie - Université Centrale Nigeria: The Nigerian Institute of Journalism. South Africa: Department of Journalism, Stellenbosch University School of Journalism and Media Studies, Rhodes University 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Department of Journalism, Tshwane University of Technology School of Literature, Language and Media, University of The Witwatersrand Center for Film & Media Studies, University of Cape Town Communication Studies, North-West University Media and Cultural Studies, University of Kwazulu-Natal Department of Journalism, Film and Television, University of Johannesburg Department of Media, Media Department Cape Peninsula University of Technology The 20th and 21st centuries can be classified as the eras that witnessed a clear trend towards university education for journalists due to increased demand for formal journalism education in many countries worldwide. The Asian media boom and its corresponding increase in private media in the 1980s, for instance, created this increased demand for trained journalists in the region. For example, in China and India, journalism education programmes continued to proliferate at a mind-numbing rate with the number of courses in China estimated to be growing at more than 100 per year. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.1.2 Journalism Education in Africa This growth in journalism education at university level was not peculiar to the western countries alone for there was also growth in the Middle East and Africa during the same period. Between the 1980s and 1990s, Deuze (2006) intimated that some African countries, for example, adopted either the European or the American model and in most cases both models were adopted depending on the country’s affiliation with the West. This assertion was reiterated by Josephi (2010) when he stated that African countries have embraced a mixed system of the American and European models of journalism education. One can argue, and rightly so, that the adoption of European and or American models by African countries was obviously due to colonialism and the legacy of dependence it left for these African countries on the colonizing powers’ epistemology and philosophy on the one hand, and the fact that university based journalism took its roots from the United States of America on the other hand. This adoption of western models had caused some African journalism scholars to bemoan the westernization or the over reliance on western models in journalism and communication education in Africa. This concern resulted in Boafo lamenting that: “Communication education in Africa, like modern mass communication on the continent, is an import from West Europe and North America. The source of inspiration of teachers, curricula and text books is Western. Teachers are mostly western educated, curricula are drawn from Western models and most text books are authored and published in West and North America. Under 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh these circumstances, communication training in Africa can hardly be said to be culturally relevant” (Boafo, 2002:1). The first decade of the millennium, therefore, saw many scholars advocating for the de-westernisation of communication and journalism education in Africa (Banda, 2009; Dube, 2009; Kivikuru, 2009) and to “Africanise” the journalism curriculum by developing material that takes more notice of indigenous knowledge systems (Fourie, 2008; Dube, 2010). This advocacy is premised on the argument that the historicity of communication education in Africa has resulted in it being branded as too westernized. The World Journalism Education Congress held in South Africa in 2010 also had as its theme “De-Westernising Journalism Education in an era of new media genres and communication technology” (WJEC, 2010) in a bid to address the over reliance of journalism education in Africa on western models. The critical stand that much African journalism scholarship has had towards ‘Western’ journalism models has resulted in the submission of alternative African Journalism models by Skjerdal (2012) which are Ujamaa Journalism, Ubuntu Journalism and Oral Discourse Journalism. These constitute three major streams: Journalism for Social Change, Communal Journalism and Journalism based on Oral Discourse. Elaborating further on these three models of teaching journalism, Skjerdal explained that ‘Ujamma’ journalism is a kind of revolutionary or advocacy journalism used as a vehicle for national unity and a tool for breaking with the colonial past. ‘Ubuntu’ journalism, on the other hand, is rooted in the community and its core values hence it being referred to as Communal Journalism. To Skjerdal, training based on 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Communal Journalism recognises that journalists are members of the local community and that their professional identity is second to their communal identity. The third and last model, Oral Discourse Journalism is based on indigenous African communication practices which include oral tradition and folk culture such as communal storytelling, music, poetry, and dance. These indigenous communication practices, Ansu- Kyeremeh (2005) has indicated, are embedded in the life and times of a particular culture which make it easier for such a community to understand and discern more easily communication possibilities or points of emphasis in such a communication process. Critically analyzing these three models of teaching journalism, one can conclude that they are rooted in the lived experiences of Africans, thereby making these models consistent with African epistemologies and ontological perspectives. Skjerdal’s models, therefore, resonate with a proposal made by Ansu-Kyeremeh (2014) and reiterated by Coker (2018) that communication education should be strongly rooted in the ontologies, epistemologies and hermeneutics of African societies. However, a closer look at the history of African media studies shows that there is no consensus on a distinct African Journalism paradigm that stands out as an agreed alternative to a Western or northern paradigm (Kivikuru, 2009). This is because Dube (2009), on the one hand, indicated that there can be no such thing as an authentic African Journalism due to the conceptual difficulties associated with defining what the word ‘African’ really means and the fact that what we term African is not a singularity of experiences. On the other hand, Banda (2009) argued that the diversity 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh notwithstanding, there are enduring similarities many of them rooted in the shared experiences of the legacy of colonial rule, the unsettled politics of the postcolonial era, and the interpretation of global influences. Despite these divergent views, the belief that Africa needs a journalism standard which differs substantially from that of the rest of the world, especially from that of the West, seems to be strong among many media scholars. Therefore, the need for a Pan African agenda for journalism education in the global educational public sphere is worth pursuing, hence Skjerdal’s models. These are legitimate concerns that require more research to deconstruct the issues but my study will not examine ideological orientations. 1.1.3 Contemporary Approaches in Journalism Education worldwide By comparing worldwide contemporary approaches to journalism education as well as the various journalism programmes, one could conclude that journalism education worldwide was multiplying and differentiating through the starting of schools, the deployment of special programmes and initiatives, and the erection of new institutions or foundations. In effect, the world of journalism education was becoming increasingly complex and had evolved into various models. Deuze (2006:22) expounded on these models by categorizing them into five different types of journalism education while identifying the countries embracing these models as follows: 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. Training at schools and institutes generally located at universities (e.g. Finland, Spain, United States, Canada, South Korea, Egypt, Kenya, Argentina, the Gulf States, increasingly in Great Britain, Ghana and Australia); 2. Mixed systems of stand-alone and university-level training (e.g. France, Germany, India, Indonesia, China, Brazil, Turkey, Nigeria, Ghana, and South Africa); 3. Journalism education at stand-alone schools (e.g. Netherlands, Denmark, Italy); 4. Primarily on-the-job training by the media industry, for example through apprenticeship systems which is a typical feature of the Anglo-Saxon model (e.g. Great Britain, Austria, Japan, Australia, Ghana); this system has however undergone extraordinary transformations; 5. All of the above, and particularly including commercial programmes at universities as well as in-house training by media companies, publishers, trade unions, and other private or government institutions (e.g. Eastern Europe, Cuba, North and Central Africa, the Middle East). Ibold and Deuze (2012) had argued that the first model is dominating the model used for training aspiring journalists globally signalling increasing levels of professionalisation, formalisation and standardisation worldwide. However, many countries are moving towards the system whereby journalism training is offered at universities, stand-alone colleges and on-the-job apprenticeship. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The various models of journalism education, as described by Deuze, and the countries that employ them have indicated the different types of journalism education represented worldwide. A cursory view of journalism education from the global as well as Africa perspective has also given a general background to university-based journalism education from those perspectives. The following section moved into specifics by providing an overview of journalism practice and especially journalism education in Ghana from colonial era to present day. 1.1.4 Journalism Education in Ghana In the colonial era, newspapers were operated not by professional journalists but by nationalist leaders who were professionals in fields like law, medicine, religion and teaching, and by amateurs who got their technical skills on the job (Boafo, 1988). The press was therefore committed to the nationalist course and used to agitate and mobilize the people for the independence movement that was sweeping through the African continent in the 1950’s. The press was not so much committed to professional skills in journalism as in the nationalist course resulting in journalism training consisting mainly of the acquisition of technical skills on the job or short overseas courses (Ansah, 1980 cited in Boafo, 1988). In effect, journalism did not acquire the status of a profession in the then Gold Coast until the 1950s since it was not playing a professional role in the affairs of the press (Boafo, 1988). Journalism education in Ghana, therefore, takes its roots from the post-independence era as is the case with other sub-Saharan African countries (Boafo, 1988). 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The need for formal journalism training in the country was recognised after the attainment of independence in March 1957 and coupled with some landmark developments in the country namely: the establishment of the Ghana News Agency, the re-organisation of the Government Information Services Department, the appearance of more newspapers and the expansion of radio services (Boafo, 1988). All these developments, according to Boafo, engendered the need for professionalisation and demand for the services of competent journalists to run affairs; and what better way to provide professionalism and competent journalists than through formal journalism education. Therefore, in February 1959, the Ghana Institute of Journalism (GIJ) was established and that saw the beginning of formal journalism education in Ghana. It was the first institution for journalism education in Ghana and the first in Sub-Saharan Africa to offer journalism education at the certificate and diploma levels. The first principal and journalism tutor of the institute was Mr. Richard Macmillan, a former Director of the British Information Services in Ghana. At the time of its establishment, GIJ had the dual objective of giving "formal and systematic training in journalism" and of “fostering development of a patriotic cadre of journalists to play an active role in the emancipation of the African continent" (Boafo, 1988:65). The political and ideological undertone in the institute's aim reflected the politico-historical context at the time which was the period in which most African countries gained independence from colonial rule. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For four decades, therefore, GIJ was the stand-alone training institution in Ghana which offered journalism education at the certificate and diploma levels. Then in 2001, GIJ started the bachelor degree programme in communication studies with options in journalism and public relations, in addition to its two-year diploma programmes in the same field (Amoakohene, 2015). Later, the Ghana Institute of Journalism Act, 2006 (Act 717) was enacted to transform the Institute into a degree- awarding tertiary institution. The institution was then granted a Charter which enabled it award its own degrees, diplomas and certificates for programmes accredited by the GTEC. GIJ has now become a fully-fledged communication training institution with a university status and a vision of being the preferred communications training institute in Africa which upholds high academic standards and produces world class professionals for the transformation of society. Currently, GIJ offers communication / journalism education up to the master’s degree level. Prior to GIJ starting degree programmes in journalism, university-based journalism education had started in 1972 with the establishment of the School of Communication Studies at the University of Ghana where communication education was offered at the post-graduate level. Ghana therefore started its university-based journalism education with a post graduate degree unlike other African countries, such as Nigeria, Kenya, and South Africa, which started journalism education with undergraduate degrees. This could be because a stand-alone journalism training institution – GIJ – had already been established and was providing education for journalists though at the diploma level. The establishment of the school made Ghana 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the first African country, south of the Sahara, to commence a post-graduate training programme in communication studies (Amoakohene, 2015). The post graduate programmes in communication studies at the time comprised Graduate Diploma, MA and MPhil degrees (Boafo, 1988). The graduate diploma programme admitted university degree holders in appropriate fields as well as served as a top up for diploma holders from GIJ with at least five years of relevant professional experience and who passed a qualifying test (Boafo, 1988). For the award of the Graduate Diploma in Communication Studies, students took courses in Print and Broadcast Journalism, Mass Communication, Communication Research Methods, Public Relations/Advertising and Social Psychology. Students were also required to complete an eight-week internship with a media establishment (Boafo, 1988). The School's curriculum was thus configured to combine professional training with academic knowledge and research skills. Initially, the one-year master’s programme was offered to students who excelled at the graduate diploma level but now there is direct entry for the MA degree and those who excel are made to offer the MPhil degree. Currently, the School of Communication Studies, now Department of Communication Studies offers communication programmes from the master’s level to doctorate level. Much emphasis has been placed on the histories of then School of Communication Studies and GIJ because they were the two institutions that offered recognised journalism education in the country at the time, though Boafo (1988) indicated that other institutions offered some form of journalism training in the country during the same period. According to Boafo (1988) these smaller privately managed 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh institutions had journalism classes in their curricula offering courses in Print, Radio and Television Writing, Public Relations and Advertising. They were affiliated to schools of journalism in London such as the MacMillan Institute of Journalism and prepared students to take external examinations in journalism and communication. On the other hand, there were students who also trained through correspondence courses. The duration of these journalism courses varied from three months to nine months, and upon successful completion, students were awarded diplomas or certificates in Advertising or Public Relations or Communication Studies. Notwithstanding the training offered by these institutions, Boafo (1988) asserted that diplomas and certificates obtained through those institutions were hardly recognized by media organizations which did not consider the institutions as providing adequate professional training in journalism. Judging from the history of formal journalism education in Ghana, it can be realised that Ghana started formal journalism education with the stand-alone and university-level training which is the mixed system under the five types identified by Ibold and Deuze (2012). Diedong (2016) on the other hand has categorised journalism education in Ghana under four main areas. According to him, these four are: 1. On – the – job training 2. Full university study programme including optional courses in communication 3. Schools of Journalism, a broadcasting training school 4. Post-graduate studies for persons who already hold an academic degree 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The first type is how journalism training started before formal training in institutions was started and it is still practiced today. However, it is no longer a dominant mode of training for journalist considering the challenges of the journalism profession in this 21st century some of which are the forces of globalisation which, for example, have led to more regional labour markets in which graduates of each country now compete with those of other countries for available jobs. The current dispensation, therefore, requires the journalist to be multi-skilled, analytical and innovative in order to circumvent these challenges. In view of the above, one cannot but agree with Diedong (2016) when he argued that on the job training alone cannot adequately prepare people to meet the demands of practicing journalism in the 21st century. What is needed is a more systematic education which provides, for example, exposure to both theory and practice to holistically prepare students to meet the challenges of the profession. The third type previously had the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) being the only media organisation in the country having its own radio and television training schools. There is also a school for training broadcast journalists being the National Film and Television Institute (NAFTI). However, with the proliferation of media organisations other media organisations such as Atinka Media Village, E-TV among others have also started their broadcasting training schools. This training usually runs between three to six months and provides hands-on training in media production. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The second and the forth types, which refer to university-based education at both the undergraduate and graduate levels, are currently what pertains in Ghana regarding journalism education at the university level. Though these four main types have contributed significantly in developing a set of skills and fundamental knowledge in journalism in Ghana as asserted by Diedong (2016), journalism education has proliferated more at the university level globally than at any other level (Deuze, 2006). Therefore, this proliferation is a confirmation of Ibold and Deuze’s (2012) conviction that university-based journalism education is taking precedence over other forms of journalism training worldwide and therefore an important area for research. Ghana has also witnessed a significant increase in university-based journalism education. The decade 2006 – 2016, for instance, saw as many as thirteen more tertiary institutions starting degree programmes in Communication Studies with Journalism as a core component bringing the total number of Ghanaian universities offering journalism education then to fifteen. These institutions are GIJ and University of Ghana, who are the pioneers, then, in no particular order, Christian Service University College, African University College of Communications, Central University, Jayee University College, University of Cape Coast, University of Education, Winneba, University of Development Studies, Pentecost University College, Islamic University College, Webster University College, Wisconsin International University College, Bluecrest College, and Methodist University College. The above named universities are made up of five public and ten private institutions. Nine of them offer Communication Studies at the undergraduate degree level only. Four of them offer at 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh both the undergraduate and post graduate degree levels and two at the postgraduate degree only. Majority of these universities offer journalism education under a Communication Studies degree with just a few offering a sole degree in Journalism. Table 1 provides details of these universities. Eight universities which offer journalism education at the undergraduate level, which was the focus of this study, were responsive and therefore provided data for the study. Details of these universities have been provided in the Methodology chapter. Six of the eight universities offer journalism education under a Bachelor of Arts in Communication Studies and the remaining two do so under a Bachelor of Arts in Journalism Studies. Table 1: Universities offering communication/journalism education in Ghana Institution Acronym Type Degree Religious Offered Affiliation BlueCrest College BC Private BA Secular Islamic University College IUC Private BA Islam Webster University College WUC Private BA Secular Central University CU Private BA Christian Christian Service University College CSUC Private BA Christian Wisconsin International University WIUC Private BA Secular College Methodist University College Ghana MUCG Private BA Christian Jayee University College JUC Private BA Secular Pentecost University College PUC Private BA Christian African University College of AUCC Private BA Secular Communications MA Ghana Institute of Journalism GIJ Public BA Secular MA University of Cape Coast UCC Public BA Secular MA University of Development Studies UDS Public BSc Secular MA University of Education, Winneba UEW Public MA Secular MPhil University of Ghana UG Public MA Secular MPhil PhD Key: BA/BSc – Bachelors; MA – Masters; MPhil – Master of Philosophy; PhD – Doctorate. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Details of these programmes have been provided in the Findings and Discussion chapters. Incidentally, the data provided about journalism programmes in Africa only had three universities in Ghana as offering journalism programmes (UNESCO, 2013), even though there were three other universities which had also started journalism programmes within that period. This may be because these universities did not meet the centres of excellence and centres of reference criteria of UNESCO. At the time of this study, more universities had started journalism programmes making this study necessary to update the prevailing UNESCO figures and fill the gap. 1.1.5 Journalism Education and Standards As journalism education in most countries has become increasingly university- based over the past few decades, there was no doubt that journalism education had gravitated towards professionalisation and formalisation which required standardisation of training. Scholars have, therefore, become more interested in the conditions in which future journalists are trained. As Berger and Foote (2013) argued, the ultimate goal of journalism education, irrespective of its provider, is to empower not only the student but also journalism itself. That is to say, the quality of journalism education is expected to have an impact on how journalism is practiced in ways that ultimately benefit society since journalism education educates both practitioners and the public. Scholarly interest in journalism education, therefore, is often based upon the basic notion that journalism training not only perpetuates or enhances professional journalism practices but also shapes the perceptions journalists have of the role of the 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mass media. Therefore, journalism schools play an important role in preparing future journalists to facilitate free exchange of information and knowledge through the mass media (Gaunt, 1992). Interest in journalism education has led international bodies such as UNESCO, the UN agency responsible for the promotion of freedom of expression and access to information and knowledge, to take various initiatives to improve the quality of journalism education. One such initiative was the publication of the Model Curricula for Journalism Education for Developing Countries and Emerging Democracies in 2007. The curricula document was UNESCO’s attempt to set standards based on good practice internationally, and a resource on which stakeholders around the world could draw in order to enhance the quality of journalism education in their countries. UNESCO believed that by improving the quality of journalism education, journalism educators as well as students stood a better chance of influencing journalistic production at the news-institutional level. This conviction is based on the premise that newsrooms, especially in the developing countries, that were staffed by well-trained and critically oriented journalists were likely to positively influence the democratic processes and development in their societies. UNESCO subsequently in 2011, 2013 and 2015 came out with a Compendium of Curricula sequence as new issues came up in the media landscape, all in a bid to improve on the initial model curricula developed and ensure that high level of standards are maintained at all times. Though this UNESCO initiative has stood the test of time, it is not devoid of challenges. As with any initiative, this one for journalism education has also had its level of criticisms. The 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2007 Model Curricula for Journalism Education document was criticized by Freedman and Shafer (2010) as being ambitious in theory but unlikely in practice because most of what was recommended in the document for countries to adapt to their local conditions could not be achieved in reality. However, Susman-Peña (2012) defended UNESCO and argued that there are educational standards to which all countries aspire and that the Model Curricula served as an embodiment of such standards; an underlying assumption, according to her, ignored by the critics. Aside from UNESCO, there are other international organisations helping to ensure quality in journalism education in their respective continents by developing learning outcomes assessments. For instance, there is the European Journalism Training Association (EJTA) established in Brussels in 1990, which has developed its own set of learning outcomes that lists ten competencies enumerated by sub-points called the Tartu Declaration (Foote, 2008). These competences are as follows: 1. The competence to reflect on journalism’s role in society; 2. The competence to find relevant issues and angles; 3. The competence to organise journalistic work; 4. The competence to gather information swiftly; 5. The competence to select the essential information; 6. The competence to present information in an effective journalistic form; 7. The competence to account for journalistic work; 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8. The competence to cooperate; 9. The competence to act as a journalistic entrepreneur; 10. The competence to contribute to the development of the profession. Then there is the Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (ACEJMC). This is a US based accrediting body established in 1945 and has come to embody quality assurance in journalism education and curriculum development. It has also developed a similar set of 12 professional values and competencies that it uses in its accreditation process (ACEJMC, 2007). These are: 1. Understand and apply the principles and laws of freedom of speech and press for the country in which the institution that invites ACEJMC is located, as well as receive instruction in and understand the range of systems of freedom of expression around the world, including the right to dissent, to monitor and criticize power, and to assemble and petition for redress of grievances; 2. Demonstrate an understanding of the history and role of professionals and institutions in shaping communications; 3. Demonstrate an understanding of gender, race ethnicity, sexual orientation and, as appropriate, other forms of diversity in domestic society in relation to mass communications; 4. Demonstrate an understanding of the diversity of peoples and cultures and of the significance and impact of mass communications in a global society; 5. Understand concepts and apply theories in the use and presentation of images and information; 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6. Demonstrate an understanding of professional ethical principles and work ethically in pursuit of truth, accuracy, fairness and diversity; 7. Think critically, creatively and independently; 8. Conduct research and evaluate information by methods appropriate to the communications professions in which they work; 9. Write correctly and clearly in forms and styles appropriate for the communications professions, audiences and purposes they serve; 10. Critically evaluate their own work and that of others for accuracy and fairness, clarity, appropriate style and grammatical correctness; 11. Apply basic numerical and statistical concepts; 12. Apply tools and technologies appropriate for the communications professions in which they work. There is also the Association for Journalism Education (AJE) founded in 1997 for people teaching Journalism in higher education in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The AJE aims ‘to uphold the highest standards in Journalism education; provide a common voice for those involved in it; and promote and support research into Journalism education and Journalism’ (AJE 2007 cited in Greenberg, 2007:298). Furthermore, there is the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA), a UK quality code for higher education. QAA has subject bench-mark statements for bachelor's degrees with honours, master's degrees, and professional qualifications in the UK. These subject benchmark statements describe the nature of study and the academic standards expected of graduates in specific subject areas, and in respect of 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh particular qualifications. They are also used as reference points in the design, delivery and review of academic programmes and provide a representation of what graduates in a particular subject might reasonably be expected to know, do and understand at the end of their programme of study. QAA has subject benchmark statements in 62 bachelor’s degrees one of which is Communication, Media, Film and Cultural Studies. These statements include areas that are ‘the basis for a range of professional practices’ (QAA website, benchmark statement, paragraph 1.1). QAA initiates regular reviews of their content five years after first publication, and every seven years subsequently. The 2016 version of the subject benchmark for BA in Communication, Media, Film and Cultural Studies, which is currently being used, is the third edition following initial publication of the Subject Benchmark Statement in 2002 and reviewed and revised in 2008 (QAA, 2016). Considering the origins of these quality assurance bodies, it is appropriate to conclude that all of them are Western based and therefore they have a more or less Western orientation and bias. From the African perspective then, there is the African Council for Communication Education (ACCE) which had its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya. This was a non-profit and non-governmental organization founded by a group of African communication experts in 1974 and concerned with the role of communication in national development. At the time of its establishment, it was the biggest association and forum for media professionals, educators in Journalism and Cultural Studies and associated disciplines in Africa with branches in many countries on the continent. The aims of ACCE were to promote journalism and communication 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh education as well as improve quality of communication training and develop communication resources in African countries. Furthermore, it aimed to promote awareness among African governments and policy-makers about the role of communication and the mass media in national development. In addition, ACCE aimed to offer a platform for trainers to plan and organise common training strategies; raise awareness on current issues among communication training institutions; evaluate common needs and come up with common solutions. For such a vibrant organisation, one would have expected that it would stand the test of time like the others in Europe, UK, and America. Unfortunately, the association seems to have become dormant as not much has been heard about it lately. In view of this development, there is no quality assurance body that the African continent can boast of aside the national ones that countries have. However, a partnership between Africa and Europe to develop a general Pan African Quality Assurance and Accreditation Framework resulted in a study in 2014. The study, under the auspices of the African Union, made recommendations for improving quality assurance and accreditation practices in Africa and provided a Draft Pan-African Quality Assurance and Accreditation Framework based on analysis of the findings and covering the common denominators of QA and accreditation systems in Africa while considering the international good practices (Okebukola & Fonteyne, 2014). The development of this continental framework for quality is therefore a step in the right direction. It can therefore be assumed that having educational standards which are internationally recognised was what resulted in an international agreement about the 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hallmarks of an ideal Journalism curriculum which was initially arrived at during the first World Journalism Education Congress in 2007. This congress organised every three years by WJEC is where the international community comes together to share their best teaching practices and to listen to highest quality research papers devoted to journalism education. According to WJEC, the hallmarks of an ideal Journalism curriculum are as follows: • Provide a balance of theory and practice • Focus on the core skills of reading, reporting, and writing • Ground students in additional disciplines • Give students some experience (Hume, 2007:20) These hallmarks, in effect, specify that the curriculum should incorporate conceptual knowledge courses, such as mass communication theories; professional practice courses in the core areas of journalism (print, broadcast, online); a focus on reading, reporting and writing, as well as Liberal Arts and Science courses such as Economics, Politics and Science. Students should also be exposed to some practical experience through classroom labs and on the job internships. The WJEC added more details to the hallmarks with the issuance of a “Statement of Principles” for Journalism education which indicates that: • Journalism graduates should work with “high ethical principles” and be “able to fulfill the public interest obligations that are central to their work”; 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Journalism educators should have links to media industries, critically reflecting on their practices and offering advice; • Journalism is a “technically intensive field,” so practitioners will need to master “a variety of computer-based tools” and, “when practical,” journal- ism education should “orient students to those tools”; • Students should be exposed to a global perspective, including press practices in different countries; • Journalism education is an appropriate course of study at the undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate levels; • Faculties should always include a mixture of academics and practitioners who have experience working as journalists; • Curriculum should cover media structures, critical analysis of media content, the role of media in society, and, in some cases, media management and business practice. (Hume, 2007:22) All these encompass the standards that curricula for journalism programmes worldwide are expected to meet in order to provide quality journalism education in training institutions. These standards, therefore, represent global or international standards for journalism education and serve as benchmarks for quality assessment for journalism programmes, which will be further explained in the conceptual framework chapter. However, the fact that journalism programmes are offered in higher education institutions which have to meet their national standards presupposes that journalism 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh programmes should also meet national standards. Usually, national educational standards are set by bodies mandated by law to ensure quality in educational institutions. In the case of Ghana, the governmental bodies to ensure that tertiary institutions practice the highest form of quality assurance include the National Council for Tertiary Education (NCTE) and the National Accreditation Board (NAB). The NCTE, on the one hand, serves as the coordinator in terms of budget, finance and salary negotiations, development of norms and standards to ensure transparency and responsibility to the state. NCTE also has the responsibility to act as a “buffer” between the government and tertiary educational institutions, especially in respect of academic freedom and autonomy of institutions (Bailey, 2014 cited in Coker, 2018). NAB, on the other hand, is responsible for tertiary institutions with regard to programme content and standards hence making it the body responsible for both institutional and programme accreditation which is mandatory for public and private institutions. There are four main areas the NAB considers in their general programme accreditation; these are Curriculum, Faculty, Library, and Facilities. Once an institution satisfies the minimum requirement for the above, among others, it means they have met national standards and so its programmes are granted accreditation for such programmes to be run by the institution. NAB therefore uses the threshold model which identifies the inputs or threshold standards required before offering accreditation to programmes and institutions. Comparing the standards used by NAB for accreditation purposes and that of ACEJMC, for example, it can be inferred that the former uses a general approach while the latter uses a discipline specific approach. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Currently, the National Council for Tertiary Education Act 1993 (Act 454) and the National Accreditation Board Act 2007 (Act 744) have been repealed and replaced with the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission (GTEC) Act 2020 (Act 1023). It will therefore be a matter of scholarly interest to find out how journalism educational programmes are structured in these institutions in relation to national and international standards. 1.1.6 Journalism Education and Job Market Needs In recent times, there have been a significant number of graduates who struggle to find jobs, while employers also say they cannot find the people with the skills set needed despite the proliferation of tertiary journalism training institutions and growth in tertiary education. This has made the employability of graduates of Higher Educational Institutions (HEI) a priority in the 21st Century with increasing pressure on HEI to ensure that their programmes are tailored towards the needs of labour market so that they meet the expectations of all stakeholders including graduates, prospective employers, students, government and parents. It is against this premise that determining the fit between industry skills requirements and higher education programmes has been the objective of much research work. Within the last five years, especially in Europe, a growing interest in the skills and competencies that students acquire in the course of their university studies and how these fit with the current job market has been identified resulting in different studies (Alcañiz et al., 2013; Martín et al., 2013; Pujol-Jover et al., 2015; Metilda & Neena, 2016). The picture that emerges from the literature is that the level of competences acquired by students is usually 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh below the level required for the job. In effect a ‘skills gap’ between actual and expected is a common finding. An appreciable amount of literature has also been published on the perspectives of industry on journalism education. Research has shown that employers of communication graduates often feel they did not possess the skills necessary to hit the ground running (Mattem, 2003; Lepre & Bleske, 2005; Adams, 2008; Hines & Basso, 2008; Mc Donough et al., 2009). For instance, Hines and Basso’s (2008) study found that a very high number of communication professionals indicated that entry- level employees possessed poor writing skills and even poorer editing skills; though, a previous study (Lepre & Bleske, 2005) had concluded that both educators and journalism professionals agreed that writing was the most important skill for students to master. Gaps between what employers request and what journalism education provides make it imperative for more research to determine the skills necessary to get jobs in today’s newsroom and whether these skills are provided by the training institutions. Considering the veracity of Sanjay’s (2012) assertion that there is the tendency for the media industry to outpace the growth of the education sector, particularly in this technological era, there is no doubt that the Journalism education sector needs to cultivate a constant relationship with the media industry to bridge this gap and provide an impetus for more research to be done to improve the fit between the two sectors. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Problem Statement Since 2006, Ghana has witnessed a significant increase in university education in journalism especially at the undergraduate level. At the time of this study, journalism was offered in about fifteen universities, majority of which are private ones. This is in sharp contrast to the period prior to this surge in programmes when only two public institutions provided journalism education (GIJ and School of Communication Studies). The explosive growth of global journalism education in many regions worldwide, especially in developing countries, has also attracted private sector involvement. This emerging trend has sometimes been susceptible to criticism (Berge & Foote, 2013) because of quality issues and the possible exploitation of students due to their commercial nature. The fast pace of growth in journalism programme offerings requires quality checks for standards as well as relevance to job market needs. These checks have become necessary especially in this era of rapid evolution and disruption in the media ecology and the fact that producing the much desired caliber of practitioners is through the development and teaching of quality and relevant curriculum (Wang, 2004). Furthermore, rapid changes are taking place in the communication industry and in society in general, especially in the areas of technology and politics. These two developments have radically impacted all facets of communications in the last three to four decades. With such revolutionary changes taking place in the communication industry and in this era of new information technology and a converging media landscape, a lot of questions come to mind such as: In what direction are our 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh journalism schools moving? Are journalism educators responding accordingly and ensuring standards? Are our journalism training institutions teaching the skills and concepts that meet the demands of the industry? Moreover, in this period of changing economic models and evolving consumer needs, it is worth gaining knowledge on how journalism programmes in the country provide the best education possible for undergraduates, regardless of what form of journalism they would like to do. Considering all these developments, it is a matter of scholarly interest to assess educational programmes since such assessments may ensure standards and relevance of curricula to journalism practice and also help the practitioners address the challenges of the profession. Furthermore, several ongoing debates about journalism education, such as the necessity or obsolescence of university education in journalism make it an area worth researching to add to that body of literature. For instance, one school of thought perceives journalism as a trade and therefore a non-university training course and apprenticeship should suffice (Picard, 2015). The consensus among these practitioners is that the status quo in the industry is the ideal one and all newcomers need to do to practise the trade is to internalize what their senior peers already do (Deuze, 2006). In contrast, there are those who argue for the inclusion of journalism into higher education in order for such students to get a solid background in Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences combined with professional training, and also because journalism is a profession similar to other professions like medicine, law, engineering or business and deserves to be offered at the university level (Picard, 2015). 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the literature, a lot of research has gone into journalism studies globally (Ochilo, 1996; Deuze, 2006, 2012; Popoola, 2010; Talabi & Ogundeji, 2012; Allan, 2013; Hanusch & Mellado, 2014; Humanes & Roses, 2014; Cullen et al., 2014), to mention but a few of the studies. Much of the research has focused on journalism practice (the output) and not so much on journalism education (the input). In the case of Ghana, studies done in journalism have not focused much on journalism education as compared to Nigeria where a number of studies have been done in journalism education (Popoola, 2010; Talabi & Ogundeji, 2012; Allan, 2013). Studies that have been done in education have focused on other aspects of communication such as in public relations as in the case of Kotia’s (2010) study on Public Relations curricula in Ghanaian universities. The unavailability of well-researched studies on what Ghana’s institutions that offer undergraduate communication are teaching, especially with respect to Journalism, as well as whether these programmes meet job market skills needs raise a number of questions that this study sought to address in order to fill these knowledge gaps. My study therefore focused on undergraduate journalism programmes offered in Ghanaian universities since there is a dearth of literature on these programmes regarding standards as well as relevance to job market needs. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study were to: 1. Examine the structure of undergraduate journalism education in Ghana 2. Analyse the content of undergraduate journalism curricula in relation to international journalism education standards. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. Find out the skill needs of industry or the job market regarding journalism practice in Ghana. 4. Assess the existing curricula to determine their fit with industry or job market skill needs. 1.4 Research Questions 1. What is the structure of undergraduate journalism education in Ghana? 2. What are the contents in the journalism curricula taught at universities in Ghana? 3. To what extent does journalism education content in Ghana follow international journalism education standards? 4. How do industry players perceive journalism content taught in Ghanaian universities? 5. What are industry skill requirements for journalism practice? 6. To what extent do the curricula meet these needs? 7. How are gaps, if any, addressed? 1.5 Research Hypotheses H1: The journalism content taught at universities in Ghana is likely to conform to international journalism standards. H2: The journalism content taught at universities in Ghana is likely to conform to local industry requirements. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H3: The journalism content taught at universities in Ghana is likely to have an impact in the industry. H4: The journalism content taught at universities in Ghana is likely to affect the chances of employability of the graduate. H5: There would be a significant difference between what is taught and what is expected by industry. 1.6 Significance of the Study This study will help add to the global journalism debates and point to further research and reflection in journalism education. Through extensive research in journalism education, therefore, Ghana will also contribute to the scholarship of journalism education globally. For example, results of this study can be presented at different journalism educators’ platforms such as the World Journalism Education Congress (WJEC). Since its inception in 2007, WJEC conferences held every three years have usually had research presentations come from Zimbabwe, South Africa, Kenya, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Nigeria. On the national level, the study will help the Ministry of Education as well as the GTEC and other stakeholders in developing policy guidelines to organise and regulate the communication and journalism training institutions and ensure standardisation of the curricula in both public and private institutions. Ghana does not have a body solely for quality assurance in communication or journalism education, 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as in the case of Europe, United Kingdom and United States which all have bodies specifically for quality assurance in journalism education. It is hoped that the results of this study will provide relevant information for stakeholders such as the newly formed Communication Educators Association of Ghana (CEAG) to set standards for communication and journalism education in Ghana. It is expected that this study will help the journalism education institutions in Ghana and around the world in two significant ways: firstly, by providing an impetus and a framework to review journalism teaching and to determine areas for improvement and secondly, to identify opportunities to conduct further research on related topics. It will help individual educators to grapple with their own issues and philosophies about journalism education and its relationship with broader academic disciplines and with the journalism industry. The study will provide insights into journalism education that will help the journalism industry in Ghana to discuss and determine their role in and contribution to journalism education and how well they understand it, support it and benefit from it. Comparing what the journalism education institutions are promoting vis a vis what the industry needs could help shed light on any inadequacies in the curriculum and help educators prepare their workforce-bound students in a better and more efficient way. In effect, key journalism education decision makers, including university and institute professional staff involved in the management and administration of journalism courses, will be able to draw on the findings and recommendations from the study to review and reflect on the way their courses are organised and delivered. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Furthermore, results of the study will help trainees have a clear-cut view of what the industry is all about and what the market expects of them. These findings add further support to the clarion call that industry and academia should collaborate extensively in order to raise high quality graduates not only in journalism but also in other professions. It is hoped that with all stakeholders on board, new ideas will be raised to help identify potential alternatives for better journalism training in Ghana thereby increasing centres of excellence in journalism training in Ghana in order to improve journalism education in the country. 1.7 Key Terms Explained The key terms used in this study are journalism education, journalism course, curricula, undergraduate programme, training institutions, employers, management and quality. These are defined as follows: Journalism education: Refers to education at the undergraduate level Journalism course: Refers to the journalism programme offered in universities. Curricula: Courses offered at the undergraduate level for journalism programmes including teaching and learning facilities and assessment procedures. Undergraduate programme: First degree or Bachelor degree programme Training institutions: Universities offering undergraduate programmes in Communication studies or Journalism 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Management of training institutions: Heads of departments responsible for communication and/or journalism departments in these institutions Employers / Industry players: Media organisations or media houses: (TV, radio, newspaper, and online) Quality: Meeting standards 1.8 Organisation of the Study This study was organised into seven chapters. Chapter one introduced the study by providing a background to journalism education from global and local perspectives. The chapter also presented the research problem, objectives, questions, hypotheses, and significance of the study, as well as operational definitions of key terms. Chapter two discussed the conceptual and theoretical framework underpinning the study. The chapter reviews the concept of quality assurance as well as the components of Job fit theories. Chapter three discussed the literature related to the study. The research approaches and relevant findings of previous studies on the fit between higher education as well as university-based journalism education and industry skill needs were reviewed and presented. Chapter four explained the methodology used in this study. The mixed methods research design and procedure adopted are clearly explained and justifications given. The sources of data and the reasons for those choices, the nature of the data and the 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh specific data collection instruments are all elaborated upon. The chapter also explains how the qualitative and quantitative data collected were analysed and the statistical tests used. In Chapter five the findings of the study as pertaining to the research questions and hypotheses posed in the light of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks and related literature are presented. This was mostly done in the form of tables, figures, descriptions, statistical tests, and narratives and the analysis of both the qualitative and quantitative data collected. Chapter six provided the discussion of the main qualitative and quantitative findings and the integration of the main findings bringing out where both data converged. Finally, chapter seven concluded the study by summarizing the findings and discussions presented in previous chapters and drawing out practical implications for Journalism theory, practice and education. The limitations of the study and overall recommendations were also presented. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL REVIEW 2.0 Introduction The aim of this study was twofold: assess standards in Journalism education as well as evaluate the fit between the content of journalism training offerings and industry or job market needs. Regarding standards, the issue of quality came to play since quality is about maintaining standards; hence the concept of quality assurance provided the appropriate framework for this study. Furthermore, to assess the fit between industry skill needs and curriculum content, the competence aspects of job fit theory provided the theoretical framework. This chapter therefore discussed the concepts of quality and quality assurance in relation to standards in journalism education as well as the person to environment (P-E) fit concept of Holland’s Job Fit Theory and its relevance for the study. Figure 1 below 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 1: Conceptual and Theoretical frameworks 2.1 Concept of Quality The arguments around the adoption of quality assurance depend on what counts as quality from diverse perspectives. In the literature, there is no single definition of quality which is absolutely agreed or universally accepted. In view of this, various concepts of quality have evolved to suit different contexts. According to Harvey (1995), debate about the nature of quality in higher education and the different ways in which it can be conceptualized has centered around five conceptions of quality as follows: 1. Quality as something exceptional or excellent in the sense of exceeding high outcome standards (This notion points back to the traditional and elitist academic view that sees quality as something exceptional and distinctive. From an educational perspective, quality stands for excellence, high level performance, passing a minimum 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh set of standards unachievable by most. According to this view, quality is achieved if standards are exceeded) (Harvey, 1995). 2. Quality as perfection, consistency or absence of defects as measured against process standards (The basis of this assumption is that quality would be attained as a matter of course if consistency can be achieved. This concept of quality, however, is not always applicable to higher education because no higher education institution could possibly and seriously aim at producing the same or defect-free graduates). (Watty, 2003) 3. Quality as ‘fitness for purpose’ typically as stated by an institution or a programme within it (The principal perspective underlying this is compliance with institutional missions as well as capacity to carry out customer’s requirements. According to Westerheijden (1999) cited in Kahsay (2012) fitness for purpose alone is too broad an interpretation of quality in higher education. What then provides a check on fitness for purpose is when the interpretation of quality as fitness for purpose is connected to the adequacy of the quality-related intentions of an organization. This way of thinking, as asserted by Kahsay (2012), is of great importance to external stakeholders interested in the useful functions of higher education). 