Deviant Behavior
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/udbh20
The Quagmire of Juvenile Delinquency:
Perspectives of Inmates and Officers in a
Correctional Facility in Accra, Ghana
Mavis Dako-Gyeke, Abass Adam & Abigail A. Mills
To cite this article: Mavis Dako-Gyeke, Abass Adam & Abigail A. Mills (2022) The Quagmire of
Juvenile Delinquency: Perspectives of Inmates and Officers in a Correctional Facility in Accra,
Ghana, Deviant Behavior, 43:2, 241-257, DOI: 10.1080/01639625.2020.1808770
To link to this article:  https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1808770
Published online: 25 Aug 2020.
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DEVIANT BEHAVIOR                                        
2022, VOL. 43, NO. 2, 241–257 
https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1808770
The Quagmire of Juvenile Delinquency: Perspectives of Inmates 
and Officers in a Correctional Facility in Accra, Ghana
Mavis Dako-Gyeke, Abass Adam, and Abigail A. Mills
University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY 
Drawing on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, this study explored Received 30 March 2020  
the experiences and perspectives of juvenile offenders and officers on juve- Accepted 15 June 2020  
nile delinquency in Accra, Ghana. A descriptive study design with qualitative 
data collection and analysis methods were employed. A purposive sampling 
method was used to recruit twenty-six participants, consisting of inmates 
and officers at a Correctional Facility. Data were gathered through in-depth 
interviews and the findings showed that parental neglect and abuse; finan-
cial constraints; peer influence; and exposure to community social vices 
influenced juveniles’ delinquent behaviors. Additionally, evidence indicated 
that the inmates benefited from their stay at the correctional facility with 
respect to their mental health and opportunity to acquire academic knowl-
edge and vocational skills. Based on the findings, suggestions are provided 
on how juvenile delinquency could be prevented and controlled in Ghana.
Introduction
Juvenile delinquency is an issue of public and policy concern worldwide since in many societies, 
including Ghana, children are not expected to come into contact with the justice system (Ame 2018; 
Luebbers and Ogloff 2011; Ojo 2012). The image of childhood and how children are perceived in 
different societies determine how they are treated with consequences for their welfare and their rights, 
including treatment by the justice system (Ame 2018; Veerman 1992). In recent years, there have been 
unceasing public and academic interest in criminality and mental health, with attention on antisocial 
behaviors of children and adolescents (Young, Greer, and Church 2017). Generally, compared with 
the general juvenile population, juvenile offenders have been identified as a population that suffers 
from an elevated prevalence and severity of mental disorders (Penner, Roesch, and Viljoen 2011; 
Robertson et al. 2004; Young, Greer, and Church 2017).
Across the world, the extent of juvenile delinquency has triggered mixed responses from govern-
ments and the media. While some have called for enhanced rehabilitation and assistance for juvenile 
offenders, others have advocated for more punitive approaches (Muncie and Goldson 2006). 
Nonetheless, extant research studies indicate that rehabilitation is an important goal of juvenile 
correctional facilities (Andrews and Dowden 2005; Cullen 2007; Gendreau, Smith, and French 2006; 
Lipsey and Cullen 2007). Moreover, it is difficult to ascertain the exact number of juvenile delinquents 
on detention because of inadequate or unavailability of information on juveniles on detention 
(Hamilton et al. 2011). However, it is estimated that a large amount of governments’ resources is 
used to provide care and support for inmates in juvenile correctional facilities (American Academy of 
Pediatrics [AAP] 2001). Furthermore, juvenile delinquency has been variously defined since there is 
no universally accepted definition of the concept (Sewasew et al. 2015; Trenas, Raya, Osuna, Rosario, 
Olivares and Cabrera 2013). While definitions of juvenile delinquency vary according to local 
CONTACT Mavis Dako-Gyeke mavisdako@yahoo.com Department of Social Work, School of Social Sciences, University of 
Ghana, Accra, Ghana
© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
242 M. DAKO-GYEKE ET AL.
jurisdictions, the reasons underlying the differences are blurred and may be due to the lack of an 
international accepted standard (Penal Reform International 2013).
Even though there are substantial variations in philosophy, goals, practices, and attitudes in 
juvenile justice systems across societies (Winterdyk 2002), juvenile delinquency involves juveniles’ 
breach of legal and social norms by committing minor to serious offenses (Carlson and Maike 2010; 
United Nations Department for Economic and Social Affairs [UNDESA] 2005). In addition, it refers to 
a young person who has committed a criminal offense (Young, Greer, and Church 2017). Juvenile 
delinquency is generally described in two forms: (a) as conducts of juveniles that violate criminal laws 
like murder, defilement and stealing; and (b) as conducts of juveniles that do not violate criminal laws, 
for example, lying and deceit (Ugwuoke and Duruji 2015). Deviance could be criminal or non- 
criminal, and it involves any behavior that violates social norms, and is generally of enough severity 
to deserve disapproval from the majority of society (Douglas and Waksler 1982). In view of the fact 
that some may be detained pre-trial and not convicted of an offense, not all incarcerated juveniles are 
delinquent (Young, Greer, and Church 2017). In addition, even if convicted, not every juvenile 
delinquent meets the criteria for a diagnosis of conduct disorder as offenses vary extensively, and 
many of them do not pose immediate risks of violence to others (Young, Greer, and Church 2017).
Children come before the courts for different reasons, and this could affect their development. 
Thus, this study aimed to explore experiences and perspectives of inmates and officers regarding 
reasons that underpinned inmates’ engagement in delinquent behaviors, as well as the benefits they 
derived from detention. Adolescence is a critical developmental period that is associated with changes 
that may represent in themselves risks for current and future delinquency (Barbot and Hunter 2012). 
