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ZIBO MUSIC – PROCESSES AND EFFECTS OF CHRISTIAN 
INDOCTRINATION AMONG THE NORTHERN EWES 
  
BY 
 
 
GAYHEART MAWULI MESIOTSO 
(10507714) 
 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON 
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD 
OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN MUSIC 
 
 
 
JULY, 2016
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DECLARATION 
This is to certify that the present Thesis is my own original work produced from research 
undertaken under supervision, and has never been submitted either in part or in whole for 
another degree elsewhere 
 
The candidate --------------------------------------------- Gayheart Mawuli Mesiotso 
 
 
Supervisors ………………………………………...  Dr. Juan Diego Diaz Meneses 
                                                                                      Visiting Scholar 
                                                                                      Department of Music 
                                                                                      University of Ghana, Legon 
                   -------------------------------------------------- Prof. Daniel Kodzo Avorgbedor 
                                                                                       Senior Lecturer 
                                                                                       Department of Music 
University of Ghana, Legon 
 
  
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
This dissertation is the result of a long journey in which I have been blessed by the 
company and support of countless individuals. Hence, these lines inevitably confront me 
with the anxiety of leaving names out. I must begin with my supervisors, Professor Daniel 
Kodzo Avorgbedor and Doctor Juan Diego Diaz Meneses. It is impossible for me to 
imagine a better mentorship elsewhere than these resourceful men. With patience and 
kindness, they provided me within valuable guidance throughout my master of philosophy 
program. I felt challenged and stimulated by their curious and penetrating mind. I am 
overwhelmed by their constructive and honesty criticisms that guided me throughout the 
difficult moments of this dissertation. 
I am also grateful for the support given especially by the head of Music Department and 
course advisor, Doctor Joshua Amuah and the entire teaching and non-teaching staff as 
well as colleagues of the Music Department. 
I am eternally indebted to dozens of musicians and informants in Ho and the Ho Kpodzi 
Evangelical Presbyterian Church congregation who did not only offer me their friendship, 
but also helped me with patience to understand their music and the indoctrinating process 
what it means for them. I am particularly grateful to Reverend Jonas Kumi Agbodza for 
revealing the entire process of change in zibo music for the purposes of this work, not 
forgetting Mr. Perry Selasie Tuapany for his enormous support throughout the research 
period. 
Special acknowledgement goes to my father Reverend L. J. K. Mesiotso and the entire 
Mesiotso family with special mentioning of; Redeemer Mesiotso, Pius Yao Mesiotso, 
Prosper Anku. 
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Finally, I wish to place on record the immense support given to me by my beloved family 
in the U. S. A. Mrs. Edith Esenam Mensah-Mesiotso and our lovely kids Jeffery Dela 
Mesiotso and Jennifer Sedinam Mesiotso towards completion of this project.   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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DEDICATION 
This work is dedicated to my lovely wife Edith Esenam Mensah-Mesiotso and precious 
kids Jeffery and Jennifer Mesiotso for their continued support, and finally to Rev. Kumi – 
Agbodza, Ho - Ahoe Zibo group and the Mesiotso family. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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ABSTRACT 
Zibo music is a distinct musical genre in the Asogli area in the northern part of the Volta 
Region. This musical tradition has experienced important transformations in the last 
decades as some practitioners move it from its original secular status to a sacred one. The 
study is premised on the fact that musical traditions like all other aspects of culture also 
have the natural capacity to consciously or unconsciously effect changes in their 
performance modes. Taking a constructivist approach, this study aims to respond to the 
following questions: 1)what developments necessitated the incorporation of zibo ensemble 
into the Christian liturgy in the Evangelical Presbyterian Church at Ho?  2)What are the 
main historical developments of the zibo ensemble? 3)What specific processes were 
involved in co-opting zibo ensemble into the church? And 4)What are the effects of the 
Christian indoctrination on the zibo group and the individual members. The study uses 
theories of Diffusion and Innovation by E. M. Rogers (1962) and Structural Set Analysis 
by Willie Anku to trace the channels of Christianization and analysis of zibo musical 
structure. 
This work, based on ethnographic research, historical, cultural, and musical analysis, 
demonstrates that: 1)The arrival of the missionaries in Ho has greatly impacted the 
religious activities of the natives of Ho and contributed to the Christianization of zibo. 2) 
Zibo was not associated with paganism and so, like other recreational forms of traditional 
music, has easily moved into the church. 3) Zibo and other recreational forms of local 
music are informal and associated with the youth and so have changed more easily than 
the more conservative and formal musical forms associated to ritual and court institutions. 
th
And 4) Whereas among the northern Ewes there was a lot of Akanisation from the 19  
century, the case of zibo presents a Ga – Eʋe musical syncretism. 
  