4. Quality as ‘value for money’ or return on investment or expenditure (It focuses on how students are efficiently trained by the educational process so that they become desired graduates. This view therefore embodies efficiency, effectiveness and accountability. This way of thinking seems to be of interest to funders of education such as government, administrators, parents and students.) 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. Quality as ‘transformation’ or qualitative change from one state to another as applied to the development of students through the learning process or the creation of new knowledge (This notion of quality presupposes a fundamental purpose of higher education which is to transform life experiences of students through the learning process. Though this is a necessary condition for the core operations of higher education, Westerheijden et al., (2007) have argued that well established ‘production‐theory’ that may prescribe how inputs may be turned into the desired outputs are unavailable.) These five conceptualizations of quality suggest that the term ‘quality’ has been subject to different and sometimes ambiguous interpretations. Therefore, finding a universally accepted and encompassing definition of quality in higher education may not be possible especially since, as Newton (2002) asserts, the term has been imported from its more familiar industrial and commercial settings of the 1980s into the domain of higher education as well as other professional and public service settings. In view of the origin of the term, one of the definitions – perfection – is not very practicable in higher education as rightly confirmed by Watty (2003) who stated that higher education does not produce perfect human beings. Regarding the other definitions, Harvey and Knight (1996), for example, argued that the transformation concept is a meta-quality concept and that the other concepts are possible operationalisations of the transformative process rather than ends in themselves. This view was supported by Srikanthan and Dalrymple (2003) who emphasized that what is capable of addressing the concerns of all the stakeholders is 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the view of quality as transformation of the participants (cited in Kahsay, 2012). Similarly, Harvey (2002) suggested that in an era of mass higher education, the central element of any concept of quality ought to be value-added transformation instead of excellence, fitness for purpose or value for money. On the other hand, Lomas (2001) cited in Okae-Adjei (2012) suggested that according to a small-scale research with senior managers in higher education institutions, ‘fitness for purpose’ and ‘transformation’ seemed to be the two most suitable definitions of quality. Perhaps this is because fitness for purpose approaches, for example, expressly acknowledge different institutional missions and the variations in what they achieve (James et al., 2002). Moreover, since the purpose of higher education alters in response to changing environments, there is a strong support for envisaging quality in terms of ‘fitness for purpose’ in higher education. Excellence and standards have equally had a strong support in higher education. According to Ashcroft and Forman-Peck (1996), standards refer to the minimum threshold by which performance is judged. Barnett (1992) also associates quality of higher education, from the human capital perspective, to the character of the educational development as well as the students’ educational achievements. Similarly, Dill (2003) associates quality with academic standards, which are the specific levels of knowledge, skills, and abilities that students attain in view of their engagement in higher education. In effect, excellence or standard-based approaches emphasize what institutions should have in common, especially in terms of the nature and level of learning outcomes that students are expected to demonstrate in their university studies which, according to Ellis (1993), help to achieve special 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh purposes to the satisfaction of customers. Drawing from all these discussions, one can agree with Harvey’s (2006) conclusion that what has been most influential worldwide regarding the development of quality assurance in higher education is ‘fitness for purpose’, ‘excellence, and standards’. It should, however, be stressed that each of the approaches defining quality definitely has implications on the nature of quality assurance system and on the type of policy adopted in a particular higher education system. Also the emphasis given to each concept of quality will depend on the context at a given time. The section that follows discusses the concepts and issues concerning quality assurance. 2.1.1 Quality Assurance in Higher Education Quality has been an implicit concern of higher education institutions since mediaeval universities became autonomous and self-governing communities of fellows in Europe (Van Vught & Westerheijden, 1994). Initially, quality was seen as a natural element of university-level learning and part of academia’s professional responsibility (Harvey & Askling, 2003). However, in the latter part of the 20th century, rapid changes in the higher education context, mostly driven by political, economic and socio cultural powers, have caused the unexpressed and self-evident traditional views about assuring quality in universities to be challenged (Massy, 2003; Amaral, 2007; Martin & Stella, 2007; Brookes & Becket, 2008). Some of these major changes are: massification of education, since university education is no longer the domain of the elite; greater diversity in programme 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh provision and student types, in view of competition; matching programmes to labour market needs, to make graduates more job-ready; shrinking resources, in the face of globalization; and heightened accountability, due to diverse stakeholder involvement in higher education. All these have brought the need for explicit and systematised quality assurance schemes which hitherto were irrelevant in the traditional elite universities (Brennan & Shah, 2000; Trow, 2000; Harvey & Newton, 2004; Dill, 2007; Westerheijden et al., 2007). As a result, various countries across the globe have adopted formal quality assurance systems as a way of regulating and improving the quality of their university education systems. Regarding formal quality assurance in higher education, the 1980s and 1990s saw its introduction in the US and Western Europe; while the next two decades saw its introduction in other developed and developing countries (Van Vught & Westerheijden, 1994; Dill, 2007). According to Singh (2010), actors such as the World Bank, UNESCO, OECD, and international networks like INQAAHE, as well as regional organisations and professional associations have all played significant roles in introducing and spreading formal quality assurance in higher education across the world. In view of all this, the traditional collegiate approaches to quality, integrated in the classical university values of professionalism and trust have now given way to more systematic and expressed quality assurance practices (Campbell & Rozsnyai, 2002; Dill, 2007). Quality assurance has been defined as the planned and systematic activities implemented in a quality system so that quality requirements for a product or service 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh will be fulfilled (ASQ Definition, 2012). Vlãsceanu et al. (2004) had also stated that quality assurance is an all-inclusive term that refers to a continuous process of evaluating the quality of a higher education system, institutions or programmes. Being a regulative performance, its focus is not only on accountability but also on improvement. Therefore, through an agreed and consistent process, including well- constituted criteria, it provides information and judgments. Similarly, Inqaahe (2005) and Wilger (1997) have equally regarded quality assurance as a collective process by which a university ensures that the quality of educational process is maintained to the standards it has set itself through the existence and use of attitudes, objects, actions and procedures which, together with the quality control activities, will ensure that appropriate academic standards are being maintained and improved in and by each programme. UNESCO (2004), on the other hand, described quality assurance as an organised review of educational programmes to ensure that acceptable standards of education, scholarship and infrastructure are being maintained. It is, therefore, about how an institution of higher learning assures itself that the structures and mechanisms for monitoring its quality control procedures are working and promoting delivery of quality higher education (Wabudeya, 2004). Quality assurance is widely accepted as the means by which an institution confirms to itself and to others that conditions are in place for it to achieve standards it has set. Contained in these definitions, therefore, are issues of maintenance and enhancement of quality and standards, integrated with the demands for accountability. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In spite of the progress that has been made through research and debate, there is still no universal consensus on the best way to manage quality within higher education (Becket & Brookes, 2008). This can be attributed to the fact that contentions around the adoption of quality assurance depend on different views on what counts as quality. That notwithstanding, quality assurance mechanisms are employed in higher institutions to ensure quality. 2.1.2 Quality Assurance Classifications Many systems make a distinction between internal quality assurance and external quality assurance; the former referring to intra-institutional practices with the aim to monitor and improve the quality of higher education, and the latter being inter or supra-institutional scheme for assuring the quality of higher education institutions and programmes. Brink (2003) has indicated that studies on quality assurance in tertiary education have focused on these two distinct but related activities. Jackson (1997) had previously explained that quality assurance systems may be one of three options: self-regulating (where the institution or provider of the educational programme is the regulator), externally regulated (where an external agency is the regulator), or a combination of the two. Internal quality assurance (IQA), which is a form of self-regulating system, concentrates on activities institutions embark on to ensure the quality of the education they provide. The aim of IQA is to assess internal accountability for institutional development. The processes involved are essentially designed and operated by the institution itself but also has the propensity to be a response to external pressures or 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh legislation. El-Khawas (1998) noted that IQA focuses mainly on academic issues and collects evidence and information about mission fulfillment, activity efficiency and how to ensure quality within the institution. Hall (2006), for instance, described IQA as a generic term that covers all aspects of an institution’s provisions and activities that concentrate on assuring educational or research quality. The internal part would make sure that a programme or an institution has policies that guide its standards and objectives. One internal mechanism to ensure quality standards in higher educational institutions is the provision of Quality Assurance Units. External quality assurance (EQA), on the other hand, refers to the systems that are designed and operated by an external agency, often mandated by legislation, to monitor the quality of the education provided by tertiary providers in order to determine whether they are meeting the agreed or predetermined standards (Martin & Stella, 2007). The major aim for these external requirements, therefore, is to achieve accountability (Billing, 2004; Woodhouse, 2004). External quality-assurance mechanisms include accreditation, quality audit, and quality assessment which help to foster and encourage high quality and quality improvement in higher education institutions. These external quality assurance activities are carried out by bodies outside the higher education providers with the aim of assessing the university operations and its programmes to determine if it is meeting the set standards. In Ghana, one such external quality assurance body with a national mandate covering all public and private universities is the National Accreditation Board (NAB). 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1.3 Quality Assurance in Ghanaian Higher Institutions According to Okae-Adjei (2012), Ghana employs a multiplicity of quality assurance models namely: the Command and Control Model, the Self-regulation Model, and the Market Regulation Model. Jamieson (2010) explained that the Command and Control Model is an attempt by the state to control Higher Education Institutions (HEI) through the observation of prescriptive rules and/or standards to ensure quality (cited in Okae-Adjei, 2010). In the Self-Regulation Model, on the other hand, HEI are autonomous bodies so they design their own curricula and award their own degrees. The institutions are governed by professionals and it is trusted that these professionals will do the right things. The third model which is the Market Regulation Model is where a relationship exists between HEI and market competition and because of this competition consumers (students) make informed choices resulting in the best HEI flourishing and the worst failing. Okae-Adjei, however, asserts that the Command and Control Model seems to play a more influential role. Therefore, the activities of tertiary institutions in Ghana are regulated by governmental bodies which include GTEC. The government, through such a regulatory body, ensures that tertiary institutions practice the highest form of quality assurance. Tagoe (2008) asserted that the purpose of quality assurance and accreditation in higher education is to ensure good education is being offered to equip students to manage their own learning and development throughout their lives. Additionally, it is to provide students with knowledge and skills that are relevant to the current job market locally, nationally and 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh internationally and to ensure that internationally recognized academic standards are achieved. GTEC is responsible for accrediting both public and private tertiary institutions regarding programme contents and standards. In consultation with each institution, GTEC determines the programmes and requirements for the proper operation of each institution and the maintenance of acceptable levels of academic or professional standards in the institutions. It also determines the equivalences of diplomas, certificates and other qualifications awarded by institutions in the country or elsewhere. Established by the Education Regulatory Bodies Act 2020 (Act 1023), GTEC uses the threshold model which identifies the inputs or threshold standards required before offering accreditation to programmes and institutions. Regarding institutional accreditation, this will only be granted when proof of affiliation is established. On programme accreditation, GTEC does so to enforce quality assurance and quality improvement in order to ensure that the programme in question has met the minimum standard for accreditation. According to Dadzie-Mensah (2012), GTEC’s role rests on decisions in getting the institutions to do the right things by meeting acceptable standards. GTEC attaches great importance to institutional audit and the role of the internal quality assessment units. Table 2 shows the requirements for granting accreditation to an institution. These cover three specific areas: authorization, institutional accreditation, and program accreditation. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 2: Requirements for tertiary accreditation by the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission Authorization A letter of application to the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission Response from GTEC including definition of the various categories of tertiary educational institutions, within two weeks of receipt of application. Choice of name of institution based on 2 above shall be in consultation with GTEC Registration of institution at the Registrar General’s Department Purchase, completion and submission of Authorization Questionnaire (GTEC/INFO A.1) Payment of appropriate fee Institutional visit by the relevant GTEC Committee where facilities are in place at the institution, within 30 days after receipt of payment Decision by GTEC Communication of decision within 30 days of institutional visit Application of review of decision, if any, within 30 days of decision Communication of Board’s decision on the review application within 14 days after the next immediate Accreditation Committee meeting acting on behalf of the Board Institutional Proof of affiliation to be provided before further processing for Accreditation accreditation Purchase, completion and submission of institutional questionnaire (GTEC/INFO A.2) Payment of appropriate fee Institutional visit by the relevant GTEC Committee within 30 days after receipt of an application and the Board considers complete Visit by GTEC experts on physical facilities, library and finance within 30 days after the committee’s visit Communication of GTEC’s decision within 90 days of the committee’s visit and proof of affiliation (See GTEC guidelines for affiliation) Application for review, if any, within 30 days of communication 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Programme Purchase, completion and submission of relevant GTEC questionnaire on Accreditation programme accreditation (GTEC/INFO A.3) Payment of an appropriate fee Composition of programme accreditation panel by the Board and assessment of programmes offered/to be offered within 60 days on receipt of application the Board considers complete including payment of an application fee Submission of panel assessment reports to GTEC within 14 days of panel visit Submission of panel report(s) to the institution for comments within 14 days upon receipt of report(s) Response to panel report(s) by institution to GTEC Reaction of panel chairperson to the comments on the report by the institution within 30 days on receipt of institution’s comments Recommendation of accreditation committee to the Board at its next immediate meeting upon receipt of panel chairperson’s reaction to institution’s comments Decision by Board on the recommendation of the accreditation committee at the next immediate Board meeting Communication of decision within 14 days after the Board’s decision Application for review, if any, within 30 days of communication of the Board’s decision Source: Ghana Tertiary Education Commission (2020) Generally, before accreditation is granted, there should be proof of affiliation for private universities which mostly start off as university colleges; the establishment of an Internal Quality Assurance Unit in each institution; the necessary teaching and learning facilities such as lecture halls, laboratories and libraries as well as the appropriate faculty in terms of qualification and number among others (Nti, 2012). GTEC undertakes a review of the institutions at least once every five years to ensure that all accredited institutions meet normative standards set up by the Board for re- accreditation. This review, according to the Board, provides both parties the 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh opportunity to evaluate the performance of the institution with respect to the satisfaction of threshold quality standards and growth. During the review process, an accredited institution submits to the Board a self-evaluation report detailing the institution’s vision and mission statements, organization and governing bodies, academic and non-academic staff, number of colleges/faculties/schools, programmes of study and programme details (GTEC, 2020). Tammaro (2005), cited in Kotia (2010), observed that since quality is a very subjective concept, it is important to identify the accrediting body in order to understand the procedures and purposes of the evaluation, as well as establish the authority and validity of the evaluation. Therefore, for the purpose of this study the accrediting body at the national level is the GTEC and their guidelines for accreditation have been used to determine the standards of journalism education in Ghanaian universities. However, in the context of Ghana, quality assurance systems in journalism education are not discipline-specific resulting in general criteria being used for quality assurance purposes. There is currently no accrediting body specifically for journalism as happens elsewhere. For example, in the US there is the ACEJMC which has come to embody quality assurance in journalism education and curriculum development. Its accreditation is based on an assessment of quality using the 12 professional values and competencies explained in Chapter One. It requires that irrespective of their particular specialisation, all graduates should be aware of these core values and competencies and be able to understand, demonstrate and apply them. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In addition, ACEJMC requires that schools fulfill the expectations they set for themselves (Berger, 2005 cited in Tsevi, 2014). Perhaps the reason why quality assurance systems in journalism education in Ghana are not discipline-specific may be attributed to Coker’s (2018) argument that national councils and state regulatory boards that superintend professional practices in the academy focus more on accountability to government than on the disciplines. This, he stressed, had resulted in attention being taken away from the fact that quality assurance of professional communities constituting the academy needs to be discipline-specific. His conclusion is justifiable considering that to date, discipline- based quality assurance processes have not been implemented for communication education in the country. As a result, subject benchmark statements which provide a picture of what graduates in a particular subject might reasonably be expected to know, do and understand at the end of their programme of study have not been developed by GTEC for communication education. In view of this, GTEC’s general standard, which is the threshold model, was used to determine standards met by the universities. In addition, quality is also determined from the international level. Therefore, standards which journalism programmes worldwide are expected to meet in order to provide quality journalism education and developed by UNESCO and WJEC were used to assess standards of journalism education offered in these Ghanaian universities because these two bodies collectively provide subject benchmark statements for journalism education which GTEC does not have making the use of these international standards necessary. Moreover, UNESCO and WJEC standards were used because 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh their focus positions them as international bodies with universal status; unlike ACEJMC, AJE, EJTA, and QAA which, even though are equally international quality assurance bodies, are country and continent specific with regards to their quality assurance mechanisms. The international hallmarks and standards were explained in the introduction chapter. To reiterate the points, international standards indicate that journalism curriculum should incorporate Theory (10%), Practice (40%) as well as Liberal Arts and Science courses (50%). There should also be a focus on three core skills which should be taught as follows: Reading (8 semesters), Reporting (6 semesters) and Writing (8 semesters); students should be exposed to some practical experience through internships (4 weeks minimum) and faculties should always include a mixture of academics and practitioners who have experience working as journalists. In addition, there should be the following course areas incorporated in the curriculum (Ethical principles, Computer-based tools, Global perspective, Media studies, and Media Management and Business Practice). In this study, quality is equated with maintenance of acceptable standards; therefore, to determine the quality of the journalism programme offered in the training institutions, their curricula were matched with standards set by national and international quality assurance bodies in terms of their requirements and expectations. 2.2 Holland’s Job Fit Theory The study also assessed the fit between industry and job market skill requirements and the content of journalism training offerings. Therefore, job fitness or 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh P-E fit of Holland’s Job Fit theory served as the theoretical framework which is elaborated below. Holland's theory of vocational behaviour is the basis for several of the skill assessment inventories in use today and because the demand for vocational assistance continues to be very strong in education, business and industry, knowledge of Holland's theory is important to effective career assessment and intervention (Metilda & Neena, 2016). Holland’s 1997 theory is relevant to the current study because of its relationship to job fitness, which is one focus of this study. Holland’s theory of vocational behaviour postulates that an individual’s vocation satisfaction, stability and achievements are determined by the congruence/fit between the individual’s interests and his/her vocational environment, otherwise referred to as person to environment (P-E) fit or job fitness (Kennedy, 2005). Kennedy observed that P-E fit is a discipline that is connected not only to Holland’s (1973, 1997) theory of vocational behaviour but also to several other theories such as interaction theory (Lewis, 1951), need-press theory (Murray, 1938), the theory of work adjustment (TWA; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984), and the attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) model (Schneider, 1987). Regarding congruence/fit between the person and the work environment, this can be achieved in several ways, one of which is when the employee possesses the competences needed for the job. A focus of this study is to determine whether the competences graduates get from their education is relevant to those needed for the practice or fits with job market skill needs hence the relevance of P-E fit of the job fit theories to this study. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kristof-Brown et al. (2002) asserts that theories of P-E fit contain a central tenet stating that the individual positive experience is due to that individual working in an environment well suited to his/her personal characteristics. In other words, there is a positive relationship between P-E fit and an individual’s job satisfaction, organisation commitment, organisational effectiveness, health and adaptation and career success. Conversely, researchers such as (Blau, 1987; Bretz & Judge, 1994; Cable & Judge, 1996, Kristof, 1996; Lauver & Kristof-Brown, 2001 cited in Kennedy, 2005) have equally found a negative relationship between fit and turnover intentions and stress in the job environment. The notion of P-E fit or job fitness is a general term, under which fall more specific notions of fit namely: Person – Organization fit (P-O); Person – Person fit (P-P); Person- Group fit (P-G); Person-Vocation fit (P-V), and Person- Job fit (P-J) (Metilda & Neena, 2016). All of these five components have the same objective of predicting the degree of fit or congruence between people's skills and their fit for the job and the organisation. These components are highlighted in the following section to provide a better understanding of the concepts. 2.2.1 Components of P-E fit theory P-P and P-G fit posit that individuals who compare themselves with persons similar to them are skilled at producing accurate appraisals of their capabilities and beliefs (Metilda & Neena, 2016). According to Kristof (1996) P-G fit, for instance, focuses on the extent to which people share similar characteristics with their work groups in terms of values, goals, personality, and interpersonal skills. The harmony between an individual and the work group is, therefore, achieved when one’s needs 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are met by the actions of group members (Jansen & Kristof- Brown, 2006). The actions of group members have been summarized into three dimensions by the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientations-Behavior (FIRO-B) model as follows: affection, control, and inclusion. In explaining the work group, Sundstrom’s (1999) typology (cited in Tett & Burnett, 2003) suggested six types of work groups which he referred to as teams. These teams varied in their purpose, tasks and demands for their members (Goštautaitė & Bučiūnienė, 2010). P-J fit theory also postulates that a person's personality traits (competencies) will reveal insight as to whether he can be adapted within an organization or not. P-J fit is, therefore, conceptualized as the degree to which the rewards and supplies provided by the environment match the needs and preferences of the person, otherwise known as needs–supplies [N-S] fit; or as the extent to which employees’ knowledge, skills, and abilities correspond to the job requirements, otherwise referred to as demands-abilities [D-A] fit (Edwards, 1991 cited in Goštautaitė & Bučiūnienė, 2010). D-A fit is dependent on the competences acquired from one’s training for the job. The next fit, P-O fit, is expressed as the degree of confluence between a person and the organization. P-O fit is defined as “the compatibility between people and organizations that occurs when: (a) at least one entity provides what the other needs, or (b) they share similar fundamental characteristics, or (c) both applies” (Kristof, 1996 cited in Carless, 2005:412). Kristof distinguishes between two forms of compatibility: supplementary fit, attained when an individual’s personal characteristics are congruent with the characteristics of the organization and its 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh members; and complementary fit, attained when an individual’s characteristics fill gaps that are not addressed by others or an individual’s psychological needs are fulfilled by characteristics of the work environment (Cable & Edwards, 2004; Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987; Resick et al., 2007). In effect, the definition of complementary fit includes the demands-abilities (D-A) fit relationship and the needs- supplies (N-S) fit relationship (Sekiguchi, 2004). According to Goštautaitė and Bučiūnienė (2010), P-V fit suggests that people choose professions which offer reinforces and obligations harmonious with their personality. The assumption is that individuals differ in their personality, interests, and behaviors and therefore their vocational interests will typically reflect their personality type. It is, therefore, based on the premise that individuals who actively take part in selecting their vocations rather than allow chance to operate in the job search process will be more satisfied with their careers. This invariably results in increase in employee efficiency and decrease in employer costs (Parsons, 1909 cited in Metilda & Neena, 2016). In practice, however, active participation in vocation selection for most people is the exception rather than the norm, especially in cultures where family expectations override individual expectations such as in traditional Asian and African cultures. In such cultures, which Tang (2009) described as collectivist cultures, a person’s career choice is hardly an individual choice but a choice developed from family needs and expectations and therefore career choices should fulfill family expectations and bring honour to the family; anything contrary to that expectation is deemed as selfishness on the part of the individual (Tang, 2009). In contrast is the Western cultural orientation 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which is more individualistic. Among theories of vocational congruence, the one that has gained the most acceptance and empirical support is Holland’s RIASEC model of vocational choice (Holland, 1959). What is common among all the five components of the P-E fit is the concept of fit between the person and the environment/job/vocation/organisation which, in the view of Furnham (2001), has been an attraction for psychologists. Even Shackel (1970) had argued that areas of applied psychology such as ergonomics and occupational psychology involved two types of fit: “fitting the person to the job'' and “fitting the job to the person''; the former primarily by selection and training, and the latter principally by work design and ergonomics (cited in Furnham, 2001:6). In view of the importance of the concept of fit in job fitness theories, and the fact that this study is to determine the fit between courses and industry skill requirements, the next section would highlight on some of the different dimensions to conceptualize fit in P- E fit theories. 2.2.1.1 Conceptualizations of Fit Traditionally, P-E fit has been conceptualized as a complex and multidimensional concept by researchers (Sekiguchi, 2004) and therefore attempts to capture the essence of fit have yielded a proliferation of conceptualizations, empirical measures and theoretical approaches (Goštautaitė & Bučiūnienė, 2010). Most of the conceptualizations of fit have dual perspectives as indicated below. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The first is the distinction between objective (actual) and subjective (perceived) fit. Perceived or subjective fit is conceptualized as the judgment that a person fits well in the environment. Subjective fit, therefore, involves asking people directly whether or not they believe they are a good fit with an organization and its members. Actual or objective fit, on the other hand, is the comparison between individual and environmental characteristics rated separately (Sekiguchi, 2004). In other words, objective fit involves gathering separate information about the person and the organization and then assessing their congruence (Resick et al., 2007). A more detailed description of the two concepts provided by Edwards and Rothbard (1999) cited in Furnham (2001) explained them from the person and environment perspectives. They indicated that the “objective person'' referred to actual traits, abilities, and beliefs, while the “objective environment'' referred to physical and social factors described independently of the person's perceptions. Conversely, the “subjective person” referred to self-concept and (possibly erroneous) perception of personality attributes, and the “subjective environment'' was that which is uniquely perceived by the individual (Furnham, 2001:7). Furnham stressed that even though P- E fit theory suggests that the objective fit influences the subjective fit, most studies have relied on measures of subjective fit because for people at work perceived reality is actual reality. The second important distinction in the fit literature is the supplementary versus complementary distinction; two concepts which refer to the compatibility between people and the organisations as explained above. Muchinsky and Monahan 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (1987) further explain that supplementary fit occurs “when people supplement, embellish, or have characteristics similar to other individuals in an environment” (cited in Westerman & Cry, 2004:253). In effect, supplementary fit is achieved when an individual’s personal characteristics (e.g. value, goals, personality, and interests) are congruent with the organizational and vocational characteristics, such as values, goals, personality, and interests (Kristof, 1996). Complementary fit, on the other hand, occurs when a person's characteristics make whole or add to what is missing in the environment. This implied that this fit is achieved when an individual’s characteristics fill gaps that are not addressed by others (referring to D-A fit); or an individual’s psychological needs are fulfilled by characteristics of the work environment (referring to N-S fit) (Kristof, 1996). Researchers have also made various other important and subtle distinctions with respect to the concept of congruence or fit. For instance, in the view of Meir and Melamed (1986), there is evidence for the following types of congruence or fit: vocational congruence, avocational congruence and abilities congruence. They explained these as follows: vocational congruence is the degree of compatibility between personality type and environmental type as set out in Holland's (1973) theory; avocational congruence is the agreement level between personality type and avocational activities, such as a person’s interests; and abilities congruence is the degree of compatibility between skills and job requirements, as subjectively reported by the employee (Furnham, 2001). Studies to measure these three different measures of congruence have revealed they are unrelated since no significance connections have 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh been found among them. However, all three were associated with well-being measures in the predicted direction and therefore the combination of these congruence measures had an additive effect. The implication being the larger the number of congruence measures, the higher the well-being. The results clearly show the importance of increasing the number of valid measures of fit as they quite clearly tap into different features of this multi-faceted concept (Furnham, 2001). In summary, P-E fit can be classified as a complex and multidimensional concept considering the various ways fit has been described. First, fit can be conceptualized as perceived fit and actual fit. Second, fit can be conceptualized as complementary, which encompasses needs-supplies and demands-abilities perspectives, and supplementary. Other conceptualizations of fit that have equally been identified in the literature are vocational, avocational, and abilities. 2.3 Educational Background and Job Fit When discussing fit, there is this dimension which focuses on the role of fit between the educational background and the job, which is the focus of this study. Grosemans et al. (2017) have distinguished four types of this role of fit which are vertical fit, horizontal fit, competence fit and P-E.fit. These fit types explain the relationship between education and job market requirements which was a focus of this study, hence making this aspect relevant for the study. Moreover, determining the fit between education and employment is important because it will help one to know if 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh those who undergo educational training will eventually get jobs in their profession. The four fit types are elaborated in the next section. 2.3.1 Types of Fit between educational background and job The first type of fit is the vertical fit between education and job. This fit refers to the extent to which the level of education (e.g., bachelors, masters) agrees with the level of education required for the job (Heijke et al., 2003). Regarding this fit, there are times when the level of education of the graduate is higher than the level required for the job (e.g., a graduate with a master’s degree working in a job that requires a bachelor’s degree). In such a situation, the graduate is regarded as being over-educated for the job (Baert et al., 2013); the reverse is when the level of education of the graduate is lower than that required for the job in which case the graduate is under educated for the job, both representing a misfit. In most instances, vertical misfit (especially over education) occurs because sometimes, graduates are unable to wait to find a job with a right fit (Ama, 2008; Renn & Hodges, 2007) or some fields of study appear to be narrow to the extent that graduates are unable to find a job in that specific field of study (Ama, 2008; Graham et al., 2014 cited in Grosemans et al., 2017) among other reasons. The second type which is the horizontal fit reflects the degree of fit between the study discipline and the job (Heijke et al., 2003). For example, a graduate with an accounting degree working as an accountant in a firm has a high horizontal fit, while a graduate with a nursing degree working as an assistant in a bank has a low horizontal fit. According to Heijke et al. (2003) graduates from law, natural sciences, and health 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh had a higher frequency of being employed in their own study discipline than graduates from other disciplines such as the humanities. A logical explanation to this phenomenon would be the fact that law qualifications, for example, are specifically oriented disciplines, implying that graduates with such qualification need to work in their specific area of specialization. On the other hand, the humanities are considered to be general oriented disciplines, meaning that such graduates may work in a range of areas. For a better vertical and horizontal fit to be achieved, however, Heijke et al. (2003); Baert et al. (2013); and Graham et al. (2014) have all indicated that work experience was important particularly the one that is in line with the study discipline. The importance of work experience certainly explains why internships, which provide a window of opportunity to experience a glimpse of the working world, have become an integral part of training students in HEI. Then there is the competence fit. This fit indicates the match between the learning outcomes of education and the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to perform the job; in other words, a match between the competences acquired from one’s education and that required to perform the job. In contrast, the opposite is competence misfit which is the gap between what education delivers and what employers want (Nicolescu & Păun, 2009). In some cases competence misfit arises because sometimes a different set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes is required due to, for example, a vertical or horizontal misfit or because knowledge, skills or attitudes need to be further developed at work since sometimes the learning outcomes that come from education do not completely match the requirements of the job (Carless, 2005) and new things 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh have to be learnt. Moreover, several primary studies (Le Maistre & Paré, 2004; Holden & Hamblett, 2007; Filstad & McManus, 2011; Pennbrant et al., 2013) have found that it is impossible for some knowledge, skills, and attitudes, such as specific job-related rules or conventions to be learned in higher education since these will vary from job to job. Therefore, these need to be developed at the work place to close the competence gap, as well as make the employee function as a full member of the workplace. Finally, the fit between the person and the environment is again taken into account. This fit is the relationship between the interests, values, and abilities of the graduate with those of the environment or organisation (Sung et al., 2011). According to Edgar et al. (2013), employers valued a higher person-environment fit when selecting graduates. In other words, most employers seek a graduate profile very similar with that of the company and the concepts of candidate’s well roundedness and fit were considered most vital hence making P-E fit relevant for recruitment. The discussion of the various fits selected for scrutiny clearly reveals that a common denominator in the fit conceptualizations is the competence factor. Furthermore, one way in which fit between the person and the work environment can be achieved is when the employee possesses the competences needed for the job; thus making competence a necessary factor in job fit theories. For purposes of this study, then, the competency fit perspective was used for the qualitative data since it was the most appropriate as the study examined the competences acquired from university- based journalism education and matched with industry skills requirements. To classify these necessary competences determined by employers, the content-clustered 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh framework of Young and Chapman (2010) was used which is further explained in the next section. 2.3.1.1 Competence Levels It is widely accepted that a critical period for young adults is the transition from higher education to the labour market and therefore, the necessary skills and competences as well as the perceived fit between what is learnt and what is required for the job take a salient role. One will therefore agree with Le Maistre and Paré (2004), Teichler (2007), and Endedijk and Vermunt (2013) who have all indicated that preparing students for work and for lifelong learning can be considered as major aims of education. In order to achieve these aims, Young and Chapman (2010) had emphasized that students needed to develop a wide range of knowledge, skills, and attitudes which would translate into learning outcomes having gone through changes due to their engagement in various learning activities (Doyle et al., 2008; Kyndt & Baert, 2013). To classify necessary learning outcomes, Young and Chapman (2010) developed the content-clustered framework which is an integration of different frameworks on knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The framework is made up of five clusters of knowledge, skills and attitudes referred to as competences. The five competence areas are: Basic competence, Business competence, Conceptual competence, Personal competence, and People competence. Ideally, these are competences that should be learned in education to become fully prepared for the job market and are further elaborated below. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. Basic Competencies are those that provide the basis for everyone to adequately perform the job. Examples are literacy, numeracy, computer knowledge and skills, and information technology (Grosemans et al., 2017). 2. Business are more job-specific competencies and therefore not necessarily relevant for every job, such as financial planning and merchandising (Grosemans et al., 2017). In Young and Chapman’s (2010) framework, the business competences are specific competences that are explicitly related to a study discipline. They are competences relating to theoretical knowledge, technical skill, practical knowledge and skills specified for the job (Biesma et al., 2007). 3. Conceptual Competencies refer to competences that demand analysis and creativity, such as problem-solving, decision making and logical reasoning skills (Young & Chapman, 2010). It also includes having an innovative attitude and an achievement orientation. 4. Personal Competencies are related to personal effectiveness and lifelong learning (Strijbos et al., 2015; Young & Chapman, 2010) and are central to career development. They include learning skills, ability to reflect, time management/setting priorities, working independently, managing several tasks at once, being structured, managing stress/workload, critical thinking, having a clear vision and being able to take risks, acting responsible, being flexible, and possessing self-discipline (Grosemans et al., 2017). 5. People Competencies refer to competences in connection to others. Examples are teamwork and communication; leadership (management skills); interpersonal skills, especially communication skills. It also refers to maintaining relations and 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh working as a team especially in a multidisciplinary way as well as listening and negotiation skills. (Grosemans et al., 2017). The five competencies can be put into two categories: Generic and Specific. Grosemans et al. (2017) explained that the business competencies fall under Specific while the rest of the competencies, (i.e. basic, conceptual, personal and people) are Generic. Some researchers have the opinion that it is more important to develop generic competences than specific competences before entering the labour market (Biesma et al., 2007; Nicolescu & Păun, 2009) because generic competencies are applicable in a variety of context unlike the business competences which are job specific. However, the research of Lindberg (2010) has challenged this and emphasized that specific and generic competences are intertwined and, therefore, are both essential for every graduate in every job. Lindberg’s assertion was confirmed by other researchers (Filstad & McManus, 2011; Pennbrant et al., 2013; Yan et al., 2013; Graham et al., 2014) who all indicated that having these two competences will help to transform theoretical knowledge into practical knowledge that can be used in the work, hence the necessity for every graduate in every job to acquire these skills. This chapter has explained the conceptual and theoretical issues related to this study and highlighted the areas relevant to the study. To measure standards in order to determine quality of the programmes, GTEC accreditation criteria and UNESCO and WJEC standards served as the global standards used for the assessment and evaluation. How these were done have further been explained in the methodology chapter. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW 3.0 Introduction In this chapter, empirical literature is reviewed in order to annotate the origins and evolution of research in the field and to navigate the contours of previous efforts at establishing the presumed link between university education and job market or industry requirements. The second purpose is to discover and be guided by the perspectives assumed, the methods used, the findings made and conclusions reached in the related studies on industry perspectives on university education in general and on Journalism education in particular. The chapter commences with an overview of university education from various perspectives in order to provide a contextual premise for the study 3.1 The Role of University Education Research (and opinion) on what universities are for, falls mainly into two schools of thought. The first school of thought is based on the classic Greek idea of developing whole persons through the pursuit of welfare and freedom, as well as goodness, beauty and truth (Spies cited in Inayatullah & Gidley, 2000). It is the belief of proponents of this school of thought that universities should provide a liberal education for their students and engage in research aimed at increasing society’s depth of understanding of the world (Langtry, 2000 cited in Conrad, 2019) and removed 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from having anything to do with employment of its graduates. Scott and Dixon (2008) agreed with this notion and noted that complying with the whims of industry and government has not been a traditional mission for universities. According to them, “the academe is already optimally organised to accomplish its own objectives and these may not necessarily be the same as those of industry” (2008:12). Similarly, in defense of a liberal education that prizes the development of individual intellect, John Henry Newman (1852) in his book The idea of a University described the outcome of a university education as one that “a habit of mind is formed which lasts through life, of which the attributes are freedom, equitableness, calmness, moderation and wisdom” (Boschiero, 2012:1). Newman’s argument was that a university can only be an authentic and unified seat of universal learning, and can only grant its students a truly liberal habit of mind, true intellectual and moral freedom, if it is free from practical, worldly demands. In other words, university education is about knowledge for its own sake. Universities that subscribe to this school of thought focus on theory and concepts and, therefore, programmes of study are largely theoretical. This first way of thinking about the role of a university being one that provides knowledge for its own sake and not to serve some practical use, though it seemly maintains great resonance with people well into this twenty first century, is arguably the traditional view. The second way of thinking, which is based on how some see the traditions of universities, is that universities have always had a dual purpose – vocational training and education for its own sake (Gould, 2003; Graham, 2005 cited in Conrad, 2019). In other words, universities should focus on the bias of the industry which is 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh production and professional skills as well as the status quo of the academic way which is theory and concepts. Mackey (2001) referred to this as the long-standing debate about the balance between ‘utility’ and ‘liberal studies’. Emphasizing on the utility theme, Davis (2017) described an emerging model of universities as one with a very high utilitarian narrative which, according to him, is an example of not what is to come but what is already here, diminishing the need for all universities to question their reason for being and their plan for how they will compete. Describing Phoenix University in the US, Davis commented that the university is neither a place for building character or lifelong skills nor is it a place committed to comprehensive knowledge but a place for securing a better paid job from the premise that education is about employment, an instrumental investment and anything not essential to securing that qualification is discarded. This extreme utilitarianism approach to university education demonstrates a third way of thinking about the role of universities, which could be classified as an extreme example of the second way of thinking, or of what could happen with the complete loss of the pursuit of education for its own sake (Conrad, 2019). This view is however not yet sufficiently widespread to merit ongoing discussion in this thesis. Clearly there is no consensus among scholars on what the role of higher education is since there are two schools of thought. One group, the larger, sees it as being about broadly educating students by educating their whole being and preparing them for life (Robinson, 2006 cited in Conrad, 2019). In other words this school of thought focuses on the role of universities to ‘civilise’ without concern for 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vocationalism. The other, much smaller group, sees the role of higher education as being ‘dual purpose’ and existing to develop knowledge and personal growth as well as training students for their chosen vocations (Gould, 2003; Graham, 2005); that is to say to civilise as well as provide manpower needs. Considering the way universities are perceived in this 21st century, there is no doubt that the second school of thought, though in the minority, is gaining ground especially in this era of private higher education that has brought in its wake the perception of knowledge as consumer goods which reflects a marketing or consumer needs approach. In this approach, the type of knowledge, its substance and method of transmission are dependent on the consumer’s needs (Pasternak, 2014). In other words, knowledge as a consumer goods approach gives rise to a different concept of the educational process (Pasternak, 2004; 2013) that contrasts with the classical concept of higher education which saw knowledge as an independent entity and offered it to the consumer public without any recourse to their needs or satisfaction. The consumer-needs approach sees advantages in adapting higher education to the needs of the consumer. Private educational institutions usually adapt such approaches in order to remain relevant a midst all the competition and rapid changes in the labour market, especially in this technological era (Overton et al., 2008; Tubaishat et al., 2009). The public universities are equally adapting this consumer needs approach by trying to pinpoint the needs of the student-consumer in their programmes. 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, some researchers have found fault with adapting higher education to the needs of the consumer. For instance, Heckman and Montera (2001) argue that adapting the curricula to the needs of the market place can adversely affect other professional requirements, such as the need of professionals to acquire broad knowledge bases in their fields. Moreover, the needs of consumers such as employers in the profession can affect the expectations of the institutions and invariably impact curricula development. These concerns have been reiterated by researchers such as Velde (2009); Meleki (2009); Tubaishat et al. (2009) who also find fault with adapting higher education to the consumer needs and argue that the knowledge-as-consumer-goods approach might assign lesser importance to theoretical knowledge and make the academic curricula to be based on the professional demands of employers and emphasize professional and personal skills instead. Pasternak (2014) thus expressed the opinion that knowledge-as-consumer- goods would be applicable for some professions but not for others. He argued that with professions such as the exact sciences, technology or business administration, a curriculum based mainly on the needs of the consumer-employer is appropriate. However, because a wide scope of basic theoretical knowledge is needed for the social and behavioral sciences, these professions are not always compatible with the needs of the consumer-employer. Moreover, the sphere of knowledge in the domains of the social and behavioral sciences is so wide with many interdisciplinary aspects that there is no agreement regarding what is needed when it comes to knowledge-acquisition. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The above notwithstanding, university education in this 21st century has become so linked with employability that the perception now is that universities that do not produce employable graduates are rated low by the citizenry as most universities are assessed according to the number of employable graduates they can produce. In fact, various governments (UK, US, Europe and Africa) have challenged HEI to expand to meet rising skill needs implying that meeting manpower needs may not have been that important previously; however, it is now. Moreover, recent trends have indicated that students perceive the attainment of university education qualifications as a significant boost to their level of human capital which would provide them with advantages on the job market. In this regard, the sense that higher education qualifications would open up a wider range of economic, occupational and social opportunities were strongly implicit in students’ views (Tomlinson, 2008; Bridgstock, 2009; Kalufya & Mwakajinga, 2016; Bennet, 2018). Such convictions about university education indicate that it is the employability skill that matters the most to the graduates thereby increasing the relevance of the dual role of universities. Furthermore, current trends are pointing towards a growing need for professionals who can put their training into practice, especially those who can independently solve problems in an adaptive way. All these require a motivated work force who acts globally with an immense knowledge of the firm and the market situation (Pujol-Jover et al., 2015). Even though university education was not originally expected to meet industry demands, that stance can lead to an unsatisfactory situation whereby there is no alignment between industry needs and the prevalent 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh academic curriculum. Moreover, Fry et al.’s (2000) assertion that HEI are expected to equip the next generation of workers with the requisite knowledge and generic skills necessary to sustain and develop the national economy confirms the notion that university education, to a large extent, is about employability. Furthermore, Tagoe’s (2008) conclusion that higher education is to provide students with knowledge and skills relevant for the local, national and international labour markets gives credence to the argument that providing graduates with employable skills to meet job market needs is a sine qua non for HEI, especially because there is so much competition in the labour market and meeting labour market requirements increases employment prospects. Moreover, research has proven that employers look for graduates who exhibit attainment beyond the degree (Hugh-Jones, 2008) attaching value to employability skills. The role of higher education being dual purpose (i.e. civilise as well as provide manpower needs) has, more or less, taken center stage in this twenty first century considering the direction that most HEI are going, for example, with the way they promote their respective programmes. For instance, when advertising their programmes some institutions, especially the private ones, emphasize that they offer competence based training (CBT) programmes, or that their programmes will make prospective students industry ready because when they enroll, they will be equipped with the skills industry needs stressing the vocational role which has been added to the traditional role to produce the dual role. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The dual role is even more pronounced when it comes to journalism education because of the history of university based journalism education and the fact that in countries such as the US, professionals from industry had a hand in its establishment (Mirando, 1995; Boylan, 2003; Berger, 2005; Missouri, 2005) indicating their industries’ interest in the caliber of journalism graduates produced as they will end up working with them. According to Carey (2000), the driving force came from strong lobbying efforts of state press associations and publishers who saw a university journalism curriculum as a way to enhance the occupational prestige of the journalism trade. Currently, higher education through public and private institutions is the major player in the journalism education system in most countries (Deuze, 2006). On the other hand, industry has had a problem with journalists being trained in universities since both industry and universities have their own institutionalized expectations and assumptions (Deuze, 2005). Therefore, journalism education at the university level has grappled with which path is most appropriate: the industry line (practically) or the purely academic line (conceptually) resulting in various debates (Deuze, 2005). In view of this, several scholars over the years have advocated an integration of theory and practice in the journalism curriculum to provide both paths in journalism education (Glasser, 1992; Rhoodie, 1995; Reese & Cohen, 2000; Blobaum, 2000; Deuze, 2001) which conforms to the dual role. This integration of theory and practice is what Greenberg (2007) referred to as Reflective Practice, which assumes a two way flow between theory and practice and is based on Kolb’s experiential learning cycle. Training of reflective practitioners has therefore emerged globally as a leading concept 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh among journalism scholars (Reese & Cohen, 2000; Sheridan Burns, 2002, Keeble, 2005; Wasserman, 2005, Niblock, 2007, Greenberg, 2014; Auger et al., 2017). WJEC and UNESCO have equally stipulated that an ideal Journalism curriculum should provide a balance of theory and practice, among other criteria. 3.2 Related Studies In order to be guided by previous studies, this section looks at issues arising from the findings of four empirical studies undertaken in the area of university education in general and industry fit and empirical studies undertaken between 2003 and 2018 in the area of journalism education in particular and industry requirements. It also reviews four empirical studies on journalism education in Africa. 3.2.1 University Education and Industry Fit Evidence from literature in recent times, especially from Europe, has indicated an increasing interest in the skills and competencies that students acquire during their university studies and how these fit with the current job market (Mora et al., 2007a, 2007b; Marzo et al., 2009; Saurina & Villar, 2010; Guerrero & De los Ríos, 2012; Hanning et al., 2012; Pujol-Jover, et al., 2015; Metilda & Neena, 2016; Kalufya & Mwakajinga, 2016). Hanning et al.’s (2012) study, for instance, was an exploratory case study that examined the competences in Sustainable Development (SD) that are focused on the engineering curricula at Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg, Sweden. The study set out to answer the following research questions: What competences do 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh students obtain in the educational programmes? What competences do the companies need? What is the gap between what is obtained and what is needed? The study used a mixed methods approach by employing document text analysis on 70 courses in environment and SD; survey with students and alumni, and focus group discussion with 16 Swedish-based companies and five organisations. Findings were that Industry demanded a higher level and broader range of competences in SD among engineers in general than what was being offered at the university, revealing a gap between competencies obtained and competences needed. For instance, several company interviewees mentioned a clear lack of knowledge in SD amongst newly graduated engineers. Moreover, only half of the students believed they possessed enough competencies to make decisions from a sustainable perspective. Furthermore, many alumni believed they did not possess enough competencies to carry out their responsibilities concerning SD issues. As a way of decreasing the knowledge gap, eight out of the 16 companies used in the study educate their own staff through internal educational programmes. Similarly, Metilda and Neena’s (2016) study also investigated the gap between employers’ expected skill sets of business graduates in the Indian business scenario and the actual skills they possessed at the time of recruitment. Employer responses on skills considered in the recruitment of management graduates, with respect to their business as well as job profiles, were compared with the actual skill set of fresh MBA graduates from the higher education sector. As was found in Hanning et al.’s study, a ‘skill gap’ between actual and expected was also identified from these findings. For 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh example, 86 percent of employers observed that MBA-hires have inadequate skills and therefore do not create much value for their companies in the first few years of their career. The study equally revealed that there was substantial dissatisfaction with the quality of business graduates in the practical level. The study concluded that three of the five P-E (person to environment) components of Holland’s Job fit theory, which are P-P (person to person fit), P-G (person to group fit), and P-J (person to job fit), are relevant for a fresher recruitment. The other two P-O (person to organisation fit) and P-V (person to vocation fit) become applicable after one joins the firm, as these are dependent on the work environment and the kind of job given to the employee. Another study (Pujol-Jover et al., 2015) to determine fit went a step further to provide recommendations as to how the skills gap could be addressed. The study analysed the skills and competencies acquired by students in the Faculty of Economics and Business in the University of Barcelona, in order to identify the extent to which they fit into society’s labour market demands. Data from a survey for firm supervisors corresponding to practices in the Faculty of Economics and Business were used. The achievement of basic and specific competencies and other training project skills were analysed. The survey results indicated that some companies found deficiencies in the graduates’ time management skills, their ability to work as a team and in having an entrepreneurial view. There were also lacks in their communication skills and in being versatile. The researchers, therefore, recommended that more programmes are needed to further enhance the employability of graduates. In addition teachers should spend some time embarking on research projects at firms or in the professional world so they 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh can adapt their knowledge to the actual working environment. Furthermore, institutions should ensure that their syllabus includes some of the competencies prospective workers will require when entering the job market. In a similar vein, Kalufa and Mwakajinga’s (2016) study, which assessed the employability of graduates in HEI in Tanzania, recommended that Career Advisory Services (CAS) at HEI should be used to provide short term programmes on employability for students. In addition, there should be a clear-cut link between the curriculum and employability as a way of ensuring that students have the opportunity to take the full range of employability skills on board which will invariably promote life-long learning. These recommendations were made based on the findings which pointed to an evidential difference in the prioritization of employability skills between employers and final year students; though, there was a correlation regarding their perceptions of the relative importance of the different employability skills. For instance, regarding the three groups of employability skills, the students perceived themselves to be good on subject knowledge so they ranked that higher but not that good in personal quality skills and core skills which were ranked higher by the employers as these are mostly needed by the labour market. 3.2.2 Journalism Education and Industry Fit Some studies conducted between 2003 and 2009 have concluded that from the perspective of employers, communication graduates do not possess the skills necessary to hit the ground running because the skills they learnt in college did not reflect the needs of the work force (Mattern, 2003; Lepre & Bleske, 2005; Hines & 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Basso, 2008; Adams, 2008; McDonough et al., 2009). For instance, Hines and Basso’s (2008) study found that an alarming number of communication professionals report that entry-level employees possess poor writing skills and even poorer editing skills. The study was conducted with senior-level communication professionals in the US who felt that colleges and universities do an inadequate job of training future communication workers in writing competency because they found entry-level workers lacking a thorough understanding of the rules of grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure. A previous study (Lepre & Bleske, 2005) had, however, reported that both educators and journalism professionals agreed that strong writing was the most important skill for students to master. The impression then is that there is little attempt made by educators to provide the needed skills in the curriculum resulting in not much attention being given to industry requirements by training institutions. However, Huang et al.’s (2006) study has challenged this impression when they found 60 per cent of journalism schools in the US redesigning their curricula into a convergence one by including courses that prepared students to produce news in multiple platforms to realign with current trends in journalism practice. Furthermore, Callaghan and McManus (2010) observed that some universities were embarking on projects aimed at assisting these universities to identify potential gaps in teaching and areas for improvement against the backdrop that knowing the expectations of the news industry is fundamental to a university’s ability to prepare students accordingly. The above notwithstanding, recent studies have continued to identify skills gap between the expected and the actual in journalism education especially from the 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh perspective of employers (Krumsvik, 2012; Allan, 2013; Cullen Trevor, 2014; Cullen et al., 2014). Allan’s (2013) study, for example, was to establish whether the Kenyan media houses were content with the competences of the trained journalists from middle level media training colleges in Kenya, and whether these institutions had necessary training facilities. On the level of contentment with output or skills of graduates, media personnel graded graduates in the following in descending order: Field Reporting, Television and Radio Production, News Anchoring, Radio Presentation, Print Editing, Program Directing, and Studio Operation. These skills exhibited by the graduates indicated that while they performed well when they went out to get stories or when they produced programmes for the electronic media as well as when it came to news anchoring, they did not perform creditably in programme directing and studio operations. This revelation pointed to the fact that there were major weaknesses in these graduates with respect to technical skills required in electronic technical operations which were attributed to the lack of technical training facilities back at their colleges. Similarly, a study by Krumsvik (2012) found out the views of senior news executives concerning the critical competencies employers deemed important for recruitment of new candidates from Journalism schools. The news executives were also asked to identify critical competences not found in the Bachelor of Journalism syllabus at Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences (HiOA). Regarding the critical competences, they found the following not explicitly covered in the syllabus: 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Using social media as a journalistic tool • Knowledge about the media business (value chain) • Technical knowledge (both publication platforms and tools for computer- assisted journalism) • Able to analyse Big Data and complex issues • Languages • Knowledge of access to public records • Able to build one’s own network of sources • Burning soul (a wish to change the world) Though these findings were presented to the internal stakeholders of HiOA (i.e. Advisory Board, students as well as staff), they did not create any imminent sense of urgency to make radical changes to the syllabus. Perhaps these findings should have been taken seriously by the university and resulted in curriculum change for the journalism programme in HiOA considering that evidence from literature (Huang et al., 2006; Callaghan & McManus, 2010; Ryfe & Messing, 2013; Anderson, 2017) point to the fact that in countries such as the US and Canada, journalism curricula were undergoing changes in order to catch up with industrial demand. This inaction by HiOA can be attributed to Deuze’s (2006) and MacDonald’s (2006) argument that in the development of a Journalism-school syllabus, demands from the market or industry meet normative ambitions for the development of the journalism profession and, therefore, do not necessarily result in curriculum change. Furthermore, during a 2013 Poynter Institute study of journalism education, news editors and staffers interviewed 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh indicated that some journalism-schools are not making efforts to be abreast with changes in the field (Finberg, 2013) implying that aligning curriculum to industry needs may be institution specific and so how each institution responds to it will vary. Perhaps Mensing’s (2010:512) call for a move away from industry-driven education to a more community-orientated approach that takes advantage of new technology and citizen participation in order to “reconnect journalism with its democratic roots and take advantage of new forms of news creation, production, editing and distribution” may provide a new direction for journalism education, especially in this era where new technology and citizen participation are resulting in radical changes in the practice of journalism. In a related study (Cullen et al., 2014), the results of an Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) sponsored project found some deficits in the skills level of the graduates. The research sought the views of news editors working in radio, TV, print and online around Australia about the ‘job readiness’ of tertiary educated journalism graduates. The editors found areas of weakness in spelling, grammar and syntax, and the development of general knowledge. Other areas of concern were the fact that graduates had a poor sense of what is news and newsworthy, they lacked initiative and were unable to generate story ideas. On the other hand, there was overwhelming agreement among editors that journalism graduates were competent in digital technology skills; a finding which is not surprising because of the digital era we currently find ourselves. Cullen et al.’s findings were largely reflected in previous Australian studies with mainstream media employers (Alysen 2007; Callaghan & 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh McManus, 2010; Mensing, 2010; Nankervis, 2011). Majority of the editors also agreed that there was a central role for universities in Perth to provide both an educational background and skills based training for people considering a career in journalism and early career journalists. They, however, recommended that instead of the existing model where the initial training of journalists is conducted within the institutions and then the successful graduates are polished on the job, the training should be collaboration between the universities and industry. However, the fact that the research findings of Krumsvik (2012) were not taken seriously by HiOA to initiate any changes in the Bachelor of Journalism syllabus presupposes that industry-academia collaboration will be a daunting task and achieving it is not as easy as it seems. This is because there is evidence of disagreement between educators and practitioners regarding the precise content of an ideal Journalism curriculum. For instance, Cullen’s (2014) research project to assess whether the journalism programmes offered by five Perth-based universities provide graduates with the skill set prospective employers seek revealed that there was some disagreement between editors and educators about what an ideal university-based Journalism programme should entail; a similar finding of a previous study (Dickson & Brandon, 2000) which also indicated that a gap exists between professional journalists and journalism educators concerning aspects of journalism education. A study by Kraeplin and Criado (2005) equally highlighted this gap. The results of the study on the views of educators and practitioners on convergence skills indicated that educators (93%) rated the importance of convergence skills higher than TV managers 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (72%) and newspaper managers (69%) revealing that educators somewhat overestimated the interest media had in convergence skills when hiring. This issue of difference between practitioners and the academy regarding what is relevant for the profession is not peculiar to journalism. Regarding Public Relations curriculum, for example, Todd (2009) found that there were significant differences in courses considered most valuable by faculty advisors relative to courses that professional advisors valued most. These differences were revealed in a survey conducted by the students’ chapter of the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA). The results revealed that professional advisors showed preference for a curriculum that was inclined towards new media technologies, hands-on technical skills and adequate preparation for entry-level positions. Faculty advisors on the other hand, preferred a curriculum that emphasized the development of critical thinking, ethics, management and theories. In effect, while practitioners advocated for practical skills, faculty on the other hand laid emphasis on theoretical depth. Irrespective of these disagreements, Temple’s (2009) argument that the training of journalists should be collaboration between industry and the university because at the end of the day the graduate journalist will serve the industry is enough grounds for journalism educators and journalism practitioners to ensure that collaboration is achieved. Moreover, a number of studies have drawn the conclusion that industry needs to complement the university in conducting the training (Temple, 2009; Cullen, Tanner, O’Donnell & Green, 2014; Frost, 2017, Yusof et al., 2018). 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh These findings lend further support to the clarion call for more industry-academia collaboration in nurturing high quality graduates in Journalism. A review of these studies have confirmed what other studies on competency levels of employees and industry expectations have found out, that level of competences acquired by students is usually below the level required for the job. In effect a “skills gap” between actual and expected is a common finding in studies for both general university education and university-based Journalism education. Conversely, there are studies that have also indicated a high overlap between the competences acquired at the university level and that needed in the labour market (Finnie, 2004; Yan et al., 2013 cited in Grosemans et al., 2017) thereby implying a match. Nevertheless, the labour market keeps complaining about the poor training of students resulting in Pujol-Jover et al.’s (2015) conviction that there is clearly something that has not been carefully analysed or has not been executed as it should. Pujol-Jover et al have equally reiterated the necessity for a closer collaboration between firms and universities to improve the training of students but stressed that this collaboration may not be an easy task because of the different orientations of the academy and industry. For instance, higher education is generally oriented towards learning (theoretical) while the work context is generally oriented towards production (practical) by means of using knowledge (Garraway et al., 2011). Pujol-Jover et al. (2015) therefore, recommend that aspects of the university governance needs to be modified so it could be more flexible to respond quickly to the demands of the knowledge society and the international context. In addition, there is the need to 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh encourage firms to be willing to collaborate even though scholars in the field are divided on the issue of whether it is important for academia to consider input from industrial players in shaping the curriculum on journalism education in HEI (Cullen et al., 2014; Gilmor, 2016). This collaboration, which will provide an understanding of current demands in the industry, will help reduce the gap between the actual skills and the expected skills. These studies, apart from indicating skills gap between actual and expected, have also indicated that a gap exists between professional journalists and journalism educators concerning aspects of journalism education and for that matter their inability to reach a consensus on what contemporary journalism curricula should deliver (Tanner, 2014 cited in St Clair, 2015). Therefore, it was relevant to find out exactly what industry looks for in new hires in terms of competences since this study was interested in the extent to which the curricula provides the competences industry requires. 3.2.3 Industry skill components for Journalism Education There are no doubts that employers of journalists play an important role in determining the nature of journalism and its practice and for that matter, journalism education as a whole. In view of this, there is a whole lot of literature that has been published on the perspectives of industry on journalism education, especially regarding competences needed. Most of these studies have been conducted in Australia, the United States, United Kingdom, and Asia in general: (Dickson & Brandon, 2000; Huang et al., 2003; Kraeplin & Criado, 2005; Lepre & Bleske, 2005; 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Pierce & Miller, 2007; Massey, 2010; Wenger et al., 2010; Brown & Collins, 2010; Callaghan & McManus, 2010; Cleary & Cochie, 2011; Cremedas & Lysak, 2011; Owens & Wenger, 2012, 2013; Tanner et al., 2013; Ryfe & Messing, 2013; Wenger et al., 2014; Anderson, 2017; Wenger et al., 2018). The numerous studies undertaken on industry’s perspective on journalism education are in consonance with Berge’s (2005) observation that unlike a number of academic fields, journalism practice as a subject at the tertiary education level had a particular industrial point of reference and, therefore, the teaching of journalism at universities was done on the initiation of industry professionals. At the beginning of the millennium, empirical studies conducted on journalism education had indicated that employers stressed more on the traditional news skills such as writing and reporting and were not particularly concerned whether their recruits had specific new technology skills. Lepre and Bleske’s (2005) study, for example, stated that nearly all educators and journalism professionals agreed that strong writing was the most important skill for students to master. Other studies (Dickson & Brandon, 2000; Criado & Kraeplin, 2003; Huang et al., 2003; Nankervis, 2005) had also found traditional skills prioritised over new technology skills. The exception these studies found and which was rated highly by all employers was being computer literate, including navigating online. Similarly, Callaghan and McManus’s (2010) study revealed that mainstream media employers in Australia have always placed a high premium on their employees having only traditional journalism skills. Also, in the US, a study conducted in the same year found that employers still 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh demanded traditional news skills (Brown & Collins, 2010). Another study, Cleary and Cochie (2011), content analysed newspaper job advertisements over a 27-year period and discovered that skills employers want are writing, print design, and editing copy. These findings give credence to the notion that basic journalism skills, including spelling/grammar and knowledge about journalism ethics, have been prioritised for a very long period and therefore remain paramount to employers (Pierce & Miller, 2007). How much employers valued basic or traditional skills is evident in several studies that found employers concerned that multimedia courses were displacing other skills like writing and researching (Birge, 2006; Usher, 2009; Bhuiyan, 2010; and Loo, 2010). Latter studies indicating new perspectives to these findings are apparent as studies conducted have indicated a rise in the request for new media skills and multi- platform skills. Becker et al.’s (2007a) study have implied that educators have equally responded to industry needs by adding online and convergence courses to their programmes as their study revealed that seven in ten Journalism and Mass Communication programmes had at least one course designed to teach online or web- based journalism with instructions on how to use the web. More empirical studies conducted have found employers articulating an additional desire for graduates possessing knowledge of how to use multimedia elements to enhance news stories (Brown & Collins, 2010) suggesting that the need for some new technology skills was becoming necessary for employers but they still demanded traditional news skills in addition. In a study by Massey (2010), both print and broadcast job listings requested 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh web-posting skills in addition to traditional skills. For instance, the study found that newspapers sought reporters who could also shoot news video, implying a moderate demand for multi-platform skills by legacy news organizations. Cremedas and Lysak (2011) also found most positions in television newsrooms require web skills, especially being able to generate web content. Wenger and Owens’ (2013) study in the US echoed similar findings. They found that the demand by employers for multimedia skills had increased significantly. For instance, the study revealed that the ability to post content to the web, to write for the web, to shoot video and still photos and to work within the mobile and social media spaces seemed to be necessary. There was also the need for students to work in teams. Wenger et al.’s (2014) study supported these previous findings and confirmed that the demand for multi-platform skills continues to steadily rise, as job postings are increasingly placing a premium on skills involving online-content production, use of mobile apps, and social media experience among job requirements. Similarly, editors in Australia indicated that there was the need for journalism graduates to be multi- skilled and able to work across the various media platforms (Cullen et al., 2014) a conclusion equally arrived at in Krumsvik’s (2012) study in Norway which emphasized that the market demanded critical journalists with good communication skills and able to take on any role in the news factory of the future. The studies revealed that online employers were those more enthusiastic about graduates who have a range of multimedia skills than employers in newspaper, radio or television. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Within the last few years, the demand for multi-platform and multimedia skills has continued to soar as job postings are increasingly listing skills involving online- content production and use of mobile apps among job requirements. For instance, Wenger et al.’s (2018) comparative study, which compared the results of their 2010 and 2015 study on job postings for newsroom positions of top US media companies, found an increased demand for employee skills in social media and a tendency to seek candidates that exhibit web/multimedia skills. The study, for example, revealed that while in 2010 about a third of positions (33%) required web/multimedia skills; in 2015 this had risen to nearly two thirds of all jobs (62%). In addition social media grew from 2 percent of job postings in 2010 to 47 percent of all job postings indicating a significant increase in the need for new media skills. The implication then is that what is pervasive in the journalism profession currently is having a strong foundation in web/multimedia skills. Furthermore, positions that required employees to work across multiple platforms accounted for the largest job type in the study representing about 48.4 percent of all jobs coded which corroborates the notion that there is equally an increase in the demand for multi-platform skills. This is not surprising considering that the media consumption patterns of people have changed from just one way: newspaper or television or radio or internet to a multiple media way. We are in an era where the public sometimes gets news from newspapers, at other times get news from television and radio, and still other times seeks news online. The core mission of journalism is to inform the public about its world in the best possible way but nowadays, the best possible way is no longer one way but a multiple media way (Callaghan, 2009). The 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh job titles that most often require multiple platform skills are reporters (37.6%) followed by web writers (14.3%), web producers (7.8%), editors (6.7%), and then producers (6.3%). Reporters have the highest percentage because as front liners performing the core mission of journalism, they need to put the reading, viewing, and browsing public at the centre of their work and satisfy their multiple media needs, especially because the public are not solitary consumers of the media. There are, however, debates in the US as to whether one person can successfully produce quality content in different forms of media, especially when it comes to a major news event where groups of mono-media reporters outnumber a single multimedia reporter. In such a situation, this form of multi-platform reporting is not likely to produce quality (Şuţu, 2011). However, the fact that empirical studies (Wenger & Owens, 2013; Yusof et al., 2018; Wenger et al., 2018) are revealing an increase in the request for multimedia and multi-platform skills presupposes that they are needed by media organisations. Moreover, as the audience appetite for multimedia products grows, media houses will find media personnel with convergence skills more suitable because such people will be able to produce more news for the same money since multi-skilled reporters mean fewer reporters (Şuţu, 2011). Therefore, having convergent skills becomes an asset rather than a liability. In addition, other skills also featured prominently in these studies and these are teamwork and the ability to work under pressure under strict deadlines. For example, Wenger’s study revealed that working under pressure and tight deadlines increased from 28 percent to 56 percent and working as a team player increased from 27 percent 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to 52 percent within the five year period between 2010 and 2015 (Wenger et al., 2018). Perhaps the pressures of newsroom production have made it imperative for these personal skills to be demanded of graduates. This is because in the newsroom, graduates are expected to produce three or more news items a day in addition to staying abreast with social media and audience interactions, which can lead to stressful situations especially when in the classroom of most Ghanaian universities, undergraduate students are usually expected to produce three assessment items (class work, mid-semester, and end of semester) within a semester of sixteen weeks creating a discrepancy in duration between expectations in newsroom and classroom. Another skill which some studies have shown to be an essential asset in the workplace for graduates is critical thinking skills (Nilsson, 2010; Blom & Davenport, 2012; Edgar et al., 2013). These skills are certainly not the preserve of media practitioners but for all categories of workers since they are regarded as people skills presupposing that employers are not only interested in employees possessing hard skills but soft skills as well. 3.2.4 Related studies in Africa The few studies on journalism education in universities in Africa have revealed interesting findings. Popoola (2010) was a study in Nigeria. Popoola’s work was on the Course Themes and Titles (CTT) in journalism education curricula of Departments of Journalism and Mass Communication in four Nigerian universities and provided details about the courses offered. The aim was to identify the specific features and contents of their journalism curricula and the presumed relevance of such curricula to 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the existing developmental needs of the journalism profession in Nigeria. Regarding the type of courses being offered under the journalism programmes, the study discovered that the curricula models in the four Nigerian universities consisted of Conceptual knowledge courses in Media Studies and Theories, offerings in practical skills, competence courses in Professional skills modules, and broad-base offerings in the Liberal Arts. This is similar to what pertains in the journalism and mass communication department of the American University in Cairo (AUC), which is Egypt’s first university to start academic programmes in journalism and mass communication in the 1930’s. The courses offered are also grounded in the Liberal Arts (Allam & Amin, 2017). Popoola’s study also found differences in the curricula of the four Nigerian universities in spite of the attempt made by National Universities Commission (NUC) – the body that regulates university education in Nigeria – to harmonize the programmes through academic programme accreditation. There is also curricula diversity in journalism education in South Africa but between what the universities of technology offer and what the academic universities offer. The universities of technology are more geared to providing skills-based training programs as opposed to academic university degrees with a greater emphasis on theoretical education. While the universities of technology tend to focus more on beat-related journalism minors, such as finance, sports, and court reporting, the academic universities provide journalism majors with additional majors and minors from the arts and social sciences, such as languages, sociology, political science, and history (De Beer, Pitcher & Jones, 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2017). On the other hand, a study by Ochilo (1996) which evaluated the existing curricula in journalism and communication training institutions in three East African countries (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania) revealed that most of the communication/journalism training institutions in East African institutions have almost identical curricula and they were in the strict field of the core discipline of communication. Curricula similarities also pertain in some universities in Egypt, where most of the departments of journalism and mass communication in the following national and private universities: Cairo University (CU), Ain Shams University (ASU), Modern Science and Art University (MSA) and Ahram Canadian University (ACU) offer the same curricula (Allam & Amin, 2017). Other key findings were that some pertinent courses were absent in the curricula studied. Popoola (2010), for example, revealed that there was low level of emphasis on Development Journalism courses since these courses were not offered comprehensively and adequately in the four Nigerian universities studied. Similarly, courses in ICT, new media technologies, and language skills were not adequately provided in the curricula. The study, therefore, concluded that the curricula were not relevant to existing developmental needs of the journalism profession in Nigeria. The curricula not meeting the developmental needs of Nigeria may be attributed to what Odozi (2014) described as the conflicting philosophies of mass media education and media practices in Nigeria which, according to him, was due to the admixture of American Libertarianism and European Public Service media philosophies. Odozi;s study posited that media education in Nigeria was founded largely on the American 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh model while media practices were founded on European model, to be precise the British model, being a legacy of colonialism. These different ideological orientations has resulted in an ideological conflict between media education and media practices which definitely have consequences, some of which are a mismatch between what the training institutions are producing as journalists and what the job market needs (Odozi, 2014). While referring to gaps it is important to make reference again to Ochilo (1996) because the findings are relevant even to date and indicate that certain challenges facing journalism education in Africa are not adequately addressed and therefore do not change much with the passing of time. Majority of the respondents in Ochilo’s study indicated that even though they had benefited from the training since it was relevant to what they were doing in their current jobs, they still had a number of unmet training needs. Courses such as Computer Packages, Media Management and Administration, Film and Television Production, Gender Reporting, Communication Research Methods, Development Journalism, Language Skills, Script Writing, Photography, among others, were absent from the curricula. The curricula were therefore considered as not responsive to the ever-changing media demands thereby making beneficiaries handicapped in dealing with the various complex communication challenges facing their communities and countries and the world at large. Almost two decades later, unmet training needs still persist especially because universities often lack the necessary infrastructure and resources to prepare journalists for the tasks required of them. For instance, Allan’s (2013) study indicated that the following 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh facilities: computers, darkroom, still cameras, newspaper, newsroom, radio studio, and digital camera were available for training purposes. However, students and trainers were of the view that more facilities such as computers, newsrooms, newspapers, microphones, digital radio recorder, digital camera, digital video editing, and other technical training facilities specific for media training were needed. In view of the ever-changing news room environment in this era of digitization and new media technologies, unmet training needs will always persist especially in developing countries because, for example, most new media technologies, apart from mobile phones, are still only affordable (and therefore accessible) to a small percentage of the population (De Beer et al., 2017). According to Allam and Amin (2017), some of the challenges facing the development of Egypt’s state universities’ journalism and mass communication programmes, for instance, are lack of adequate technology and library resources, especially in the number and quality of books, reference materials and journals. There are also the issues of their inability to update their programmes with expensive technologies, few programmes providing training in online journalism, lack of quality instructors, and too high student faculty ratios. Therefore, lack of facilities and adequate technology has mostly been the bane of African universities over the years as the few studies in Nigeria, Egypt and East Africa have revealed. In Ghana, a general assessment of the journalism curricula of universities has not been done to determine the course categories and whether these meet the needs of journalism practice. If this has been done, such results are not available in a 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh scientifically organised form as has been done in the case of Nigeria, Egypt, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. It is, therefore, a matter of scholarly interest to find out what pertains in Ghana regarding journalism education in order to get that data in an organised form to serve as a data base for future researches in journalism education or studies. 3.3 Gaps in fit studies A whole lot of fit studies have focused on the perspectives of students and alumni on the proficiency of their employability skills as well as on the views of employers regarding the required employability skills for graduates (Ochilo, 1996; Callaghan & McManus, 2010; Allan, 2013, Cullen et al., 2014; Pujol-Jover et al., 2015; St. Clair, 2015; Kalufya & Mwakajinga, 2016; Metilda & Neena, 2016). This, therefore, implies that most studies have relied a lot more on subjective measurements of fit than objective measurements of fit. A few studies have analysed job postings (Wenger et al., 2010; Wenger et al., 2018) therefore, making use of objective measurements of fit but all these studies did not link their results to curriculum, a gap Ross (2017) identified and argued that this type of industry analysis has more value when the results are linked back to curriculum. Callaghan and McManus’s (2010) study, for instance, examined graduate skills and attributes considered most important by Western Australian news employers for journalism. The study found that these main stream employers mentioned strong writing, reporting, and news gathering skills as essential skills but these were skills they were not always identifying in Journalism graduates. Furthermore, journalism graduates lacked general knowledge and news 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh awareness and in addition, they exhibited poor work ethics. Even though these findings reflected an understanding that this can be a product of youth and inexperience instead of the fault of university education, this could not be determined or verified since the employers’ views were not linked to what pertained in the curriculum. According to Ross, linking the results to curriculum will determine how journalism schools are addressing the demands of the profession which, in his opinion, academic research is not paying much attention to. This study, therefore, has addressed this gap by comparing the competencies employers require with the competences found in journalism curriculum to determine the level of fit between industry skills requirements and journalism education content. Gaps between the expected and the actual were also identified in these reviewed empirical studies but they did not find out how these could be resolved which my study has addressed. In summary, what the literature suggests, then, is that there has been a significant change in newsrooms and employers understandably seem to be demanding more from prospective employees as the years go by. Apart from the fact that demand for multimedia/web skills has increased over the years, employers are equally requiring prospective employees to work across multiple platforms. However, references to foundational skills of writing, reporting and researching are not decreasing implying that journalism today requires a mix of old and new skills. There is no doubt that the required skill sets for those working in journalism are continually growing as advances in technology and news consumption preferences develop; the implication being that the profession is requiring more from educators and students 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh than it previously did. Moreover, the studies have revealed that the skills needed do not vary so much from one country to another. Details of how data were collected from the study areas and how they were analysed in order to produce the outcome of the study have been provided in the methodology chapter. 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR METHODOLOGY 4.0 Introduction This chapter describes and explains the methodology used in gathering and analyzing the data of the study. The study employed the pragmatic mixed methods approach. The chapter discusses the research approach and research design adopted, the study area, data collection methods, data collection procedures, procedures for data analysis, data validity and reliability and ethical issues in the research. The chapter also reflects on the challenges encountered during the research and how these were negotiated or resolved. 4.1 Epistemological Approach Communication phenomena are usually broad and complex because of their social implications. Therefore, communication phenomena require a diversity of methods that serve different functions making the use of either quantitative or qualitative approaches by themselves inadequate to address this complexity. What will then be most appropriate to address such complexity in communication research is the combination of the two approaches which is referred to as the mixed method approach. Mixed methods research is defined as “the class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, concepts or language into a single study” (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004:17). This 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh approach gives better understanding to complex phenomena by triangulating, corroborating and/or complementing one set of results with another and thereby enhance the validity of inferences (Green et al., 2001; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2002; Mertens, 2005 cited in Kahsay, 2012). In addition, it offers a method for selecting methodological mixes that can assist researchers get better answers to their many research questions (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). This research approach has gained popularity because contemporary research is becoming more and more interdisciplinary, complex, and dynamic resulting in many researchers seeing the need to complement one method with another (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Moreover, as research methodology continues to evolve and develop employing multiple methods becomes a progressive way to utilize the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research (Creswell, 2009). Philosophically, mixed methods is the “third wave” or third research movement that goes past the paradigm wars between positivist (quantitative) and interpretivist (qualitative) and their different ontological and epistemological perspectives and offers a logical and practical alternative (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004:17). The mixed methods design is rooted in pragmatism, which is a philosophical discourse that uses the criterion ‘what works?’ to determine which method to use to answer a specific question (Mertens, 2004 cited in Kahsay, 2012:89). In this paradigm what works becomes what is useful and irrespective of any philosophical or paradigmatic assumptions that should be used. For the pragmatist, reality is plural and so there is no absolute reality but truth will serve the purpose until experience develops 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a new truth. Moreover, since meaning is derived from experience, knowledge is never conclusive but is got from scientific enquiry, testing, questioning, and retesting (Webb et al. cited in Kahsay, 2012). In view of the need to use ‘what works’ in this study, which was to investigate Journalism education in Ghanaian universities to determine standards as well as the existence or non-existence of the fit between industry skill needs and the content of Journalism training offerings, the mixed methods research approach was used. In this way, all facets of the problem were captured from a pragmatic perspective and appropriate conclusions were arrived at. By virtue of this study subscribing to the mixed methods approach meant that the philosophy underpinning the study is pragmatism. 4.2 Research Design Creswell (2012) outlines critical areas to consider when designing the procedures for a mixed methods study. These are: timing, priority, mixing and theorizing. Timing has to do with data collection, whether data will be collected sequentially or concurrently. Priority has to do with the weight given to quantitative or qualitative data. In one instance equal weighting is given to the two and in another one is emphasized over the other; either one is dependent on the interest of the researcher. When the data is mixed and how the data is mixed are things to also consider. Mixing of the two types of data occurs at the following stages: the data collection, data analysis, interpretation, or at all three phases. Mixing can be done in the following ways: either the qualitative and quantitative data are merged on one end of the continuum (integrating) or are kept separate on the other end of the continuum 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (connected). A mid-way is equally possible where both are combined between these two extremes (embedding). Regarding theorizing, theories may be made explicit in a mixed methods study or be implicit and not mentioned (Creswell, 2012). Figure 2 provides a diagram of the procedures used in this study for the collection, analysis and interpretation of data. This procedure used the notation system designed by (Morse, 1991). QUAL → QUAN QUAL QUAN Data Collection Data Collection ↓ ↔ ↓ QUAL Data results Compared QUAN Data Analysis Data Analysis Figure 2: Sequential Triangulation Design Note. “quan” stands for quantitative, “qual” stands for qualitative, “→” stands for sequential, capital letters denote high priority or weight, “↔” stands for integration In this study, equal weighting was given to both qualitative and quantitative data. Some data were collected concurrently (interviews with media houses and heads of departments (HOD), and collection of curriculum documents for content analysis). Interviews with a few HODs were done sequentially due to the unavailability of these HODs for interviews at the time the curriculum documents were being collected. Quantitative data collected through questionnaires from media houses and universities were done sequentially. The mixing consisted of integrating the two data bases by merging the quantitative data with the qualitative data where appropriate. 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Study Area Universities in Ghana that provide journalism/communication education at the undergraduate level formed my study population and the study was a census. At the time of the study there were 12 universities offering undergraduate journalism education. The 12 universities are: African University College of Communications, Bluecrest College, Central University, Christian University College, Ghana Institute of Journalism, Islamic University College, Jayee University College, Methodist University College, Pentecost University, University of Cape Coast, Wisconsin International University College, and Webster University. The University of Development Studies also offers undergraduate education but these courses were more development communication oriented than journalism so it was excluded from the 12 offering undergraduate journalism programmes. Eight of the 12 (representing 66.7%) were responsive and provided data for the study. Seven of them are private institutions and one public. Only one university is located in Kumasi the remaining seven are located in Accra. The eight universities are the following: African University College of Communications, Bluecrest College, Christian University College, Ghana Institute of Journalism, Jayee University College, Methodist University College, Pentecost University, and Wisconsin International University College. All eight universities used in this study have been given dummy names as follows: (Uni.1, Uni.2, Uni.3, Uni.4, Uni.5, Uni.6, Uni.7, and Uni.8). 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Data Collection Methods For this study, most qualitative data were collected concurrently with a few collected sequentially especially where they could not be collected concurrently but quantitative data were collected sequentially. Data was collected from the institutions providing the education and the media industry providing the jobs using interviews, content analysis and survey. The training institutions were visited on several occasions and copies of all relevant and publicly accessible or otherwise obtainable documents were collected and used for the content analysis. These documents were the undergraduate journalism/communication curricula including course outlines and reading lists, course descriptions and teaching timetables. Face-to-face in-depth interviews were also conducted with the heads of departments (HOD) of the communication or journalism departments in the eight institutions. However, a few of the face-to-face interviews could not be done concurrently with the collection of the other data because some heads of department were not available at the time and so interviews had to be rescheduled for a later date. Such interviews were therefore done sequentially. Regarding the media industry, interviews were conducted with ten media organisations in order to get the media companies’ opinions on competences that are important, which level is required and what may be missing today. Copies of job descriptions were also collected as supporting documents and analysed alongside the interview responses and used to develop a skills framework modeled on Young and Chapman’s (2010) competence framework discussed in sub section 2.3.2.1. The aim 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of developing the skills frame work was for it to be used as the bench mark for the qualitative content analysis of the courses in the curricula to determine whether the courses in the curriculum were providing the required competences. A survey was also conducted to collect data from the universities and the media houses in order to answer the quantitative research questions and test the research hypotheses. 10 questionnaires were administered to editors and senior journalist in each of the 10 media houses sampled. 10 questionnaires were also administered to teaching staff in the communication / journalism departments in each of the eight universities. In all, a total of 180 questionnaires were self-administered to the media houses and universities. A 100 percent recovery rate was from the media houses and an 87.5 percent recovery rate from the universities. 4.5 Research Procedure This section gives a detailed account of the step by step procedure used to undertake the study of the journalism course offered in the eight training institutions. It explains the procedure for the collection of data through interviews, content analysis, and survey. 4.5.1 Interview with Heads of Departments Respondents were selected on the basis of academic involvement or experience and professional knowledge about the topics of journalism education, media and journalism as a profession. Purposive sampling was therefore used to select respondents for the interviews since this sampling method enables the researcher to 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh select interviewees based on specific characteristics or qualities that meet the criteria for the study and eliminate those that failed to (Wimmer & Dominick, 1989). This was done to obtain legitimation (validity) regarding the qualitative data. In-depth interviews were conducted with Heads of Departments (HOD) of Journalism/Communication studies departments in the eight universities. These interview responses served as further explanation to the data derived from the content analysis of the content of the curriculum of each university. In effect the interview responses were used to verify, validate or comment on the feedback obtained from the content analysis hence achieving efficiency in data collection. The interviews were face-to-face with the aid of a semi-structured interview guide. The semi-structured interview questions were applied in this research because these questions are flexible and this affords the researcher the ability to adjust questions depending on how the interviewee answers earlier questions in order to clarify the responses and probe for more details where necessary (Silverman, 2013). Moreover, such questions required detailed answers since they were mostly open- ended questions and these types of questions give respondents the freedom to expressly expatiate their thoughts, which would be impossible with close ended questions. The interviews were audiotape-recorded with permission in an environment that allowed audio interviews and took an average of one hour. In addition, extensive notes were taken throughout. The data was analysed thematically based on the verbatim transcriptions and notes taken. Relevant portions were quoted in the findings 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and discussion sections to provide more clarity to the components of respective curriculum. From the above explanation, it is clear that the interview guideline was designed in a way to generate comprehensive answers to the research questions and the combination of more than one data collection method and source helped in the confirmation of the findings in order to determine and explain any gaps. A sample of the interview guide can be found in Appendix 1. 