Delinquent behaviors are forms of developmental changes that occur in some adolescents and could be 
short-lived (Bella, Atilola, and Omigbodun 2010). Adolescence is a period that age–crime curve peaks 
as the rate and severity of offenses that occur during this are likely to become predictors of later 
offenses (Landsheer and van Dijkum 2005). While developmental changes of adolescence are contexts 
for the occurrence of diverse behaviors and outcomes, including delinquency (Barbot and Hunter 
2012), most often, society does not expect them to be criminals nor commit crimes (Steinberg and 
Schwartz 2000). Ideally, children should be nurtured at home, school and the larger community 
(Zarrett and Eccles 2006). The confinement of juveniles keeps them away from more desired ways of 
nurturing, a situation which makes it difficult for their adjustment and well-being (Hogan, Halpenny, 
and Greene 2002).
Post- independence juvenile justice system in Ghana
Similar to many modern criminal justice institutions in Africa, the contemporary juvenile justice 
system in Ghana could be traced to the country’s colonial era as colonization influenced traditional 
social control, as well as the system of justice (Ame 2018). However, this section of the paper focuses 
on Ghana’s juvenile system after the country attained independence in 1957. Among the major 
juvenile justice legislations in Ghana was the Criminal Procedure Code, 1960 (Act 30), which was 
enacted in post-independence. The Code was among others, a consolidation of existing legislations 
concerning juveniles in the country since 1944 and it firmed legislation on the administration of 
juvenile justice in the country (Ame 2018). Furthermore, in 2003, parts of the 1960 Criminal 
Procedure Code relating to criminal justice for juveniles were repealed and replaced by the current 
Juvenile Justice Act (Act 653), which was passed by Ghana’s Parliament in 2003. The Act describes 
a juvenile delinquent as a person who is under the age of eighteen years and is in conflict with the law 
(Government of Ghana 2015).
The 2003 Juvenile Justice Act outlines procedural protections for children from arrest through trial 
and sentencing, and specifies an array of custodial and non-custodial sentencing options. Also, it 
makes provision for the establishment of specialized Junior Correctional Centers and Senior 
Correctional Centers for children and promotes the diversion of children from the formal criminal 
justice system. Moreover, since 2010, some stakeholders have had discussions regarding the need to 
DEVIANT BEHAVIOR 243
develop baseline indicators with the aim of reforming Ghana’s policy on social protection, including 
its juvenile justice system (Ame 2019). The goal is to contextualize social protection in order to make it 
more applicable, efficient and sustainable. These efforts led to the formulation and adoption of the 
Justice for Children Policy by cabinet in 2015. Although the policy focused predominantly on issues 
pertaining to justice for children in conflict with the law, it transcends the issue of children as 
offenders, to address issues related to children as victims of abuse, exploitation, and neglect, as well 
as children caught up in conflicts over custody, maintenance, and paternity (Government of Ghana 
2015).
Although the implementation of the Justice for Children Policy is imperative as it creates 
a domestic and appropriate juvenile justice system in Ghana, it faces some technical, philosophical, 
and resource challenges (Ame 2019). Another area of concern with the juvenile justice administration 
in Ghana is the fact that most often, parents and guardians of children in police custody do not show 
up at police stations and juvenile courts to assist with proceedings due to fear of being reprimanded. 
Besides, some juvenile offenders are detained in police cells and adult prisons (Ayete-Nyampong 2012) 
because most often, certain key areas of the Juvenile Justice Act and the Justice for Children Policy are 
not adhered to by the court, police and other stakeholders. This suggests that although the Act and 
policy may look good on paper, there is a gap between rhetoric and reality. Complicating the situation 
is the fact that not many juvenile correctional facilities are available across the country to house and 
reform children who are found guilty of the law. Generally, these few correctional facilities have 
challenges that could have implications for the services provided children, as well as life in these 
institutions. It would therefore be useful to reduce the extent to which children are at risk or commit 
offenses by identifying, understanding and addressing issues related to juvenile delinquency.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory and criminogenic conditions
In view of the fact that juvenile delinquency is a multifaceted issue, it would be useful to explore it in 
a wider context. Thus, this study draws on the insights of Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems 
theory. As opined by Farineau (2016), an ecological approach offers a more comprehensive approach 
to understanding juvenile delinquency. Bronfenbrenner’s model focuses on context by emphasizing 
that the environment is made up of five nested systems that are interactive and interwoven in nature. 
From the ecological systems perspective, the environment consists of the micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, 
and chrono- systems (Bronfenbrenner 1979, 1994). Each of these systems exert influence on the 
development of people, such as juvenile offenders. The theory asserts that the microsystem is the 
physical environment in which the person is situated and interacts with others face to face (Coscioni 
et al. 2018).
The microsystem is the first and primary unit (e.g., family, school) where children develop and 
includes activities, social roles and interpersonal relationships that involve children (Bronfenbrenner 
1977). The family environment, particularly family poverty could be a key reason children commit 
delinquent acts (; Rekker et al. 2015; Shong, Siti Hajar Abu Bakar, and Rezaul Islam 2018). Although in 
2006, a pro-poor program, Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP), which provides 
financial support to extremely poor was initiated in Ghana, the program does not cover all poor 
households. The theory identifies the mesosystem, as the relation between two or more microsystems 
in which the child is situated (Liao and Hong 2010). The relationship between the family and school 
could have impact on adolescents engaging in delinquent activities. Although many schools have rules 
and regulations that discourage deviant behaviors, some adolescents could be influenced by their peers 
to conform to such behaviors and values due to peer pressure. The fear of isolation pushes adolescents 
to be a part of peer groups that may be indulging in negative activities (Brown 2004), such as 
delinquent behaviors.