 
  
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................... i 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................. ii 
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ iv 
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... v 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ vi 
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................... x 
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... xi 
GLOSARY .................................................................................................................................... xiv 
 
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................... 1 
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1 
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................. 2 
1.2 Statement of Problem ............................................................................................................. 3 
1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 4 
1.4 Hypothesis .............................................................................................................................. 4 
1.5 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 5 
1.6 Justification of the Study ........................................................................................................ 5 
1.7 Scope ....................................................................................................................................... 5 
1.8 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................... 6 
1.9 Literature Review ................................................................................................................... 9 
1.10 Methods of Data Collection ................................................................................................ 14 
1.11 Composition of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 15 
  
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CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 17 
ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE ASOGLI STATE .............................................................................. 17 
2.1 Brief History of the Asogli State .......................................................................................... 17 
2.2 Geographical Location of Ho - The Capital of Asogli ......................................................... 20 
2.3 Economic Background of Ho – In the Asogli State ............................................................. 21 
2.4 Religious Background of the Asogli State ............................................................................ 22 
2.5 Musical Types ....................................................................................................................... 23 
2.6 Court Music .......................................................................................................................... 24 
2.7 Religious Music .................................................................................................................... 26 
2.8 Ceremonial Music ................................................................................................................. 26 
2.9 Recreational Music ............................................................................................................... 28 
2.10 Incidental Music ................................................................................................................. 29 
2.11 Christianity in Ho and the E. P. Church, Ghana ................................................................. 29 
 
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................ 32 
ZIBO MUSIC - PROCESSES OF CHRISTIAN INDOCTRINATION ........................................ 32 
3.1 Historical Background of Zibo Music .................................................................................. 32 
3.2 Contexts of Performance ...................................................................................................... 33 
3.3 Occasions of Performance .................................................................................................... 34 
3.4 Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................... 34 
3.5 Costumes............................................................................................................................... 42 
3.6 Performance Practice ............................................................................................................ 43 
3.7 Membership, Recruitment and Training ............................................................................... 44 
3.8 Indigenization of Christian Liturgical Music in Ghana ........................................................ 45 
3.9 History of the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ho – Kpodzi ............................................ 46 
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3.10 Musical Traditions and Groups in the E. P. Church, Ho - Kpodzi ..................................... 49 
3.11 Using the Theory of Diffusion and Innovation to trace the Processes Involved in Co-
Opting Zibo Music into the E.P. Church, Ho – Kpodzi ............................................................. 49 
 
CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................................................... 64 
TRANSCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS .......................................................................................... 64 
4.1 Analysis of Drum Patterns .................................................................................................... 64 
4.2 Analysis of Repertoire And Text .......................................................................................... 72 
 
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................ 97 
SUMMARY,CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................... 97 
5.1 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 97 
5.2 Historical Developments of Zibo Ensemble ......................................................................... 99 
5.3 Processes Involved in Co-opting Zibo into the Church ...................................................... 100 
5.4 Responses of Congregants, Musicians, and Ho Community to Zibo Indoctrination ......... 100 
5.5 Effects of Christian Indoctrination on Zibo Ensemble ....................................................... 101 
5.6 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 103 
5.7 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 105 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................ 107 
APPENDIX 1 ............................................................................................................................... 115 
APPENDIX 2 ............................................................................................................................... 122 
APPENDIX 3 ............................................................................................................................... 127 
APPENDIX 4 ............................................................................................................................... 135 
APPENDIX 5 ............................................................................................................................... 143 
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APPENDIX 7 ............................................................................................................................... 144 
APPENDIX 8 ............................................................................................................................... 144 
APPENDIX 9 ............................................................................................................................... 145 
APPENDIX 10 ............................................................................................................................. 145 
APPENDIX 11 ............................................................................................................................. 146 
APPENDIX 12 ............................................................................................................................. 146 
APPENDIX 13 ............................................................................................................................. 147 
APPENDIX 14 ............................................................................................................................. 147 
APPENDIX 15 ............................................................................................................................. 148 
APPENDIX 16 ............................................................................................................................. 148 
APPENDIX 17 ............................................................................................................................. 149 
APPENDIX 18 ............................................................................................................................. 149 
 