4.5.2 Interview with Media Houses (Industry players) In order to obtain information about the skills or competencies that were required by media houses for journalist, interviews were also conducted with eight human resource managers and two editors from ten selected media houses and outlets. The main question asked the interviewees was “What skills or competences do you require for the journalism profession? The media houses were purposively selected based on the fact that they were media houses or outlets with wide coverage and high ratings as per their ratings by a Media Measurement Service: GeoPoll (2017). These media companies were: Graphic Communications Group, New Times Corporation, Ghana News Agency, Ghana Broadcasting Corporation, Atinka Media Village, GN Groupe Nduom, Media General Group, Daily Guide Network, Citi FM, and Multimedia Group. Job description documents for journalists were also received from six of them as supporting documents to the interviews. Copies of the job descriptions can be found in Appendix 2. 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The data from the interviews and the information in the job description documents were analysed thematically and upon reaching saturation, twenty skills or competences were identified and used to develop a skills framework modeled on Young and Chapman’s (2010) content-clustered framework which has five competency areas: Basic, Business, Conceptual, Personal and People. The skills in the framework were arranged in descending order of importance starting with the skills that all media houses requested for and ended with those that just few requested for. Table 3: Industry skills requirement and competence type S/n Skills Competence Type 1 Writing Business 2 Reporting Business 3 Communication /Presentation People 4 English Language Basic 5 Research Conceptual 6 ICT Basic 7 Interview Business 8 New Media / Online Basic 9 Interpersonal / networking People 10 Leadership People 11 Numeracy Basic 12 Pre-production, Production and Post-production Business 13 Critical and Analytical Conceptual 14 Editing Business 15 Entrepreneurship Personal 16 Integrity, Strong Ethical Values Personal 17 Knowledge of Law and Ethics Business 18 Local Language Basic 19 Reading Basic 20 French Language Basic The first 11 skills in the framework were requested by all 10 media houses; the next four skills were indicated by more than half of them, the next three by less than 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh half, and the last two skills were required by only two media houses. The skills framework was used to get deeper qualitative insights of the curricula that enriched the data. For example, the courses in each curriculum which provided the skills, per their description in the course outline, were matched with their respective skill area in the framework. In addition, the duration in semesters allocated to the courses and the format used for teaching were all indicated. Below are the details in the skills framework which provides the required skills and the competence type they fall under and used for the analysis of the course content of the curricula. 4.5.3 Content Analysis To answer some of the research questions required a detailed content analysis of the courses of the undergraduate communication and journalism curricula offered by these eight universities which were the units of analysis. This analysis was necessary because such valuable data does not exist in a scientifically organized form. As a method of social inquiry, content analysis for quite some time has been used in mass media research dealing with manifest documentary materials. A qualitative content analysis of the courses in the curricula of the universities from year one to year four was done in order to understand the structure and content of the journalism programme offered in the universities. 4.5.3.1 Coding System and Content Categorization To organize the data into a manageable form, a systematic coding strategy was used which conforms to Wimmer and Dominick’s (1989:26) coding definition – “the 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh attempt made by a researcher to place unit of analysis into mutually exclusive content categories”. The coding guide developed for this study was based on an adaptation of the coding system used by UNESCO for its 1954 World – Wide survey of journalism programmes and Popoola’s (2010) 10 categories typology used in his study on Journalism education curriculum models in four Nigerian universities. UNESCO’s coding system used in the survey sorted all courses in Journalism curricula offered by schools across the globe into six mutually exclusive categories (Cooper 1986:43) as follows: 1. Liberal arts background courses such as those dealing with legal. Ethical, historical and other cultural matters; 2. Background courses correlated with journalism, such as history of the press, law of the press, etc.; 3. Journalism skills course, such as news reporting and editing; 4. Courses dealing with the business aspect of the media, such as advertising, circulation and management; 5. Courses dealing with aspects of the media other than newspaper, such as broadcasting, news agencies etc.; and, 6. Courses in the graphic arts, such as typography, newspaper mechanics and make- up, printing, engraving, etc. (Cooper, 1986:43). 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Popoola’s (2010) 10 categories typology which is an adaptation of UNESCO’s coding system were based on 10 broad themes and categories under which all the curricula in mass communication in Nigerian universities fall. These categories were: 1. Communication skills competence course; 2. Background conceptual knowledge courses in journalism and mass communication; 3. Professional skill courses in broadcast journalism sequence; 4. Professional skill courses in print journalism sequence; 5. Professional skill courses in film sequence; 6. Professional skill courses in public relations and advertising sequence; 7. Professional skill courses in publishing sequence; 8. Development Journalism courses; 9. Literal arts courses; 10. Others (Popoola, 2010:10) The Communication and Journalism curricula of universities in Ghana were also sorted into categories according to content-type based on their themes and titles. By content categorization therefore, there were also 10 broad themes and categories under which all the curricula in communication and journalism in universities in 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana fell, similar to Popoola’s 10 categories typology. These categories, their corresponding codes and related definitions are as follows: 1. Communication Skills Competence Course (CSC): Courses relating to English communication skills e.g. grammar, comprehension, foundations of writing, English language 2. Conceptual Knowledge Course in Mass Communication (CCMC): Courses relating to field of mass communication (e.g. introductory courses in communication, communication theory, media history, media law and ethics) 3. Professional Skills Course in Print Journalism (PSPJ): Courses relating to print media (e.g. news/feature/magazine writing, reporting, mass media writing, print media production, project work) 4. Professional Skills Course in Broadcast Journalism (PSBJ): Courses relating to radio, TV, electronic / broadcast media 5. Professional Skills Course in Online and Digital Technology (PSOD): Courses relating to online, social media, new media, multimedia 6. Professional Skills Course in Public Relations and Advertising (PSPRA): Courses relating to PR, Advertising and Marketing 7. Investigative Journalism Course (IJC): Courses relating to investigative journalism, in-depth journalism, advanced reporting 8. Science/Health/Environment Journalism Course (SHE): Courses relating to science, health and environment issues 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9. Liberal Arts and Science Courses (LASC): Courses comprising the disciplines of the humanities, natural sciences and mathematics, and social sciences e.g. English Literature, foreign language, religion, mathematics, statistics, psychology, sociology, politics, computer literacy, gender studies, critical thinking, research methods, African studies 10. Others (OTH): “All inclusive” others category which is assumed to cover wide spectrum of courses not covered by the nine categories, e.g. (entrepreneurship, management) The above categorization is therefore a slight modification of Popoola’s (2010) 10 categories typology which is an adaptation of UNESCO’s six categories typology. The coding guide was used for the analyses of the courses in the communication/journalism curriculum of each of the eight universities. Courses offered were coded under the appropriate categories to determine the percentage of courses that belonged to each of the ten categories. In the results section of this study the 10 categories were further aggregated into three categories to represent the three areas that international Journalism education covers namely: Professional Practice, Conceptual or Theory courses, and Liberal Arts and Science courses (Madison 2014; UNESCO, 2007). Six of the 10 categories (CSC, PSPJ, PSBJ, PSOD, IJC, SHE) were grouped under Professional Practice courses; two (CCMC, PSPRA) under Conceptual courses, and LASC represented the third category of Liberal Arts and Science courses. A fourth category, ‘other’ represented courses which did not fall under the main three. Standards set by 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNESCO and WJEC for journalism programmes worldwide discussed in sub section 2.2.2 were used to assess whether Journalism education in Ghana is associated with international Journalism standards; a summary of which is provided below: International Standard for an ideal Journalism Curriculum • 10% Theory • 40% Practice • 50% Liberal Arts and Science • Writing to be offered in 8 semesters • Reporting to be offered in 6 semesters • Reading to be offered in 8 semesters • Internship: 4 weeks minimum • Courses in Ethical principles • Courses in Computer-based tools • Courses in Global perspective • Faculty should be a mix of academics and practitioners • Courses in Media studies • Courses in Media Management and Business Practice 4.5.3.2 Inter-coder Reliability The researcher and an MPhil student at the Department of Communication Studies undertook the coding for the content analysis. Both coders discussed the written definitions of categories to ensure that both coders thoroughly understood the 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh categorizations and hence obtained reliable data for the study. An inter-coder reliability test was also undertaken. Though inter-coder reliability could be tested by various methods, this study employed Cohen’s Kappa inter-coder reliability test. The test was carried out on data from a trial coding by the two independent coders of the courses of five universities to be studied. Using the SPSS software, the data submitted by the two coders was tested with the Cohen’s Kappa inter-coder reliability function. The test fell into the acceptable level of inter-coder reliability. The test yielded a value of 0.77 (values higher than 0.60 are deemed substantial), a very satisfactory test value indicating high level of agreement between coders. The coders therefore proceeded to code the rest of the content for the study. (Ref. Appendix 3 for steps used in Kappa’s inter-coder reliability test). 4.5.4 Survey 10 questionnaires were distributed to each of the 10 media houses. The same numbers were distributed to each of the eight universities. A total of 180 questionnaires were self-administered to editors and senior reporters in the media houses as well as lecturers in the communication / journalism departments in the universities. All 100 questionnaires were retrieved from the media houses while 70 were retrieved from the universities. (Ref. Appendix 4 and 5 for sample questionnaire for industry and university respectively) 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6 Data Analysis Techniques Creswell, (2009) stipulated that data analysis in mixed methods research occurs both within the quantitative and qualitative approach and between the two approaches. Therefore, the data were analysed separately and then integrated. 4.6.1 Qualitative Data Analysis The qualitative data from the interviews with the HOD were transcribed coded and interpreted thematically. Information from the interviews was used in the form of relevant quotes to explain or substantiate the findings from the qualitative content analysis done on the curricula. On the other hand, the skills framework, developed from the interviews with the media houses and the review of the job description documents, were used as a benchmark for the assessment of the courses in the curricula so that the total number of courses each university offered under a particular skill area were determined in order to address the research question that was to find out the extent to which the courses in the curricula met the skill needs of industry. Therefore, the course description for each course was analysed qualitatively to find out which courses in the curriculum provided the skills indicated in the framework. The qualitative content analysis was necessary because that helped to determine which skills the various courses in the curricula provided to ascertain a fit. All courses that had the skill area as part of the course title were classified as providing that skill. For example, courses that had ‘writing’ as part of the course title were classified as full courses that provided 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh writing skills. Then courses that per their course description were solely providing the skill were also added to that skill area. The courses that per their course description provided different skill areas were classified as courses that were providing topics within courses related to the skills. All the full courses related to a particular skill were counted and the numerical value used in the skills framework. The same was done for topics within courses. The numerical values were used because in a mixed methods approach, the researcher may quantify the qualitative data which involved creating codes and themes qualitatively and counting the number of times they occur in the text data (Creswell, 2009). In addition, the number of semesters used in teaching each skill area as well as the format used for teaching was analysed. 4.6.2 Quantitative Data Analysis: 4.6.2.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to find out the latent factors and the items under each of the latent factors and to also examine the construct validity of the measurement scales. The EFA was conducted using the principal component analysis method, and the varimax rotation method. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was used to measure the factorability of the analysis. In addition, the items that did not have factor loadings of at least 0.5 were not included in the analysis. The Exploratory Factor Analysis results are shown in Tables 4 to 6. Table 4 shows the exploratory factor analysis of the Course Content Journalism Scale. As shown in Table 4, the results of the KMO (KMO = 0.659) test show that there is 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh an evidence of factorability. Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) suggest that a computed KMO value greater than or equal to .60 is indicative of factorability; in other words, ifKMO ³ .60 , then there is enough evidence that there exists at least one common factor underlying the observed variables. In all, three latent factors were extracted from the items using the EFA. The first factor – Professional Practice had four items and contributed 48.667percent of the total variance explained. The second factor- Liberal Arts and Science equally had four items and contributed 18.747percent of the total variance explained. The third factor – Conceptual Courses, also had four items and all combined contributed 13.782percent of the total variance explained. The communality values (CV) as shown in the table ranged from .686 to .908 showing a good factorability. On the other hand, the factor loadings ranged from .576 to .981 also showing a good factor loading on the variables. 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4: Exploratory factor analysis results of course content journalism scale Factors Items CV FL KMO TVE Professional Practice 0.659 48.667 Professional skills course in print .908 .825 journalism Professional skills in broadcast journalism .839 .726 Professional skills course in online and .841 .839 digital technology Professional skills course in public relations .838 .936 and advertising Liberal Arts and Science 18.747 Communication skills and competence .886 .641 course Liberal arts and science courses .865 .819 Investigative journalism course .868 .927 Science/environmental health .884 .981 Conceptual Courses 13.782 Conceptual knowledge course in mass .746 .576 communication. Conceptual knowledge in media ethics and .686 .699 law Knowledge in communication theories and .848 .776 model Conceptual knowledge in media history and .871 .850 culture Notes: CV: Communality value; FL – Factor loading; KMO – Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Test; TVE – Total variance explained 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5: Exploratory factor analysis results of international journalism standards scale Factors Items CV FL KMO TVE Journalism Course Content 0.687 14.646 Theory-10% .911 .836 Liberal Arts-50% .746 .883 Practice-40% .876 .816 ICT, Globalization, and Faculty 17.262 Computer-based tools (course) .872 .930 Global perspective (course) .797 .815 Faculty (mix of academics and .823 .605 practitioners) Industry Skills 22.195 Writing-8 semesters .907 .925 Reporting-6 semesters .928 .917 Reading -8 semesters .930 .878 Media, Ethics, and Internship 31.172 Internship -4weeks .727 .830 Ethical principles (course) .872 .774 Media studies (course) .907 .782 Media management and business .788 .840 practice (courses) Notes: CV: Communality value; FL – Factor loading; KMO – Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Test; TVE – Total variance explained Table 5 shows the exploratory factor analysis of the International Journalism Standards Scale. As shown in Table 5, the results of the KMO (KMO = 0.687) test show that there is an evidence of factorability. In all four latent factors were extracted from the items using the EFA. The first factor – Journalism Course Content had three items and contributed 14.646percent of the total variance explained. The second factor- ICT, Globalization, and Faculty also had three items and contributed 17.262percent of the total variance explained. The third factor – Industry Skills, had three items, a combination of which contributed 22.195percent of the total variance 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh explained. The fourth factor - Media, Ethics, and Internship contributed 31.172percent of the total variance explained. The communality values as shown in the table ranged from .727 to .930 showing a good factorability of the variables. On the other hand, the factor loadings ranged from .605 to .930 showing a good factor loading on the variables. Table 6: Exploratory factor analysis results of industry skills scale Factors Items CV FL KMO TVE Writing Skills 0.691 19.345 Writing .966 0.809 Interview .869 0.511 New Media / Online .961 0.624 Reporting Skills 18.456 Reporting .949 0.787 Pre-production, Production & Post- .793 0.860 production Critical and analytical .793 0.519 Editing .872 0.548 Leadership Skills 13.349 Interpersonal / networking .871 0.879 Leadership .841 0.819 Integrity, strong ethical values .807 0.846 Knowledge of law and ethics .844 0.905 Reading and Numeracy Skills 25.327 Reading .853 0.673 Numeracy .845 0.864 English Language .778 0.819 Local Language .789 0.843 French Language .931 0.935 Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills 10.456 ICT .884 0.784 Research .809 0.842 Entrepreneurship .799 0.651 Notes: CV: Communality value; FL – Factor loading; KMO – Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Test; TVE – Total variance explained 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6 shows the exploratory factor analysis of the Industry Skills Scale. As indicated in Table 6, the results of the KMO (KMO = 0.691) test show that there is an evidence of factorability. In all five latent factors were extracted from the scale using the EFA. The first factor – Writing Skills had three items and contributed 19.345 percent of the total variance explained. The second factor – Reporting Skills had four items and contributed 18.456percent of the total variance explained. The third factor – Leadership Skills, had four items and contributed 13.349percent of the total variance explained. The fourth factor – Reading and Numeracy Skills contributed 25.327percent of the total variance explained, and the fifth factor – Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills had three items and contributed 10.456 percent of the total variance explained. The communality values as shown in the table ranged from .778 to .966 showing a good factorability of the variables. On the other hand, the factor loadings ranged from .511to .935 showing a good factor loading on the variables. 4.6.2.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to verify the factor structure of the set of the observed variables. In effect, the CFA was used to test the hypothesis that a relationship exists between the observed variables and the underlying latent constructs. LISREL for Windows Version 10 was used to carry out the confirmatory factor analysis using a single factor model. The maximum likelihood estimation method was applied to the analysis. The results of the fit indices of the confirmatory factor analysis of the three measurement scales are shown in Tables 7 to 9. Table 7 shows the fit indices of the confirmatory factor 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh analysis of the Course Content Journalism Scale. As shown in the table the results of the CFA reveal that all the latent variables fit the data well. Hooper, et al. (2008) have reported that a good confirmatory factor analysis should have the p-value of the model chi-square greater than .05, NNFI ³ 0.95 , a CFI ³ 0.90 , RMSEA < 0.08 , DF = 6 , and SRMR <0.08. The Course Content Journalism Scale fit these confirmatory factor analysis indices showing that a relationship exists between the observed variables and the underlying latent construct. Table 7: Confirmatory factor analysis results of course content journalism scale 2 Fit Statistics c DF RMSEA NNFI CFI SRMR Professional Practice 353.868 6 0.0556 0.989 0.996 0.0198 Liberal Arts and Science 466.539 6 0.0002 0.998 0.999 0.0020 Conceptual Courses 427.113 6 0.0001 0.999 0.998 0.0060 Notes: DF- Degree of freedom, RMSEA- Root mean square error of approximation, NNFI- Non-normed fit index, CFI- Comparative fit index, SRMR- Standardized root mean square residual Table 8 shows the fit indices of the confirmatory factor analysis of the International Journalism Standards Scale. As shown in the table the results of the CFA reveal that all the latent variables fit the data well. The fit indices of the confirmatory factor analysis has a p-value of the model chi-square greater than .05, NNFI ³ 0.95 , a CFI ³ 0.90 , RMSEA < 0.08 , DF = 6 , and SRMR <0.08. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis of the International Journalism Standards Scale show that there is a relationship between the observed variables and the underlying latent construct. 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 8: Confirmatory factor analysis results of international journalism standards scale 2 Fit Statistics c DF RMSEA NNFI CFI SRMR Journalism Course Content 678.922 6 0.0001 0.999 0.998 0.00989 ICT, Globalization, and 189.218 6 0.0500 0.977 0.992 0.0328 Faculty Industry Skills 116.946 6 0.028 0.960 0.989 0.0382 Media, Ethics, and Internship 239.431 6 0.065 0988 0.969 0.0021 Notes: DF- Degree of freedom, RMSEA- Root mean square error of approximation, NNFI- Non-normed fit index, CFI- Comparative fit index, SRMR- Standardized root mean square residual Table 9: Confirmatory factor analysis results of industry skills scale 2 Fit Statistics c DF RMSEA NNFI CFI SRMR Writing Skills 12.67 9 0.045 0.984 0.991 0.025 Reporting Skills 70.75 32 0.077 0.920 0.943 0.058 Leadership Skills 11.07 6 0.051 0.993 0.998 0.012 Reading and Numeracy Skills 27.44 14 0.068 0.975 0.983 0.030 Entrepreneurship and ICT 134.23 8 0.003 0.994 0.997 0.005 Skills Notes: DF- Degree of freedom, RMSEA- Root mean square error of approximation, NNFI- Non-normed fit index, CFI- Comparative fit index, SRMR- Standardized root mean square residual Table 9 shows the fit indices of the confirmatory factor analysis of the Industry Skills Scale. As shown in the table the results of the CFA reveal that all the latent variables fit the data well. The fit indices of the confirmatory factor analysis has a p-value of the model chi-square greater than .05,NNFI ³ 0.95 , a CFI ³ 0.90 , RMSEA < 0.08 , DF ³ 6 , and SRMR <0.08. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis of the Industry Skills Scale show that there is a relationship between the observed variables and the underlying latent construct. 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.7 Reliability and Validity Assessment 4.7.1 Reliability Assessment Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability ratings were used to measure the reliability of all the constructs. When the alpha score and composite reliability score are above the recommended cut-off of 0.7, the assessment of the model is considered reliable (Hair et al., 2010). Tables 10 to 12 present the results of the reliability assessment of the three measurement scales. Table 10: Reliability and validity of course content journalism scale a value CR AVE 1 2 3 Professional Practice 0.910 0.901 0.697 0.835* Liberal Arts and Science 0.703 0.912 0.726 .713 0.852* Conceptual Courses 0.883 0.819 0.667 .801 .698 0.817* Note: CR – Composite reliability; AVE – Average variance extracted; *Values in the diagonal of correlation matrix are the square root of AVE Table 10 shows the Cronbach's alpha and the composite reliability values of the Course Content Journalism Scale. As shown in the table, the results of the Cronbach's alpha and the composite reliability of all the variables under the Course Content Journalism Scale are higher than the minimum cut-off score of 0.7 showing that the measurement scale is reliable. 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 11: Reliability and validity of international journalism standards scale a value CR AVE 1 2 3 4 Journalism Course Content 0.822 0.776 0.715 0.846* ICT, Globalization, and Faculty 0.797 0.724 0.632 .600 0.851* Industry Skills 0.934 0.828 0.822 .507 .307 0.907* Media, Ethics, and Internship 0.939 0.882 0.801 .859 .691 .497 0.895* Note: CR – Composite reliability; AVE – Average variance extracted; *Values in the diagonal of correlation matrix are the square root of AVE Table 11 shows the Cronbach's alpha and the composite reliability values of the International Journalism Standards Scale. As shown in the table, the results of the Cronbach's alpha and the composite reliability of all the variables under the International Journalism Standards Scale are greater than the minimum threshold of 0.7 showing that the measurement scale is reliable. Table 12: Reliability and validity of industry skills scale a value CR AVE 1 2 3 4 5 Writing Skills 0.957 0.784 0.535 0.731* Reporting Skills 0.872 0.781 0.882 .942 0.939* Leadership Skills 0.840 0.921 0.965 .927 .962 0.982* Reading and Numeracy Skills 0.767 0.917 0.891 .845 .891 .905 0.944* Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills 0.929 0.805 0.902 .939 .949 .891 .830 0.950* Note: CR – Composite reliability; AVE – Average variance extracted; *Values in the diagonal of correlation matrix are the square root of AVE Table 12 shows the Cronbach's alpha and the composite reliability values of the Industry Skills Scale. As shown in the table, the results of the Cronbach's alpha and the composite reliability of all the variables under the Industry Skills 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Scale are greater than the minimum threshold of 0.7 showing that the measurement scale is reliable. 4.7.2 Validity Assessment Convergent and discriminant validity of the measurement scale were also tested. Hair et al. (2010) have specified that convergent validity is supported if average variance extracted (AVE) estimates for each underlying construct is above 0.50. Discriminant validity, on the other hand, is determined when the objects measuring the construct are less than the square root of the AVE in the common variance between the two constructs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity of the measurements scale have also been presented in Tables 10 to 12 above. In the findings section, analysis of qualitative data in the form of tables, texts and quotes was displayed first before that of the quantitative data analysis in the form of descriptive statistics and the testing of hypotheses using Pearson’s correlation, multiple linear regression analysis, and paired-sample t-test. In the discussion sections, integration of the quantitative and qualitative data was actualized by the usage of information from the qualitative data analysis to explain or substantiate some of the findings from the quantitative data and vice versa. 4.8 Ethical Issues In academics, ethics is a branch of moral philosophy concerned with the study of conduct that seeks to answer age-old questions about duty, honour, integrity, virtue, justice, the good life, and so on. Areas that therefore constitute 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unethical issues include plagiarism, fabrication and falsification, non-publication of data, faulty data-gathering procedures, poor data storage and retention, misleading authorship, corrupt publication practices, involuntary participation, and uninformed consent, among others. There is no doubt that engaging in the above misconduct depends on the researcher conducting the study. In view of the significance of ethics in research, the study exercised honesty at its every stage such as avoiding biases in data analysis, interpretation as well as data presentation. While collecting data from the various universities and media houses, for instance, the study exercised circumspection and integrity in harmonising the data to ensure that the ideas of respondents are well captured. The study’s findings need to be published to enable wide sharing of knowledge with the many interested parties so as to help improve journalism education not only in the country but also worldwide. In view of this, the issue of anonymity and confidentiality was exercised where applicable. Ethical clearance was also applied for from the Ethics Committee for the Humanities (ECH) of the University of Ghana to allow the study to be conducted. Approval was given in June 2018 for a period of one year and the reference number was ECH 155/17-18. This approval indicated that all necessary procedures for embarking on an ethical study had been followed. Furthermore, communication to all the institutions was also made prior to the study informing them of my research intentions. 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A consent form was available for participants to read and agree or disagree to be interviewed. However, none of them requested for the consent form. This could be because most interviewees understood the import of the research and were willing to participate. Secondly those interviewed especially those from the academic setting agreed to be interviewed due to academic reciprocity since most of them are very often in the shoes of the researcher and therefore feel obliged to take their turn in the interviewee chair in the interest of research. A few though, initially expressed reluctance to being interviewed but after explaining that the research was purely for academic purposes, they consented. 4.9 Limitations and Challenges Limitations are a component of any study regardless of whether one follows the principles of best practice and ethical research designs. For instance, the purposive sampling technique that was used to select respondents for the interviews has its shortcoming. Purposive sampling is characterized as non- probability sampling (Acharya et al., 2013 cited in Conrad, 2019) and this informs one limitation of such an approach which is the inability of all respondents to have an equal chance to be selected. This was addressed by the research ensuring that the respondents were selected on the basis of academic involvement or experience and professional knowledge about the topics regarding journalism education. The study is also limited by the issues that may arise due to the publication of data some years after they were collected including perceptions of prevalence. For instance, the curricula considered in this study have been recently reviewed in 135 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a few of the universities and what is presented here may not reflect what prevails currently. However, since curriculum review is a long process and it is only when the reviewed curricula are accepted that they become operational usually in the ensuing academic year, it is unlikely to have an impact on the findings. In any case, to resolve this possible weakness, the reviewed curricula of these universities were examined to determine if there were any significant changes but major changes were not identified. At the operational level, there was a difficulty getting all the twelve universities offering journalism education to respond positively to the study even though the universities that were not responsive gave no indication why they were unresponsive. 4.10 Summary This chapter presented and discussed the methodological procedures employed in the study. It employed a mixed methods approach making use of both quantitative and qualitative data. Content analysis, interview, and survey methods were employed for data collection. The qualitative aspect used interview and content analysis to collect data on the content of the courses in the curricula of the universities, as well as the skills needs of industry for the assessment of standards and fit. The quantitative aspect used questionnaires as instruments to collect data on the journalism programmes from the perspectives of the universities and the media industry and compared with the qualitative results. The methodology and 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh research design previously explained have therefore produced the findings or research results which are the content of the next chapter. 137 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 5.0 Introduction This chapter discusses the data that was collected between February 2018 and March 2019, the interpretation of that data in reference to the literature reviewed in Chapter Three and the research questions and hypotheses that underpin the study that were outlined in Chapter One. The study sought to examine the structure of undergraduate Journalism education in Ghana as well as analyse the content of the curriculum in relation to international standards. The study also sought to analyse the curriculum in relation to the needs of the job market to determine the fit. A mixed methods approach was used to collect and analyse data employing interview, content analysis, and survey methods to examine and further assess the curriculum in relation to international Journalism standards as well as industry skills requirement. 5.1 Structure of undergraduate Journalism Education One objective of the study was to examine the structure of undergraduate Journalism education in Ghana. At the time of the study twelve universities, made up of two public and ten private, offered undergraduate journalism education, which was the focus of the study. Of these twelve universities, 83 percent offered undergraduate journalism education under a BA degree in Communication Studies; the remaining 17 percent offered a BA degree in Journalism. Eight of the twelve universities, made up of one public and seven private provided data for the study. 138 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For purposes of anonymity, these eight have been given dummy names as follows: Uni. 1, Uni.2, Uni.3, Uni.4, Uni.5, Uni.6, Uni.7, and Uni.8. Table 13 provides details of the programme offered in these universities. Table 13: Undergraduate communication/journalism degrees in Ghanaian universities University Duration Description Degree Programme Uni. 1 Four year Offered in a variety of subjects areas, and BA in Uni. 3 programme includes a capstone project. The BA in Communication Uni. 4 of course communication studies provides Studies Uni. 6 work specializations for career options in Uni. 7 including a journalism (print and broadcast), public Uni. 8 period for relations, advertising, development internship communication, strategic communication, visual communication, and a combination of communication options Uni. 2 Four year Offered in a variety of subjects areas, and BA in Mass programme includes a capstone project. The BA in mass Communication of course communication and journalism provides and Journalism work specializations for career options in broadcast including a journalism and public relations period for internship Uni. 5 Four year Offered in a variety of subjects areas, and BA in programme includes a capstone project. The BA in Journalism of course journalism provides career options in the work mass media in the following specialized including a journalism areas: sports reporting; economics period for and business reporting; politics and internship government reporting, and science, health and environment reporting. Source: Field Data (2018) Table 13 reveals that majority of the universities (six) offering undergraduate journalism education do so under a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in Communication Studies while only two (Uni. 2 and Uni. 5) offer a degree in Journalism with the former offering BA in Mass Communication and Journalism and the latter BA in Journalism. What pertained under each degree programme is elaborated in the next section. 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2 Curriculum Content for the Eight Universities The eight universities studied had among themselves a total of 443 courses offered from year one to year four. The least number of courses offered by a university was 44 courses and the highest, 76 courses. The rest ranged from 51 to 60 courses. Table 14 provides the break-down. Table 14: Total courses and credit hours for entire programme per university University Total Total Credit Degree Type Year Programme courses Started Uni. 1 53 134 Communication 2007 Uni. 2 54 144 Mass Communication 2016 and Journalism Uni. 3 60 124 Communication 2008 Uni. 4 44 135 Communication 2001 Uni. 5 76 147 Journalism 2008 Uni. 6 52 136 Communication 2017 Uni. 7 51 138 Communication 2011 Uni. 8 53 141 Communication 2014 The section that follows provides details of the courses offered for the entire four-year degree programme starting with years one and two courses and followed with years three and four courses. 5.2.1 Courses offered in Year One and Year Two Tables 15 – 22 provide the details of the courses offered in the first and second years of the four-year degree programmes for all the eight universities. The details illustrate that year one and year two had only core or compulsory courses made up of 51 two-credit courses and 154 three-credit courses. 140 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 15: First year courses for uni 1 SEMESTER I SEMESTER II Course Course Credit Course Course Credit Code Course Title Type Code Course Title Type PREP 101 Computer Core 2 AUCL 102 Foundations of Core 2 Literacy Writing AUCL 101 English Language Core 2 AUCL 104 Public Core 2 Speaking and Debate AUCL 103 Basic French for Core 2 AUCL 106 Introduction to Core 2 Communication College Math AUCL 105 Science and Core 2 AUCL 108 Introduction to Core 2 Technology in Sociology our Lives AUCL 107 Introduction to Core 2 AUCL 110 Basic French II Core 2 Psychology AUCL 109 Basic Core 2 AUCL 112 African Core 2 Communication Literature Skills AUCL 111 Survey of African Core 2 PREP 106 Critical Core 2 History Thinking Table 15a: Second year courses for uni 1 SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type PREP 201 Introduction to Core 3 AUCL 202 Introduction to Core 2 Mass Political Science Communication AUCL 201 Phonetics and Core 2 AUCL 208 Basic French IV Core 2 Phonology for Communicators AUCL 203 Business & Core 3 PREP 202 Introduction to Core 3 Technical Strategic Communication Communication AUCL 205 Basic French III Core 3 PREP 204 Introduction to Core 3 Journalism AUCL 207 Basic Statistics Core 2 PREP 206 Introduction to Core 3 Visual Communication AUCL 209 English: Writing Core 2 PREP 208 Introduction to Core 3 Skills II Development Communication AUCL 211 African Cultural Core 2 AUCL 271 Principles of Core 2 Institutions Entrepreneurship Source: Field Data (2018) 141 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 16: First year courses for uni 2 SEMESTER I SEMESTER II Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type BMJ 111 Global Core 3 BMJ121 Mass Core 3 Comparative Communication Media Concepts and Processes BMJ 112 History and Core 3 BMJ 122 Print Media Core 3 Industry of Mass Communication BMJ 113 Language Skills Core 3 BMJ 123 News Reporting Core 3 for Journalism and Editing I GPD 001 Information Core 2 BMJ 124 Computer Core 3 Technology Application for Tools Journalism GPD 002 Communication Core 2 GPD 004 Communication Core 3 Skills in English I Skills in English II GPD 003 Foreign Core 2 GPD 005 Foreign Language Core 3 Language (French) Part II (French) Part I GPD009 African Studies Core 3 Table 16a: Second year courses for uni 2 SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type BMJ 211 Reporting Core 3 BMJ 221 Development Core 2 Techniques and Communication Skills BMJ 212 Editing: Concepts Core 3 BMJ 222 Advertising: Core 3 and Processes Concepts and Principles BMJ 213 Broadcast Core 3 BMJ 223 News Reporting Core 3 Journalism & and Editing II Programme Formats BMJ 214 Television Core 3 BMJ 224 Television Core 3 Production: Idea to Production Lab Screen BMJ 215 Introduction to Core 3 BMJ 225 Feature and Core 3 Public Relations Editorial Writing BMJ216 Photojournalism Core 3 GPD006 Critical Thinking Core 2 GPD010 Theatre Arts Core 2 Source: Field Data (2018) 142 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 17: First year courses for uni 3 SEMESTER I SEMESTER II Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type CSUC 101 Writing Skill I Core 3 CSUC 102 Writing Skills II Core 3 CSUC 103 Basic Computer Core 2 CSUC 104 Basic Computer Core 2 Literacy Literacy CSUC 105 Religion, Core 3 CSUC 106 Critical and Core 3 Morality and Creative Thinking Social Values in Africa BACS 105 Communication Core 3 CSUC 108 Introduction to Core 2 Basics Biblical Studies BACS 107 Introduction to Core 2 BACS 108 Expository and Core 3 Writing Creative Writing BACS 111 French Basics Core 3 BACS 112 Akan Language Core 2 for Communication BATA 114 Introduction to Core 3 Sociology Table 17a: Second year courses for uni 3 SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type CSUC 201 Quantitative Core 3 BACS 202 Elements of Core 2 Methods Political Communication BACS 203 Organisational Core 2 BACS 212 Introduction to Core 3 Communication Advertising BACS 207 Introduction to Core 3 BACS 214 Mass Core 2 Print Media Communication Culture and Society BACS 209 Introduction to Core 3 BACS 216 Introduction to Core 3 Electronic Media Public Relations BACS 211 Introduction to Core 2 BACS 204 Social Psychology Core 2 Mass Communication BACS 213 Strategies of Core 2 BACS 112 Science and Core 3 Communication Technology in our Lives Source: Field Data (2018) 143 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 18: First year courses for uni 4 SEMESTER I SEMESTER II Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type COMS Language and Core 3 COMS 102 English Language Core 3 101 Study Skills Usage & Creative Writing COMS Logic and Core 3 COMS 104 Basic Concepts in Core 3 103 Critical Thinking Sociology COMS Basic Computing Core 3 COMS 106 Introduction to Core 3 105 Skills Development Theories COMS Information 3 COMS 108 History of Media Core 3 107 Gathering and in Ghana Research COMS Introduction to Core 3 COMS 110 Theories of Core 3 109 Media Systems Communication COMS Elements of Core 3 111 Mass Communication Table 18a: Second year courses for uni 4 SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type COMS 201 Social Core 3 COMS 202 Basic Core 3 Anthropology of Statistics Africa COMS 203 Entrepreneurship Core 3 COMS 204 Introduction Core 3 to Media and Society COMS 205 Visual Core 3 COMS 206 Print News Core 3 Communication Writing COMS 207 Introduction to Core 3 COMS 208 Broadcast Core 3 Journalism News Writing COMS 209 Introduction to Core 3 COMS 210 Principles of Core 3 Public Relations Marketing COMS 211 Principles of Core 3 Advertising Source: Field Data (2018) 144 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 19: First year courses for uni 5 SEMESTER I SEMESTER II Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type BJN 111 Introduction to Core 3 BJN 121 Print & Online Core 3 Mass Reporting and Communication Writing BJN 112 Introduction to Core 3 BJN 122 Photo Journalism Core 3 News Reporting & Writing BJN 113 Social Studies Core 3 BJN 123 New Media Core 3 Communication BJN 114 English Writing Core 3 UMC Basic Statistics Core 3 Skills UMC Computer Core 3 UMC French for Core 3 Application Skills Beginners Level II UMC French for Core 3 UMC Logic and Critical Core 3 Beginners Level I Thinking UMC Basic Core 3 UMC Public Speaking, Core 3 Mathematics Speech Writing & Presentation Skills Table 19a: Second year courses for uni 5 SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type BJN 231 Features & Core 3 BJN 241 Editing Core 3 Opinion Writing BJN 232 Introduction Core 3 BJN 242 Introduction to Core 3 to Radio TV Broadcasting Broadcasting BJN 233 Media and Core 3 BJN 243 Advanced Core 3 Society Reporting BJN 234 Media Law Core 3 BJN 244 Media Ethics Core 3 BJN 235 Introduction Core 3 BJN 245 Principles of Core 3 to Social Local Language Psychology Broadcasting UMC African Core 3 BJN 246 Introduction to Core 3 Studies Communication Research UMC French for Core 3 BJN 247 Graphics and Core 3 Beginners III Web Design UMC French for Core 3 Beginners IV Source: Field Data (2018) 145 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 20: First year courses for uni 6 SEMESTER I SEMESTER II Course Course Title Course Credit Course Code Course Title Course Credit Code Type Type MENC 131 Introduction to Core 2 MENC 132 Comprehension Core 3 Communication and Writing Studies Skills MENC 133 Introduction to Core 2 MENC 134 Literary Survey Core 3 Language MENC 135 Introduction to Core 2 MENC 136 Introduction to Core 3 Literature the Electronic Media MENC 137 History of Core 2 MENC 138 History of the Core 3 Communication Media in Ghana MURE 110 Academic Core 3 MURR 110 Logic and Core 3 Writing I Practical Reasoning MURM 110 Introduction to Core 3 MURS 110 Science and Core 3 Mathematics Technology in Our Lives MURC 110 Introduction to Core 3 Computers Table 20a: Second year courses for uni 6 SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV Course Code Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Type Code Type MENC 231 Traditional Core 2 MENC 232 Introduction to Core 3 Grammar Public Relations MENC 233 Introduction Core 2 MENC 234 Media and Social Core 3 to Broadcast Psychology Journalism MENC 235 Introduction Core 2 MENC 236 Introduction to Core 3 to Print Media Advertising MENC 237 Mass Media Core 2 MENC 238 Literary Theory Core 3 and Society MURA 210 Academic Core 3 MURA 210 African Studies Core 3 Writing II MURX 210 Religion and Core 3 MURT 210 Entrepreneurship Core 3 Christian Ethics MURF/MUG Functional Core 3 French/ German Source: Field Data (2018) 146 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 21: First year courses for uni 7 SEMESTER I SEMESTER II Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type PUUG 103 Numeracy Skills Core 3 PUCM 102 Interpersonal and Core 2 Small Group Communication PUUG 120 Academic Core 3 PUCM 104 Introduction to Core 3 Writing I Psychology PUGD 110 Introduction to Core 3 PUUG 210 Academic Core 3 Christianity Writing II PUUG 101 Science and Core 3 PUUG 220 Introduction to Core 3 Technology in African Studies our Lives PUGD French I / English Core 3 PUGD French II / Core 3 121/123 I 122/124 English II PUCM 101 Introduction to Core 2 PUBD 102 Introduction to Core 3 Communication Management Studies Table 21a: Second year courses for uni 7 SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type PUCM 201 Introduction to Core 3 PUCM 202 Communication, Core 2 Journalism Society & Culture PUCM 203 Introduction to Core 3 PUCM 204 Introduction to Core 2 Public Relations Sociology PUCM 205 Introduction to Core 3 PUCM 206 Organisational Core 3 Advertising Communication PUGD 130 Christianity and Core 3 PUCM 208 Integrated Core 3 Professional Marketing Ethics Communication PUUG 150 Critical Thinking Core 3 PUCM 212 News Writing and Core 3 & Practical Reporting Reasoning PUMT 201 Principles of Core 3 PUCM 214 Introduction to Core 2 Marketing Political Science PUCM 216 Mass Core 3 Communication Source: Field Data (2018) 147 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 22: First year courses for uni 8 SEMESTER I SEMESTER II Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type WGS 101 English I Core 3 WGS 104 Ethics and Moral Core 3 Values WIT 105 Information Core 3 WGS 108 Introduction to Core 3 Technology Psychology Fundamentals WMT 107 Logic and Core 3 WGS 114 French II Core 3 Critical Thinking WGS 113 French I Core 3 WCS 102 Introduction to Core 3 Mass Communication WCS 101 Mass Media Core 3 WCS 104 Fundamentals of Core 3 Culture and Communication Society WCS 103 Interpersonal Core 3 WCS 106 Introduction to Core 3 Communication Mass Media Writing Table 22a: Second year courses for uni 8 SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV Course Course Title Course Credit Course Course Title Course Credit Code Type Code Type WMT 215 Quantitative Core 3 WMT 216 Quantitative Core 3 Methods I Methods II WCS 201 Introduction to Core 3 WCS 202 Graphics of Core 3 Print Journalism Communication WCS 203 Introduction to Core 3 WCS 204 Online Journalism Core 3 Broadcast Journalism WCS 205 Introduction to Core 3 WCS 206 Precision Writing Core 3 Public Relations WCS 207 Introduction to Core 3 WCS 208 Media Production Core 3 Advertising WCS 209 Media Ethics Core 3 WCS 210 Information for Core 3 Mass Communication Source: Field Data (2018) In the first two years for each of these universities, all courses were core courses implying that they were all mandatory courses and they were either two- credit or three-credit courses. Five of the universities (Uni. 1, Uni. 2, Uni. 3, Uni. 6, and Uni. 7) had a combination of two-credit and three-credit courses, while three (Uni. 4, Uni. 5, and Uni. 8) had all their courses as three-credit courses in the first two years. Uni. 1 was the only university with more two-credit courses (21) than three-credit courses (7) in years one and two. Uni. 2 and Uni. 7 both had 20, three- 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh credit courses but a slight variation with their two-credit courses: while Uni. 2 had six, Uni. 7 had five. Uni. 3 had 14, three-credit courses and 11, two-credit courses but Uni. 6 had 18, three-credit courses and eight, two-credit courses. Though Uni. 4, Uni. 5, and Uni. 8 had all three-credit courses, the total number of courses each had varied: while Uni. 4 had a total of 22, three-credit courses, Uni. 8 had 24, three- credit courses and Uni. 5 had 29, three-credit courses. The total number of courses each university offered in the first two years, therefore, ranged from 22 to 29 courses; Uni. 4 had the lowest of 22 courses and Uni. 5 had the highest of 29 courses. Incidentally, the courses for both universities four and five are three-credit courses. A critical look at the course component in the first two years for all eight universities revealed that courses offered in the three areas that journalism education covers i.e. Professional Practice, Theory, and Liberal Arts and Science (UNESCO, 2007) were as follows: Professional Practice courses (13.5%), Theory or Conceptual knowledge courses (14.0%), and Liberal Arts and Science courses (17.8%) suggesting that most of the courses are general ones and less emphasis is placed on practical skills training in the first two years. The section that follows details the courses that were offered in year three and year four. 5.2.2 Courses offered in Year Three and Year Four In year three and year four, the six universities that run the BA in Communication Studies offered journalism (Print and Broadcast), including other communication options such as: Public Relations, Advertising, Development Communication, Strategic Communication, and Visual and Digital 149 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Communication. Students took the communication option of their choice and graduated in that option. Uni. 1, for example, offered journalism (Print and Broadcast) as one of the four communication options it offered in years three and four; the other three are: Development Communication, Strategic Communication, and Visual and Digital Communication. There were 18 core courses and six elective courses making a total of 24 courses offered in years three and four. Students did all core courses and selected five of the six electives. All the courses for both years were three-credit courses. There was a period for internship, which was a three-credit course. Table 23 provides the details. Table 23: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni 1) Year Three Year Four Course Title (Core) Credit Course Title (Core) Credit Mass Communication Theory 3 Research Project I: Planning and 3 Proposal Social Media and Communication 3 Research Project II: Implementation 3 and Reporting Critical Reading and Writing 3 Specialization Core Identities and Conflicts in Africa 3 Online and Digital Journalism 3 Skills in Research and Writing 3 Investigative Journalism 3 Mass Media and Society 3 Science Reporting 3 Media Law and Ethics 3 Practical Cases in Journalism 3 Communication Research 3 Elective Methods Specialization Core Documentary Production (TV) 3 News and Feature Writing 3 Media Editing 3 Writing for Broadcast Media 3 Photojournalism 3 Print Media Production 3 Electronic Media Production 3 Broadcast Media Production 3 Internship 3 Elective Information Presentation and 3 Performance Freelance Journalism 3 Source: Field data (2018) Uni. 3 also offered journalism as one of its three communication options in years three and four. However, the two journalism specialisations: (Print and 150 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Broadcast) were offered separately and students chose one specialisation in year three and continued in that specialisation in year four. The other two communication options are Public Relations and Advertising. There were 18 core courses and eight elective courses for each journalism specialisation offered in years three and four. Some of the core and elective courses were common to both Print and Broadcast specialisations implying that those courses were taken by students offering any of the two options. Some courses were specific to print journalism and some courses were specific to broadcast journalism, indicating that such courses were taken by students offering that particular specialisation. In years three and four, students in each specialisation did all core courses and selected four of the eight electives. The courses were made up of both two-credit courses and three-credit courses. Table 24 provides details for the common courses for the two specialisations and Table 24a, the specific courses for each specialisation for both years. 