The exo-system entails relationships between two separate systems of which the child is in direct 
contact with one (Bronfenbrenner 1977; Pittenger, Huit, and Hansen 2016). At the exo-system level, 
lack or limited parental social support due to parents’ engagement in economic and other activities 
244 M. DAKO-GYEKE ET AL.
could influence delinquent behaviors among children. Parenting practices are crucial in determining 
whether adolescents become involved in delinquent or criminal activities (Snyder and Merritt 2014). 
Victims of child abuse and neglect are at a higher risk of involvement with the juvenile justice system 
(Ryan, Williams-Butler, and Courtney 2013). Parenting support from extended family members has 
declined over the years in Ghana partly due to the shift in social institutions from being community 
oriented to being more individualistic (Annor 2014; Kumado and Gockel 2003). In addition, there are 
limited or no after school social programs available for adolescents who are mostly left on their own, 
such children may be at risk of engaging in deviant activities. Generally, juveniles living in disadvan-
taged neighborhoods are more at risk of engaging in deviant activities (Frías-Armenta and Corral- 
Verdugo. 2013).
From an ecological systems perspective, the macro system involves the micro-, meso-, and exo- 
systems that exist, or could exist within the subculture or the culture as a whole, as well as any belief 
system or ideology (Bronfenbrenner 1977). It includes government policies, laws and customs, social 
class, ideologies, values and beliefs that influence societal perceptions of and responses to children who 
get into conflict with the law. In Ghana, mention could be made of post-independence laws and 
policies, such as the Criminal Procedure Code, 1960 (Act 30), Juvenile Justice Act, 2003 (Act 653) and 
the Justice for Children Policy (2015). While there are challenges associated with implementation, 
these laws and policies provide guidelines for stakeholders in the juvenile justice system. The 
chronosystem is the passage of time that enables change or constancy in social conditions, such as 
major life changes and historical events in a person’s characteristics or their environment 
(Bronfenbrenner 1977, 1994). The chronosystem could influence the lives of inmates in correctional 
facilities as their detention may have lasting effects (positively or negatively) on their lives.
Correctional juvenile detention could be harmful environments as confinement often remains 
a punishing, traumatizing, and stigmatizing experience for adolescents (Sawyer 2019). Nonetheless, 
some adolescents benefit from juvenile justice reform through the services provided at these correc-
tional facilities. The ecological systems theory was appropriate for this study as it offered explanations 
regarding how the child is an inseparable part of the micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, chrono-systems, 
which affect his or her behavior directly or indirectly. In view of the fact that juvenile delinquency is 
rooted in a broader social environment that shapes a child’s behavior, it is crucial to identify, consider 
and understand factors that underpin deviant behaviors among adolescents. This study, which is part 
of a larger research project, therefore sought to explore experiences and perspectives of male inmates 
and officers regarding reasons that underpinned inmates’ engagement in delinquent behaviors. In 
addition, the benefits inmates derived from detention were explored. All inmates included in this 
study were males for the reason that, the correctional center was established for boys. Understanding 
contextual factors that influence juvenile delinquency is vital in developing effective and efficient 
interventions that could help reduce the phenomenon in society. The next sections focus on the 
methodology, findings, discussion, conclusions and implications.
Materials and methods
Study design
A qualitative research design was employed for this study. This approach was appropriate for the study 
because it enabled the researchers to gain detailed information about the phenomenon based on the 
meanings ascribed by those who experienced it (Creswell and Creswell 2017; Denzin and Lincoln 
2018). Additionally, the research design offered an opportunity for the researchers to study a small 
number of participants through extensive engagement in order to develop patterns and relationships 
of meaning (Creswell 2003, Dako-Gyeke and Baffour 2016). The research method further allowed us to 
gather information about the values, opinions, behaviors, and social contexts of inmates, as well as the 
perspectives of officers at a correctional facility.
DEVIANT BEHAVIOR 245
Study site and participants
The study was conducted at the Senior Correctional Center in Accra, Ghana, which was established in 
1947 by the then colonial administration in Ghana and formerly referred to as the Borstal Institute. 
Before the Ghana Prison Service took over its administration in 1958, it was under the management of 
the Department of Social Welfare (Bosiakoh and Andoh 2010). The maximum sentences at correc-
tional facilities as specified by the Juvenile Justice Act, 2003 are: three months for a juvenile under the 
age of 16 years, six months for juveniles between 16 and 17 years, 24 months for younger offenders 
over the age of 18, and three years for a serious offense. Juveniles who commit serious offenses may be 
sentenced to time at the Senior Correctional Center even if they are 17 years of age or younger. Among 
the serious offenses are murder, rape, defilement, indecent assault involving unlawful harm, robbery 
with aggravated circumstance, drug offenses, and offenses related to firearms (Hoffmann and Baerg 
2011). Twenty-six participants were purposively recruited as participants for the study and this 
comprised eighteen inmates and eight officers.
Purposive sampling was used to recruit inmates and officers for the study because it enabled the 
researchers to recruit those who possessed the characteristics, knowledge, opinions, and experiences or 
ideas that were pertinent for this study (Palinkas et al. 2015). The inmates were recruited because they 
were detained in the correctional facility due to diverse reasons, and the officers (key informants) were 
included in the study in view of their knowledge of the phenomenon acquired in the course of 
discharging their respective responsibilities. Data were gathered from the key informants to corrobo-
rate the findings obtained from the inmates because they had been working with the inmates and had 
knowledge and experience that were relevant for the study. Inmates selected for the study had stayed at 
the facility for over a year and were below 18 years of age. Officers included in the study had worked in 
the correctional center for over three months. Two of the officers were engaged in administrative work 
at the center, two provided vocational training to inmates, two were teachers at the educational unit 
and the remaining two were guards.