  
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LIST OF TABLES 
Table 2.1: Appellations in Eʋe and their meaning in English………………..…………25 
Table 3.1: Elements in the diffusion of innovation process…………………………….53 
Table 3.2: categories of members, percentage in each category and the duration taken to 
adopt the innovation……………………………………………………………………62   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 1.1: Conceptual model based on Rogers‟ (1995) stages in the decision making ...... 7 
Figure 1.2: musical excerpts indicating the RTP. ................................................................ 9 
Figure 2.1: map of Africa indicating the migrating routes of the Asoglis ......................... 18 
Figure 2.2: Asogli migration route from Ethiopia to Ho .................................................... 19 
Figure 2.3: Regional map of Ghana showing the administrative cities and towns ............ 20 
Figure 3.1: Banana bell ...................................................................................................... 35 
Figure 3.2: rhythmic pattern of Gakogui (the double bell) ................................................ 35 
Figure 3.3: gakogui ............................................................................................................. 36 
Figure 3.4: Excerpt of gakogui pattern ............................................................................... 36 
Figure 3.5: Frikyiwa (Beeko 2005) .................................................................................... 37 
Figure 3.6:Excerpt of frikyiwa pattern ............................................................................... 37 
Figure 3.7: front view of g1nu4 drum ................................................................................ 38 
Figure3.8 g1nu4 in performance context…………………………………………………38 
Figure 3.9: Excerpt of g1nu4 pattern ................................................................................. 38 
Figure 3.10: djembe drum .................................................................................................. 39 
Figure 3.11: djembe rhythmic pattern ................................................................................ 39 
Figure 3.12: djembe in performance context ..................................................................... 40 
Figure 3.13: Zibo tamalins in pictures ................................................................................ 41 
Figure 3.14: Excerpt of tamalin 1 pattern ........................................................................... 41 
Figure 3.15: Excerpt of tamalin 2 pattern .......................................................................... 41 
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Figure 3.16: Excerpt of Zibo master drum rhythmic pattern. ............................................ 42 
Figure 3.17: Zibogã leading a performance ....................................................................... 42 
Figure 3.18: zibo costumes ................................................................................................. 43 
Figure 3.19: Motorcade style of performance .................................................................... 44 
Figure 3.20: Horse-shoe style ............................................................................................. 44 
Figure 3.21: Stages in the decision making process ........................................................... 51 
Figure 3.22: medium of information flow .......................................................................... 53 
Figure 3.23: Decision making model ................................................................................. 54 
Figure 3.24: Cylindrical chart of table 3.2 ......................................................................... 63 
Figure 4.1: zibo ensemble .................................................................................................. 66 
Figure 4.2: Typical variations of the zibo master drum ..................................................... 67 
Figure 4.3: Zibo principal bell (ade) .................................................................................. 68 
Figure 4.4: Zibo configured principal bell. ........................................................................ 69 
Figure 4.5: shifting set orientation with a built-in stock .................................................... 70 
Figure 4.6: shifting set orientation with the principal rhythm cut short ............................. 70 
Figure 4.7: Zibo principal bell and master drum showing variation „A‟, subdivision „abb‟
 ............................................................................................................................................ 70 
Figure 4.8: Extrapolation .................................................................................................... 71 
Figure 4.9: Excerpt indicating masking ............................................................................. 71 
Figure 4.10: taxonomy of Zibo repertory ........................................................................... 72 
Figure 4.11: E. P. Hymn 541use in baptism ...................................................................... 76 
Figure 4.12: E.P. Hymn 545 linked to confirmation rite .................................................... 78 
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Figure 4.13: E.P. Hymn 565 linked to marriage rites. ........................................................ 79 
Figure 4.14: E.P. Hymn 587 linked to funerals. ................................................................. 80 
Figure 4.15: E.P. Hymn 85 linked to Advent period. ........................................................ 81 
Figure 4.16: E.P. Hymn 104, a Christmas Carol ................................................................ 82 
Figure 4.17: E.P. Hymn 155 linked to crucifixion of Jesus Christ. ................................... 83 
Figure 4.18: E.P. Hymn 173, hymn for Christ‟s Resurrection ........................................... 85 
Figure 4.19: Zibo gospel tune ............................................................................................ 86 
Figure 4.20: Zibo gospel dirge ........................................................................................... 87 
Figure 4.21: Zibo patriotic score ........................................................................................ 89 
Figure 4.22: Zibo erotic song ............................................................................................. 90 
Figure 4.23: Zibo mundane repertoire ................................................................................ 91 
Figure 4.24: Zibo secular dirge .......................................................................................... 93 
Figure 4.25: Zibo excerpt showing melodic intervals ........................................................ 94 
Figure 4.26: traditional harmonic style of zibo ensemble .................................................. 94 
Figure 4.27: excerpt of Zibo song in call-and-response style. ........................................... 95 
Figure 4.28:excerpt of EPH 191 in original tempo “b4k44” ............................................. 96 
Figure 4.29: Excerpt of EPH 191in Zibo style (tempo di allegro) ..................................... 96 
 