151 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 24: Courses common to print journalism and broadcast journalism (uni 3) Year Three Year Four Course Title (Core) Credit Course Title (Core) Credit Communication Research 3 Project Work - Methods Introduction to Mass 2 Development Communication 3 Communication Theories Analyzing Communication 3 Management in Print Media 3 Research Data Business and Religious Ethics 2 Electronic Publishing and Design 3 Internship 3 Writing for the Web 3 Elective (Choose One) Project Work 6 Review and Critique of 2 Media Law and Ethics 3 Creative Works New Media 2 Elective (Choose One) Speech Writing and Presentation 3 Contemporary Topics in Communication 3 Elective (Choose One) Principles of Business Management 3 Entrepreneurship in Communication 3 Practice Table 24a: Specific courses for broadcast journalism and print journalism (uni 3) Year Three Year Four Broadcast Print Broadcast Print Course Title Credit Course Credit Course Title Credit Course Title Credit Title Introduction to 3 News 3 Management 3 Management 3 Broadcast Writing and in in Print Writing Reporting Broadcasting Media Writing for the 3 Photography 3 Topical 3 Topical 3 Screen Issues in Issues in Print Broadcast Journalism Journalism Essentials of 3 Editing 3 Broadcast Skills Journalism Broadcast 2 Hard and 2 Production and Soft News Directing Writing Writing for 2 Photo- 2 Broadcast journalism Media Elective Elective (Choose one) (Choose one) Broadcast 3 Publishing 3 Presentation & Production Electronic 3 Magazine 3 Field Writing Production Source: Field data (2018) 152 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The next university, Uni. 4, offered Journalism (Print and Broadcast) as one of its two communication options in years three and four but only in core courses and did not have any elective courses like the other universities. The other communication option was Public Relations. Uni. 4 offered a total of 22 core courses in years three and four and a total of 69 credits made up of three-credit courses only. Its total number of 44 courses for the entire four-year programme happened to be the lowest among the eight universities. Table 25 provides the details. Table 25: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni 4) Year Three Year Four Course Title (Core) Credit Course Title (Core) Credit Introduction to Social 3 Introduction to Media 3 Psychology Management Communication Research 3 Development Communication 3 Design Introduction to Political 3 Radio and TV Production 3 Communication Introduction to Community 3 Politics and Development 3 Journalism New Media 3 Introduction to Environment and 3 Health Communication Feature Writing 3 History of the Media in Africa 3 Media Ethics and Law 3 Gender and Development 3 Communication Research 3 Radio and TV News Presentation 3 Analysis In-depth Journalism 3 Globalization and Development 3 Media and Conflict 3 Project Work 6 Introduction to Sports 3 Journalism Internship 3 Source: Field Data (2018) Uni. 7 offered Journalism (Print and Broadcast) as one of their three communication options in years three and four in both core and elective courses; the other two communication options are Public Relations and Advertising. In total for both years, it offered 13 core courses and 13 elective courses and students did all 13 core courses but selected 11 electives making a total of 24 courses made up 153 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of both two-credit courses and three-credit courses, as in the case of Uni. 3. Table 26 provides the details. Table 26: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni 7) Year Three Year Four Course Title (Core) Credit Course Title (Core) Credit Personal Organisation 3 Leadership 3 Communication Research 3 Persuasion and Public Opinion 3 Methods Media Law and Ethics 3 Development Communication 3 New Media 3 Seminar (Industrial Practice) 3 Communication Theories 3 Final Year Project Work 6 Statistics in Communication 3 Corporate Social Responsibility 3 Research Methods Elective Political Communication 2 Broadcast Writing and 3 Elective Presentation (Radio & TV) Editing Skills 2 Radio TV Production 3 Feature and Editorial Writing 2 Newspaper and Magazine 3 Production Advanced News Writing & 3 Multimedia Journalism 3 Public Affairs Reporting Investigative Journalism 2 Broadcast Programming 2 Elective (Choose One) Media Management 2 Gender and Communication 2 Elective (Choose One) Photojournalism 2 Business Communication 2 Source: Field Data (2018) Uni. 6 and Uni. 8, on the other hand, did not offer journalism as a sole option in the last two years like the others offering the same BA degree in Communication Studies. In the case of University 6, their programme focused on communication options. It was the only university which offered Journalism (Print and Broadcast), Public Relations, and Advertising and students offered all these communication options with no student offering journalism alone as an option. It had 17 core communication courses and nine elective communication courses in years three and four. Students took all options in the core courses and selected five of the nine elective courses. This curriculum content suggests that the university 154 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh had changed the status quo of journalism education in Ghana which is, offering journalism as a single option in years three and four as being done in the other five sampled universities offering the same degree. An explanation was provided by the HOD who indicated that having seen what the other universities were offering they wanted to be different from them. According to him, these universities offered a one-sided Communication Studies programme where students have to opt for Journalism, Public Relations and or Advertising. The HOD explained that the university wanted to provide a broad-based form of communication education hence their choice of courses in their curriculum being a combination of these communication options. According to him: “We went to institutions that run similar programmes to see what they do and wanted to do something different hence our type of courses…other institutions are skewed toward one communication side: PR, Advertising or Journalism; we wanted to have a bit of each or if you can say a balance so they can fit into any of the communication areas.” (H6 15/03/19) Table 27 provides details of the courses offered in year three and year four which were made up of only three-credit courses as in the case of Uni. 1, Uni. 4 and Uni. 8. 155 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 27: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni 6) Year Three Year Four Course Title (Core) Credit Course Title (Core) Credit Media Law and Ethics 3 Introduction to Online Media 3 Mass Communication Models and 3 News Reporting and Editing 3 Theories Studies in Discourse Analysis 3 Modern English Structure and Usage 3 Advanced Public Relations 3 Technology and Communication 3 Media Practice I (Print Media) 3 Project/Long Essay in 3 Communication Studies Advanced Advertising 3 Multimedia 3 Communication Research and 3 Media Practice II (Electronic Media) 3 Design Shakespeare and His Age 3 Foundations in Media: Logic, 3 Evidence and Research Elective (Choose Two) Contemporary Literature 3 Photojournalism 3 Elective (Choose One) Media and Children 3 Media and Global Culture 3 Information for Mass 3 Contemporary Popular Culture 3 Communication Elective (Choose Two) Music in Media Studies 3 Communication and the Third World 3 Gender and Communication Studies 3 Telecommunications 3 Source: Field Data (2018) Perhaps the fact that Uni. 6’s communication programme is relatively new (started in 2017) coupled with the fact that it wanted to offer “something different” is a probable explanation for the university offering a programme different from what is being done in the other universities. With a very fast changing media landscape, this approach may make a difference, considering that employers always complain about gaps between what is taught and what is expected. However, the only way to determine if this institution’s strategy of altering the status quo will make a difference in industry is when their students graduate and enter the job market where the competencies acquired from the programme will be put to the test. In the case of Uni. 8, there was an option in journalism in years three and four but it was a combination with one other communication option. Students were, 156 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh therefore, to choose one journalism specialisation (Print or Broadcast) and one communication option (Public Relations or Advertising). There were 17 core communication courses and 12 professional specialisation elective courses in Print Journalism, Broadcast Journalism, Public Relations, and Advertising. Students offered all core courses and chose six of the elective courses making a total of 23 courses and a total of 69 credits for both years. (Ref: Table 28 below) Table 28: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni 8) Year Three Year Four Course Title (Core) Credit Course Title (Core) Credit Integrated Marketing 3 Development Communication 3 Communication I Integrated Marketing 3 Health Communication 3 Communication II Introduction to Communication 3 Political Communication 3 Theories and Models Protocol and Events Management 3 Media Management 3 Media Law 3 Public Speaking & Presentation Skills 3 Communication Management 3 URC Organisational Communication 3 Internship 3 Introduction to Telecommunication 3 Project work I, II 6 URC Elective (Choose Two) Communication Research Methods 3 Public Relations Writing Workshop 3 Elective (Choose One) News Writing and Reporting 3 Advanced Advertising 3 Writing for Broadcast 3 Advanced Print Journalism 3 Advertising Copy Writing 3 Elective (Choose One) Elective (Choose Two) Advanced Broadcast Journalism 3 Public Relations Strategy & 3 Campaign Planning Advanced Public Relations 3 Copy Editing and Photojournalism 3 Broadcast Copy Editing and 3 Production Advertising Campaign 3 Planning Source: Field Data (2018) The universities that offered a journalism degree were (Uni. 2 and Uni. 5). Uni. 2 offered a combined degree of Journalism and Mass Communication. It offered one journalism specialisation (Broadcast) as well as Public Relations and Advertising in year four and students opted for one. In year three, the 12 courses offered were for both communication options. In year four, there were also 12 157 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh courses for each of the two specialisations and a total of 36 credits indicating that all the courses were three-credit courses. (Ref: Table 29) Table 29: Courses offered in year three and year four (uni 2) Year Three Year Four Course Title (Core) Credit Course Title (Core) Credit Media and Society 3 New Media Technologies 3 Mass Communications Theory 3 Organisational Behaviour and Media 3 Organisations Research Methodologies for Media 3 Media Criticism 3 Online Journalism 3 Internship 3 Media Laws and Ethics 3 Copy writing, Visualization & 3 Campaign Effectiveness Introduction to Sports Journalism 3 Leadership and Governance 3 Gender Studies 3 Managing Media Business 3 Introduction to Strategic 3 Project 3 Communication Radio Journalism 3 Communication Specialization Elective (Choose One) Government Information Systems 3 Advanced Development 3 Communication Advanced Public Relations 3 Freelance and Investigative 3 Broadcast Specialization Elective Journalism (Choose One) Small Business Management & 3 Magazine Journalism 3 Entrepreneurship TV Journalism 3 Communication Specialization Elective (Choose One) Advanced Advertising 3 Political Journalism 3 Broadcast Specialization Elective (Choose One) Cinema and Film Editing 3 TV Interviews and Chat Show 3 Source Field Data (2018) Uni. 5 was the only university that offered a full degree in journalism and therefore, offered four journalism elective areas in years three and four and students opted for one. The four electives were: Sports Reporting, Economics and Business Reporting, Politics and Government Reporting, and Science, Health and Environment (SHE) Reporting. There were a total of 20, three-credit courses for each of the four electives in years three and four. These are made up of 11 common 158 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh courses in years three and four, and nine courses specific to each elective made up of four, three-credit courses in year three and five, three-credit courses in year four. Each elective, therefore, had a total of 60 credits for both years. Uni. 5’s total number of 76 courses for the entire four-year programme was the highest number of courses offered of all the eight universities. Table 30 provides details of the common courses for all four electives, while Tables 30a provides details of the specific courses for all electives for year three and 30b provides details of the specific courses for all electives for year four. Table 30: Common courses for all four electives (uni 5) Year Three Year Four Course Title Credit Course Title Credit Research Methods I 3 Long Essay/Project Work I 3 Multi-media Production 3 Quantitative Analysis 3 Workshop/Project Introduction to Entrepreneurship 3 Media Internship 3 Research Methods II 3 Introduction to Advertising 3 Development Communication 3 Long Essay/Project Work II 3 Introduction to Public Relations 3 Table 30a: Year three courses specific to each elective (uni 5) Sports Politics and Economics and SHE Government Business Course Title Credit Course Credit Course Title Credit Course Credit Title Title Growth and 3 Introduction 3 Introduction 3 Introduction 3 Development to Political to Economics to SHE of Sports Science & & Business issues Basic Concepts Reporting 3 Political 3 Human 3 Introduction 3 Soccer, Institutions Behaviour in to SHE Boxing and Organisation Reporting & Golf Writing Reporting 3 Politics in 3 Principles of 3 Global and 3 Hockey, Ghana (1954 Marketing national Basket-ball & – 1992) science Tennis issues Reporting 3 Democracy 3 Business 3 Global and 3 Athletics and And Its Policy national Swimming Challenges environment In Ghana issues 159 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 30b: Year four courses specific to each elective (uni 5) Sports Politics and Economics and SHE Government Business Course Title Credit Course Credit Course Title Credit Course Title Credit Title Introduction 3 The Military 3 Auditing and 3 Global & 3 to Sports in Ghanaian Investigation national Officiating Politics health/ medical issues Health, Legal 3 Conflict in 3 Financial 3 Science 3 and Ethical African Accounting reporting Issues in States Sports Sports 3 Comparative 3 Taxation 3 Environmental 3 Coaching Political Reporting Systems Sports 3 Ghana’s 3 Public 3 Health / 3 Administration Foreign Finance Medical and Policy Reporting Management Sports 3 Government 3 Labour Law 3 SHE Project 3 Marketing and & Politics in Media the 4th Republic in Ghana Source Field Data (2018) Tables 23 – 30 have provided the details of all the courses offered in years three and four in each university. Regarding the two and three credit courses offered in the universities, Uni. 3 and Uni.7 had both two and three credit courses with majority being three credits. The remaining six universities had only three- credit courses for both years three and four. Majority of courses offered in these last two years were Professional Practice courses (25.1%) compared to Conceptual courses (13.7%) and Liberal Arts and Science courses (10.6%). In summary, years one and two courses were all core courses and were compulsory for all students to offer, irrespective of which option (journalism or other communication areas) the student chooses in year three to four. On the other hand, years three and four courses were a combination of core and elective courses 160 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in the seven private university colleges. In the case of the public university, there were only core courses from year one to year four. The study found that there were course areas that were offered by all universities and there were those not offered by all. There were also universities who offered full courses in a skill area such as reporting while the same skill area was offered as a topic within a course meaning that they were not full courses on their own but were added to other skills areas in a course. In other instances while in one university a course was a core course, it was an elective in another university. There were also courses peculiar to each university and therefore offered only in that particular university. The implication is that though there are similarities, there is some degree of curriculum diversity among the Ghanaian universities offering Journalism education. This finding of curriculum diversity is similar to the findings of two studies, one on Public Relations curriculum in Ghana and the other on Journalism curriculum in Nigeria (Kotia, 2010; Popoola, 2010 respectively). Table 31 provides the details on course similarities and differences. 161 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 31: Courses offered in universities Institution Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Course 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mass Communication √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Communication Theories √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Media Law and Ethics √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Logic and Critical Thinking √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Research Methods √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Project Work √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Entrepreneurship √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ African Studies √ √ √ √ √ √ √ xx Media, Culture and Society √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Development Communication √ √ √ √ √ xx √ √ Introduction to Public Relations √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Introduction to Advertising √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Science/ Health / Environment √ * √ √ √ √ √ √ Online Journalism √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Media Management x √ √ √ √ xx (e) √ Introduction to Journalism √ xx xx √ xx xx √ xx Introduction to Print Journalism xx √ √ xx √ √ xx √ Introduction to Broadcast xx √ √ xx √ √ xx √ Journalism Political Communication √ (e) √ √ √ * √ √ Interpersonal Communication * * √ √ √ xx √ √ Photojournalism (e) √ √ xx √ (e) (e) (e) Gender Studies xx √ * √ * (e) (e) * Media and Peace/Conflict xx * xx √ √ xx xx * Global Journalism xx √ xx √ xx (e) * √ Investigative Journalism √ √ xx √ √ xx (e) * Sports Journalism xx √ * √ √ xx xx * History of Media xx xx xx √ xx √ xx xx Organisational Communication xx √ √ xx √ xx xx √ Media and Children xx xx * xx xx (e) xx * Source Field Data (2018) Key: (√) Full course (*) Topic within a course (e) Elective (xx) No course The courses that were not offered by most of the universities were Gender Studies, Media and Conflict, Global Journalism, Investigative Journalism, Sports Journalism, History of Media, Organisational Communication, and Media and Children. Evidence from literature indicates that areas such as Gender and Media Studies (Buonanno, 2014), Media and Conflict (Banda, 2008) and Investigative Journalism have international appeal to the extent that international bodies such as UNESCO have developed separate curriculum in some of these areas with the 162 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh intention of getting journalism training institutions to incorporate them in their curriculum. Another course area that did not get much attention in the undergraduate programme but is an area worth exploring is Media and children. This is because there is so much about children that the media can highlight for a better understanding of issues concerning children but which have been neglected. Such areas include abduction, trafficking, slavery, among others. However, only one university offered it as an elective and considering what the interviews revealed about elective courses explained below, the chances are that such courses will not be offered at all. From the interviews, it came to light that elective courses were offered only when students opted for them indicating that even though the courses have been stated in the curriculum, they were not always offered. As one HOD explained: “Sometimes particular electives are not offered when there are limited numbers of students opting for it because it will not be cost effective to run it taking into consideration the total number of lecturers and facilities needed to run the programme...those of us in the private institutions do not have the luxury to do that.” (H1, 15/03/2019) Another HOD stated that even though the aim of elective courses is to give students the option to pick their preference, in practice the electives that most students choose are the ones that are offered for that semester. He explained that: “If ten students opt for one elective and two opt for another, the elective with the most students is offered and so those two would be asked to join 163 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the ten and that elective will be the one to be offered for that semester.” (H3, 16/01/2019) In effect electives were offered based on availability of students opting for them. The department, therefore, determined which particular elective was offered for a particular semester and students were then requested to register for those electives. It also came to light that electives with no lecturers to teach were not offered even though they had been indicated in the course outline that they would be offered. In this regard, one head explained the situation as follows: “Some electives are not offered because there are no lecturers to handle them but the courses are still in the curriculum because they are relevant for the course and help for accreditation purposes.” (H5, 26/02/2019) The above response brings to the fore the issue of inadequate lecturers to handle some courses which has been an age old problem the universities, especially the private ones, are grappling with. From experience, most private universities depend on part time lecturers or adjuncts, some of whom are full time lecturers in the public universities. Therefore, if the lecture times in the private institution do not suit these lecturers, some may not offer their services to the private institutions, leaving them stranded. There are quite a number of reasons that can be attributed to this phenomenon of inadequate lecturers. For one, GTEC requires lecturers in the university to have a PhD in their course area to be qualified to teach. However, the qualifications of most lecturers in journalism, especially practitioners, are not up to the standard required and that makes getting lecturers with that qualification 164 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh quite challenging. Meanwhile practitioners are needed to complement the academics in teaching journalism to meet the international standard of the journalism faculty being one that should have a mix of academics and practitioners. However, as one HOD questioned: “How many of the PhD lecturers are teaching in Communication and Journalism departments and how many got their PhD in Journalism? Even those who are teaching, how many of them have industry experience; and how many practicing journalists in Ghana have a PhD? Very few.” (H5, 26/02/2019) Indeed, solving the problem of inadequate lecturers and its attendant consequences is not easy but it does not take away the fact that elective courses are not handled appropriately in these universities because such courses are in the curriculum but are not offered, or are supposed to be optional but turn out to be mandatory. Moreover, it does not give a true reflection of the curriculum. The electives courses situation needs to be addressed by the universities in a more pragmatic way. Various teaching and assessment methods were employed by these universities. They also had a variety of facilities to help them implement their teaching and learning strategies. These have been provided in Table 22. 165 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 32: Facilities and teaching and assessment procedures University Facilities Teaching and Assessment Uni. 1 Internal radio and TV studio Classroom lectures Wall newspapers Group work Standard library Practical work E-library Written exams Project work Uni. 2 Online radio studio Classroom lectures Student produced newspaper Field work / Practical work Standard library Documentaries (TV) Written exams Presentation Project work Uni. 3 Mini studio Classroom lectures News letter Field work / Practical work Magazine Written exam E-library Presentation Go to radio / TV stations for practical Class assignments work Project work Uni. 4 Campus radio Classroom lectures Newspaper Practical / Simulation Internal TV station for production only Presentation Standard library Written exam E-library Practical exam Group work production Project work Uni. 5 Radio studio Classroom lectures Magazine Practical work Semester publications Written exam Library Project work Uni. 6 Technical unit provides microphones Classroom lectures etc. for production work Tutorials Go to media organisations for practical Practical in industry work Presentation Library Written exam Project work Uni. 7 Radio Studio Classroom lectures Library Individual / group projects Practical / documentaries Written exam Project work Uni. 8 Broadcasting studio Classroom lectures / Seminars Campus/community newspaper Case studies / Presentations Library Written exam / Assignments Project work Source Field Data (2018) 166 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Facilities such as production studio and library were available in all universities. The interviews provided more details about the facilities and the teaching and assessment procedures used in each university. From the interviews, it became clear that some universities had facility challenges such as not having adequate recording gadgets, for example, to meet student population. Some also indicated they had their facilities quite recently even though their programme had started some years back. The study revealed that because of the need for institutions to incorporate practical work for students, a lot of pressure was put on the limited facilities some of which were obsolete or inadequate and many of the equipment not functioning at their optimal levels. To address some of these challenges one university indicated that it took students on one day trips to media houses for the practical component to augment the theory they provided in the lecture rooms. In view that such trips were not on a regular basis and the duration inadequate, the implication is that where facilities are lacking there may be the likelihood for more theory to be offered to students, in which case they are taken through the principles of these skill courses but will not have adequate opportunities to ‘practicalise’ knowledge gained. Facility challenges therefore bring to mind the necessity of practical exposure for students which all these universities provided by way of letting them go on internships, which is a period of gaining practical hands-on experience on the job. These internship periods were during the vacation period. The duration for internships varied from one university to the other and it ranged from four weeks to twelve weeks. The duration of internship per university were as follows: Uni. 1 167 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (12 weeks); Uni. 2 (4 – 8 weeks); Uni. 3 (6 weeks); Uni. 4 (12 weeks); Uni. 5 (6 weeks); Uni. 6 (8 weeks); Uni. 7 (8 weeks); and Uni. 8 (6 weeks). This indicated that half of the universities did six weeks; a quarter did eight weeks and the remaining quarter did twelve weeks. Some of the universities got the placements in the industries for their students while in others the students looked for the placements themselves. Students also embarked on a project in their area of specialization usually in year three, which they presented at the end of the four year programme. Internships have their challenges one of which is the inability for some students to get the appropriate industry due to large numbers of students going on internships in the limited number of industries each year which has come about because of the proliferation of tertiary institutions. There is also the issue of lack of time and resources to properly oversee the interns and in some instances these interns do not get the opportunity to put the principles they have learnt into practice. Furthermore, the duration of a minimum of four weeks and a maximum of twelve is woefully inadequate considering that from industry’s perspective twelve weeks should be the minimum duration for the internship period. These challenges notwithstanding, internships play a significant role because that is where students get a realistic taste of the profession and where they put into practice what they have learnt in theory. Students really need practical job exposure since sometimes what happens in the real working world may be more advanced than what is learnt in the classroom. Therefore, the real work experience is what helps them to come to terms with what to expect when they start to practice their profession. To all 168 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh intends and purposes, internships complement students’ education in a more realistic way and in some instances, internships pave the way for meaningful employment after graduation. Regarding the teaching and assessment methods employed by the universities, there are similarities with classroom lectures, practical work, written exams and project work being constant features. The classrooms usually provided the theory component of the courses while the facilities such as the studio were used for the practical aspects of the courses. One HOD explained that: “For practical work, students are put in groups and each member is assigned a role to get a bit of the action…production goes through different stages and so students take up different roles to get the skill.” (H4, 25/02/2019) Assessing the type of teaching methods used by the universities i.e. group work, field work, seminars and presentations, it can be inferred that much emphases are placed on student or learner centered methods, which is what pertains in the education arena now. However, the age old teacher-centered methods such as classroom teaching are equally being used. Assessment was both formative, which included continuous assessments and summative, which included end of semester written examinations to conform to accreditation standards and were closely aligned to learning outcomes. Students were therefore assessed in a variety of ways, including production of live news programmes, production of print 169 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh materials, production of pre-recorded packages, writing tests, individual and group presentations, course work and formal examinations. A significant finding was that most of the courses had reading materials in the form of books and scholarly publications authored by Africans, including Ghanaians. This is significant because for years most text books have been authored and published in the West and North America. Moreover, African communication scholars for decades have bemoaned the lack of ‘Africaness” in journalism education in Africa (Dube, 2009; Banda, 2009; Kivikuru, 2009; Beate, 2010; WJEC, 2010) which is being compounded by the lack of text books authored by Africans for the journalism profession. The argument has been that when text books are not authored by those from that environment, the examples and explanations may not take into consideration the nuances of the profession in that country and may become culturally incompatible. It is, therefore, gratifying to find about 26 Ghanaian communication scholars on the reading list, in addition to other Ghanaian and African scholars, which is enough evidence that African scholarship in communication and journalism has come of age and being recognised. A list of Ghanaian and African authors is provided in Appendix 6. From the analysis done so far on the structure and content of journalism education in these universities, one can accurately conclude that there are similarities in as far as they all offered a four year programme, offered similar communication and journalism courses, had similar facilities and used similar teaching and assessment methods. On the other hand, variations were evident regarding these universities’ choice of courses, where some courses were offered 170 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh by all and other courses were not. Also, there were differences in the total number of courses and total credit hours for the entire programme, as well as in the type of communication / journalism options offered. There were also some courses that were peculiar to each university and therefore were offered by that particular university and no other. All these account for the differences implying a level of diversity. 5.3 Curriculum Content Categories In order to examine the content of the curriculum to address a key objective of this study, which was to analyse the content of the curricula in relation to international journalism standards, the data was first organised into a manageable form by using a systematic coding strategy discussed in subsection 4.4.1.1. The courses were, therefore, classified under ten course themes or categories with the following codes: 1. CSC (Communication Skills Competence Course) 2. CCMC (Conceptual Knowledge Course in Mass Communication) 3. PSPJ (Professional Skill Courses in Print Journalism) 4. PSBJ (Professional Skill Courses in Broadcast Journalism) 5. PSOD (Professional Skill Courses in Online, Digital and Multimedia) 6. PSPRA (Professional Skill Courses in Public Relations and Advertising) 7. IJC (Investigative Journalism Courses) 8. SHE (Science, Health and Environment Courses) 9. LASC (Liberal Arts and Science Courses) 171 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10. OTH (Other) Table 33 represents a broad outline of what could be called a “general pattern” in the curricula in these universities while Figure 3 gives a pictorial representation of the general pattern. Table 33: Features of journalism curricula in eight Ghanaian universities Course Institutions Themes: UNI 1 UNI 2 UNI 3 UNI 4 UNI 5 UNI 6 UNI 7 UNI 8 Total % Code CSC 6 3 5 1 1 6 3 2 27 11.3% 5.6% 8.3% 2.3% 1.3% 11.5% 5.9% 3.8% 6.1% CCMC 7 11 13 16 5 12 10 13 87 13.2% 20.4% 21.7% 36.4% 6.6% 23.1% 19.6% 24.5% 19.6% PSPJ 9 9 9 4 5 4 7 7 54 17.0% 16.7% 15.0% 9.1% 6.6% 7.7% 13.7% 13.2% 12.2% PSBJ 6 8 10 3 8 1 3 5 44 11.3% 14.8% 16.7% 6.8% 10.5% 1.9% 5.9% 9.4% 9.9% PSOD 2 5 3 1 6 4 2 2 25 3.8% 9.3% 5.0% 2.3% 7.9% 7.7% 3.9% 3.8% 5.6% PSPRA 1 6 2 3 4 4 6 10 36 1.9% 1 1 . 1 % 3.3% 6.8% 5.3% 7.7% 11.8% 18.9% 8.1% IJC 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 5 1.9% 1.9% 0.0% 2.3% 1.3% 0.0% 2.0% 0.0% 1.1% SHE 2 0 1 1 9 1 1 1 16 3.8% 0.0% 1.7% 2.3% 11.8% 1.9% 2.0% 1.9% 3.6% LASC 17 9 13 12 29 19 15 12 126 32.1% 16.7% 21.7% 27.3% 38.2% 36.5% 29.4% 22.6% 28.4% OTH 2 2 4 2 8 1 3 1 23 3.8% 3.7% 6.7% 4.5% 10.5% 1.9% 5.9% 1.9% 5.2% TOTAL 53 54 60 44 76 52 51 53 443 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Table 33 shows ten course categories, eight of the ten categories had courses being offered by all universities implying course similarities in course titles and course contents. The differences, on the other hand, were reflected in the number of courses offered under the various categories. 172 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3: Courses and frequencies for all universities Examining the data summary (total % column) in Table 33, it was realised that Liberal Arts and Science courses (LASC) constituted the largest category of offering in the curricula of the eight universities with 126 out of the 443 courses representing 28.4 percent. These are courses relating to religion, statistics, psychology, sociology etc. Percentages for LASC, however, varied from university to university. For instance, LASC ranked highest in five universities: Uni. 5 had the highest with 38.2 percent; Uni. 6 followed with 36.5 percent; Uni. 1, (32.1%); then Uni. 7 with 29.4 percent and Uni. 3 with 21.7 percent. The study’s finding that LASC had the overall highest percentage of courses offered in the universities 173 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as well as for majority of the universities was not surprising considering that journalism programmes and courses in these universities were offered in the following faculties and schools: Faculty of Business Administration, Faculty of Humanities, Faculty of Arts, Faculty of Communication and Social Science and School of Communication Studies; all of which belong to the liberal arts tradition. The second highest was the Conceptual courses in Mass Communication (CCMC) category with a total of 87 (19.6%) courses for all universities. These were courses that relate to mass communication concepts such as communication theories, mass media culture and society, media history, among others. These courses ranked highest in three of the universities (Uni. 2, Uni. 4 and Uni. 8) and ranked second highest in Uni. 3, Uni. 6 and Uni. 7. It however had a low percentage in Uni. 5 (6.6%) making this university the one with the lowest number of CCMC. Professional Skill courses in Print Journalism (PSPJ) and Professional Skill courses in Broadcast Journalism (PSBJ) courses such as news and feature writing and reporting, media editing, broadcast media production among others ranked third and fourth with 54 (12.2%) and 44 (9.9%) courses respectively. Other communication related courses such as Public Relations and Advertising (PSPRA) as well as Communication Skills (CSC) followed with 8.1 percent and 6.1% respectively. Online, Digital and Multi-media (PSOD) courses such as Online Journalism and New Media represented just 5.6 percent with as many as four universities having a maximum of only two courses in this category. The courses with the least representation in all the universities were Science, Health and Environment (SHE) and Investigative Journalism (IJC). Courses in SHE accounted 174 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for just 3.6 percent of all courses with one university offering no courses in that area. IJC also accounted for just 1.1 percent with as many as three universities offering no courses at all. Figure 4 below provides a bar chart of these courses per university. Figure 4: Courses and frequencies per university Examining the data more closely, the universities with the least number of CSC were Uni. 4, Uni. 5 and Uni. 8; they each had less than 4 percent of this course in their curriculum. The universities with the highest percentage of CSC were Uni. 1 and Uni. 6 each with more than 10 percent. The remaining three universities had percentages ranging from 5.6 percent to 8.3 percent. These low percentages are not 175 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a very good reflection of curricula aimed at training communicators especially when evidence from literature indicates that in the view of employers, the talent needed in today’s market consists of critical journalists with good communication skills and who are capable of taking up any role in the emerging news industry (Krumsvik, 2012). In the case of CCMC, Uni. 4 had the highest with 36.4 percent and Uni. 5 had the lowest percentage of 6.6 percent. Majority of the universities had more than 20 percent of their courses in CCMC. With respect to courses in the two core journalism areas (Print and Broadcast), two universities (Uni. 2 and Uni. 3) had more than 30 percent of their courses in these two areas, while three universities (Uni. 1, Uni. 7 and Uni. 8) had more than 20 percent of their courses in the two core areas. The remaining three universities had less than 20 percent with Uni. 6 recording the lowest (9.6%). If these universities are offering journalism training, then a core area such as Print and Broadcast should have quite a number of courses so as to provide students with the needed skills to function well in these major journalism components. An area which got scant attention in the existing curricula was On-line, Digital and Multimedia courses (PSOD). There is no doubt that journalism has changed with the emergence of on-line news and innovative technologies to spread news as is evident from the current media landscape. However, courses in PSOD in these universities represented just 5.6 percent of all the courses with as many as four of the universities having very few courses in this category. The low level of emphasis on new media and related courses is a disturbing discovery considering the technological advancements affecting the journalism industry in this 21st 176 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh century. In the current media landscape, what has transformed traditional newsroom practices as well as access to and consumption of news is the rise of the internet and the growth of social media (Russell and Eccles, 2018). Moreover, according to Ofcom (2016) nearly half of all adults now use the internet for news, a third of them use a mobile device for news and an equally high number use social media to access news (cited in Russell and Eccles (2018). All these developments make online and new media courses essential for journalists. There is no doubt that new media being a recent phenomenon explains the low level of courses being offered. However, the ubiquitous presence of the internet has made, online or web- based journalism courses a necessity for the practice and exposure to them will enhance job roles. Two courses, SHE and IJC, had inadequately courses in the curricula and some universities offered no courses at all in them. They therefore recorded low number of courses in the curricula. Since majority of the universities offered only one course each in SHE, that category recorded a very low percentage (3.6%). However, Uni. 5 recorded a high number of SHE courses (nine) representing 11.8 percent. This was because this university offered SHE as one of the four journalism elective specializations and was the only university that offered that elective. In the case of IJC, as many as three universities offered no course at all in that area. Furthermore, those that offered IJC had only one course each and that explained the overall low percentage of 1 percent. Considering the necessity for journalists to engage in rigorous research in order to maintain accuracy and fairness in their reportage, the lack of courses in investigative journalism may have implications 177 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for the practice. Though they are taught research methods and present a project work, which are research based, students still need Investigative Journalism courses to enhance their professional skills; especially against the backdrop that within the last five years, investigative journalism has received much attention in the country. A finding that seemed quite unusual, because what it refers to is not a usual feature in the journalism curricula of some universities in other jurisdictions, was that courses of other professions in the communications landscape such as Public Relations and Advertising had a considerable percentage (8.1%) of all the courses offered in the universities. In the case of those offering a communications degree, this is not unusual since the two are communication related. The unusualness stems from the fact that the two universities that offered a BA in Journalism also had Public Relations and Advertising courses in their curricula while this is not a common feature in other journalism programmes reviewed from literature. For example, UNESCO’s Model Curricula for Journalism Education (2007) has no courses in Public Relations and Advertising. In its Compendium of new syllabi (2013, 2015), there are no such courses either. There are also some universities in the US (those accredited by the ACEJMC) and the UK (University of Central Lancashire and University of Kent) whose Bachelor degree programmes in Journalism do not have courses in public relations and advertising. Regarding the inclusion of public relations and advertising, the explanation was that the two are relevant for the journalism profession. One HOD stressed that: 178 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “In some instances having worked for some time as journalists, some are offered jobs in public relations and more often than not they are found wanting on the job since they do not have a firm grip of this other communication profession. Moreover, you graduate with a BA in Communication Studies irrespective of your specialization so you have to get a good understanding of how to operate in the other communication professions which in Ghana are Journalism, PR and Advertising.” (H7, 26/02/2019) In addition, they indicated that their choice of curricula is determined by many factors notable among them being comparison of courses with other institutions offering similar programmes, relevance to industry needs, functionality of programme, employability of graduates, and influence from universities they are affiliated to. About a decade and a half ago, some communication scholars (Taylor et al., 2004) had complained about the paradigm for communication education in African universities which they asserted focused on a mass communication or media-centered perspective and advocated for a paradigm shift towards greater emphasis on human communication specialties in such areas as Intercultural Communication, Speech Communication, Interpersonal Communication, and others. According to Taylor et al., a better understanding of the African communication environment will be achieved when such courses are incorporated into the curriculum since exposure to areas such as conflict resolution among others will enable communication scholars respond, from an informed position, to the 179 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh challenges of development, especially from a communication perspective. The paradigm shift seems to have taken place to some extent considering that courses in Interpersonal Communication, Speech Communication as well as Media and Conflict were in the curriculum of some universities. There, however, were no courses in Intercultural Communication in the curricula reviewed. The study also found Development Communication, Digital and Visual Communication, Multimedia Communication, and Strategic Communication being offered as options in some universities. One head of department was emphatic that these new areas are taking over journalism in terms of popularity and career choices. He emphasized that: “Journalism is not as popular as it used to be ... even practicing journalists when they enroll to further their education, opt for other options such as Public Relation or Development Communication rather than continue with the Journalism”. (H1, 15/03/2019) Perhaps the lack of interest in continuing with the journalism programme can be attributed to the fact that the monopolies on informational functions formerly held by journalists and legacy news providers is being challenged by social media resulting in competition in the distribution of news and information, thereby rendering the journalism profession very fluid. Regarding the issue that the journalism profession has become very fluid, one head of department suggested that journalists should carve a niche for themselves in the profession by specialising in areas that do not get much exposure in media such as conflict, environment, children, arts and culture, or other not too popular areas and produce 180 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unique stories to help them remain relevant in the changing media landscape. Unfortunately, there were only two universities that had courses in Media and Conflict and only one had a full course in Media and Children. Furthermore, even though seven of the universities offered courses in SHE only one had a specialisation in SHE reporting as a journalism elective option. Courses in these recommended niche areas are not adequate, but at least a few universities are offering them. 5.3.1 Journalism Course Classifications Since the study was to assess the journalism course in relation to international standards, the ten categories have further been aggregated into the three categories representing the three areas of Journalism education as discussed in sub-section 4.5.3.1. Six of the ten categories fell under Professional Practice courses; two under Conceptual courses, the third category was the Liberal Arts and Science courses, and a fourth category, ‘other’ represented courses which did not fall under the main three. Table 34 provides the details for the four categories and Figure 5 is a pie chart which provides a visual representation of the total percentages of the four categories offered in the universities. 181 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 34: Course classifications in journalism curriculum Areas of Journalism University Education Univ.1 Univ.2 Univ. 3 Univ. 4 Univ. 5 Univ. 6 Univ. 7 Univ. 8 Total Professional 26 26 28 11 30 16 17 17 171 Practice 49.1% 48.1% 46.7% 25.0% 39.5% 30.8% 33.3% 32.1% 38.6% Liberal Arts 17 9 13 12 29 19 15 12 126 and Science 32.1% 16.7% 21.7% 27.3% 38.2% 36.5% 29.4% 22.6% 28.4% Conceptual 8 17 15 19 9 16 16 23 123 Courses 15.1% 31.5% 25.0% 43.2% 11.8% 30.8% 31.4% 43.4% 27.8% Other 2 2 4 2 8 1 3 1 23 3.8% 3.7% 6.7% 4.5% 10.5% 1.9% 5.9% 1.9% 5.2% Total 53 54 60 44 76 52 51 53 443 100.0% 100.0% 100.% 100.% 100.% 100.% 100.% 100.0% 100.0% Source Field Data (2018) Figure 5: Summary of Course Categories in Journalism Curriculum The percentages for these course categories varied from university to university as reflected in Table 34. The universities with a high percentage for Professional Practice courses were Uni. 1(49.1%); Uni. 2(48.1%); Uni. 3(46.7%); 182 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and Uni. 5(39.5%). The universities with low percentages for Professional Practice courses were Uni. 4 with 25 percent and Uni. 6 with 30.8 percent. Uni. 4 was the only university whose percentage for Professional Practice courses was below 30 percent; all others had above 30 percent indicating that majority of the universities had more than 30 percent of their courses in Professional Practice. Regarding the Liberal Arts and Science courses, Uni. 5 and Uni. 2 had the highest and lowest percentages of 38.2 percent and 16.7 percent respectively. Uni. 2 was the only university whose percentage of Liberal Arts and Science courses was below 20 percent, all the others had percentages ranging from 22 percent to 38 percent indicating that majority of the universities had more than 20 percent of their courses in the Liberal Arts and Science. Courses in Conceptual knowledge or Theory, on the other hand, had the highest and lowest percentages respectively in Uni. 8 (43.4%), and Uni. 5 (11.8%). Uni. 6 had two of its course categories (Professional Practice and Conceptual courses) having the same percentage of 30.8 percent. Similarly, Uni. 7 had very close percentages for Professional Practice and Conceptual courses (33.3% and 31.4%) respectively. All the universities with the exception of Uni. 5 recorded minimal courses in the ‘other’ category, which represents courses that do not fall under any of the nine categories. Figure 6 is a bar chart of the frequencies in the four categories for each university. 183 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 6: Course Categories and frequencies per university From the findings it can be deduced that the focus of journalism education in Ghanaian universities regarding theory and practice is classified into three groups: 1. Group One: universities with more Professional Practice courses than Theory courses: (Uni. 1, Uni. 2, Uni. 3, Uni. 5 and Uni. 7) 2. Group Two: universities with more Theory courses than Professional Practice courses: (Uni. 4 and Uni. 8) 3. Group Three: universities with an equal number for Professional Practice and Theory courses: (Uni. 6 ) 184 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 Journalism Curriculum and Standards This section provides the findings of the detailed analysis of the curriculum in relation to national and international standards discussed in sub-section 2.1.3 as a way of assessing quality. Regarding national standards, which are set by GTEC, the threshold standard requirements regarding Curriculum, Faculty, Library and Facilities had all been met by the universities because they had all been given accreditation at the time of the study. This implied that they had all met the national standard regarding quality. With respect to the assessment of the curricula of the universities to determine quality from the international perspective, an international standard set by UNESCO and WJEC was used as the benchmark for the assessment of the standard in respective universities. These two standards have been juxtaposed in Table 35 to assess the expected and the actual. Table 35: International and university standards in journalism education International University Standard Standards Uni. 1 Uni. 2 Uni. 3 Uni. 4 Uni. 5 Uni. 6 Uni. 7 Uni. 8 Theory 10% 15.1% 31.5% 25.0% 43.2% 11.8% 30.8% 31.4% 43.4% Practice 40% 49.1% 48.1% 46.7% 25.0% 39.5% 30.8% 33.3% 32.1% Liberal Arts & 32.1% 16.7% 21.7% 27.3% 38.2% 36.5% 29.4% 22.6% Science 50% Writing 8 semesters 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Reporting: 6 semesters 5 6 5 7 8 5 6 5 Reading 8 semesters 2 1 3 5 5 3 3 3 185 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Internship 4 weeks 12 6 6 12 6 8 8 6 Ethical principles 1 1 3 1 2 2 3 3 (courses) Computer-based 3 4 4 3 5 6 2 3 tools (courses) Global 0 1 0 2 3 1 0 0 perspective (courses) Faculty (mix of YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES academics and practitioners) Media studies 2 4 2 6 3 8 1 3 (courses) Media 1 2 4 2 1 1 2 3 management and business practice (courses) Source Field Data (2018) Per international standards, an ideal journalism curriculum should comprise 10 percent Theory, 40 percent Practice, and 50 percent Liberal Arts and Science. The eight universities together had the following percentages for the three components: (27.8%; 38.6%, and 28.4%) respectively. This implies that the universities’ percentage for theory was almost three times more than that required by international standard; their percentage for practice was very close to the international standard, and Focus was also to be on three core skills of an ideal journalism curriculum: writing, reporting and reading. Writing and reading were to be offered for eight semesters in which case for the entire four-year period of the undergraduate programme, while reporting was to be offered for six semesters or three years. All universities offered courses in writing for eight semesters indicating agreement with international standard. Reporting, on the other hand, 186 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh was offered in varying number of semesters: Uni. 4 and Uni. 5 offered it beyond the expected six semesters (7 and 8 respectively); Uni. 2 and Uni. 7 offered it in the expected six semesters and the remaining four universities, a semester less. Therefore, to a large extent, international standard was met regarding these two. However, reading got very little attention since no university offered it in eight semesters. Reading was offered between one to five semesters with majority offering three semesters falling short of the expected. In each of these skill areas, universities offered both full courses, in which case the course title had the name of the skill; and topics within courses, in which case different skills were taught in one course. This scenario indicated that these skills were not always offered as courses on their own but were also taught in courses alongside other skill areas. Details for reading, reporting and writing are provided in Tables 36, 37 and 38 respectively. Each table provides the course titles, the topics within courses, number of semesters for teaching, as well as the teaching format used by each university. This detail was necessitated by the fact that the media houses were very emphatic that journalists should be able to ‘practicalise’ their skills. That is to say journalists should not just know the skill but they should be able to make use of the skill in a competent manner. 187 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 36: Reading skill courses and topics in the eight universities University Skill Format Duration Uni.1 Critical Reading and Writing Practical 2 semesters Topic in Applied Mass Theory/Practical Communication Theory Topic in African Literature Practical Uni. 2 Topic in Communication Skills in Theory/Practical 1 semester English I Uni. 3 Topic in Writing Skill I Theory/Practical 3 semesters Topic in Review and Critique of Practical Creative Works Topic in French Basics Theory/Practical Topic in Akan Language for Theory/Practical Communication Uni. 4 Topic in History of the Media in Theory/Practical 5 semesters Ghana Topic in Introduction to Media Theory/Practical Systems Topic in Theories of Communication Theory/Practical Topic in Feature Writing Theory/Practical Topic in Introduction to Journalism Theory/Practical Topic in Radio and TV News Theory/Practical Presentation Uni. 5 Topic in English Writing Skills Theory/Practical 5 semesters Topic in SHE reporting and writing Theory/Practical Topic in Principles of Local Language Broadcasting Theory/Practical Topics in Global and National Science, Health and Environment Theory/Practical Issues Topic in French for Beginners III, IV Theory/Practical Uni. 6 Comprehension and Writing Skills Theory/Practical 3 semesters Contemporary Literature Practical Topic in Intro to Literature Theory/Practical Topic in Shakespeare and his age Theory/Practical Uni. 7 Topics in Academic Writing III Theory/Practical 3 semesters Topic in Communication Theories Theory/Practical Uni. 8 English I Theory/Practical 3 semesters Information for Mass Communication Theory/Practical Topic in Writing for Broadcast Practical Topic in French I Theory/Practical Source Field Data (2018) These findings suggest that not much emphasis was placed on reading skill by the universities. There were only a total of five courses with three universities offering these courses, the rest offered topics within courses implying that there were more topics within courses (26) than full courses (5). An explanation could be that since in every course reading is involved, that should compensate for the inadequate full 188 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh courses in teaching reading skills. All the universities offered reading skill both theoretically and practically which meant that students were taken through the principles of reading in order to get a deeper understanding of the concept of reading and then they applied those principles to the practical reading act. Table 37: Reporting skill courses and topics in the eight universities University Skill Format Duration Uni. 1 Science Reporting Theory/Practical 5 semesters Topic in Freelance Journalism Practical Topic in Print Media Production Practical Topic in Investigative Journalism Practical Topic in Information Presentation and Theory/Practical Performance Topic in Introduction to Journalism Theory/Practical Topic in News and Feature Writing Theory/Practice Uni.2 News Reporting and Editing I, II Practical 6 semesters Reporting Techniques and Skills Practical Topic in History and Industry of Mass Theory/Practical Communication Topic in Investigative Journalism Practical Topic in Political Journalism Practical Topic in TV Journalism Practical Topic in Broadcast Journalism & Theory/Practical Programme Formats Topic in TV Production Theory/Practical Uni. 3 News Writing and Reporting Practical 5 semesters Topic in Intro. to Broadcast Writing Practical Topics in Topical Issues in Print and Theory/Practical Broadcast Journalism Topic in Akan Language for Practical Communication Topic in Intro. to Electronic Media Theory/Practical Topic in Essentials of Broadcast Journalism Theory/Practical Uni. 4 Topic in Introduction to Journalism Theory/Practical 7 semesters Topic in In-depth Journalism Theory/Practical Topic in Broadcast News Writing Theory/Practical Topic in Print News Writing Theory/Practical Topic in Information Gathering and Theory/Practical Research Topic in Introduction to Community Theory/Practical Journalism Topic in Media and Conflict Theory/Practical Topic in Radio and TV News Presentation Theory/Practical Topic in Introduction to Sports Journalism Theory/Practical Topic in Radio and TV Production Practical 189 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Uni. 5 Introduction to news reporting and Writing Theory/Practical 8 semesters Print & Online Reporting and Writing Advanced Reporting Theory/Practical Sports Reporting Economics and Business Reporting Theory/Practical Politics and Government Reporting Theory/Practical Science, Health & Environment Reporting Theory/Practical Topic in Social Studies Theory/Practical Topic in Introduction to Radio Broadcasting Theory/Practical Topic in Principles of Local Language Theory/Practical Broadcasting Practical Theory/Practical Uni. 6 News Reporting and Editing Practical 5 semesters Topic in Introduction to Print Media Theory/Practical Topic in Foundations in Media: Logic, Practical Evidence and Research Theory/Practical Topic in Introduction to Electronic Media Practical Topic in Photo Journalism Topic in Introduction to Broadcast Practical Journalism Theory/Practical Uni. 7 News Writing and Reporting Theory/Practical 6 semesters Advanced News Writing & Public Affairs Practical Reporting Topic in Investigative Journalism Theory/Practical Topic in Multimedia Journalism Theory/Practical Topic in Development Communication Theory/Practical Topic in Radio and TV Production Practical Topic in Broadcast Writing and Theory/Practical Presentation Topic in Introduction to Journalism Theory/Practical Uni. 8 News Writing and Reporting Theory/Practical 5 semesters Topic in Copy Editing and Photojournalism Practical Topic in Advanced Print Journalism Practical Topic in Online Journalism Theory/Practical Topic in Advanced Broadcast Journalism Practical Topic in Information for Mass Theory/Practical Communication Theory/Practical Topic in Broadcast Copy Editing and Theory/Practical Production Theory/Practical Topic in Media Production Theory/Practical Table 37 provides details on reporting skill which was a skill all media house requested for indicating the premium they place on this skill. As was found in the case of reading, all universities handled their courses and topics in reporting both theoretically and practically. There were also quite a number of similar courses among the universities. For example, there were courses in news reporting for seven universities. There were also courses in the two main journalism areas: Print and Broadcast and some courses in Online though there were some 190 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh differences in the course titles. While some universities used Print and Broadcast Journalism, others used Print and Electronic Media. Others were specific and used TV and Radio Broadcast. The nomenclature difference in course title, however, did not change what was in the course content. The total number of courses was 19 and topics within courses were 48 for all universities. There were, however, variations from university to university. The duration for teaching ranged from a maximum of eight semesters for nine courses and three topics offered by Uni. 5 to a minimum of five semesters for one course and five topics offered by Uni. 6. The next highest number of semesters used for reporting was by Uni. 4, in seven semesters. Two others (Uni. 2 and Uni. 7) each offered reporting skill in six semesters, while Uni. 1, Uni. 3 and Uni. 8 each offered in five semesters, a semester less than the international standard. Regarding Writing, it was offered for eight semesters by all universities and therefore international standard was fully met. Details of the courses, the format and for how long they were offered have been presented in Table 38. 