Data collection and analysis procedures
The study was approved by the School of Graduate Studies Board of the University of Ghana. Before 
commencing data collection, permission was sought from the Ghana Prisons Service, the institution 
that oversees all prisons and juvenile correctional facilities in Ghana. The Ghana Prisons Service issued 
an authority letter indicating approval for the study to be conducted with the inmates and officers at 
the Senior Correctional Center. The letter was delivered to the officer in charge of the Correctional 
Center and a meeting was held with the participant officers to explain the purpose of the study. After 
the meeting, the officers introduced the researcher to the inmates at the facility. The purpose of the 
study was explained to the inmates in the presence of the officers. Those who were willing and 
available to participate in the study met with the researcher for information on the next steps. 
Appointments were scheduled for the data collection, after the inmates and officers had decided on 
suitable dates and times.
Assent and informed consent were obtained from the inmates and officers respectively, prior to 
commencement of each in-depth interview. Each interview started with an explanation of the purpose 
of the study and notification of participants’ right to withdraw from the study at any point in time of 
the data collection. Participation in the study was voluntary, and participants were assured of 
confidentiality regarding information they provided. Twenty-six interviews were conducted according 
to a set of open-ended guiding questions based on the objectives of the study. The open-ended 
questions offered participants the opportunity to express themselves freely and permitted the 
researcher to probe participants’ responses for elaboration (Dako-Gyeke et al. 2019). Data collection 
continued until the point of saturation when there was no new information from participants (Bowen 
2008). Key questions included in the inmates’ interviews related to reasons they engaged in acts that 
led to their detention, types of services they received at the correctional center and the usefulness of the 
246 M. DAKO-GYEKE ET AL.
services. The officers’ questions focused mainly on their perceptions regarding why adolescents 
engaged in deviant acts, as well as services provided to inmates at the correctional facility.
The interviews were conducted in English and Twi (dominant local Ghanaian language) based on the 
preference of each participant. All interviews were held at the correctional facility and each interview 
lasted between 90 and 120 minutes. Given the sensitive nature of the topic, the interviews provided 
opportunities for participants to speak privately with the researcher. During interviews with all partici-
pants, notes were taken as the Ghana Prison Service prohibited the use of audio recorders. Following the 
data collection, the notes were read over several times in order for the researchers to become familiar 
with the data. We individually extracted and coded major themes from the text. The themes took into 
consideration statements of meaning that were present in most of the data. In order to ensure credibility 
of the findings, sets of codes and themes independently developed were discussed and consensus reached. 
Emerging themes and categories were discussed with academic colleagues who had professional and/or 
academic knowledge in the field (Lincoln and Guba 1985) and used to address objectives of the study.
Results
Demographic characteristics of participants
This study included twenty-six participants made up of eighteen male inmates and eight officers (6 
males and 2 females). The ages of the inmates were between 15 and 17 years as follows: 17 years (9), 
15 years (5) and 16 years (4). In terms of educational backgrounds prior to detention, the highest level 
attained by the inmates was Junior High School (13), Primary School (3) and never attended school 
(2). With respect to the religious affiliation of inmates, thirteen were Christians, four were Muslims 
and one was a Traditionalist. Regarding their living arrangements before they came into conflict with 
the law, nine lived with either their father or mother, five with both parents, two with relatives, one 
with a friend and one lived on his own.
All inmates had stayed at the correctional facility for more than a year and reported that their 
parents and guardians were made up of farmers, traders, commercial car drivers, civil servants, 
mechanics, and some were unemployed. As regards religious affiliation, all the officers were 
Christians. Their educational backgrounds were as follows: tertiary level (4), vocational and technical 
training (3) and Junior High School (1). The ranks of the officers were: Assistant Superintendent of 
Prisons (1), Senior Chief Officer (1), Chief Officer (1), and Assistant Chief Officers (5). They had all 
worked at the correctional facility for a considerable number of years: 33 years (1), 28 years (1), 
26 years (2), 24 years (3), and 19 years (1). The subsequent section is organized under the following 
themes: (a) reasons underpinning inmates’ delinquent acts and (b) benefits derived from detention. 
The themes are shared by both inmates and officers.
Reasons underpinning inmates’ delinquent acts
Exploring why inmates engaged in deviant behaviors that resulted in their detention, these were 
identified: (a) parental neglect and abuse, (b) financial challenges, (c) influence of peers and (d) 
exposure to deviant activities in neighborhoods.
Parental neglect and abuse
In view of the fact that adolescence is a critical developmental period where adolescents may engage in 
risky behaviors, such as delinquency, the role of parents and guardians cannot be over emphasized. 
Thus, parental neglect and abuse negatively affected some inmates, which led to their engagement in 
deviant activities and subsequent detention. Sharing his experience, an inmate who was separated 
from his parents due to divorce had this to say:
My parents divorced when I was eleven years old. I lived with my mother after the divorce, but she moved to 
Kumasi after she got married to another man. As a result, I had to stay alone in Berekum. I stopped sleeping at 
DEVIANT BEHAVIOR 247
home and consequently I became a street boy, which exposed me to stealing. After engaging in stealing for some 
time, I was eventually caught and that led to my detention. (Inmate, 17 years).
Another inmate narrated how his uncle left him on his own due to frequent travels, which led to his 
engagement in deviant acts:
I lived with my uncle who was away from home often due to the nature if his job. Although he left enough food 
and money every time he travelled, I invited my friends to our home for company and to watch television movies 
together. On one occasion that my uncle was out of town for a long time, my friends and I travelled to the city. 
While there, we visited many shops that had a lot of expensive items on display. On our return, I travelled alone to 
the city to purchase some items, but my money was not enough. I stole some of the items and I was arrested. 
(Inmate, 16 years).
This inmate described how his father abused him physically and verbally. He was compelled to leave 
home and subsequently dropped out of school:
I lived with my parents, but my father did not like me. Anytime I did something wrong, he beat me and threatened 
me with a knife, accompanied by insults. I was afraid of him so I left home to live with friends. Sometimes 
I sneaked to the house and my mother gave me money. I stopped going to school and started engaging in selling on 
the streets, but life was difficult. I was involved in robbery activities, which led to my arrest. (Inmate, 16 years).
According this officer, single parenting as a result of divorce compelled some inmates to resort to 
delinquent behaviors:
Juvenile delinquency is on the rise in Ghana because many women have become heads of their households as 
their husbands have shirked their family responsibilities. Many mothers are working longer hours outside of their 
homes in order to meet the needs of their children and other family members. As a result, they are unable to 
spend much time with their children. These children are compelled to take care of themselves. Some of these 
children end up joining gangs and dangerous groups and thereby getting involved in social vices that lead to their 
arrest and subsequent detention. (Female Officer).
Adding his voice, this officer emphasized that single parenting due to divorce compelled some inmates 
to resort to delinquent behaviors:
Many of the inmates engaged in deviant acts as a result of broken homes due to divorce, which results in single 
parenting. Most often, it is difficult for single parents to take care of their children, leading to delinquent 
behaviors. Many of these children involve themselves in activities, such as stealing and other immoral behaviors. 
(Male Officer).
Financial challenges
Extant research suggest that juvenile delinquency is among the problems children living in poverty 
face. Economic hardship is related to children’s delinquent character and behavioral development. In 
this study, some of the inmates explained that they engaged in deviant activities, especially robbery for 
survival due to family poverty:
I stole money to feed on and buy things for myself since my parents were poor. I left home in order to look for 
a job to support my family, especially my younger siblings. I could not find any job, became desperate and started 
stealing items. I sold the stolen items for money. I was scared initially, but it became normal after sometime. I sold 
a stolen item to someone who reported me to the police and that was the reason why I was sent here. I know 
stealing is a bad habit, but I did not have a choice considering the economic hardship I had to endure. (Inmate, 
17 years).
According to this inmate, he was compelled to steal for a living:
I stole something and was brought here. Life was very difficult for me since I lived with my poor grandmother. She 
was old and did not have a job so most often, there was no food at home. I had to look for money to take care of 
myself. I dropped out of school and left home because my grandmother was unable to pay my school fees and 
other expenses. I started stealing and selling stolen items in order to get some money. (Inmate, 16 years).
An officer opined that some of inmates were compelled to steal for survival:
248 M. DAKO-GYEKE ET AL.
Poverty is a very crucial issue because it leads to delinquency. Many of the inmates were arrested and detained as 
a result of poverty. Most often, parents could not provide for their children’s basic needs. Some of the children 
even stole money to buy food. These children were compelled to find options to survive and they resorted to 
dubious means, such as stealing, fraud, among others. (Male Officer).
Influence of peers
Adolescence is a stage of development that peer pressure could be strong due to fear of isolation. In 
this study, it was found that some inmates were pushed to join peer groups that indulged in delinquent 
behaviors. Sharing his experience, an inmate noted:
I was arrested and detained because I broke into a supermarket with some friends. We planned and entered the 
building through the roof at night to steal items from the supermarket. Although it was very difficult, we managed 
to cut the roof, entered the building and stole some expensive items. We got arrested because we left our tools there 
and we went back to pick them. Some of my friends were able to escape, but I was not lucky. (Inmate, 16 years).
This inmate who was influenced by his friends to engage in sexual activities remarked:
My friends at school had pornographic videos on their mobile phones that I watched with them since I did not 
have a mobile phone. After some time, they started teasing me that I was not sexually active. In order to prove 
them wrong, I started engaging in romantic activities. I was arrested because I was accused of rape after I had sex 
with a girl. (Inmate, 17 years).
In addition, an officer who linked peer pressure with drug use among juveniles, commented:
Peer influence plays a huge role in juvenile delinquency as many of the inmates joined groups that engaged in 
deviant activities. It is unfortunate these groups were attractive to them, especially those that engaged in drug 
related activities. Most often, they become addicted to drugs and engage in bad behaviors like robbery, assault and 
rape, which lead to their arrest and detention. (Male Officer).
Exposure to deviant activities in neighborhoods
Research findings have shown that neighborhood structure is related to juvenile delinquency. Juveniles 
who resided in disadvantaged neighborhoods where people committed activities that violated the law, 
were at risk of engaging in these activities, as an inmate explained:
Many adults in my community were armed robbers, marijuana smokers, and rapists. They encouraged teenagers 
to engage in these activities, especially robbery at night. Sometimes they did not join us, but gave directions on 
where to go and the skills to apply. On successful operations, they gave us our share of the stolen items, but if the 
items were not enough, they did not give us anything. I engaged in armed robbery and I was arrested, that is why 
I am in detention. (Inmate, 17 years).
Another inmate explained how he dropped out of school to join a gang in his neighborhood:
I lived in a slum area and many people in my neighborhood belonged to gangs that engaged in dangerous 
activities, such as smoking of marijuana and other substances, and robbery, among others. Growing up, we 
looked up to these adults as our role models. Many of them did not have jobs, but they had money so I dropped 
out of school to join them. I was part of a group that engaged in a failed armed robbery. I was arrested and 
detained. I have learnt my lesson so I plan not to go back to that neighborhood. (Inmate, 16 years).
This officer described how the behaviors of inmates were reflections of their neighborhoods:
All the inmates are from neighborhoods and communities. If a child is raised in a violent neighborhood, what should 
one expect? They are part of or involved in activities that take place at these places. If a child lives in an environment 
where adults engage in armed robbery or drugs, the child would be compelled to model such behaviors. For instance, 
children who grow up in violent communities think the best thing to do is to learn how to fight and protect 
themselves. Such children are likely to bully other children when they go to school. (Female Officer).