191 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 38: Writing skill courses and topics in the eight universities University Skill Format Duration Uni. 1 Basic Communication skills Theory/Practical 8 semesters English Language Foundations of Writing Writing Skill II Critical Reading and Writing News and Feature Writing Writing for Broadcast Media Topics in: Freelance Journalism Print Media Production Documentary Production(TV) Media Editing Business & Technical Communication Basic French for Communication Basic French II, III, IV African Literature Critical Thinking Long Essay/Project I, II Broadcast Media Production Science Reporting Investigative Journalism Uni. 2 Comm. Skills in English I, II Theory/Practical 8 semesters Feature and Editorial Writing Topics in: Language Skills for Journalism History and Industry of Mass Comm. News Reporting and Editing I Print Media Reporting Techniques and Skills Advertising Concepts and Principle News Reporting and Editing II Intro. to Sports Journalism Radio Journalism Broadcast Journalism and Programme Formats TV Journalism Foreign Language (French I, II) TV Production (Idea to Screen) Critical Thinking Research Methodology for Media Freelance and Investigative Journalism Uni. 3 Writing Skills III Theory/Practical 8 semesters Introduction to Writing Expository and Creative Writing News Writing and Reporting Magazine Writing 192 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hard and Soft News Writing Writing for the Web Intro. to Broadcast Writing Writing for the Screen Writing for Broadcast Media Speech Writing and Presentation Topics in Essentials for Broadcast Media Critical and Creative Thinking French Basics Introduction to Print Media Introduction to Electronic Media Strategies of Communication Introduction to PR Broadcast Presentation and Production Review and Critique of Creative Works Communication Research Methods Uni. 4 English Language Usage and Theory/Practical 8 semesters Creative Writing Feature Writing Print News Writing Broadcast News Writing Language and Study Skills Topics in: Intro. to Journalism Intro. to Media Systems Intro. to Community Journalism Intro. to Environment and Health Communication In-depth Journalism Radio & TV News Presentation Logic and Critical Thinking Info. Gathering and Research Introduction to PR Principles of Advertising Comm. Research and Analysis Comm. Research and Design Media and Conflict Intro. to Sports Journalism Radio and TV Production Uni. 5 Introduction to News Reporting Theory/Practical 8 semesters and Writing English Writing Skills Print & Online Reporting and Writing Speech Writing and Presentation Skills Features and Opinion Writing Topics in: Social Studies 193 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Introduction to Radio Broadcast French for Beginners I, II, III, IV Logic and Critical Thinking Intro. to Radio Broadcasting Advanced Reporting Principles of Local Language Broadcasting Intro to Communication Research Research Methods I, II Introduction to PR Introduction to Business and Economics Sports Reporting Public Finance Intro. to SHE reporting & Writing Uni. 6 Academic Writing I, II Theory/Practical 8 semesters Comprehension and Writing Topics in: Intro. to Print Media Traditional Grammar Intro. to Broadcast Journalism Media Practice (Print Media) Advanced Advertising Studies in Discourse Analysis Foundations in Media Logic and Practical Reasoning Functional Grammar Literary Survey Introduction to Literature Introduction to PR Comm. Research and Design Advanced PR News Reporting and Writing Modern English Structure and Usage Uni. 7 Academic Writing I, II Theory/Practical 8 semesters News Writing and Reporting Broadcast Writing and Presentation Feature and Editorial Writing Advanced News Writing and Public Affairs Reporting Topics in Introduction to Journalism Editing Skills Persuasion and Public Opinion Radio and TV Production English I, II French I, II Comm. Research Methods Business Communication 194 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Newspaper and Magazine Production Development Communication Uni. 8 Intro. to Mass Media Writing Theory/Practical 8 semesters Precision Writing News Writing and Reporting Writing for Broadcast PR Writing Workshop Advertising Copy Writing Topics in: Advanced Print Journalism Copy Editing & Photojournalism Broadcast Copy Editing and Production Development Communication Advanced PR Advanced Advertising Advanced Broadcast Journalism Integrated Marketing Comm. Intro. to Print Journalism Logic and Critical Thinking Advertising Campaign Planning Fundamentals of Communication English 1 French I, II Introduction to Advertising Protocol and Events Management PR Strategy &Campaign Planning Comm. Research Methods Source Field Data (2018) From the individual university perspective, Uni. 3 had the highest number of courses in writing (12) and the lowest number of topics (10) while Uni. 2 and Uni. 6 had the lowest number of courses (3) but a high number of topics (17 and (16) respectively. Combining the two components of courses and topics within courses, the universities, among themselves, offered a total of 171 courses and topics. Though the number of courses and topics each university offered varied, they all taught writing for the entire four-year period. With respect to the type of coursers offered, there were quite a number of similarities. All the universities had courses in Hard and Soft News Writing and there were topics in Editing. There 195 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were also courses in News Writing for Print and Broadcast as well as Online Journalism implying that they offered a convergence curriculum. The teaching of the three core skills was a combination of theory and practice indicating that students were exposed to these skill areas from the two perspectives which is important because theory, on the one hand, offers the building blocks for necessary skills, while practical exposure, on the other hand, improves the competence of students. Therefore, the integration of theory and practice exposes students to the benefits of both and creates better understanding. However, determining whether this happens in reality through observation was beyond the scope of this study. In addition, universities offered either full courses or topics within courses. When a skill is treated as a full course, much attention is given to it than when it is treated as a topic in another course. This is because as a course, the skill alone will be treated by the lecturer but as a topic, there will also be topics in other skill areas so one skill does not get all the attention indicating that the emphasis given to full course and topic within a course will vary. In addition, the universities enhanced the practical skills of students through internships which was an integral part of the programmes and play an important role of filling the gap between what is taught in the academic setting and practical demands of the journalism industry (Olusegun, 2015 cited in Yusof et al., 2018). All the universities went beyond the international standard of four weeks with a minimum of six weeks and a maximum of twelve for the internship period. Regarding the other standards, emphasis was placed on some course areas to which all the universities offered courses in line with international standards. 196 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Since journalists are expected to work with high ethical principles, there were to be courses in ethics. All the universities offered Media Law and Ethics to help students understand the ethics of the profession. In addition, four of them offered courses in religion and moral values to increase the ethical perspective of students. Furthermore, journalism being a technically intensive field implies that journalists need a variety of computer-based tools to work effectively. The study revealed that Uni. 6 had the highest number of courses (6) and Uni. 7 had the lowest, (2) courses. Uni. 6 also offered the highest number of courses in Media Studies (8) while Uni. 7 offered the lowest (1). With respect to Media Management and Business Practices, courses in this area ranged from one to four among the universities. Though international standard indicated that students should be exposed to a Global Perspective, including press practices in different countries, as many as four of the universities offered no course in this area. The fact that half the number of universities offered no courses in Global Perspective implied that much emphasis was not placed in this course area in the curricula. An HOD’s comment that, “Global courses are put in the curriculum but most of the time there is no lecturer to teach” (H7) gave an indication as to why such courses were excluded. Another component of international standards was that faculties should always include a mix of academics and practitioners who have experience working as journalists. Some scholars (Foote, 2017; Muppidi & Manvi, 2008) among others have often emphasized the need to have experienced journalists teaching in journalism schools as a way of achieving a blend of theory and practice to enhance the training (Yusof et al., 2018). The interviews revealed that most universities had 197 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh no journalism practitioners in full time employment and even some had no full time lecturers teaching journalism. One major reason is the issue of qualification. One HOD emphasised that there are not many practising journalists in Ghana with a PhD qualification and even those with a PhD teaching journalism, quite a number of them did not get their PhD in journalism. GTEC qualification requirement to be a lecturer in the university is a PhD or a Master’s degree with the intention of getting a PhD within a specified time, but most journalism practitioners do not have the required qualification. Therefore, getting practitioners on board is a daunting task. The other HOD explained that in order to run their programmes, majority of them had most practitioners as part time lecturers, instead of full time ones. One HOD stressed that in some jurisdictions those with professional rather than a theoretical background get the opportunity to teach on journalism programmes because their experience compensates for the shortfall in academic qualification. This is, however, not the case in Ghanaian universities. This issue will be further discussed in the discussion chapter. The comparison made between international standards and local standards has more or less indicated that journalism education in Ghanaian universities, to a large extent, meet international standards in various components implying a high degree of quality being achieved. 5.5 Media Houses Skill Requirements and Courses in Curricula The skills framework developed from the interviews with media houses and analysis of their job description documents and modeled on Young and Chapman’s 198 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh competency framework, as discussed in sub-section 4.5.2, had a total of twenty skills. This was used for the assessment of the curriculum of each university to determine the fit. The course descriptions were content analysed qualitatively and that provided data for the assessment. Findings indicated that the universities offered both full courses and topics within courses in the skills. Table 39: Industry skills requirement provided in courses per university University / Courses Competence Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Skill Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total Writing Business 7 3 12 5 6 3 6 6 48 Reporting Business 1 3 1 1 9 1 2 1 19 Communication People 4 3 4 1 2 2 4 5 25 & Presentation English Basic 3 2 2 1 1 4 3 2 18 Research Conceptual 5 3 4 5 7 3 4 3 34 ICT Basic 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 11 Interview Business 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 New Media / Basic 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 20 Online Interpersonal / People 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 5 networking Leadership People 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 Numeracy Basic 3 1 2 3 5 3 3 3 23 Pre-production, Business 7 6 6 3 4 2 5 3 36 Production & Post-production Critical and Conceptual 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 9 Analytical Editing Business 1 4 1 0 1 1 1 2 11 Entrepreneurship Personal 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 10 Integrity, strong Personal 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 1 6 ethical values Media law and Business 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 10 ethics Local Language Basic 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 199 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Reading Basic 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 5 French Basic 4 2 1 2 4 1 2 2 18 Total 42 36 45 28 53 32 40 38 314 Source: Field data 2018 Table 40: Industry skills requirement provided in topics within courses per university University / Topics Skill Competence Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Uni. Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total Writing Business 16 17 10 16 17 16 12 19 123 Reporting Business 6 6 6 9 3 5 6 7 48 Communication People & Presentation 1 1 3 2 6 4 4 3 24 Research Conceptual 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 3 8 ICT Basic 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Interview Business 2 11 4 7 3 1 2 5 35 Interpersonal / People Networking 1 2 3 1 2 0 3 2 14 Leadership People 4 4 5 4 4 3 4 3 31 Numeracy Basic 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 3 Pre-production, Business Production & 1 0 2 1 0 2 0 2 8 Post-production Editing Business 4 5 9 5 1 2 4 8 38 Reading Basic 2 1 4 6 6 2 3 2 26 Total 38 48 47 51 44 36 41 54 359 Sub-section 4.6.1 in the Methodology chapter explained the use of numerical values for the assessment. Table 39 provides details for the number of full courses each university offered in the twenty skills required by media houses and Table 40 provides details of topics within courses for twelve of the skills. Findings in Table 39 indicate that all five competencies in Young and Chapman’s (2010) content- clustered framework were found in the skills requirement of the media houses in the following percentages: Basic (35%), Business (30%), Conceptual (10%), Personal (10%) and People (15%) suggesting that the bulk of the skills required were generic (70%) and specific skills were 30%. The fact that both generic and specific competencies are found in the curriculum has confirmed Lindberg’s 200 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2010) conviction, which has been supported by other researchers (Filstad & McManus, 2011; Pennbrant et al., 2013; Yan et al., 2013; Graham et al., 2014), that specific and generic competencies are intertwined and are both essential for every graduate in every job because these two competences will help to transform theoretical knowledge into practical knowledge that can be used in the work. 12 of the 20 skills were offered in both courses and topics within courses and the remaining eight skills were offered in courses only. Overall, the total for both courses and topics within courses for the 12 skills were as follows: Writing (171), Reporting (67), Communication (49), Editing (49), Production (44), Research (42), Interview (37), Leadership (33), Reading (31), Numeracy (26), Interpersonal (19) and ICT (12). Writing skill, therefore, had the highest number of courses and ICT had the lowest number. Seven of these skills had more topics within courses than full courses. These skills were Writing, which had 48 full courses but 123 topics within courses; Reporting had 19 courses but 48 topics within courses; Interview, two courses but 35 topics; Leadership, two courses but 31 topics; Interpersonal, five courses but 14 topics; Editing had 11 courses but 38 topics, and Reading had five courses but 26 topics. The remaining five skills (Communication, Research, ICT, Numeracy, and Production) had more courses than topics within courses, ranging from 23 to 36 courses. These findings have confirmed that basic journalism skills such as writing, reporting, and research have not outlived their relevance in this era of digitization and media convergence and therefore remain paramount to employers (Criado & Kraeplin, 2003; Huang et al., 201 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2003; Nankervis, 2005, Callaghan & McManus, 2010; Bhuiyan, 2010; Loo, 2010; Cleary & Cochie, 2011; Wenger et al., 2018) to mention but a few. With respect to the eight skill areas with only courses, New Media had the highest number of courses (20) while Integrity/strong ethical values and Local language recorded the lowest numbers of six and two courses respectively. The remaining five skills: Critical/analytical, Entrepreneurship, Law and Ethics, English, and French had courses that ranged from nine to18. Comparing the total number of courses and that of topics within courses, it can be concluded that these universities offered more topics (359) than full courses (314) in the skills required by industry. Furthermore, there were six skills that quite a number of the universities had no courses in. Three of these skills had only two universities offering courses in them. These were Interview, which had Uni. 2 and Uni. 5 offering a course each; Leadership, which had Uni. 2 and Uni.7 offering a course each; and Uni. 3 and Uni. 5 offered a course each in Local language. The remaining three: Reading, Integrity, and Interpersonal skills had three, four and five universities, respectively, offering a maximum of two courses. There were also some skills which all universities offered courses in but the numbers were very low. These were ICT, New Media, Critical/Analytical, and Entrepreneurship. In the skills framework, the first 11 skills were those requested by all media houses. According to them, these are necessary for the journalism profession. This implies that they placed a high level of importance on these skills. However, the same attention was not given to these skills by each university as was evidenced by the number of courses offered. Writing, for example, had Uni. 3 offering as 202 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh many as 12 courses but Uni.2 and Uni.6 offered only three courses each; the remaining five universities offered between five and seven courses. Similarly, for Reporting skill, while Uni. 5 had nine courses, majority of the others had only one course each. Differences in the number of courses were also found in other skills. Regarding Communication and Presentation skills, Uni. 8 had five courses but Uni. 4 had only one course; meanwhile, the others offered between two and four courses. With respect to Research skill, while Uni. 5 had seven courses, majority had three courses. For Production, Uni. 1 had seven courses but Uni. 6 had only two courses. Therefore, judging from the number of courses each university had for these skills, it can be said that some of the universities may be offering inadequate courses to handle these skill areas. Table 40 indicates that 12 of the mentioned skills were offered as topics within courses as well. However, topics may not compensate for full courses because in a full course all attention is on that particular skill, but when that skill is treated as a topic within a course it presupposes that other skills are also being taught. For instance, in a course like Print Media Production there were the following skills: reporting, writing, editing, and reading. This means that all these different skills will compete with each other resulting in the likelihood that some skills will be given more attention than others in the same course. Definitely when a skill is treated as a full course much attention is given to it than when it is treated as a topic within a course. Moreover, writing and reporting are core skills in journalism and they need to be given similar attention since these universities are all training for the same profession. All these differences in the number of courses 203 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for the respective skill areas indicate different levels of emphasis being places on these skills. The implication then is that, there are differences in the emphasis placed on various skills. Two other skills, ICT and New Media also had scant attention because of the very low number of courses. In fact, previous studies had also revealed the low level of ICT skills in communication training institutions in Africa (Ochilo, 1996, Kotia, 2010, Popoola, 2010, Allan, 2014). It can, therefore, be concluded that even though there is a growing importance of new media and online journalism, they got scant attention in the existing curricula. The implication is that students leave journalism schools and face technological realities they are hardly aware of, which places them in disadvantaged positions since they may not be able to perform optimally in that space unless they augment any skills gap with Continuous Professional Training (CPT). The low percentage of courses in New Media as well as ICT is not surprising in African institutions considering that developing countries are not as far advanced in the use of technology when compared to developed countries. For instance, over a decade ago, a study in the US revealed that employers were disturbed that Multimedia courses were taking over other skills like writing and researching in journalism curriculum (Birge, 2006); concerns also echoed by Usher (2009), Bhuiyan (2010) and Loo (2010). This study, however, did not confirm these findings. On the contrary, it revealed that even in this era of digitization there are still not enough Online, Digital and Multimedia courses in the journalism and communication curricula in Ghanaian universities. If Nankervis’s (2011) revelation that the market demands astute journalists who are 204 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh multi-skilled and have the ability to work across various media platforms is anything to go by, then much attention should be given to the inclusion of courses in the curricular that will equip students with multimedia skills in order for journalism graduates to meet the needs of the media industry. One would have expected that because the first 11 skills were priority skills since all media houses requested for them, the same emphasis in terms of similar number of courses will be given in the curriculum by the universities. This is because research over the years has confirmed that employers request such skills for the journalism profession (Dickson & Brandon, 2000; Birge, 2004; Pierce & Miller, 2007; Fahmy, 2008; Brown & Collins, 2010; Krumsvik, 2012; Cullen et al., 2014). Though evidence from literature indicates that priorities set by educators and professionals are not always the same, there is the likelihood that small discrepancies could have large implications; especially when different degrees of skill levels are attained from the universities which may imply that even though they are all providing education for the same profession competence levels may vary from one graduate to the other. Of the six skills that quite a number of universities had no courses in, three of them were among the first 11 skills all media houses requested for. These were interview, leadership and interpersonal skills. As many as six universities had no full course for interview skill as well as leadership skill; and three universities had no full courses in interpersonal skill, though they all had topics within courses. However, considering that skills that are offered as topics within courses may have less attention given them than when they were full courses, these universities are, 205 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in effect, not giving much emphasis to these skills as compared to those that have full courses in them. The study also found that some of the skills had inadequate courses. A skill that was required by more than half of the media houses was critical and analytical skills. However, all but one university offered only a course each which is woefully inadequate considering that the market demands critical and analytical employees especially in this technology-driven era. Moreover, studies have shown that critical thinking is an essential quality in the workplace for graduates (Nilsson, 2010; Edgar et al., 2013). In addition, Blom and Davenport (2012) have emphasized that aspiring journalists need critical thinking skills in addition to practical skills to create comprehensive and intelligent news messages in order to ensure that not only optimal information is given to the public at all times but also the Journalism profession will be enhanced. Furthermore, writing, news gathering and editing, though essential, are not enough for a complete journalism profession. This is because journalists do not only write, but are social reformers, political analysts, and environment advocates which require critical thinking skills to play all these roles. All these imply that more emphasis in the curricula in critical thinking skills will go a long way to help journalists to be well equipped for their job roles. Per their position on the skills framework, integrity/ethical values and local language were requested by less than half of the media houses implying that the media houses do not place much premium in these skill areas. However, since they were needed by some presupposes that they are relevant skills, even if not for all of the media houses. Regarding integrity, for instance, four universities offered no 206 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh courses neither did they offer topics within courses. The implication being courses to help instill ethical values in students were absent from their curricular. Three of the universities that offered such courses are faith-based universities which can explain the inclusion of such courses. Uni. 3, for instance, offered two courses (Religion, Morality and Social Values in Africa and Introduction to Biblical Studies) and Uni. 7 offered two courses (Introduction to Christianity and Christianity and Professional Ethics). Uni. 6 and Uni. 8, on the other hand, offered one course each (Religion and Christian Ethics and Ethics and Moral Values) respectively. Considering that a lot of the universities did not have courses to instill discipline indicates that they have not paid much attention to attitude in their curricula. All the universities offered courses in Media Law and Media Ethics which are aimed at getting students to be ethical in their reportage. Majority of the universities (6) offered the two as one course, while the remaining two universities offered them as separate courses. Similarly, majority of universities offered no courses in local languages. In fact, it was one of the skills with the lowest number of universities offering courses in. Uni. 3 and Uni. 5 were the only ones which offered courses; the former offered a course in Akan Language for Communication and the latter, Principles of Local Language Broadcasting. This finding presupposes that a very high percentage of the journalism training universities are not training people to handle local language broadcasting despite the plethora of local language radio stations across the country. Even the two universities which train journalists in local language have not placed much emphasis here considering that they offered only a course each. 207 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The two have also limited their local language course to one local language (Akan) whereas there are several local languages used by the broadcasting stations. The obvious explanation for this preference is that the Akan language is the local language predominately used, especially on radio. A few of the media houses requested for local language skills and that indicates that they require trained journalist in the local languages. This finding is significant because it indicates that media houses want trained journalists for all their programmes including those in local languages. Having journalists trained in local languages will help address the unprofessional trend of some media houses employing commentators or people who are fluent in the local languages to man the airwaves. The two universities’ attempt to provide local language skills is laudable and should be emulated by the others. They have started with the predominant language; the others should follow and add on to the languages as time goes on. There has been a concern over the years that journalism training shows a gap between academia and industry and that what happens in journalism classrooms is seldom informed by what takes place in the newsrooms (Ogong- Oganga, 2010 cited in Cobden, 2010). However, these findings have indicated that the skills requirements of the media houses are being offered in the universities. In effect, there is a fit between the content of journalism training offerings and job market needs indicating that journalism education is relevant to the practice in Ghana. These findings corroborate the assertion made by Finnie (2004) and Yan et al. (2013) that competencies learnt in higher education and the competencies 208 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh needed in the labour market had quite a high overlap implying a match between the two. The above notwithstanding, the findings also revealed that some skills in the framework were not provided in the curriculum of some universities. In other instances too, there were inadequate courses in some skills. All these imply that there are gaps between the skills provided in the curricula and the skills needed for the practice. Differences were also identified in the number of courses offered for a skill, duration of courses, and the fact that some skills were offered while others were not indicating that some skills had a better fit with the curriculum than others. All these point to some gap between supply and demand and so though universities were offering skills relevant to the practice, a gap between expected and actual was identified and its impact should be an eye opener for journalism education. The next section details the findings from the survey results. For statistical analysis purposes, the survey was conducted to validate the patterns realised from the qualitative data. 5.6 Findings from the Survey This study used a mixed methods approach so that the research problem could be examined in different ways to add more knowledge to the findings and provide a holistic picture of the phenomenon. Therefore, having examined the problem qualitatively to get an in-depth knowledge about journalism programmes in Ghanaian universities, a survey was conducted to verify the patterns so that the weakness minimization legitimation (Onwuegbuzie & Johnson, 2006) would be 209 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh achieved. Furthermore, this study was a comprehensive study on undergraduate journalism education in Ghanaian universities; therefore, having explored the issues, there was the need to validate results, explain the unexpected and explore new themes which can be achieved by a mixed methods approach. The findings from the survey are presented in the next section. 5.6.1 Survey Results from Universities and Media Houses Questionnaires administered to teaching staff of the universities and staff of the media houses used for the study provided various responses to address the research questions and test hypotheses. Findings are detailed below. Table 41: Distribution of background information of the respondents from the universities Background Frequency Percent Age 25-34 12 16.5% 35+years 58 83.5% Gender Male 67 96.4% Female 3 3.6% Educational Level Masters 56 80.6% PhD 14 19.4% Position HOD 7 10.0% Lecturer 50 71.2% Senior Lecturer 13 18.6% Years in Current Position Less than a year 3 4.3% 1-4 years 32 45.3% 5+years 35 50.4% Working Experience Less than a year 6 7.9% 1-4 years 23 33.1% 5+years 41 59.0% 210 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Specialization Journalism 29 41.4% Communication/ English 26 36.7% Visual Communication 3 4.7% Social Studies 3 4.7% Public Relations & Advertising 6 8.6% English & Literature 3 3.9% Table 41 shows the distribution of background characteristics of the respondents from the universities sampled. The distribution as indicated in the table shows that over 80.0 percent of the respondents from the universities were over 35 years old, while 16.5 percent were between 25-34 years. The distribution of gender of the respondents of the study indicated that almost all the respondents (96.4%) were male while less than 5.0 percent of the respondents from the universities were female. In terms of the distribution of the educational level of the respondents of the study, 80.6 percent of them were Masters’ degree holders, while 19.4 percent were PhD holders. With regards to the position of the respondents 10.0 percent of the respondents were Heads of Departments (HOD), 18.6 percent were Senior Lecturers while majority of them (71.2%) were Lecturers. The distribution of the number of years in current position reveals that a little over half (50.4%) of the respondents had been in their current position for five years and over, 45.3 percent had been in their current position between one to four years while 4.3 percent had been in their current position for less than a year. Meanwhile, more than half (59.0%) of the respondents had at least five years working experience, 33.1 percent had one to four years working experience, and almost 8.0 percent had less than one year working experience. The distribution of specialisation reveals that majority of the respondents (41.4%) specialised in Journalism, followed by 211 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Communication/English (36.7%), and then Public Relations and Advertising (8.6%). The rest of the participants majored in other courses such as Social Studies (4.7%), Visual Communication (4.7%), and English and Literature (3.9%). Table 42: Distribution of background information of respondents from the industry Background Frequency Percent Industry Print 34 37.4% Radio 27 29.7% TV 18 19.8% On-line 3 3.3% Others 9 9.9% Age 18-24 years 6 6.0% 25-34 years 30 30.0% 35+ years 64 64.0% Gender Male 48 48.0% Female 52 52.0% Educational Level Certificate 3 3.0% Diploma 9 9.0% Bachelor's Degree 48 48.0% Master's 37 37.0% PhD 3 3.0% Working Experience Less than a year 6 6.2% 1-4 years 24 24.7% 5+ years 67 69.1% Experience in Media Less than a year 3 3.0% 1-4 years 21 21.0% 5+ years 76 76.0% Table 42 shows the distribution of the background information of the respondents from industry. As shown in the table, majority of the respondents from industry were in the print industry (37.4%), followed by radio (29.7%), and then television (19.8%). The age distribution of the respondents of the study revealed 212 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that majority of them (64.0%) were at least 35 years, 30.0 percent were 25-34 years, while 6.0 percent were 18-24 years. The distribution of gender of the respondents from industry reveals that 52.0 percent of them were female, while 48.0 percent were male. With regards to the educational level of the respondents from industry, majority (48.0%) of them had Bachelor’s Degree, 37.0 percent had Masters’ Degree, and 9.0 percent had Diploma. On the other hand, 3.0 percent of the respondents from industry had either Certificate or PhD. The distribution of working experience of the respondents of the study revealed that 69.1 percent of them had at least five years working experience, 24.7 percent had one to four years working experience, while 6.2 percent had less than one year working experience. With respect to experience in the media, majority (76.0 %) of the respondents had at least five years’ experience in the media industry, 21.0 percent had one to four years’ experience in the media, while 3.0 percent had less than one year experience in the media. 5.6.1.1 Research Question Two What are the contents in the journalism curricula taught at the universities in Ghana? The main objective of this research question was to find out the journalism course contents taught at the universities in Ghana to determine whether the course contents have necessary ingredients to help the students acquire the necessary skills and knowledge for the world of work. To achieve this objective, the respondents from the universities sampled were asked about the course contents in the curricula 213 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of the journalism courses taught in their universities. The results of the analysis are shown in Table 43. The results as indicated in Table 43 indicates that the journalism course content in the curricula comprised three main areas – Professional Practice, Liberal Arts and Science, and Conceptual or Theory courses. Table 43: Descriptive statistics showing the contents in the curricula of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana Variables Mean Std. Dev. Min Max. Professional Practice Professional skills course in print journalism 4.04 1.27 1.00 5.00 Professional skills in broadcast journalism 4.08 1.35 1.00 5.00 Professional skills course in online and digital technology 4.04 0.88 2.00 5.00 Professional skills course in public relations and advertising 4.13 1.26 1.00 5.00 Liberal Arts and Science Communication skills and competence course 4.08 1.28 1.00 5.00 Liberal arts and science courses 3.17 1.40 1.00 5.00 Investigative journalism course 3.96 1.19 1.00 5.00 Science/health/environment 3.25 1.33 1.00 5.00 Conceptual Courses Conceptual knowledge course in mass communication. 4.04 1.40 1.00 5.00 Conceptual knowledge in media ethics and law 4.35 1.19 1.00 5.00 Knowledge in communication theories and models 3.17 1.40 1.00 5.00 Conceptual knowledge in media history and culture 3.65 1.19 1.00 5.00 The respondents from the universities indicated that the Professional Practice course content in the journalism curricula consists of professional skills courses in Print Journalism (M=4.04, SD=1.27), professional skills in Broadcast Journalism (M=4.08, SD=1.35), professional skills courses in Online and Digital Technology (M=4.04, SD=0.88), and professional skills courses in Public Relations and Advertising (M=4.13, SD=1.26). The Liberal Arts and Science 214 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh course content in the journalism curricula were indicated by the respondents of the study to include Communication Skills and Competence courses (M=4.08, SD=1.28), Liberal Arts and Science courses (M=3.17, SD=1.40), Investigative Journalism courses (M=3.96, SD=1.19), and Science/ Health /Environment (M=3.25, SD=1.33). The Conceptual course content as reported by the respondents from the universities include conceptual knowledge course in Mass Communication (M=4.04, SD=1.40), conceptual knowledge in Media Ethics and Law (M=4.35, SD=1.19), knowledge in Communication Theories and Models (M=3.17, SD=1.40), and conceptual knowledge in Media History and Culture (M=3.65, SD=1.19). 5.6.1.2 Research Question Three: To what extent do the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana follow international journalism standards? The objective of this research question was to determine the extent to which the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana follow international journalism standards. To achieve this objective of the study, the respondents from the universities were asked about the journalism course content in respect to the international journalism standards. The findings are shown in Table 44. The respondents of the study as indicated in Table 44 revealed that in terms of the journalism course content at the universities, there is Theory (M=3.83, SD=1.40), Liberal Arts (M=3.83, SD=1.23), and Practice (M=3.26, SD=1.29). The respondents also indicated that in terms of ICT and Globalization, the universities 215 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh have computer-based courses (M=3.57, SD=0.90), courses that deal with globalization or global perspective (M=3.76, SD=0.77) and a mixture of academics and practitioners of faculty members (M=3.91, SD=1.20). In terms of industry skills acquisition, the respondents from the universities reported that universities run eight semesters course related to writing (M=3.74, SD=1.14), six semesters course related to reporting (M=3.64, SD=1.09), and eight semesters course related to reading (M=3.52, SD=1.12). On the other hand, the respondents of the study reported that apart from the Ethical Principle (M=3.87, SD=1.25), Media Studies (M=4.17, SD=1.31), and Media Management and Business Practice (M=3.87, SD=1.22) courses that the universities run, they have a minimum of four weeks internship program for the students (M=4.00, SD=1.13). Table 44: Descriptive statistics showing the extent to which the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana follow international journalism standards Variables Mean Std. Dev. Min Max. Journalism Course Content Theory 3.83 1.40 1.00 5.00 Liberal Arts and Science 3.88 1.23 1.00 5.00 Practice 3.26 1.29 1.00 5.00 ICT, Globalization, and Faculty Computer-based (course) 3.57 0.90 2.00 5.00 Global perspective (course) 3.76 0.77 2.00 5.00 Faculty (mix of academics and 3.91 1.20 1.00 5.00 practitioners) Industry Skills Writing-8 semesters 3.74 1.14 1.00 5.00 Reporting-6 semesters 3.64 1.09 1.00 5.00 Reading -8 semesters 3.52 1.12 1.00 5.00 Media, Ethics, and Internship Internship -4weeks 4.00 1.13 1.00 5.00 Ethical principles (course) 3.87 1.25 1.00 5.00 Media studies (course) 4.17 1.31 1.00 5.00 Media management and business 3.87 1.22 1.00 5.00 practice (course) 216 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6.1.3 Research Question Four How do industry players perceive journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana? The objective of this research question was to explore how the industry players perceive the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. To achieve this objective, the industry players were asked about their perception of the journalism courses in general, as well as the industry skills of the journalism course. The results of the analyses are shown in Tables 45 and 46. Table 45: Descriptive statistics showing the perception of industry players on journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana Perception Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. Efficiency of graduate students at job 3.89 0.54 1.00 5.00 Understanding the values of journalism 4.46 0.82 1.00 5.00 Abilities in news gathering (editing and presenting the 4.43 0.80 1.00 5.00 news) Multimedia skills 4.34 0.91 1.00 5.00 Getting students hired in a media organization 3.65 1.13 1.00 5.00 Journalism education is keeping up with industry 3.00 1.04 1.00 5.00 changes Journalism education preparing graduates for today's 2.78 0.93 1.00 5.00 job market Table 45 shows the perception of the industry players about the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. As shown in the Table, the respondents from industry indicated that graduates are efficient on the job (M=3.89, SD=0.54). They also indicated that graduates understand the values of journalism (M=4.46, SD=0.82). The industry players also reported of the abilities of the graduate in gathering news (M=4.43, SD=0.80). Multimedia skills of the graduate were also identified by the industry players (M=4.34, SD=0.91). The industry players reported that they are able to get the required graduates to hire in the media 217 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organization (M=3.65, SD=1.13). However, when it comes to the journalism education keeping up with industry changes, the industry players neither agreed nor disagreed with that. Meanwhile, the industry players were clear when it comes to journalism education in preparing graduates for today’s job market. They disagreed that journalism education prepares graduates for today's job market (M=2.78, SD=0.93). Table 46: Descriptive statistics showing the perception of industry players on journalism graduates industry skills in Ghana Variables Mean Std. Dev. Min Max. Writing Skills Writing 4.33 1.34 1.00 5.00 Interview 4.23 1.07 1.00 5.00 New Media / Online 4.13 1.25 1.00 5.00 Reporting Skills Reporting 4.38 1.24 1.00 5.00 Pre-production, Production & Post-production 3.83 1.24 1.00 5.00 Critical and analytical thinking 4.00 1.13 1.00 5.00 Editing 3.96 1.33 1.00 5.00 Leadership Skills Interpersonal / networking 3.77 1.19 1.00 5.00 Leadership 3.65 1.03 1.00 5.00 Integrity, strong ethical values 4.00 1.13 1.00 5.00 Knowledge of law and ethics 4.09 1.38 1.00 5.00 Reading and Numeracy Skills Reading 3.55 1.22 1.00 5.00 Numeracy 3.45 1.18 1.00 5.00 English Language 4.04 1.33 1.00 5.00 Local Language 2.29 1.38 1.00 5.00 French Language 3.33 1.43 1.00 5.00 Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills ICT 3.96 1.08 1.00 5.00 Research 4.13 1.33 1.00 5.00 Entrepreneurship 3.87 1.22 1.00 5.00 Table 46 presents the results of the perception of the industry players about the industry skills they need from the journalism graduate. In terms of the writing 218 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh skills, the industry players reported that they need graduates to have skills in writing (M=4.33, SD=1.34), interviewing (M=4.23, SD=1.07), and new media/online (M=4.13, SD=1.25). With regards to reporting skills, the industry players reported that they require journalism graduates to possess skills in reporting (M=4.38, SD=1.24), pre-production, production & post-production (M=3.83, SD=1.24), critical and analytical thinking (M=4.00, SD=1.13), as well as editing (M=3.96, SD=1.33). Interpersonal/networking skills (M=3.77, SD=1.19), leadership skills (M=3.65, SD=1.03), integrity and strong ethical values (M=4.00, SD=1.13), and knowledge of law and ethics (M=4.09, SD=1.38) are the leadership skills that the industry players require journalism graduates to possess. The industry players also require graduates to possess reading and numeracy skills as follows: reading (M=3.55, SD=1.22), numeracy (M=3.45, SD=1.18), English language (M=4.04, SD=1.33), and French language (M=3.33, SD=1.43). The graduate journalism students are also required by the industry players to acquire skills in the area of ICT (M=3.96, SD=1.08), Research (M=4.13, SD=1.33), and Entrepreneurship (M=3.87, SD=1.22). 5.6.1.4 Quantitative Research Hypotheses H1: The journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana are likely to conform to international journalism standards. To test this research hypothesis, Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression analysis were performed on the data. The Pearson correlation was used to determine the direction of the relationship between the journalism courses taught 219 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh at the universities in Ghana and international journalism standards. The multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine the linear impact of the international journalism standards on the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the analyses are shown in Tables 47 and 48. 220 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 47: Correlation analysis showing the relationship between journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and international journalism standards Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Controls Age 33.64 18.65 1 No. of students 2785.86 1552.51 .709** 1 Ownership 1.26 0.44 .871** .846** 1 Nature of Univ. 1.48 0.50 -.392** -.283** -.570** 1 Status 1.26 0.44 .871** .846** .942** -.570** 1 Dependent Variables Professional 4.04 1.13 .191* .204* .283** .040 .283** 1 Practice Liberal Arts and 3.61 0.93 .374** .243** .406** -.085 .406** .709** 1 Science Conceptual 3.79 1.19 .174* .260** .229** -.002 .229** .804** .700** 1 Courses Independent Variables Journalism 3.62 1.17 .349** .446** .448** -.142 .448** .782** .744** .913** 1 Course Content ICT, 3.64 0.92 .091 .024 -.021 .318** -.021 .708** .523** .670** .597** 1 Globalization, and Faculty Industry Skills 3.60 1.04 .020 .383** .269** -.065 .269** .514** .307** .433** .512** .313** 1 Media, Ethics 3.91 1.20 .193* .254** .272** .061 .272** .871** .645** .869** .867** .698** .502** 1 and Internship Notes: *p<0.05; **p<0.01. 221 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 47 shows the results of the Pearson correlation analysis of the relationship between journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and international Journalism standards. The results of the Pearson correlation show the separate correlation of control variables (age, number of students, ownership of university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university) and the independent or the explanatory variables. As shown in the table, in terms of the control variables, the age of the university exhibits a positive significant correlation with the Professional Practice course content (r = .191, p < .05) , the Liberal Arts and Science course content (r = .374, p < .01) , and the Conceptual course content (r = .174, p < .05) In terms of number of students, the results of the Pearson correlation analysis show that the number of students the universities possess has a significant positive correlation with the Professional Practice course content (r = .204, p < .05) , the Liberal Arts and Science course content (r = .243, p < .01) , and the Conceptual course content (r = .260, p < .05).With regards to ownership of university, the results of the Pearson correlation analysis show that the university’s ownership has a significant positive correlation with the Professional Practice course content (r = .283, p < .01) , the Liberal Arts and Science course content (r = .406, p < .01) , and the Conceptual course content (r = .229, p < .01) . In terms of the status of the university, whether it is an affiliated university or not affiliated, the results of the Pearson correlation analysis 222 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh show that the status of the university has a significant positive correlation with the Professional Practice course content (r = .283, p < .01) , the Liberal Arts and Science course content (r = .406, p < .01) , and the Conceptual course content (r = .229, p < .01) . The results of the Pearson correlation analysis show that the professional practice in the journalism course curricula has a significant positive correlation with the journalism course content (r = .782, p < .01) , the industry skills requirement (r = .514, p < .01) , the ICT, globalization, and faculty mix requirement (r = .708, p < .01) , and the media, ethics and internship course requirement (r = .871, p < .01) . The Liberal Arts and Science courses in the journalism course curricula have a significant positive correlation with the journalism course content (r = .744, p < .01) , the industry skills requirement (r = .307, p < .01) , the ICT, globalization, and faculty mix requirement (r = .523, p < .01) , and the media, ethics and internship course requirement (r = .645, p < .01) . The Conceptual course content in the journalism course curricula has a significant positive correlation with the journalism course content (r = .913, p < .01), the industry skills requirement (r = .433, p < .01) , the ICT, globalization, and faculty mix requirement (r = .670, p < .01) , and the media, ethics and internship course requirement (r = .869, p < .01) . 223 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 48: Regression analysis showing the impact of international journalism standards on the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana Model I Model II Model III Variables b t b t b t Constant 4.821 2.733 1.796** 4.200 1.062 1.709 Controls Age .323** 12.785 .230** 8.784 .230** 6.835 No. of students .123* 2.220 .002 1.659 .321** 4.244 Ownership .070 1.263 .109 .695 .086 .386 Nature of Univ. .398** 10.577 .995** 4.108 .220** 6.306 Independent Variables Journalism Course Content .196** 4.276 .511** 6.240 .523** 4.178 ICT, Globalization, and Faculty .182** 3.037 .064 .758 .180 1.465 Industry Skills .685** 12.052 .236** 6.688 -.083 -.720 Media, Ethics and Internship .439** 6.036 .404** 7.613 .334** 6.396 R2 0.886 0.783 0.807 F 156.06 42.08 19.91 Note: Model I: international journalism standards vs. professional practice; Model II: international journalism standards vs. liberal arts and sciences; Model III: international journalism standards vs. conceptual course content. *p<0.05; **p<0.01. 224 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 48 shows the results of the multiple linear regression analysis of the impact of international journalism standards on the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana. Model I shows the impact of the international journalism standards on the professional practice course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana. The results indicate that among the controls, age of the university (b = .323, t =12.785, p < .01) , the number of students of the university (b = .123, t = 2.220, p < .01) , and the status of the university (b = .398, t =10.577, p < .01) have a linear significant impact on the professional practice course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the regression analysis indicate that among the explanatory variables, international journalism course content (b = .196, t = 4.276, p < .01) , the ICT, globalization, and faculty mix requirement (b = .182, t = 3.037, p < .01) , the industry skills requirement (b = .685, t =12.052, p < .01) , and the media, ethics and internship course requirement (b = .439, t = 6.036, p < .01)have a linear significant effect on the professional practice course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) indicate that 88.6 percent of the variation in the professional practice course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by the international journalism standards combined with the control variables (age, number of students, ownership of university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university). The results of the F-statistics show that the multiple linear regression model in predicting the impact of 225 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the international journalism standards on the professional practice course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana is a good model. Model II shows the impact of the international journalism standards on the Liberal Arts and Sciences course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana. The results indicate that among the controls, age of the university (b = .230, t = 8.784, p < .01) , and the status of the university (b = .995, t = 4.108, p < .01)have a linear significant impact on the Liberal Arts and Sciences course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the regression analysis indicate that among the explanatory variables, international journalism course content (b = .511, t = 6.240, p < .01) , the industry skills requirement (b = .236, t = 6.688, p < .01) , and the media, ethics and internship course requirement (b = .404, t = 7.613, p < .01) have a linear significant impact on the Liberal Arts and Sciences course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the coefficient of determination (R 2 ) indicate that 78.3 percent of the variation in the Liberal Arts and Sciences course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by the international journalism standards combined with the control variables (age, number of students, ownership of university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university). The results of the F-statistics show that the multiple linear regression model in predicting the impact of international journalism standards on the Liberal Arts and Sciences 226 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana is a good model. Model III shows the impact of the international journalism standards on the Conceptual Course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana. The results indicates that among the controls, age of the university (b = .230, t = 6.835, p < .01) , the number of students (b = .321, t = 4.244, p < .01) , and the status of the university (b = .220, t = 6.306, p < .01)have a linear significant impact on the conceptual course content of the journalism course taught at the tertiary institutions in Ghana. The results of the regression analysis indicates that among the explanatory variables, international journalism course content (b = .523, t = 4.178, p < .01) , and the media, ethics and internship course requirement (b = .334, t = 6.396, p < .01)have a linear significant impact on the Conceptual course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) indicates that 80.7 per cent of the variation in the Conceptual course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by the international Journalism standards combined with the control variables (age, number of students, ownership of university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university). The results of the F-statistics show that the multiple linear regression model in predicting the impact of international journalism standards 227 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh on the conceptual course content of the journalism course taught at the tertiary institutions in Ghana is a good model. 