DEVIANT BEHAVIOR 249
Benefits inmates derived from detention
Since the purpose of juvenile detention is to reform inmates through rehabilitation programs, the 
benefits gained by inmates were explored. It was found that the inmates experienced behavior change, 
established cordial relations with their peers and officers, and acquired knowledge and vocational 
skills.
Behavior change
Many of the inmates reported of positive behavior change and mental health as a result of the 
counseling services they received at the correctional facility. This is vital because the restrictive 
environment of a correctional facility has its peculiar challenges. Describing his experience, an inmate 
narrated:
Counseling has helped me a lot since I have changed and now I do not think of activities that could put me at risk 
of being arrested and detained. I have learned how to accept my mistakes and communicate politely with my 
peers and adults. I have learnt my lesson and I am working hard to ensure that by the time I leave this facility, 
I would be a better person who would not commit any offence that will result in another arrest and detention. 
(Inmate, 17 years).
This inmate explained how counseling helped him to reduce his fears and anxieties:
I attend counselling sessions regularly and I have benefited a lot from it because the Madam is very nice and 
accepting. The counseling sessions have helped me to change my behavior for the better and now I feel good 
about myself. Although some days I feel sad about my detention because of the stigma and discrimination I am 
likely to face from family members and friends, through the counseling sessions, I am learning how to handle 
such people since I am now a changed person. (Inmate, 17 years).
By placing emphasis on changing the behaviors of inmates, an officer noted:
As professionals, we assist the inmates to change their bad habits through counseling and other services. Many of 
these children come in here with bad attitudes and behaviors, but by the time they leave, they are transformed. 
Through our interactions with them, they understand why they came into conflict with the law and work towards 
becoming better people. Besides, they develop positive attitudes towards their families and look forward to 
reconciling with them. Some of the inmates told us they had changed for the better and wished all boys who 
engaged in deviant behaviors were brought to the correctional facility. (Male Officer).
Cordial relations with peers and officers
Another benefit that the inmates derived from being in detention was the cordial relationship they had 
with fellow inmates and the officers at the correctional facility. In view of the fact that the inmates were 
in detention for more than one year, the type of relationship they had with people in their immediate 
environment was crucial as inmate narrated:
As inmates, we support each other and some of them relate to me as if we are siblings from the same family. 
Similarly, some of the officers have become our parents since they are concerned about our wellbeing. I have 
become attached to one female officer whom I call my mother. She is very caring, always looks out for me 
and makes me feel at home. I always think about how I will miss her when I leave this facility. (Inmate, 
15 years).
Another inmate who perceived the correctional center as a safe haven, noted:
This correctional center is my home because since I came here none of my family members has visited me. 
I consider the officers as my parents and some of the inmates as my siblings. I have been neglected by my family 
because of what I did and was arrested. The officers advise us and ensure that we abide by the rules and 
regulations so that we do not get into trouble. In addition, my peers have been nice to me. We plan to support 
each other when we are released because some of our family and community members are likely to stigmatize us. 
(Inmate, 17 years).
As noted by this officer, they are in touch with the inmates even after their release from detention:
250 M. DAKO-GYEKE ET AL.
We have good relations with the children who come here, as we are responsible for their wellbeing, especially 
those who stay here for more than one year. We also gain valuable experience after working with different 
inmates. We make friends with them and when they are leaving, we give them gifts. Some of them thank us for 
changing their lives for the better and the good treatment they received here. Before they leave, many of them take 
our contact phone numbers and they call us when they need assistance. As well, some of the former inmates visit 
and thank us for helping them fit well into society (Male Officer).
Acquisition of knowledge and skills
Both the inmates and officers described how the training programs offered at the correctional facility 
were valuable for the inmates. Inmates are enrolled in either academic or vocational skills program, 
and these are vital components of the reformation process. An inmate who opted for the academic 
program remarked:
I enrolled in the academic program because I was at the Senior High School level when I was arrested and brought 
to the correctional center. I chose this over vocational training because one of the administrators inquired about 
the job I wanted to do in future and I said I wanted to become an engineer. He then advised me to enroll in the 
academic program and I am happy because the teachers here are good. (Inmate, 16 years).
Describing the benefits of the vocational skills training program, an inmate noted:
The National Vocational Training Institute program has helped me to learn how to make and repair shoes. Thus, 
I can make shoes and sell them for a living so that I would not depend on my parents when I leave this 
correctional center. My parents would be happy that I could work and get money so that I would not engage in 
robbery any longer. I am planning to make some shoes for the officers here before I leave. (Inmate, 17 years).
In addition, an officer had this to say:
The children who come to this center benefit from many academic and skills training programs, such as 
carpentry, masonry, ceramics, vulcanizing, auto-mechanics, blacksmith and music. They are allowed to choose 
any of these based on their interests and future career aspirations. As I speak, seven of the inmates are in Senior 
High School and we are currently preparing 21 boys to write the Basic Education Certificate Examination, 41 boys 
have also been registered to write the National Vocational Training Institute’s Examination (Male Officer).
Discussion
This study explored the experiences and perspectives of inmates and officers regarding juvenile 
delinquency in Accra, Ghana. The findings of the study revealed that the juveniles engaged in deviant 
activities due to varied reasons (parental neglect and abuse, financial challenges, influence of peers and 
exposure to deviant activities in neighborhoods). These factors are interconnected and influence 
adolescents’ behaviors and activities directly or indirectly in the different ecological systems 
(Bronfenbrenner 1977). Parental neglect and abuse suggests that children are not protected and 
could be at risk of delinquent acts. This is an issue of concern as victims of child abuse and neglect 
are at a higher risk of involvement with the juvenile justice system (Ryan, Williams-Butler, and 
Courtney 2013). In their work on juvenile delinquents in Turkey, Zeren et al. (2013) opined that 
inmates engaged in delinquent behaviors due to poor parental supervision and separation from 
parents. Although not all children who separate from their parents engage in delinquent acts, neglect 
or failure to offer adequate parenting could risk adolescents behaving in a deviant manner Parackal 
and Panicker (2019).
Parenting was a communal responsibility in many communities in Ghana, but in recent times, 
support from extended family members has dwindled largely due to a shift from an extended family 
focused to a nuclear family system. Furthermore, as found in this study, some children engaged 
deviant behaviors when they left home in order to escape physical abuse. In Ghana, there seems to be 
no clear definitions of child abuse as certain abuses of children, especially physical abuse is tolerated in 
some households and schools due to religious, traditional and cultural beliefs and practices (Dako- 
Gyeke 2018; Müller, Tranchant, and Oosterhoff 2016). Complicating the issue is the fact that many 
DEVIANT BEHAVIOR 251
adolescents who are neglected and abused by their parents or guardians may not report these adults to 
institutions like the Police and the Department of Social Welfare that are mandated to handle child 
abuse cases. This is mainly due to how children are socialized in Ghana as they are expected to be seen 
and not heard in a microsystem, such as the home. The microsystem focuses on children’s inter-
personal relationship with others, which underpin their social interactions (Bronfenbrenner 1977). 
Besides, these adolescents may not have options in terms of access to formal social support services.
Furthermore, some parents neglect the needs of adolescents due to poverty and this could force the 
children to resort to social vices, such as stealing as a means of escape and survival. Adolescents in 
aversive home environments may turn to delinquency as a means to escape from their situation by 
running away or stealing to reduce their financial dependency on parents (Agnew 1985). Changes in 
socioeconomic status, such as parental job losses or promotions are related to changes in youths’ 
delinquent behaviors as youths are likely to offend during years in which their parents’ socioeconomic 
status are lower than during years in which their parents’ socioeconomic status are higher (Rekker 
et al. 2015). Relating this to the exo-system, there is evidence that socioeconomic status is associated 
with problem behaviors as adolescents who experience economic difficulties are more likely to lack 
family support that could increase their risk of becoming involved in delinquent activities (Cheung 
and Cheung 2008 ; Shek 2005; Weng, Ran, and Chui, 2016; Zhang and Messner 1995). This suggests 
that some adolescents committed crimes as adaptations to broader systems, which served as pathways 
for delinquent behaviors.
Adolescents who experience financial hardships may be compelled to rely on peer groups, which 
could be a micro system, for assistance and in the process, could be influenced to engage in delinquent 
activities. As found in this study, some of the inmates were influenced by their peers to engage in 
deviant behaviors. Explaining this, social learning theorists suggest that individuals learn certain 
behavioral patterns by observing, imitating and modeling others’ behaviors (Akers et al. 1979; 
Bandura 1977; Ormrod 1999). Generally, primary groups and intimate or admiring people are key 
factors that compromise individuals’ source of reinforcements (Vito, Maahs, and Holmes 2007). Peer 
influence is a major factor that results in delinquency among juveniles (Ayete-Nyampong 2013; 
Simões, de Matos, and Batista-Foguet 2008). Due to fear of isolation, some adolescents join peer 
groups that may be engaging in deviant activities (Brown 2004). Aside peer groups, adolescents could 
be at risk of joining gangs depending on the type of neighborhood they reside. As found in this study, 
some adolescents reported that they lived in slum communities where gang activities, particularly 
engagement in robbery was common. Adults in these communities could serve as role models for 
adolescents and subsequently they may be pressured to exhibit delinquent actions. Juveniles’ who are 
exposed to adult vices in their communities are likely to learn such misconducts (Chung and Steinberg 
2006; Guan 2012). Most often, juveniles who reside in disadvantaged neighborhoods are more at risk 
of engaging in deviant activities (Frías-Armenta and Corral-Verdugo. 2013).
Moreover, lack of parental supervision as a result of engagement in an exosystem, such as their 
place of work or another activity for long hours, could compel adolescents to join gangs, especially 
when after school social programs are not available in their communities. In order to deter juveniles 
from engaging in deviant actions, there are various laws and policies at the macro level that sanction 
juveniles who come into conflict with the law. It was reported by participants that inmates were 
detained at the correctional facility because they engaged in delinquent conducts. With regard to 
benefits associated with detention, participants reported of behavior change, establishment of cordial 
relations among peers and officers, and acquisition of knowledge and vocational skills. Concerning 
behavior change, it was found that the counseling services inmates received at the correctional 
promoted behavior change and optimal mental health. The provision of counseling services, especially 
group counseling, functional family therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy for juvenile delinquents 
could result in positive behavioral change (Ferrara 1992 ; Ryals 2011; Sexton and Turner 2010; Wilson, 
Bouffard, and MacKenzie 2005). This notwithstanding, the concern is how this could be sustained over 
time as when released, inmates are likely to return to their social environments where risk factors may 
still exist. This is crucial because a long-term follow-up study with offenders indicated that they 
252 M. DAKO-GYEKE ET AL.
continued to struggle with challenges, such as poverty, disadvantaged neighborhoods, and offending 
peers, and the authors concluded that the offenders were likely to turn to delinquency as a coping 
mechanism (Giordano, Deines, and Cernkovich 2006).
Another benefit was the cordial relations that existed among inmates and peers, as well as the 
officers. This was demonstrated in the support inmates received from each other, and parental role 
some of the officers played in the lives of the inmates, which they appreciated. Positive attitudes and 
jovial behaviors showed by officers and staff toward juveniles in correctional facilities, including 
playing parental roles and sometimes providing basic needs, such as food and advice for inmates, 
are helpful for juveniles in detention (Gudadi 2014; Kwok 2009; Onyango 2013). Moreover, inmates 
enrolled in academic and vocational skills programs and evidence showed that these rehabilitation 
programs were beneficial as these enhanced their capabilities and prepared them for the future. 