5.6.1.5 Research Hypothesis H2: The journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana are likely to conform to local industry requirements. To test this research hypothesis, Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression analysis were performed on the data. The Pearson correlation was used to determine the direction of the relationship between the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and local industry requirements. The multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine the linear impact of the local industry requirements on the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the analyses are shown in Tables 49 and 50. . 228 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 49: Correlation analysis showing the relationship between journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and the local industry requirements Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Controls Age 33.64 18.65 1 No. of students 2785.86 1552.51 .709** 1 Ownership 1.26 0.44 .871** .846** 1 Nature of Univ. 1.48 0.50 -.392** -.283** -.570** 1 Status 1.26 0.44 .871** .846** .942** -.570** 1 Dependent Variables Professional Practice 4.04 1.13 .191* .204* .283** .040 .283** 1 Liberal Arts and Science 3.61 0.93 .374** .243** .406** -.085 .406** .709** 1 Conceptual Courses 3.79 1.19 .174* .260** .229** -.002 .229** .804** .700** 1 Independent Variables Writing Skills 4.20 1.23 .145 .270** .280** .025 .280** .909** .716** .834** 1 Reporting Skills 4.00 1.13 .171* .268** .283** .042 .283** .938** .756** .822** .944** 1 Leadership Skills 3.77 1.08 .130 .315** .307** .044 .307** .914** .723** .767** .928** .963** 1 Reading and Numeracy Skills 3.26 0.95 .141 .295** .323** -.074 .323** .830** .774** .810** .852** .896** .909** 1 Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills 3.98 1.12 .191* .217* .273** .087 .273** .945** .733** .844** .942** .950** .893** .834** 1 Notes: *p<0.05; **p<0.01 229 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 49 shows the results of the Pearson correlation analysis of the relationship between the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and the local industry requirements. The results show the correlation of control variables (age, number of students, ownership of university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university) and the explanatory variables. As shown in the table, in terms of the control variables, the age of the university is shown to have a positive significant correlation with the Professional Practice course content (r = .191, p < .05) , the Liberal Arts and Science course content (r = .374, p < .01) , and the Conceptual course content (r = .174, p < .05). With respect to the number of students, the results of the Pearson correlation analysis shows that the number of students enrolled at the university has a significant positive correlation with the Professional Practice course content (r = .204, p < .05) , the Liberal Arts and Science course content (r = .243, p < .01) , and the Conceptual course content (r = .260, p < .05). In terms of ownership of university, the results of the Pearson correlation analysis show that universities’ ownership has a significant positive correlation with the Professional Practice course content (r = .283, p < .01) , the Liberal Arts and Science course content (r = .406, p < .01) , and the Conceptual course content (r = .229, p < .01) . The results of the Pearson correlation analysis show that the status of the university has a significant positive correlation with the Professional Practice course content (r = .283, p < .01) , the Liberal Arts and Science course content (r = .406, p < .01) , and the Conceptual course content (r = .229, p < .01) . 230 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The results of the Pearson correlation analysis show that the Professional Practice in the journalism course curricula has a significant positive correlation with the Writing Skills (r = .909, p < .01) , Reporting Skills (r = .938, p < .01) , Leadership Skills (r = .914, p < .01) , Reading and Numeracy Skills (r = .830, p < .01) , and the Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills (r = .945, p < .01)of the local industry requirements. The Liberal Arts and Science courses in the journalism course curricula has a significant positive correlation with the Writing Skills (r = .716, p < .01) , Reporting Skills (r = .756, p < .01) , Leadership Skills (r = .723, p < .01) , Reading and Numeracy Skills (r = .774, p < .01) , and the Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills (r = .733, p < .01) of the local industry requirements. The Conceptual course content in the journalism course curricula has a significant positive correlation with the Writing Skills (r = .834, p < .01) , Reporting Skills (r = .822, p < .01) , Leadership Skills (r = .767, p < .01) , Reading and Numeracy Skills (r = .810, p < .01) , and the Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills (r = .844, p < .01)of the local industry requirements. 231 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 50: Regression analysis showing the impact of the local industry requirements on the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana Variables Model I Model II Model III b t b t b t Constant .504 12.294 .433 10.675 .342 8.163 Controls Age .115** 3.297 .637** 16.047 .321** 6.345 No. of students .375** 6.939 .262** 6.380 .859** 19.320 Ownership .836** 12.844 .095 1.964 .115* 2.553 Nature of Univ. .275** 4.456 .294** 7.809 .168* 2.232 Independent Variables Writing Skills .695** 10.219 .650** 15.908 .757** 15.300 Reporting Skills .200** 2.850 .351** 6.331 .330** 6.455 Leadership Skills .204** 3.053 .249** 5.072 .290** 5.863 Reading and Numeracy Skills .309** 5.289 .172** 3.999 .270** 5.540 Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills .410** 6.794 .637** 12.835 .110** 2.831 R2 .981 .925 .918 F 137.976 230.458 210.458 Note: Model I: industry skills vs. professional practice; Model II: industry skills vs. liberal arts and sciences; Model III: industry skills vs. conceptual course content. *p<0.05; **p<0.01 232 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 50 shows the results of the multiple linear regression analysis of the impact of local industry requirements on the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. Model I shows the impact of the local industry requirements on the Professional Practice course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. The results indicates that among the controls, age of the university (b = .115, t = 3.297, p < .01) , the number of students of the university (b = .375, t = 6.939, p < .01) , the nature of the university (full journalism course or mixed) (b = .836, t =12.844, p < .01) and the status of the university (b = .275, t = 4.456, p < .01) have a linear significant impact on the Professional Practice course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the regression analysis indicates that Writing Skills (b = .695, t =10.219, p < .01), Reporting Skills (b = .2.00, t = 2.850, p < .01) , Leadership Skills (b = .204, t = 3.053, p < .01) , Reading and Numeracy Skills (b = .309, t = 5.289, p < .01) , and Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills (b = .410, t = 6.794, p < .01) have a linear significant impact on the Professional Practice course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the coefficient of determination (R 2 ) indicate that about 98.1 per cent of the variation in the Professional Practice course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by the local industry requirements combined with the control variables (age, number of students, ownership of university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university). The results of the F-statistics 233 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh show that the multiple linear regression model in predicting the impact of the local industry requirements on the Professional Practice course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana is a good model. Model II shows the impact of the local industry requirements on the Liberal Arts and Sciences course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. The results indicate that among the controls, age of the university (b = .637, t =16.047, p < .01) , the number of students of the university (b = .262, t = 6.380, p < .01) , and the status of the university (b = .294, t = 7.809, p < .01) have a linear significant impact on the professional practice course content of the Journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the regression analysis indicate that Writing Skills (b = .650, t =15.908, p < .01), Reporting Skills (b = .351, t = 6.331, p < .01) , Leadership Skills (b = .249, t = 5.072, p < .01) , Reading and Numeracy Skills (b = .172, t = 3.999, p < .01) , and Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills (b = .637, t =12.835, p < .01)have a linear significant impact on the Liberal Arts and Sciences course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the coefficient of determination (R 2 ) indicate that about 92.5 per cent of the variation in the Liberal Arts and Sciences course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by the local industry requirements combined with the control variables (age, number of students, ownership 234 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university). The results of the F-statistics show that the multiple linear regression model in predicting the impact of the local industry requirements on the Liberal Arts and Sciences course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana is a good model. Model III shows the impact of the local industry requirements on the Conceptual course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. The results indicate that among the controls, age of the university (b = .321, t = 6.345, p < .01) , the number of students of the university (b = .859, t =19.320, p < .01) , the nature of the university (full journalism course or mixed) (b = .115, t = 2.553, p < .05) , and the status of the university (b = .168, t = 2.232, p < .05)have a linear significant impact on the Conceptual course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the regression analysis indicate that Writing Skills (b = .757, t =15.300, p < .01), Reporting Skills (b = .330, t = 6.455, p < .01) , Leadership Skills (b = .290, t = 5.863, p < .01) , Reading and Numeracy Skills (b = .270, t = 5.540, p < .01) , and Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills (b = .110, t = 2.831, p < .01)have a linear significant impact on the Conceptual course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. The results of the coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) indicate that about 91.8 per cent of the variation in the Conceptual course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in 235 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana is explained by the local industry requirements combined with the control variables (age, number of students, ownership of university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university). The results of the F-statistics show that the multiple linear regression model in predicting the impact of the local industry requirements on the Conceptual course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana is a good model. 5.6.1.6 Research Hypothesis H3: The journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana are likely to have an effect on the journalism industry. This research hypothesis was tested using Pearson correlation and the multiple linear regression analysis. The Pearson correlation was employed to determine the nature of the relationship between the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and the journalism industry, while the multiple linear regression analysis was adopted to examine the effect the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana have on the journalism industry. Tables 51 and 52 show the results of the analyses. Table 51 shows the results of the Pearson correlation analysis of the relationship between the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and the journalism industry. The results show the correlation of the control variables (age, number of students, ownership of university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university) and the explanatory variables. As shown in the table, in terms of 236 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the control variables, the number of students of the university (r = .176, p < .05) , the ownership of university, the nature of the university (full journalism course or mixed) (r = .252, p < .01) and status of the university (r = .252, p < .01) exhibit a positive significant correlation with the journalism industry. In terms of the explanatory variables, the results of the Pearson correlation analysis show that the Professional Practice (r = .895, p < .01) , the Liberal Arts and Science (r = .529, p < .01) , and the Conceptual courses (r = .763, p < .01) have a positive significant correlation with the journalism industry. 237 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 51: Correlation analysis showing the relationship between journalism courses taught at universities in Ghana and industry impact Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Controls Age 33.64 18.65 1 No. of students 2785.86 1552.51 .709** 1 Ownership 1.26 0.44 .871** .846** 1 Nature of Univ. 1.48 0.50 -.392** -.283** -.570** 1 Status 1.26 0.44 .871** .846** .942** -.570** 1 Independent Variables Professional Practice 4.04 1.13 .191* .204* .283** .040 .283** 1 Liberal Arts and Science 3.61 0.93 .374** .243** .406** -.085 .406** .709** 1 Conceptual Courses 3.79 1.19 .174* .260** .229** -.002 .229** .804** .700** 1 Dependent Variable Industry Impact 4.35 1.18 .159 .176* .252** -.015 .252** .895** .529** .763** 1 Notes: *p<0.05; **p<0.01. 238 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 52: Regression analysis showing the association between journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and industry impact Industry impact Variables b t Constant 1.204** 3.102 Controls Age of University .007 1.314 Number of students 0.01 .821 Full journalism course or mixed .397** 6.854 Status of university .362** 5.806 Independent Variables Professional Practice .906** 11.586 Liberal Arts and Science .199** 2.597 Conceptual Courses .354** 4.941 R2 .853 F 103.574 Notes: *p<0.05; **p<0.01. Table 52 shows the results of the multiple linear regression analysis of the effect the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana have in the journalism industry. The results show that among the controls, nature of the university (full journalism course or mixed) (b = .397, t = 6.854, p < .01), and status of the university (b = .362, t = 5.806, p < .01)were found to be significant predictors of the dependent variable (industry impact). The rest of the controls were not significant. The results of the regression analysis indicate that Professional Practice (b = .906, t =11.586, p < .01),Liberal Arts and Science (b = .199, t = 2.597, p < .01), and Conceptual courses (b = .354, t = 4.941, p < .01)all have a significant effect in the industry of course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana. 239 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The results of the coefficient of determination (R 2 ) indicate that 85.3 per cent of the variation in the journalism industry is explained by the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana combined with the control variables (age, number of students, ownership of university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university). The results of the F-statistics show that the multiple linear regression model in predicting the effect of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana on the journalism industry is a good model. 5.6.1.7 Research Hypothesis H4: The journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana are likely to affect the chances of employability of the graduate. This research hypothesis was tested using Pearson correlation and the multiple linear regression analysis. The Pearson correlation was employed to determine the nature of the relationship between the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and graduate students’ employability, while the multiple linear regression analysis was used to examine the effect of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana on the graduate students’ employability. Tables 53 and 54 show the results of the analyses. Table 53 shows the results of the Pearson correlation analysis of the relationship between the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and the graduate students’ employability. The analysis shows the results of the control variables (age, number of students, ownership of university, full journalism 240 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh course or mixed, and status of university) and the explanatory variables. As shown in the table, none of the control variables were found to have a significant correlation with the graduate students’ employability. However, in terms of the explanatory variables, the results of the Pearson correlation analysis show that the Professional Practice (r = .628, p < .01) , the Liberal Arts and Science (r = .673, p < .01) and the Conceptual courses (r = .884, p < .01)have a positive significant correlation with the graduate students’ employability. 241 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 53: Correlation analysis showing the relationship between journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and graduate students’ employability. Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Controls Age 33.64 18.65 1 No. of students 2785.86 1552.51 .709** 1 Ownership 1.26 0.44 .871** .846** 1 Nature of Univ. 1.48 0.50 -.392** -.283** -.570** 1 Status 1.26 0.44 .871** .846** .942** -.570** 1 Independent Variables Professional Practice 4.04 1.13 .191* .204* .283** .040 .283** 1 Liberal Arts and Science 3.61 0.93 .374** .243** .406** -.085 .406** .709** 1 Conceptual Courses 3.79 1.19 .174* .260** .229** -.002 .229** .804** .700** 1 Dependent Variable Employability 3.17 1.39 .056 .107 .147 -.132 .147 .628** .673** .884** 1 Notes: *p<0.05; **p<0.01. 242 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 54: Regression analysis showing the relationship between journalism courses taught at universities in Ghana and graduate students’ employability Employability Variables b t Constant .316 .790 Controls Age of University .001 .017 Number of students .010 .132 Full journalism course or mixed .021 .809 Status of university .092 .862 Independent Variables Professional Practice .549** 6.785 Liberal Arts and Science .282** 3.542 Conceptual Courses .981** 16.503 R2 .881 F 132.714 Notes: *p<0.05; **p<0.01 Table 54 shows the results of the multiple linear regression analysis of the impact the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana have on the graduate students’ employability. The results show that among the controls, none of them showed a significant effect on the graduate students’ employability. In terms of the explanatory variables, the results of the regression analysis indicates that professional practice (b = .549, t = 6.785, p < .01),liberal arts and science (b = .282, t = 3.542, p < .01) , and conceptual courses (b = .981, t =16.503, p < .01)all have a significant impact on the graduate students’ employability. The results of the coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) indicates that 88.1 percent of the variation in the graduate students’ employability is explained by the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana combined with the control variables (age, number of students, ownership of 243 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh university, full journalism course or mixed, and status of university). The results of the F-statistics show that the multiple linear regression model in predicting the impact of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana on the graduate students’ employability is a good model. 5.6.1.8 Research Hypothesis H5: There would be a significant difference between the skills taught in the journalism courses and industry skills requirement. This research hypothesis was tested to determine the fit of the skills taught in the journalism courses and industry skills requirements. The hypothesis was tested using paired-sample t-test. The results of the test are shown in Table 55. As shown in Table 55, the results of the paired sample t-test reveal that there is a significant difference between the taught skills in the journalism courses and the industry skills requirement when it comes to the reporting skills (p < .05) , leadership skills (p < .01) , reading and numeracy skills (p < .01) , and entrepreneurship and ICT skills (p < .05) . However, the results of the paired sample t-test show no significant difference between the taught skills in the journalism courses and the industry skills requirement when it comes to writing skills (p > .05). 244 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 55: Pair-sampled t-test showing the difference between the taught skills in the journalism courses and industry skills requirement Skills taught at Industry skills Difference in school requirements means (skills Std. Std. taught vs. p- Variables Mean Dev Mean Dev. industry skills) value Writing Skills 4.48 0.92 4.46 0.93 0.02 0.065 Reporting Skills 4.35 0.90 4.34 0.91 0.01 0.013 Leadership Skills 4.20 0.92 4.19 0.93 0.02 0.002 Reading and Numeracy Skills 4.02 0.91 4.00 0.92 0.03 0.000 Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills 4.24 0.45 4.23 0.45 0.01 0.022 5.7 Summary of Findings 5.7.1 Structure and Content The structure and content of undergraduate journalism education sought to examine how the undergraduate journalism programmes were organised in Ghanaian universities. Six of the eight universities sampled provided undergraduate journalism education under a four-year BA degree in Communication Studies. The other two, one offered a four-year BA degree in Journalism and Mass Communication, and another a four year BA degree in Journalism. These findings reflect differences in the qualification for journalism education in Ghanaian universities. With regards to the content of the curricula, both similarities and difference were found among universities. The similarities were identified in the courses offered as well as in the course contents and course categories. Some courses were 245 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh offered by all universities or majority of them. Similarities were also seen in industry skills requirements where all or majority of universities offered courses in those skills. Again similarities were found in how the courses were taught. Courses were handled both theoretically and practically implying that the teaching of these courses was an integration of theory and practice where students are taken through the principles of these courses and then they used those principles to the application of the skills. Determining whether this happens in reality through observation was beyond the scope of this study. The differences, on the other hand, were seen in courses offered by some and not by others. Furthermore, the percentage of courses each university had for each course category varied suggesting that some offered more courses than others in these categories to account for the differences. Moreover, while in some universities courses were offered as core courses, in others they were electives. The revelation about elective courses indicated that some elective courses may not be offered at all due to lack of lecturers or not many students opting for them. Differences were also detected in the number of courses offered for each skill area as well as the duration used in teaching these courses. Some skills had more courses being offered in them by some universities than others. There were also variations in the number of courses offered by universities for some industry skills requirements. Similarly, there were also differences in the number of semesters used to teach each skill implying variation in the emphasis given to each course by each university. 246 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Regarding the three main categories in journalism curriculum the universities’ orientations were as follows: 1. Uni. 1 and Uni. 5 had the highest number of courses in Professional Practice followed by Liberal Arts and Science courses and then Theory courses. 2. Uni. 2, Uni. 3 and Uni. 7 had the highest number of courses in Professional Practice followed by theory courses and then Liberal Arts and Science courses. 3. Uni. 4 had the highest number of courses in theory followed by Liberal Arts and Science courses and then Professional Practice courses. 4. Uni. 8 had the highest number of courses in Theory followed by Professional Practice courses and then Liberal Arts and Science courses. 5. Uni. 6 had the highest number of courses in Liberal Arts and Science and then an equal number of Professional Practice courses and Theory courses. The orientations of Ghanaian universities with respect to journalism education point to variations in the way the three are represented in the curricula. While majority had their highest number of courses in Professional Practice, there were differences in the positions of the other two components. Similarly, the two universities which had the highest number of courses in Theory had different positions for the other two components. One university had equal number of courses for theory and practice. The differences can be attributed to the disagreements that exist as to which direction a journalism degree should take. 247 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Should the direction be generalist, journalistic, theory-oriented or practical in nature (Yusof et al., 2018)? 5.7.2 Journalism Courses and International Standards The quality of journalism curricula offered in the universities was first measured against national standards. In as far as all the universities had been accredited implied that they had all met the national standard set by GTEC. This indicated that all national quality assurance criteria had been met by the universities. Furthermore, in as far as the journalism course contents in the universities are concerned the results indicated that their development relied on international journalism standards. The results of the Pearson correlation analysis, for example, pointed to a significant positive correlation between the two. Similarly, the regression analysis results indicated a significant impact of more than 75 percent influence of international standards on the journalism courses; thereby, confirming the hypothesis that: The journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana conform to international journalism standards. There is, however, more room for improvement since not all the components of international standards were fully satisfied as the correlation analysis results indicated. 5.7.3 Journalism Courses and Industry Skills Requirement Various statistical tests were used to determine the level of fit between industry skill requirements and curriculum content. The regression analysis results showed a positive significant correlation between the journalism courses and industry skill requirements and revealed a significant impact of more than 90 248 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh percent for all three models. These results point to the fact that when developing curriculum, universities take into consideration local industry skills requirements. This connection notwithstanding, a gap was equally identified. The results of a paired-sample t-test used to determine the level of the fit indicated that there is a significant difference between the skills taught in the journalism courses and industry skills requirement in four of the five skill categories. The five skill categories are Writing Skills, Reporting Skills, Leadership Skills, Reading and Numeracy Skills, and Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills. Writing Skills was the only skill category that the paired-sample t-test showed no significant difference between what is taught and what is expected. In other words, writing skills is the only component that there is a fit with industry skills requirement. The remaining four other skills components do not have a fit. The qualitative content analysis provided explanations for why there was a significant difference between the skills taught in the journalism courses and industry skills requirements. This section has provided the qualitative findings from the interviews and content analysis and the quantitative findings from the survey results. The next chapter (six) revisited the research questions and hypotheses and discussed the main findings of the study. Here the two forms of data were integrated. 249 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS 6.0 Introduction In this chapter, the key findings from the two forms of data presented in Chapter five are discussed. The major issues arising from the research questions and hypotheses are addressed with the integration of the qualitative and quantitative data to provide a better understanding of the findings of the study. To guide data collection and analysis, the main research problem of the study was broken down into both qualitative and quantitative research questions; hypotheses were also tested. 6.1 Research Questions 1. What is the structure of undergraduate journalism education in Ghana? 2. What are the contents of the journalism curricula taught at universities in Ghana? 3. To what extent does journalism education content in Ghanaian universities follow international journalism standards? 4. How do industry players perceive journalism courses taught in Ghanaian universities? 5. What are industry skills requirements for journalism practice? 6. To what extent do the curricula meet these needs? 7. How are gaps, if any, addressed? 250 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2 Hypotheses 1. H1: The journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana are likely to conform to international Journalism standards 2. H2: The journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana are likely to conform to local industry requirements 3. H3: The journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana are likely to have an effect on the journalism industry 4. H4: The journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana are likely to have a connection with graduate employability 5. H5: There would be a significant difference between the skills taught in the journalism courses and industry skills requirements 6.3 Structure and Content The objective of examining the structure and content of journalism education was to determine the nature and composition of the journalism courses in Ghanaian universities to get an understanding of what the programme entails. The findings in Chapter Five (Tables 13-30) showed that majority of the universities offered undergraduate journalism education under a communication’s degree; the minority either offered a full Journalism degree or a combined degree of Journalism and Mass Communication. The first two years of the four-year programme had Liberal Arts and Science courses as well as Conceptual knowledge or Theory courses suggesting that the first two years offered general courses. In the third and fourth years, five universities offering journalism under a communication’s degree had the two journalism options (Print and/or Broadcast) 251 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in addition to the following communication options: Public Relations (PR), Advertising, Development Communication, Strategic Communication, and Visual and Digital Communication and students had to choose one option. In the case of Uni. 6 which offered the same communication’s degree, it offered all communication options and students offered all with no option to choose. The two universities that offer a Journalism degree (Uni.2 and Uni. 5), the former had one journalism option in addition to a communication option and the latter had four specialised journalism electives (Sports Reporting, Economics and Business Reporting, Politics and Government Reporting, and Science, Health and Environment Reporting). The findings also indicated that all universities had courses in the main journalism components: Print, Broadcast and Online and when the three components are combined the following are the percentages: Uni. 1 (32.1%); Uni. 2 (40.8%); Uni. 3 (36.7%); Uni. 4 (18.2%); Uni. 5 (25%); Uni. 6 (17.3%); Uni. 7 (23.5%); and Uni. 8 (26.4%). This indicates that universities are providing training to help future journalist work across media platforms and approach their multimedia story telling role with greater understanding and context. This is indeed a good strategy taken by the universities considering the fact that the news business is rapidly adopting a converged approach (Callaghan, 2009). However, putting all the universities together, the overall percentage of the three components (27.7%) suggests that courses in these main journalism components did not feature much in the curricula. Of the three, online courses had the lowest percentage of coursers offered (5.6%) and therefore were inadequate. There is no doubt that exposure to 252 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh online or web-based journalism courses has become very necessary now for journalism graduates in view of the fact that many studies conducted within the decade have indicated an increase in the demand for multimedia and new technology skills by employers for journalists (Brown & Collins, 2010; Massey, 2010; Cremedas & Lysak, 2011; Wenger & Owens, 2013; Cullen et al., 2014; Wenger et al., 2014, 2018). Moreover, given the ubiquitous presence of the internet, exposure to online or web-based journalism courses is necessary. Although resources and access to new media is problematic, especially in developing countries, more courses in these areas in the curricula have become imperative and should be included to cater for shortfalls in curricula. However, beyond understanding these technologies, journalists also need to understand the ethical implications of using those (Banda et al., 2007 cited in De Beer et al., 2017). Courses in PR and Advertising had a substantial percentage in the curricula. Some HODs stated that PR and Advertising courses are relevant for the journalism profession in Ghana because there are situations where having worked as a journalist for some time, some took up jobs in corporate communications which are public relations jobs. About a decade or so ago, universities in Ghana did not offer undergraduate programmes solely in PR as was in the case of journalism. Therefore, journalists were employed as PR practitioners in some organisations and this had necessitated the inclusion of PR courses into the journalism programme. Further explanations by the universities that their curricular content were also largely influenced by what pertains in other institutions offering similar programmes, relevance to industry needs, functionality of programme, and 253 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employability of graduates can be credible justifications for such courses included in the curricular. Even though PR is now offered as a full programme in a few universities and therefore students graduate with a BA degree in PR, some organisations in Ghana still employ journalists, usually experienced ones, as PR practitioners. The implication then is that the industry in Ghana accepts these professional interchanges, perhaps because journalism and PR are both communications related. The reasons why some journalists switch from journalism to PR are worth researching to get a holistic picture and provide useful suggestions for journalism education. 6.4 Journalism Education and International Standards One objective of the study was to find out whether the undergraduate journalism course followed international journalism standards as a way of ascertaining the quality. The qualitative content analysis of the curricula content vis a vis the international standard components provided the comparison from individual university’s perspective which indicated that universities met international standards in varying degrees. It must be pointed out that all the universities had accreditation to run their programmes. Therefore, in as far as the universities had been accredited indicated that they had satisfied GTEC threshold standard requirements regarding Curriculum, Faculty, Library and Facilities and so national standards on quality had been met. For statistical validation of the qualitative results, a quantitative follow-up was done using survey method. Questionnaires were used to collect data from the 254 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh universities and the media houses. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to find out the latent factors and the items under each of the latent factors and to also examine the construct validity of the measurement scales. This study employed three measurement scales: Course Content Journalism Scale; International Journalism Standards Scale, and Industry Skills Scale. In the International Journalism Standards Scale, the EFA extracted four latent factors from the items as follows: The first factor: Journalism Course Content had three items; the second factor: ICT, Globalization, and Faculty also had three items; the third factor: Industry Skills, had three items; and the fourth factor: Media, Ethics, and Internship had four items (Chapter Four, Table 5). The descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and regression analysis results all confirmed an association between the journalism courses in universities and international standards implying that international standards have a significant impact on the journalism courses taught at the universities. The descriptive statistics, for instance, showed that the respective components under each of the four factors for international journalism standards had means above 3.00 but below 4.00, with the exception of Internship and Media Studies which had 4.00 and 4.17 respectively indicating that when it comes to meeting international journalism standards, universities were above average. However, since majority of the components had means below 4.00, the implication is that there is more room for improvement, especially in the areas of ICT and globalisation where the universities offered inadequate course in. A further explanation for meeting international standards came from the results of the Pearson correlation analysis which revealed a significant positive 255 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh correlation between the control variables or university characteristics (age of university, number of students, ownership, nature i.e. full journalism course or mixed, and status of university i.e. affiliated or not) and the dependent variables (Professional Practice course content, Liberal Arts and Science course content, and Conceptual course content), and between the dependent variables and the independent or explanatory variables (Journalism course content, Industry Skills requirement, ICT, Globalization, and Faculty Mix requirement, and Media, Ethics and Internship requirements). The significant positive correlation between the independent variables and the dependent variables presupposes a positive impact of international standards on journalism courses taught in the universities in Ghana. Similarly, the results of the multiple linear regression analysis of the impact of international Journalism standards on the journalism courses taught at the universities revealed a significant impact. The results of the regression analysis indicated that each of the four independent or explanatory variables has a linear significant effect on all the three dependent variables represented by the three components of the journalism courses taught in the university. Each model in the regression table represented international standards versus one of the three components of a journalism course. The results of Model I indicated that 88.6 percent of what is found in the Professional Practice course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by the international Journalism standards. Model II indicated that 78.3 percent of what is found in the Liberal Arts and Sciences course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by international Journalism 256 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh standards. Similarly, Model III indicated that 80.7 percent of what is found in the Conceptual course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by the international journalism standards (Chapter 5, Table 48). Therefore, it can be concluded that the development of the journalism courses in the universities relies on international journalism standards. The first research hypothesis that the journalism courses taught at the universities conforms to international journalism standards was confirmed since, firstly, the results of the Pearson correlation analysis indicated a significant positive correlation between the two and secondly, the regression analysis revealed a significant impact of more than 75 percent influence of international standard on the journalism courses implying that the course or programme meet international standards. Therefore, the qualitative content analysis of the course content vis a vis the international standard which equally indicated that international standards were met to a large extent have been corroborated by the correlation and the regression analyses results. An international standard that was met but with challenges, and therefore needs further discussion, is the issue of faculty which should be a mix of academics and practitioners. The interviews with the HOD which revealed that getting journalism practitioners on board was a challenge and therefore, most universities had no journalism practitioners in full time employment and some had no full-time lecturers teaching journalism can be attributed to a number of reasons. Notable among these reasons is the issue of qualification where most of the practitioners do not meet GTEC requirements of having a PhD to qualify to be a lecturer in the university. This phenomenon of practitioners not having PhD degrees was 257 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh confirmed by the survey results on the background information of respondents which specified that only 3.0 percent of those in the media industry had a PhD. Similarly, the responses from the universities revealed that below 20 percent of lecturers in the Communication / Journalism departments (19.4%) had PhD. The findings have revealed that indeed there are not many PhD holders even teaching in these departments and those who have PhD, many did not get that qualification in Journalism. Moreover, there are not many practicing journalists in Ghana who have PhD; a phenomenon which is similar to what pertains in other countries. To address this problem most universities employed journalism practitioners as part time lecturers instead of full time ones because the requirements for part time lecturers are more relaxed but that equally has its own challenges. For example, in the university system, a part time or adjunct lecturer does not get the same remuneration as a full time lecturer. This can be a disincentive for most people. Moreover, some practitioners earn more in industry than in teaching so when they join the faculty they expect to be paid as practitioners which can be challenging, especially for the private universities due to lack of funds. What happens then is that lecturers are not paid on time and sometimes payment is not commensurate with work put in, which invariably becomes a disincentive and affects lecturer retention resulting in some universities not having enough lecturers to teach some courses. On the other hand, there are practitioners who just want to share their experiences with students and are not so much concerned about how much they will earn in the process, but engaging journalism practitioners in academia to offer their services is still a daunting task. 258 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The mix of academics and practitioners in teaching journalism programmes, undoubtedly, is to help enhance the integration of theory and practice in journalism education. Available literature indicates that integration of theory and practice, also referred to as Reflective Practice, is promoted as best practice in higher education (Greenberg, 2007) and is the direction education is going globally, especially in technical and vocational education. Journalism scholars (Reese & Cohen, 2000; Burns, 2002; Keeble, 2005; Wasserman, 2005; Deuze, 2006; Niblock, 2007; Greenberg, 2007, 2014) have advocated for Reflective Practice in journalism education to put an end to the theory-practice divide and debate. To achieve reflective teaching, one way is to encourage the mix of academics and practitioners in teaching but maintaining this mix can be a daunting task in the faculty of journalism education institutions and higher educational institutions in general because of qualification issues. In other jurisdictions, a doctorate degree in more traditional subjects such as law, medicine is usually considered a prerequisite of higher education employment. On journalism programmes, those with professional rather than a theoretical background get the opportunity to teach because their experiences compensate for the shortfall in academic qualification. This is not the situation in Ghanaian universities and so engaging practitioners in academia to offer their services, especially on full-time basis, is a daunting task. 259 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.5 Industry skills requirement and curriculum fit Another objective of the study was to find out industry skills requirements and determine the fit or otherwise between these skills requirements and the journalism courses taught in the universities. Regarding the qualitative findings reported in Chapter Five (Tables 39 and 40), the universities offered courses and/or topics within courses in 20 skills requirements of media houses. 18 skills requirements had all universities offering courses and or topics within courses in them indicating that a high number of the skills requirements of industry were offered in journalism education in Ghana. For example, writing skills had a substantial number of courses being offered by the universities. The implication, then, is that there was a perceived fit. Ogong-Oganga’s (2010) concern that what takes place in journalism classrooms is seldom informed by what happens in the newsrooms was not fully confirmed because the skills requirements of media house in Ghana are offered in universities. This implies a connection between what happens in newsrooms and what takes place in journalism classrooms. On the other hand, there were skills that the universities offered inadequate courses in, for example ICT and critical and analytical thinking, implying that these skills had little emphasis in the curricular. Two skill areas (integrity/strong ethics and local language) also had a high number of universities offering no courses in them, indicating a gap between skills expected and actual skills offered. Furthermore, there were disparities amongst the universities when it came to important skills courses. For example, Uni. 3 offered as many as 12 courses in writing but Uni. 2 and Uni. 6 offered only three courses each in that skill. Data from the 260 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh questionnaires administered to media houses provided statistical verification of these qualitative results. The third measurement scale (Industry Skills Scale) was used for the analysis. In the Industry Skills Scale, five latent factors were extracted from the items using the EFA. The first factor – Writing Skills had three items; the second factor – Reporting Skills had four items; the third factor – Leadership Skills, had four items; the fourth factor – Reading and Numeracy Skills had five items and the fifth factor – Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills had three items (Chapter Four, Table 6). Pearson correlation was used to determine the direction of the relationship between the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana and local industry requirements. The correlation analysis results indicated a significant positive correlation between the control variables and the dependent variables; and between the dependent variables and the five independent variables for industry requirements (writing skills, reporting skills, leadership skills, reading and numeracy skills, and entrepreneurship and ICT skills). The results revealed a significant positive correlation between the independent variables and the dependent variables indicating a connection between the journalism courses taught in the universities and local industry requirements. Similarly, the results of the multiple linear regression analysis of the impact of local industry requirements on the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana revealed a significant impact. The results of the regression analysis indicated that each of the five explanatory variables has a linear significant effect 261 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh on all the three dependent variables represented by the three components of a journalism courses taught in the university. Three models were used which represented the three components of a journalism course in relation to local industry requirements. In other words, each model in the regression table represented the five local industry requirements versus one of the three components of a Journalism course. The results of Model I indicated that 98.1 percent of what is found in the professional practice course content of the Journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by the local industry requirements. Model II indicated that 92.5 percent of what is found in the liberal arts and sciences course content of the journalism courses taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by the local industry requirements, and Model III indicated that 91.8 percent of what is found in the conceptual course content of the journalism course taught at the universities in Ghana is explained by the local industry requirements (Chapter Five, Table 50). The second research hypothesis that the journalism course taught at the universities is associated with local industry requirements, therefore, was not rejected based on the results of the Pearson correlation analysis which showed a positive significant correlation between variables and the regression analysis which revealed a significant impact of more than 90 percent. These results indicate the universities take into consideration local industry skills requirement when developing curriculum. . Ironically, however, respondents from industry maintain that journalism education was not preparing graduates enough for today’s job market in view of the digital transformation of the media industry and consumer behavior; a similar 262 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concern found in some studies in Egypt. According to Allam & Amin (2017), there is some disagreement as to whether the journalism programmes in their universities are of sufficient quality to supply the Egyptian media market with journalists able to operate effectively in today’s media environment. Previous studies have also reiterated the same concerns (Krumsvik, 2012; Hanning et al., 2012; Allan, 2013; Cullen et al., 2014; Metilda & Neena, 2016; Kalufya & Mwakajinga, 2016; Wenger et al., 2018) that employers in the media industry perceive that educational institutions are not providing the skill needs for the job. However, a study by Josephi (2004) which had concluded that some competencies can only be partly taught and that other attributes and competencies will be acquired on the job and are organisation specific provides some explanation for skills gaps. Furthermore, inadequate facilities equally account for skills gaps. Employers would, therefore, have to revise their expectations of graduates regarding their acquired skills. This is because job fitness research (Metilda & Neena, 2016) has revealed that of the five components of the P-E (person to environment) fit concept of Holland’s Job Fit theory, only three components which are P-P (person to person), P-G (person to group), and P-J (person to job) are relevant for a fresher recruitment. After joining the firm, the P-O (person to organisation) and P-V (person to vocation) fit will be relevant as it depends on the organizational environment and the type of task given to the employee. Another probable explanation why the media industry did not think journalism education is preparing graduates enough for the job is that the skills framework developed from the interview responses from media houses and 263 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh modeled on Young and Chapman’s (2010) five competence areas (Basic, Business, Conceptual, Personal and People) indicated that industry requires graduates to have all five competencies. These five competencies classified as generic and specific identifies business competencies to be the specific and the other four (basic, conceptual, personal and people) to be the generic competencies (Young & Chapman, 2010; Grosemans et al., 2017). The content analysis of the curricula of the journalism training universities revealed that their curricula have more courses and topics addressing specific skills than generic skills. However, the bulk of the skills media houses require are the generic ones. The correlation analysis results give similar findings: the results had a higher mean for writing and reporting (4.20, 4.00), which are specific competencies, than for leadership and reading (3.77, 3.26), which are generic competences. Since the journalism courses offered in the universities puts emphasis on specific skills more than generic skills, there is the likelihood that graduates may perform well in skills specific to the job but have challenges in performing generic skills such as personal or basic competences. Available literature has pointed to the increasing demand for more generic skills for graduates (Nilsson, 2010; Blom & Davenport, 2012; Edgar et al., 2013; Wenger et al., 2018). It is therefore not surprising that skills such as team working skills and meeting tight deadlines, for example, are increasingly being required for the job. Indeed, the pressures from work are certainly not the same as the classroom and there are discrepancies between classroom expectations and that of the newsroom where meeting deadlines, for example, are more stringent. It should, however, be noted that respondents from the media houses in Ghana pointed out 264 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that graduates understood the values of journalism. Furthermore, they were of the view that journalism graduates’ abilities in news gathering as well as their multimedia skills were above average and generally they were efficient on the job. In view of the link between journalism courses taught at universities and industry skills requirements there was the need to determine the impact of the variables on each other to ascertain whether the journalism courses offered in Ghanaian universities have an impact on graduate employability. Employability is important in view of increasing literature (Alcañiz et al., 2013; Martín et al., 2013; Pujol-Jover et al., 2015; Metilda & Neena, 2016) which suggests that HEI have failed to give graduates the skills employers need. Therefore, education and employability are bed fellows and a discussion of one without the other will be incomplete. Once journalism has joined the university fraternity, then the issue of employability and whether the training provides graduates with the skills needed for the job market or the practice becomes a matter of interest for researchers. Pearson correlation analyses results for both industry impact and employability indicated that all the independent or explanatory variables have a positive significant correlation with the journalism industry as well as graduate employability implying that there is a positive effect of the journalism courses on the local industry as well as on employability. Similarly, the multiple linear regression analyses results indicated that all the explanatory variables had a significant effect in the industry as well as a significant impact on employability. In view of this, the third and fourth hypotheses: there is likely to be a positive effect of the journalism courses on the journalism industry; and, there is likely to be a 265 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh positive impact of the journalism courses on employability, were confirmed. The fact this study has revealed that university-based journalism courses have a link with industry skills and are having a positive impact on employability presupposes that the debate about whether journalism programmes should be offered at universities or not (Picard, 2015) should not continue since it may no longer be defensible. Many studies conducted over the years regarding the skills and competencies that students acquire during their university education and how these connect with the current job market requirements have, more often than not, revealed a skills-gap between actual and expected (Callaghan & McManus, 2010; Hanning et al., 2012; Pujol-Jover et al., 2015; Metilda & Neena, 2016; Kalufya & Mwakajinga, 2016; Wenger et al., 2018). What most of these studies did not do was to link their findings with the curriculum. This study linked the findings to the curricula to fill that gap. This study linked job market skills requirements to the curriculum to determine how journalism schools are addressing the skills requirements of the profession (Ross, 2017). It also validated the results with a quantitative follow-up using survey method. The qualitative content analysis revealed that the journalism course was providing courses in the industry skills requirements implying a fit between them; gaps were equally identified where some skill areas had inadequate courses and in some cases, no courses at all. From the quantitative perspective, both the correlation and regression analyses results indicated that the journalism courses taught at the universities (Professional Practice, Liberal Arts and Science and Conceptual courses) were associated with 266 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh local industry requirements with the regression analysis results giving very high percentages (98.1%, 92.5% and 91.8%) in respect of the three journalism course contents. This implies that when developing curriculum universities take into consideration industry skills requirements indicating a perceived fit between them. To determine the level of the fit a paired-sample t-test was used. Per the EFA, five latent factors extracted from the Industry Skills Scale were Writing Skills, Reporting Skills, Leadership Skills, Reading and Numeracy Skills, and Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills. The results indicated that there is a significant difference between the skills taught in the journalism courses and the industry skills requirement when it comes to four of the five skills categories namely: Reporting Skills, Leadership Skills, Reading and Numeracy Skills, and Entrepreneurship and ICT Skills. The significant difference was determined from the p values of the four skills, each of which had less than .05. Writing Skills was the only component that the results of the paired sample t-test showed no significant difference as its p value was more than .05. In effect, the null hypothesis was accepted. The fifth hypothesis that: There is a significant difference between the skills taught in the journalism course and industry skills requirement was therefore accepted for four of the five industry skills requirement. In other words, there was a fit between industry skills requirement and the curricula when it comes to writing skills component alone; the other four skills did not have a fit. In effect, the null hypothesis that, there will be no significant difference was rejected in the case of four of the skill components but accepted in the case of one of the skills component. 