However, in their study on vocational and social rehabilitation of delinquents, Delis and Goldberg 
(2008) found that vocational rehabilitation did not enhance delinquent boys’ vocational development, 
self-esteem, and attitude toward authority. This suggests that detention could have either positive or 
negative effects on the wellbeing of juveniles. Sawyer (2019) noted that correctional juvenile detention 
could be detrimental as confinement often remains a punishing, traumatizing, and stigmatizing 
experience for juveniles (Sawyer 2019). Relating this to the chronosystem, juvenile detention could 
be described as a major life change in adolescents’ lives or their environment (Bronfenbrenner 1977, 
1994). As adolescence is a critical developmental period, detention may have consequences for 
adolescents’ future.
Limitation of the study
The findings of this study do not represent views of all inmates and officers at juvenile facilities in 
Ghana. Nonetheless, it could be possible to relate the findings to other comparable situations if there 
are some degree of similarity in these contexts (Lincoln and Guba 1985). Furthermore, this study is 
valuable because the findings provide evidence regarding inmates’ and key informants’ perspectives on 
juvenile delinquency.
Conclusions and implications
In conclusion, the findings of the study indicated that a myriad of ecological factors contributed to 
delinquent behaviors among adolescents in Accra, Ghana. While parental neglect and abuse was 
a contributory factor, it underpinned the other factors. Given that adolescence is a critical period of 
development as it is associated with vulnerabilities, the importance of parental guidance cannot be 
over-emphasized. Clearly, the type of role parents play in adolescents’ lives, helps or hinders their 
development. Thus, in order to reduce juvenile delinquency, there is the need to encourage parents to 
be more involved in the lives of adolescents in order to help them navigate the developmental 
challenges, difficulties and problems. This is crucial because as parents shirk their responsibilities, 
children may seek solace in peers or other adults who may influence their lives negatively by exposing 
them to social vices, such as delinquent activities.
Since adolescents from poor families and those who reside in slum communities could be more at 
risk, support services are warranted to ensure that adolescents’ needs are met and they are protected, as 
well. This implies that at the macro level, it would be useful for policymakers to work at improving the 
welfare of low-income families, with the aim of ensuring the well-being of children so that they are 
better protected from the negative impacts of delinquent behaviors (Weng et al. 2016). Thus, the need 
for child welfare professionals to help poor families by linking them up with available government pro- 
poor programs, such as LEAP, cannot be over emphasized, as parental abuse and neglect could be 
conditions of poverty. The LEAP is a social cash transfer program that provides cash and health 
insurance to extremely poor households across Ghana to alleviate short-term poverty and encourage 
long-term human capital development. Moreover, adolescents included in this study indicated that 
DEVIANT BEHAVIOR 253
they benefited from the juvenile detention facility as the rehabilitation programs enhanced their 
mental health, as well as academic and vocational skills development. More importantly, the inmates 
had choices in terms of gaining academic knowledge, developing their career skills or learning a trade. 
This suggests that the correctional facility educated and treated the inmates instead of focusing on 
punishment.
Even though the assumption is that on their release from the correctional facility, the rehabilitated 
juveniles would be able to function well in their respective communities, consideration should be 
given to how these benefits would persist overtime. Also, in view of the fact that many adolescents 
encounter risks in society, it would be useful for professionals, especially social workers who work with 
juvenile offenders, to provide aftercare services (e.g., counseling, behavioral programs, vocational and 
educational programs) for juveniles after they are released. This could help juveniles to sustain the 
benefits gained from detention in order to reduce the extent to which they would re-offend and return 
to juvenile detention and correctional facilities. While the majority of research evidence indicates that 
rehabilitation treatment is capable of reducing the re-offense rates of convicted offenders, its effec-
tiveness depends on the type, how well it is implemented, and the nature of the offenders to whom it is 
applied (Lipsey and Cullen 2007). Moreover, Smith, Gendreau, and Swartz (2009) note that effective 
treatment is that which could affect risk factors for recidivism, such as those that use the cognitive- 
behavioral and social-learning approaches that influence a range of behaviors. This underscores the 
need for professionals, particularly social workers to design and implement interventions that provide 
learning and emphasize positive attitudinal and behavioral change among offenders. Such programs 
are useful because they are likely to value empowerment over individual deficit.
Acknowledgments
We wish to express our gratitude to inmates and officers who participated in the study.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Notes on contributors
Mavis Dako-Gyeke is an Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Social Work, University of Ghana at Legon, 
Accra, Ghana. Her research areas include child and family welfare; mental health with emphasis on stigmatization and 
discrimination; migration; as well as adolescent and gender issues.
Abass Adam graduated from the Department of Social Work, University of Ghana, Legon with Master of Philosophy 
Degree Programme in Social Work. He is currently studying Master of Public Policy and Leadership at Yeungnam 
University in South Korea. He has volunteered for several child protection and child development organizations in 
Ghana.
Abigail A. Mills is a lecturer at the Department of Social Work, University of Ghana, Legon. She holds a Doctor of 
Philosophy degree in Social Work from the University of Ghana. She has been involved in a variety of independent and 
collaborative research projects mainly in the fields of disability, education, and health. Her research collaborations cover 
areas, such as experiences of caregivers of children with cerebral palsy in Ghana and inclusive education for learners with 
special needs. She was a post-doctoral fellow at the University of South Florida, in Tampa, USA. Her current research 
focuses on access to sexual and reproductive health information and services by adolescents with visual and hearing 
impairments.
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