267 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Even though the correlation and regression analysis indicated that there was a positive correlation or connection between the journalism courses and industry skills requirements, there was still a significant difference between the skills taught in the journalism courses and industry skills requirement in most of the skills. A possible explanation for this emerged from the qualitative data which indicated that some of the industry skills requirements had inadequate courses being offered by the universities. Similarly, there were skills that had no courses being offered at all and most of these skills were in the category of those four skills components (Chapter Four, Table 6). On the other hand, writing skills, for example, had the highest number of courses being offered in the universities. This has accounted for the difference and no difference respectively. Two skill areas that had most universities offering no course or topics within courses also need further discussion. First was the scant attention given to local languages, which had only two universities offering a course each, meaning that very little provision is given in the journalism curriculum for training in local languages. With the preponderance of local language radio and TV in Ghana, it is only logical that journalism training institutions see the relevance of local language courses in their curricula, but this is not the situation on the ground. There is no doubt that the repercussions of the lack of the usage of trained journalists in the local languages are being witnessed today on our airwaves. For instance, when it comes to news programmes there is the over-embellishment and exaggeration of the information by the news readers: a phenomenon which has become the norm in local language news especially news in Akan (Opare-Henaku, 2016). This has 268 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh resulted in complaints from listeners about how news is presented in the local languages which they consider a deviation from how news is presented in English as well as a disregard of journalistic ethics. Gadzekpo, Yeboah-Banin, and Akrofi- Quarcoo’s (2019) study on “Attitudes to Professional Norms on Local and English Language Radio News Programmes in Ghana” has provided empirical evidence on the local language news phenomenon in the country, but not much is being done to address these issues since little has changed with the way news is presented in the local languages. This study’s findings have confirmed that journalists are not getting training in local languages in the journalism training institutions to be able to handle the local radio and TV stations and so untrained people who usually do not apply the ethics of the journalism profession are handling affairs. There is no better time than now for James’s (1990) proposal that there should be local language proficiency in Journalism schools in Africa to be taken more seriously because over the years, local language proficiency has not been given much attention in journalism education resulting in the way local language broadcasting programmes are presented currently. A logical explanation for the absence of courses in local languages in journalism curriculum could be that these universities do not have the capacity to provide local language skills, especially writing skills. However, if two universities have started, it means it can be done. If their reason for not offering such courses is lack of capacity, the universities can apply the principles of Community of Practice (CoP), which are active sharing of knowledge and experiences (Wenger, 2011), to achieve capacity. For example, GIJ can get its capacity from the Ghana 269 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Institute of Languages (GIL) since the teaching of different languages is GIL’s focus. This suggestion is against the backdrop that there is a proposed merger of GIL, GIJ and NAFTI (National Film and Television Institute) and if that happens, the application of the principles of CoP will be a reality in GIJ. Even if the merger does not materialize, there is still an urgent need now more than ever for local language proficiency in all journalism schools to raise professional and ethical standards in our broadcasting stations as well as curb the unhealthy use of untrained people by some media houses. Furthermore, the need to “foster the development of Ghanaian languages and pride in Ghanaian culture” according to Article 39 (3) of the 1992 constitution, particularly makes it imperative for local languages to be given some attention by all stakeholders. In view of this constitutional provision, what better way to achieve this than to get journalists to be proficient in the local languages through education. The current dispensation on our airwaves is enough evidence that if journalists are not trained in the local languages so they take over the local language broadcast stations, it can lead to an insidious hijacking of the public sphere by the dominant untrained linguistic groups to the ultimate fossilization of trained local language journalists who are in the minority (Tietaah, 2013). There is no doubt that journalism as a communicative profession needs practitioners who are literate in the language of communication so that accurate and optimal information is given to the public through the media. Those who are literate in a language are definitely in a better position to present information more accurately than those who are not because being literate in a language not only 270 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh means being equipped with the skills to write and speak the language very well but also having a good understanding of the language which can make a difference in how information is presented. There is no better way to be literate than through education. Second was the low attention given to courses meant to instill integrity and ethical values in students, even though it was a skill area needed by the media industry. Four universities offered no courses neither did they offer topics within courses. Such courses can help people take ethical decisions since they will take into account the moral dimension of a decision or action in order to maintain some level of integrity and moral standing while performing their responsibilities (Werhane, et al., 2013). If education is about knowledge, skill and attitude then all three should be incorporated into a curriculum. Considering that a lot of the universities did not have courses to instill discipline indicates that they have not paid much attention to attitude in their curricula and this is a gap that needs to be addressed. There is no doubt that courses such as Media Law and Media Ethics that are offered in their curricula are aimed at getting students to be ethical in their reportage. However, these courses alone may not necessarily get students to have a high level of integrity and self-discipline like the courses in religion and moral values, offered by the faith-based universities, are intended to do. Moreover, courses in law and ethics may not necessarily get students to have a high level of integrity and self-discipline. There is no doubt that lack of integrity breeds corruption which has become a big issue in Ghana and a source of concern globally and since there is a correlation between lack of integrity and corruption, a way to 271 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tackle corruption is to have people frown on it instead of considering it a way of life. Offering courses in the journalism curricula that will help instill discipline and raise one’s integrity level will improve students’ moral standards and help address the corruption menace in the country. This is because after taking such courses, journalist will be more obliged to use their media to set the agenda to fight corruption all in the public interest which is central to the work of journalists. Some media houses mentioned that they will employ anyone with a first degree in any discipline and who has a passion for a job in the media. This indicates that some media houses do not see much difference between those with or without a journalism degree. It was, however, observed that those who would employ graduates with a journalism degree were in the majority, an indication that undergraduate education in journalism has the potential to influence the field of journalism practice. This is further corroborated by the quantitative data which indicated that the journalism courses have an impact on the local journalism industry. The suggestion by a head of department that: “Journalism has a future if journalists will carve a niche for themselves in specialised areas such as conflict, children, environment among others…” (H6) implies that if some level of specialisation is provided in journalism programmes, which currently is not, it will go a long way to enhance the profession because then graduates will be better equipped to handle the increasing sophistication in the field of practice. 272 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.6 Addressing Gaps The findings that addressed the fifth and sixth research questions (What are industry skill requirements for journalism practice and to what extent the curricula meet these needs?) revealed a gap between supply and demand stemming from the fact that some skills in the skills framework were not provided or were inadequate in the curricula. This necessitated the seventh research question: How are gaps, if any, addressed? The gaps prevalent are annihilation of local languages in the curricula, absence of investigative journalism courses, and lack of emphasis on critical thinking courses, digital, online and multimedia courses as well as on science, health and environmental courses. There is also the need for more practitioners/professionals to serve as faculty. All these point to some gaps between supply and demand and therefore though there was a general fit, gaps were equally identified. The implication is that some aspects of the curricula will be more relevant than others hence the significant differences found in most skills per the results of the t test. The literature provides two main schools of thought on the role of university education. The second school of thought on the role of university education as having a dual purpose – to civilise and to provide manpower needs (Gould 2003, Graham 2005) – is the direction university-based journalism education has taken. Therefore, the ability of journalism graduates to meet industry skills needs is considered important. One way to meet these skills needs is for the curriculum to offer courses in those skill areas. The fact that the universities offer inadequate courses in their curricula in some skill areas considered relevant for the 273 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh journalism practice presupposes they are not satisfying one aspect of the role of university-based journalism education. Therefore, within the context that knowing the expectations of the news industry is fundamental to a university’s ability to prepare students accordingly, then gaps between expected and actual skills can be bridged through projects aimed at assisting universities identify potential gaps in teaching and areas for improvement. For instance, some universities in Perth, Australia, have embarked on projects aimed at assisting them identify gaps in their teaching of journalism and areas for improvement (Callaghan & McManus, 2010). Most studies that have revealed a growing interest in the skills and competencies that students acquire during their university studies and how these fit with the current job market (García-Aracil & Van der Velden, 2008; Bridgstock, 2009; Pagani, 2009; Marzo et al., 2009; Saurina & Villar, 2010; Guerrero & De los Ríos, 2012; Alcañiz, Riera & Clavería, 2013; Martín, Rabadán & Hernández, 2013; Tanner et. al., 2013; Trevor, 2014) have been done mostly in Europe, Australia and the US. However, not much has been done in Africa. Most of the Australian studies, (Alysen 2007; Callaghan & McManus, 2010; Mensing, 2010; Nankervis, 2011) for example, stressed that universities have a key role to play in providing fundamental knowledge and skills training in journalism. However, their industry does not appear to have a role in shaping the curriculum. To compound matters, issues such as the constraints in financial and other resources are common, and educators are constantly challenged in their efforts to nurture quality student journalists (English, Fynes-Clinton & Barnes, 2016). 274 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The situation is quite different here in Ghana as this study’s results point to the fact that when developing curriculum, universities take into consideration local industry skill requirements. The interviews with the HODs, for instance, revealed that their choice of curricula is influenced by relevance to industry needs, functionality of programme, employability of graduates and also what pertains in other institutions offering similar programmes. Their views were corroborated by the results of the correlation and regression analysis results which showed a positive significant correlation between the journalism courses and industry skill requirements. In view of the above, Deuze’s (2006) and MacDonald’s (2006) arguments that in the development of a Journalism-school syllabus, demands from the market or industry meet normative ambitions for the development of the journalism profession and, therefore, do not necessarily result in curriculum change have been refuted. Recent studies have also refuted these claims and indicated that some journalism schools in the US, for example, have reviewed their curricula to catch up with industrial demands (Anderson, 2017; Ryfe & Messing, 2013). In view of what pertains in Ghanaian universities regarding the development of communication / journalism curricula, and the fact that there have been previous connections between their curricula and industry skills requirements, there is the likelihood that during curricula reviews changes will be made to address skills gaps. Scholars may be divided on the issue of whether it is important for academia to consider input from industrial players in shaping the curriculum on journalism education in higher institutions of learning (Cullen, et al., 2014; Gilmor, 2016); however, there are still advocates who maintain that industry needs to complement 275 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the university in conducting the training because journalists who graduate will serve the industry (Temple, 2009; Frost, 2017, Yusof, Ismail, Ismail, Aripin, Kassim & Ishak, 2018). Therefore, more collaboration between academia and industry is necessary. Studies done on university-based journalism curricula in East Africa, Nigeria, and now Ghana have all revealed lack of language skills in journalism programmes (Ochilo, 1996; Allan, 2013; Popoola, 2010). On the other hand, academic universities in South Africa which offer journalism education support journalism majors with additional majors and minors from the arts and social sciences, such as languages, sociology, political science, and history (De Beer et. al, 2017) implying that students have an opportunity to get language skills in their journalism programmes. Considering that information flow via the media, especially among the rural population in Africa, is usually in local languages, it is surprising that James’ (1990) proposal that there should be local language proficiency in journalism schools in Africa has not been taken seriously by most African countries for over three decades. Such a proposal is worth implementing by journalism training institutions to address that gap, otherwise local language proficiency for journalist may never advance beyond what pertains now in Ghanaian universities where only one local language is found in journalism curricula and in only two universities. The next chapter (seven) draws conclusions on the main findings. It also discusses the implications of this study for theory and for the practice of journalism. It explores the major lessons learned from the study as well as its 276 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh limitations and makes recommendations for further research, for the industry, for journalism educators in universities and for policy makers as well. 277 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.0 Introduction This final chapter discusses the implications of this study for theory and goes on to explore the implications and opportunities for undergraduate journalism education in universities and for the journalism industry and the practice of journalism. The study’s limitations are also identified. These form part of a broader discussion about possible future research directions that flow from the outcome of the study itself. Finally, recommendations drawn from the findings (Chapter Five) and discussion (Chapter Six) for policy and stakeholder considerations are also provided. 7.1 Research Agenda This study employed a mixed methods design based on the premise that the study required data taken from different sources using different methods. The qualitative approach was employed to explore and get deeper insights about the journalism courses in Ghanaian universities, their association with international standards and fit with industry skill requirements; whereas the quantitative approach was used to generate and analyze data to validate the findings regarding standards as well as their relevance for the practice One public university and seven private university colleges, in addition to 10 media organisations were included in this study. Interviews, content analysis, 278 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and survey methods as well as review of scholarly literature were employed to gather data for this study. The universities and the curricula were the units of analyses in this study. The various implications of the study’s major empirical findings are summarized in the subsequent sections. 7.2 Implications of the Study 7.2.1 Implications for Theory Evidence from literature indicates that a raging debate about theory and practice in university-based journalism education has gone on for decades resulting in many journalism scholars advocating for the dissolution of the perceived dichotomy between theory and practice and an integration of the two to resolve the debate (Reese & Cohen, 2000; Burns, 2002, 2013; Keeble, 2005, Wasserman, 2005; Deuze, 2006; Niblock, 2007; Greenberg, 2007, 2014). This research found evidence supporting the need for the dissolution of the perceived dichotomy between theory and practice and the embracing of a two-way flow between theory and practice or Reflective Practice in journalism education. Evidence from the study pointed to the fact that journalism education in Ghanaian universities reflects the integration of theory and practice in the curriculum as well as being interdisciplinary. All universities had an integration of theory and practice courses in their curriculum in addition to liberal arts and science courses. They, therefore, met one of the hall-marks of an ideal journalism curriculum and gave credence to Deuze’s (2006, 2012) conviction that an integration between theory and practice instead of choosing to lean towards either side would close the gap 279 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh between academy and industry. That the findings did not contradict the idea that there should be a balance between theory and practice may be a signal to those involved in journalism education that what they are doing is in alignment with the theoretical basis of journalism education globally, implying the provision of quality education. Africa is bedeviled by the age-old concern about the over reliance on Western concepts and educational models for journalism education resulting in repeated calls from some journalism scholars (Dube, 2009; Banda, 2009; Skjerdal, 2012) to “de-Westernise” or “Africanise” journalism curricula on the continent so that journalism training becomes more relevant to the African context. This existing theory about journalism education in Africa was not supported by some findings of the study. Quite a number of African and Ghanaian publications were on the reading list of the courses suggesting that journalism education in Ghanaian universities was not totally dependent on Western concepts or ideologies since they subscribed to an African knowledge base. For instance, there were over 100 African authors including Ghanaians on the reading list of courses offered by the universities; 26 of the Ghanaian authors whose publications were included in the reading list were communication and journalism scholars. This presupposes that reading materials that students can relate to in their cultural setting are available for journalism. There were still a number of Western authors for a number of the courses which can be expected because courses such as Mass Communication Theories, Social Media, Critical Thinking, Mass Media, Culture and Society, among others still have a Western bias. The implication of this finding is that this 280 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh theory of journalism education being over westernized is not as pervasive as it used to be and may not have a full control of contemporary journalism programmes. The above notwithstanding, there is no doubt that to completely de- Westernise journalism education will be a daunting task, especially when not much has been done to incorporate indigenous modes of communication such as folklore, drama, drums, poetry etc. into the local media landscape; nor has there been a conscious effort to incorporate the teaching of local languages in journalism schools. Therefore, Ansu-Kyeremeh’s (2014) advocacy for a fusion of indigenous Africanist thought systems into theoretical and methodological formulations of communication scholarship will help to address this gap because with the fusion, African countries will get the benefits of both but more importantly, will be contributing to the epistemology of communication education from the African perspective. 7.2.2 Implications for Journalism Education One implication of the findings of this research for journalism education at universities is that the current curricula focuses more on general courses than on specialised journalism components such as Multimedia courses, even though these are necessary for the journalism industry because of technological advancements in the media. Therefore, the lack of multimedia skills may contribute to quite a number of graduates entering the profession with inadequate training. Furthermore, the standards were found not to be the same in all universities in view of the differences in the number of courses each university offered in the skill areas, as 281 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh well as the duration for the teaching of the same credit courses, for example. These differences have come about because there are no benchmark statements to guide what should be included in the curriculum as happens in other jurisdictions. There is no doubt that having subject benchmark statements will ensure some level of standardization because such statements stipulate what graduates in a specific subject are expected to know, do and understand at the end of their programme of study. These guidelines are very necessary for the journalism profession in Ghana considering that the study revealed a significant difference in most of the skills taught in the universities and that required by the local media industry. The qualification for faculty, which was identified as a problem by some HODs because it sometimes resulted in inadequate lecturers to teach some courses, could have an adverse effect on journalism education, especially in the private universities. Policy makers should, therefore, find pragmatic ways to provide sustainable solutions to the problem so the teaching of journalism is not compromised, considering that the teaching of journalism should be done by a faculty that has a mix of academics and practitioners. 7.2.3 Implications for Practice The findings have shown that universities are striving to train graduates who are ‘job ready’ and well-prepared for their first job in the journalism industry. This is because the current curricula portray a reflective one being a blend of theory and practice. This could be interpreted as being a positive implication for journalism practice because Reflective practitioners approach situations with the 282 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh capacity to “think critically and strategically” (Toth & Aldoory, 2010 cited in Conrad, 2019:350) and that is what today’s market is looking for. On the other hand, another implication for practice of these job ready graduates is that they are not, in fact, well prepared for practice. This is because though there is an integration of theory and practice the findings showed that some skills needed by the media had inadequate courses in the curricula. For example, online and new media courses did not feature much in the curricula implying that this fast growing area of journalism was not being emphasized. Meanwhile for journalism education to continue to demonstrate its relevance in both its profile and practice, it needs to ensure continuous innovation in the world of new media (De Beer et. al., 2017). Similarly, courses in Investigative Journalism as well as Science, Health and Environment Journalism were not offered by all universities implying a gap in the curricula regarding these areas relevant for journalism practice. The limited number of courses and absence of courses imply that graduates may not be able to function at an optimal level in these new areas of journalism in which the practice is thriving since they are inadequately equipped; unless they engage in CPT to upgrade their skills from time to time. However, CPT has cost implications and so taking that option may not be sustainable for many prospective employees. Another implication for practice is created by differences in the number and duration for some skill courses. Reporting, for example, was offered by all but the number of courses varied from university to university and the duration used for teaching was also different. This implies that universities with more courses in a skill area and more duration for teaching were giving more attention to these 283 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh courses than those with lesser courses and lesser duration. There is therefore the possibility that graduates are being trained to be job ready but entering journalism practice with knowledge and skills based on different standards and by implication based on different levels of understanding of that practice. The findings regarding courses that did not get much attention in the curricula were also perceived to impact on the professionalism and reputation of journalism as a practice. In the case of local languages skills development for example, not providing training in local languages implied that the universities were not training journalists for the local language media and this has opened up the space for some unqualified people to take over and act unprofessionally with no level of circumspection as indicated by the interviews with both faculty and industry. The actions of these untrained local language speaking journalists are devoid of the ethics of the profession and these have impacted the reputation of journalism practice in that in some instances the general public has had cause to question the credibility of some media houses (Opare-Henaku, 2016; Gadzekpo et al., 2019). Furthermore, the lines between trained journalists and those playing journalism roles by virtue of their access to online platforms are blurring. There is therefore the need for journalism practice to make the distinction between the professional and unprofessional through formalized and standardised education. 7.3 Limitations of the Study The study was initially conceptualized as a census of Ghanaian universities offering journalism education at the undergraduate level. However, not all the 12 284 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh universities offering undergraduate journalism education at the time of the study were responsive; eight were responsive and provided data used for the study. If the four had also participated, it could have added more perspectives on journalism education in the country. 7.4 Suggestions for Future Research The findings of this study will enhance the understanding of how journalism is taught in Ghana at the undergraduate level as well as provide information on the extent of the fit between the programme and industry skills requirements. Future research could attempt to investigate the perspectives of both students and graduates and seek to determine each group’s satisfaction with journalism education in the country in relation to the job market. This will also shed light on reasons why journalism practitioners are switching to other communication roles such as public relation. As one HOD (H1) remarked, journalism is losing its popularity because some journalists who decide to further their education choose other communication options rather than continue with journalism. This research could also make a considerable contribution to the effectiveness of Ghana’s approach to journalism education; then perhaps more journalists would advance to the highest academic qualification in order to resolve the qualification problems and address the issue of inadequate lecturers in some of the universities. 285 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.5 Recommendations Based on the outcomes and conclusions of the study, some recommendations for changes in journalism education in Ghana are outlined below. A general conclusion from the study is that the standard of undergraduate journalism education varies considering that differences were identified in the structure of the programmes and the number of courses in the curricula, especially regarding the courses in the skills requirements from industry. Since they are all training for the same profession, these differences need to be addressed so that similar levels of professional attainment are achieved by students who undergo journalism training at universities. One way to bridge the gap between the actual and the expected is for universities to offer adequate courses in all the skill areas that had inadequate courses, as well as those that did not have any courses for them, majority of which are generic competences. This can be done during review of curricula. Regarding the inadequate courses in the curricula, courses in critical thinking skills were examples. In view of the importance of critical thinking skills, the universities should consider increasing the number of courses in their curricula that help people think critically about issues and not just reproduce what they are taught. This will go a long way to help journalists to be well equipped for their job since there is no doubt that critical thinkers are those who drive the economic in this 21st century because the market demands critical journalists who are multi-skilled and able to work across the various media platforms (Nankervis, 2011; Blom & Davenport, 2012). Such people will equally drive the economy going forward. 286 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The other issue about the curricula was that of no courses being offered at all in the industry skill required areas. Prominent among these courses was that of local languages. Journalism training universities are not training people to handle local language broadcasting despite the plethora of local language radio and even TV stations in the country which has opened up the space for unqualified people to operate in that space. One way to deal with this is using trained journalists who understand the ethics of news presentation and would be circumspect in their presentations. It is recommended that based on the findings of studies on local language broadcasting (Opare-Henaku, 2016; Gadzekpo et al., 2019) as well as this study, where the descriptive statistics indicated the mean for local language to be 2.29, which is way below average, the universities will take up the challenge and add local language courses to their curricula that can address the local language broadcasting deficiencies. Then there is the issue of the challenges facing the universities when it comes to getting the mix of academics and practitioners as faculty members. One pragmatic way policy makers can ensure the mix of faculty members is to do what pertains in other jurisdictions where experiences of practitioners compensate for the shortfall in academic qualification. Therefore, journalism practitioners with professional rather than a theoretical background get the opportunity to teach on journalism programmes in the universities in order for the mix of academics and practitioners to be maintained to ensure quality. 287 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Quite clearly, the lack of subject benchmark statements for Communication and Journalism Studies is the most probable anomaly in the education landscape of journalism in Ghana. GTEC has not yet developed subject benchmark statements for Communication and Journalism Studies as has been done by other accrediting bodies in other countries. This could be attributed to the fact that quality assurance systems in education in Ghana are not discipline-specific. Furthermore, Ghana does not have a body solely for quality assurance in communication or journalism education as the case for the US which has ACEJMC, United Kingdom which has NJA and QAA, and Europe which has the Tartu Declaration. The insights the literature gives us of these countries, often cited as examples of best practice, would provide some cues for Ghana’s discipline-specific direction and framework for communication and journalism education to ensure that similar standards are achieved in all institutions offering journalism education. However, apart from taking cues from these Western countries, we should develop subject benchmarks and other guidelines taking into consideration the educational structure and the peculiarities and nuances of the local media landscape. Fortunately, this study has provided some guidelines for the development of subject benchmark statements. The Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) used for the study provided three measurement scales. These are Journalism Course Content, International Journalism Standards, and Industry Skills. The three measurement scales passed the reliability and validity tests making them good guidelines to be used. The constructs in the measurement scales can be used by policy makers such as GTEC to develop subject benchmark statements for 288 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh communication and journalism education in Ghanaian universities. These statements will serve as a useful guide as they would have been developed from both local and international perspectives. Below are the proposed guidelines for GTEC in the development of subject benchmark statements for communication / journalism programmes in Ghanaian universities: Table 56: Guidelines for the development of subject benchmark statements for communication / journalism programmes SKILLS GAPS AREAS OF ATTENTION REPORTING SKILL • Journalism Research and Evaluation Skills • Investigative Reporting Skills LEADERSHIP SKILLS • Media Management Skills • Creativity and Innovation Skills READING AND • Analytical Reading Skills NUMERACY SKILLS • Data Analysis and Visualization Skills • Local Language Skills ENTREPRENEURSHIP • Modern Digital Media Skills AND ICT SKILLS • Entrepreneurial Journalism Skills It is also recommended that more effective collaboration between media industries and universities regarding curriculum development is done so they can share ideas in order that the skill requirements of media houses which had inadequate courses offered by some universities, as well as those skill areas that 289 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh had no courses being offered at all will be better addressed. This will help to change the perceptions of media houses that journalism courses offered at the universities do not prepare graduates for today's job market. Journalism education should shape and guide journalism practice in the country where it is practiced and vice versa. Journalism as a field is undergoing profound shifts; therefore, educators should also be changing what and how they teach and also redefine their mission and purpose. By so doing a sustainable curriculum for journalism will be developed. This will undoubtedly lead to more professionalization of the journalistic workforce and also impact on how journalists conceive their roles, how the industry operates, and how journalism is understood and practiced in Ghana. In addition, the benefits for the country will be immense as citizens will be provided with the information they need to make the best possible decisions about their lives, their communities, their societies, and their governments. 290 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 1 SAMPLE INTERVIEW GUIDE Thesis Title: A study of undergraduate journalism education in Ghanaian universities Introduction Welcome interviewee and introduce him/her to the interview by explaining the purpose and significance of the study and why he/she is to give honest views and opinions. Explain the protocol consent form to the interviewee. If the interviewee gives consent to take part in the interview, proceed to ask questions with the aid of the questions provided below. 1. When was the communication studies/journalism studies started? 2. When was the programme accredited? 3. What are the objectives of the programme? 4. What courses are taught under the programme? (Probe about how these courses have been structured under the programme) 5. Are all courses in the curriculum taught each year? 6. If no, which ones are not taught and why? 7. Has the curriculum been revised and when? 8. What were the reasons that occasioned the revision? 9. Do you think all courses taught under the journalism programme are relevant for today’s job market? 10. If No, which ones should be replaced and with what new courses? 11. If Yes, why? 291 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12. What other changes will you recommend to make the curriculum relevant to the job market? 13. How many lecturers currently teach on the programme? (Probe about their qualification and area of specialization) 14. Are there enough qualified lecturers to handle all the course areas? If no what is done for such courses to be taught? 15. What facilities are available to enhance teaching and learning? 16. What teaching and assessment strategies are employed by the department? 17. Are all students placed in industry for attachment and what is the duration? 18. What provision is made for those who are not able to go on attachment? 19. How do you ensure quality of your programmes? (Probe on how this is done) 20. What influences your choice of curriculum? 292 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 2 JOB DESCRIPTIONS FROM MEDIA ORGANISATIONS 293 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 294 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 295 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 296 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 297 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 298 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 299 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 300 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 301 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 302 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 303 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 304 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 305 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 306 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 3 INTERCODER RELIABILITY TEST RESULTS Output Created 12-FEB-2019 17:37:13 Comments Input Active Dataset DataSet1 Filter Weight Split File N of Rows in Working 10 Data File Missing Value Handling Definition of Missing User-defined missing values are treated as missing. Cases Used Statistics for each table are based on all the cases with valid data in the specified range(s) for all variables in each table. Syntax CROSSTABS /TABLES=eugene BY caro /FORMAT=AVALUE TABLES /STATISTICS=KAPPA /CELLS=COUNT /COUNT ROUND CELL. Resources Processor Time 00:00:00.02 Elapsed Time 00:00:00.03 Dimensions Requested 2 Cells Available 524245 307 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Case Processing Summary Cases Valid Missing Total N Percent N Percent N Percent eugene * caro 10 100.0% 0 0.0% 10 100.0% eugene * caro Crosstabulation Count caro 1.00 4.00 5.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 11.00 eugene 1.00 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.00 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 5.00 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 6.00 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 7.00 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 9.00 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 10.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 26.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 308 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh eugene * caro Crosstabulation Count caro 26.00 Total eugene 1.00 0 2 4.00 0 2 5.00 0 1 6.00 0 1 7.00 0 1 9.00 0 1 10.00 0 1 26.00 1 1 Total 1 10 Symmetric Measures Asymptotic Standardized Approximate Approximate Value Errora Tb Significance Measure of Agreement Kappa .773 .134 6.999 .000 N of Valid Cases 10 a. Not assuming the null hypothesis. b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis. 309 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 4 JOURNALISM EDUCATION AND INDUSTRY (QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EMPLOYERS/INDUSTRY) Purpose of study: This study is being conducted to “examine undergraduate Journalism education in Ghanaian universities”, for the purpose of a PhD at the University of Ghana. You have been selected as one of the participants of the study. As a result I will be very glad if you could spend 20 minutes of your time to complete this questionnaire. Confidentiality of information: The information provided for this study through this questionnaire is for only academic research purposes. No one will disclose any information you will provide or try to sell any information to any institution. Voluntary Participation: Your participation in this study is voluntary. By completing the questionnaire and handing it over to the researcher, you are voluntarily agreeing to participate in the study. You are free to decline to answer any particular question you do not wish to answer for any reason. Contact Details: Please feel free to contact the researcher using the contact details below in case you have any concerns or questions regarding this study and also the questionnaire. Name: Mrs. Caroline Anane Telephone: 0244236759 Email: caronanab@yahoo.com PLEASE TURN OVER 310 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS PLEASE KINDLY PROVIDE THE FOLLOWING DEMOGRAPHIC ABOUT YOU BY TICKING THE APPROPRIATE BOX OR WRITING IN THE SPACE PROVIDED. Name of organization……………………………………………... Area of organization: Print Radio TV On-Line Other Specify 1. How old are you? 18-24 years 25-34 years 35+ years 2. What is your gender? Male Female 3. What is your highest level of education? Certificate Diploma Bachelor’s Degree Masters PhD Other, please specify…………………………………………… 4. How long have you been working in this organisation? Less than a year 1-4 years 5+ years 5. How long have you been working in the media or journalism industry? Less than a year 1-4 years 5+ years 6. What is your job title? ……………………………………………………………………………………… 311 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION B: PERCEPTION ABOUT JOURNALISM GRADUATES KEEPING IN MIND JOURNALISM GRADUATES, KINDLY ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS. PLEASE INDICATE YOUR ANSWER BY TICKING THE APPROPRIATE BOX 1. Do you have journalism graduates in your organization? Yes No IF NO PLEASE GO TO QUESTION 5 2. If yes, what is/are their level of qualification? Certificate Diploma Bachelor’s Masters PhD Other, please Degree specify………… 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person 4th Person 5th Person 3. What tasks/functions/jobs do journalism graduates perform in your company? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4. How efficient are they at their jobs? Not at all efficient Slightly efficient Moderately efficient Very efficient Extremely efficient 312 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION C: JOURNALISM EDUCATION/DEGREE KEEPING IN MIND JOURNALISM EDUCATION OR DEGREE, KINDLY ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS. PLEASE INDICATE YOUR ANSWER BY TICKING THE APPROPRIATE BOX 5. How important is a journalism degree in the following areas? Scale: 1=Not at all important, 2=slightly important, 3=moderately important, 4=very important, 5=extremely important Journalism Education or Degree 1 2 3 4 5 Understanding the values of journalism Abilities in news gathering (editing and presenting the news) Multi-media skills Getting students hired in a media organization SECTION D: INDUSTRY SKILLS KEEPING IN MIND THE INDUSTRY SKILLS REQUIREMENT OF JOURNALISM, KINDLY ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS. PLEASE INDICATE YOUR ANSWER BY TICKING THE APPROPRIATE BOX. 6. Do you feel that journalism education is keeping up with industry changes? Not at all A little Mostly A great deal Completely 7. Do you consider that journalism education sufficiently prepares graduates for today’s job market? Not at all 313 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A little Mostly A great deal Completely 8. Which of the following industry skills requirement are needed at your organisation? Scale: 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4=Agree, 5=Strongly Agree Industry Skills Requirement 1 2 3 4 5 Writing Reporting Communication English Language Research ICT Interview New Media / Online Interpersonal / networking Leadership Numeracy Pre-production, Production & Post-production Critical and analytical Editing Entrepreneurship Integrity, strong ethical values Knowledge of law and ethics Local Language Reading French Language 9. What skills do you need that the graduates lack? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 314 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10. Provide any suggestions for the training institutions to enhance their curriculum to meet the demands of the profession in Ghana. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION 315 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 5 JOURNALISM EDUCATION AND INDUSTRY (QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS) Purpose of study: This study is being conducted to “examine undergraduate Journalism education in Ghanaian universities”, for the purpose of a PhD at the University of Ghana. You have been selected as one of the participants of the study. As a result I will be very glad if you could spend 20 minutes of your time to complete this questionnaire. Confidentiality of information: The information provided for this study through this questionnaire is for only academic research purposes. No one will disclose any information you will provide or try to sell any information to any institution. Voluntary Participation: Your participation in this study is voluntary. By completing the questionnaire and handing it over to the researcher, you are voluntarily agreeing to participate in the study. You are free to decline to answer any particular question you do not wish to answer for any reason. Contact Details: Please feel free to contact the researcher using the contact details below in case you have any concerns or questions regarding this study and also the questionnaire. Name: Mrs. Caroline Anane Telephone: 0244236759 Email: caronanab@yahoo.com PLEASE TURN OVER 316 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS PLEASE KINDLY PROVIDE THE FOLLOWING DEMOGRAPHIC ABOUT YOU BY TICKING THE APPROPRIATE BOX OR WRITING IN THE SPACE PROVIDED. Name of University…………………………………………………………………………. 1. How old are you? 18-24 years 25-34 years 35+ years 2. What is your gender? Male Female 3. What is your highest level of education? Bachelor’s Degree Masters PhD 4. What is your position at the institution? Dean HOD Lecturer 5. How long have you been serving at the current position? Less than a year 1-4 years 5+ years 6. How long have you been working at the institution? Less than a year 1-4 years 5+ years 317 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7. What is your course specialization? Journalism Communication/English Other, please specify……………………………………… 8. Which course area do you lecture at the institution? ………………………………………………………… SECTION B: STRUCTURE OF JOURNALISM COURSE KEEPING IN MIND THE STRUCTURE OF THE JOURNALISM COURSE AT THE INSTITUTION, KINDLY ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS. PLEASE INDICATE YOUR ANSWER BY TICKING THE APPROPRIATE BOX 1. Which of the following features or courses of the journalism curricula are taught at your institution? Scale: 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4=Agree, 5=Strongly Agree Features of Journalism Curricula 1 2 3 4 5 Communication skills competence course Conceptual knowledge course in mass communication Professional skills course in print journalism Professional skills course in broadcast journalism Professional skills course in online and digital technology Professional skills course in public relations and advertising Investigative journalism course Science/environment/ health course Liberal arts and science courses 318 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. Which of the following course classification of the journalism curricula are applied in your institution? Scale: 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4=Agree, 5=Strongly Agree Course Classification of 1 2 3 4 5 Journalism Curricula Professional Practice Liberal Arts and Science Conceptual Courses Other, please specify and indicate the rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. SECTION C: INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS OF JOURNALISM CURRICULUM KEEPING IN MIND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS OF JOURNALISM COURSE, KINDLY ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS. PLEASE INDICATE YOUR ANSWER BY TICKING THE APPROPRIATE BOX 3. Which of the following features of international journalism course are taught/followed at your institution? Scale: 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4=Agree, 5=Strongly Agree International Standards of 1 2 3 4 5 Journalism Course Theory - 10% Practice - 40% Liberal Arts - 50% Writing - 8 semesters Reporting - 6 semesters Reading - 8 semesters Internship - 4 weeks Ethical principles (courses) Computer-based tools (courses) Global perspective (courses) 319 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Faculty (mix of academics and practitioners) Media studies (courses) Media management and business practice (courses) SECTION D: INDUSTRY SKILLS KEEPING IN MIND THE INDUSTRY SKILLS REQUIREMENT, KINDLY ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS. PLEASE INDICATE YOUR ANSWER BY TICKING THE APPROPRIATE BOX. 4. Which of the following industry skills requirement are taught in the journalism course in your institution? Scale: 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4=Agree, 5=Strongly Agree Industry Skills Course 1 2 3 4 5 Writing Reporting Communication English Language Research ICT Interview New Media / Online Interpersonal / networking Leadership Numeracy Pre-production, Production & Post- production Critical and analytical Editing Entrepreneurship Integrity, strong ethical values Knowledge of law and ethics Local Language Reading French Language THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION 320 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 6 AFRICAN AND GHANAIAN AUTHORS ON THE READING LIST OF COMMUNICATION / JOURNALISM UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMMES 1. Mensah, G.E. (2013). Golden Nugget English Books for West Africa Schools 2. Sarfo, D.S. (2013). A+ English Language 3. Adade-Yeboah, T. (2008) Practical English for Effective Communication 4. Afreh, E.S. (2006). Grammar and Usage for Tertiary Students 5. Mensah, G.E. (2008). Golden Nuggets English Bodies for West Africa Schools 6. Assimeng, M. (2010). Religion and Social Change in West Africa 7. Ganusah, R.Y. (2008). Christ Meets the Ewe-Dome of Ghana 8. Gyekye, K. (2000). Beyond Cultures: Perceiving a Common Humanity – The J.B. Danquah Memorial Lectures 9. Nukunya, G.K. (2003). Tradition and Change in Ghana 10. Odozor, P.I. (2014). Morality, Truly Christian, Truly African: Foundational, Methodological and Theological considerations 11. Agyei, P. (2002). Akan Kasasua 12. Agyekum, K. (2010). Akan Kasa Nhyehyɛeɛ 13. Bodomo, A., Hall-Lew, L. & Marfo, C. (2010). Let’s Speak Twi: A proficiency course in Akan Language and Culture. 14. Marfo, C. (2009). Aspects of Akan Grammar and the Phonology-Syntax Interface: Phonology and Syntax. 15. Nkansa-Kyeremanteng, K. (2004). The Akans of Ghana 321 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16. Opokuwaa, N.A.K. (2005). Akan Protocol: Remembering the Tradition of our Ancestors 17. Yankah, K. (1985). Speaking for the Chief: Okyeame and the Politics of Royal Oratory 18. Barabasi, A. (2014). Linked: How Everything is Connected to Everything Else and What it Means for Business, Science and Everyday Life 19. Clegg, B. (2015). Science for Life: A Manual for Better Living 20. Gadzekpo, A. (2007). Fifty Years of the Media’s Struggle for Democracy in Ghana: Legacies and Encumbrances 21. Angela, A.G., Akotia, C.S., & Wiafe-Akenteng, C.B. (2013). Media Psychology. In C.S. Akotia and C.C. Mate-Kole (Eds.), Contemporary Psychology: Readings from Ghana, (199-214) 22. Adolinama, P.P. (2005). Communication Skills for University Students 23. Kudadjie, J.N. & Aboagye Mensah, R.K. (2004). Christian Social Ethics 24. Woode, S.N. (1998). Ethical Dilemnas and Moral Temptations: Cases in Administration: (Ghanaian Administrators Talk About Everyday Moral Challenges). 25. Andrews, O.A. (2004). The Law of the Press: A Ghanaian Perspective 26. Karikari, K., (Ed.) (2005). Ethics in Journalism: Case Studies of Practice in West Africa 27. Sekyi-Baidoo, Y. (2000). Learning and Communicating 28. Tumasi, P.A. (2001). Social Research in Rural Communities 322 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29. Mwaura, Peter (1991). “Feature Writing”, in Boafo, S.T.K. (ed.) Module on Advanced Writing 30. Mwaura, Peter (1991). “Feature Writing”, in Boafo, S.T.K. (ed.) Module on Advanced Writing. Nairobi: Space Sellers Ltd., pp 1-16. 31. Ghartey-Tagoe, D. (2010) The Broadcaster’s Companion 32. Anokwa, K. (1997) Press Freedom and Communication in Africa. In Erbio, F. & Jong-Ebot, W. (Eds.). 33. Anokwa, K. (1997). Press Performance under Civilian and Military Regimes in Ghana: A Reassessment of Past and Present Knowledge. In Eribo, F. & Jong-Ebot, W. (eds.). 34. Jones-Quartey K.A.B., (1974) A Summary History of the Ghana Press, 1822-1960. 35. Ansu-Kyeremeh, K. & Karikari, K, (eds.). (1988) Media Ghana: Ghanaian Media Overview, Practitioners and Institutions 36. Asante, C.E. (1996). The Press in Ghana: Problems and Prospects 37. Blay-Amihere, K. & N. Alabi (eds.) (1996). State of the Media in West Africa: 1995-1996 38. Boafo, S.T.K (1985). Ghana’s Press under the PNDC: Performance under Confinement. 39. Boafo, S.T.K (1988). Democratizing Media Systems in Africa Societies: The case of Ghana 40. Gadzekpo, A. (1997). Communication Policies in Civilian and Military Regimes: The Case of Ghana. 323 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41. Jones-Quartey, K. A. B. (1975). History, Politics and Early Press in Ghana: The Fictions and the Facts 42. Karikari, K. (2000). Press, Power and Politics: A Freedom Forum Report on the Ghanaian Media. 43. Karikari, K. (1998). The Press and the Transition to Multi-Party Democracy in Ghana. In K. Ninsin (ed.), Ghana: Transition to Democracy, 44. Karikari, K. (1994) (ed.). Independent Broadcasting in Ghana: Implications and Challenges 45. Twumasi, Y. (1974). Press Freedom and Nationalism under Colonial Rule in the Gold Coast (Ghana) 46. Ansu-Kyeremeh, K. (Ed). (2005). Indigenous communication in Africa: Concepts, applications and prospects. 47. Olusegun O. (2006). Principles and practice of public relations. Lagos 48. Armah, K. (2013). The Resolutionaries; 49. Ackah, C.A. (1988). Akan ethics: A study of moral ideas and moral behaviour of the Akan tribes of Ghana. 50. Kudadjie, J.N., & Aboagye-Mensah, R.K. (1992). Christian social ethics. 51. Afriyie, B, S. (2012). Concise ICT fundamentals (Volume 1) 52. Arjarquaith, S.O. (2003). Basic typewriting with exercises in word processing: A complete course (4th Ed.). 53. Agbey, A., & Adame, K. (2006). A new practical French. 54. Ansu-Kyeremeh, K., & Karikari, K. (1998). Media Ghana: 1998 Ghana Media overview 324 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 55. Evans, M.R. (2004). The layers of magazine editing. New York: Columbia University Press. 56. Gadzekpo, A. (2008). The media: Guardians of democracy in Ghana governance in the Fourth Republic. 57. Odamtten & Laryea (2007). Steps to effective spoken English.. 58. Kumekpor, T.K.B (2002) Research methods and techniques of social research. 59. Adams, S. (2001). Interviewing for journalists (2nd ed.) 60. Agunga, R.A. (1997). Developing the Third World: A communication approach. 61. Ansu-Kyeremeh, K. (1995). Communication, education and development. 62. Amoakohene, M. I. (2012). Political communication in Ghana’s emerging democracy 63. Hasty, J. (2005). The press and political culture in Ghana 64. Puplampu, K.P., & Tettey, W.J. (eds.) (2010). The public sphere and the politics of survival in Ghana 65. Thompson, L.T., Dorsey, M.A., Moller, I.K., & Parrot, R. (2003). Handbook of health communication 325 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh BIBLIOGRAPHY ACEJMC. (2012). 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