  
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GLOSARY 
Adaklus: Natives of Adaklu 
Ade: A forged-iron instrument shaped like a banana, also called banana bell. 
Adeʋu:  Traditional musical group for hunters among the E3es. 
Adopters: The minimal unit of analysts. 
Akaye: Traditional musical group for women in the northern Volta of Ghana. 
Asoglis: Natives of Asogli. 
Change Agents: E. P. C, Ho-Kpodzi Evangelism Committee.  
Early Majority: Third group of Zibo members to adopt the new idea. 
Early Adopters: Second group of Zibo members to adopt the new idea. 
Ebibindwom: Akan sacred lyrics that allow hand clapping and the use of traditional music 
instruments in the church. 
E3es: Ewe 
E. P. C: Evangelical Presbyterian Church.  
E. P. H: Evangelical Presbyterian Hymn. 
Frikyiwa: An Akan name for Castanet. 
Gã: Indigenes of Greater Accra Region of Ghana.  
Gakogui: Double bell used in mostE3e ensembles in the Volta Region of Ghana.  
G1nu4: A bearded drum used as a supporting drum in the Zibo ensemble. 
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Kolomashie: Ga dance type used in castigating the over indulgent behavior of the colonial 
elites. 
Laggards: Last group of Zibo members to adopt the new idea. 
Innovators: First group of Zibo members to adopt the new idea. 
Sokodes: Natives of Sokode. 
Zibogã: The master drum in the Zibo ensemble.
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
Music in Ghana and many other parts of Africa is regarded not only as a medium of 
artistic expression but also as providing an avenue for individual and corporate expression 
of experience. Music in Ghana exists in three main forms or categories. The first type or 
category consists of music modeled on Western principles which are played in the concert 
halls. According to Euba (1975), the main function of this type of music is to provide 
aesthetic enjoyment and is called art music. This type of music is normally notated and is 
to be performed according to the way it has been notated. 
The second category is what is termed popular music and is connected with dancing. 
According to, Amuah etal. (2004), this type of music may be divided into two: those in the 
folk tradition and those in the contemporary idioms. Agbadza, Bכbככbכ, Adowa, 
Kolomashie, Kpanlogo, Apatampa were considered traditional folk and that of 
contemporary ones as Highlife, Reggae, Funk, Hip life and so on. 
The third category is made up of music which is connected with Ghanaian traditional 
institutions and is therefore, performed mostly during traditional occasions like chieftaincy 
affairs, enstoolment or enskinment and destoolment organized communal labour, 
ceremonies of the life cycle events such as puberty, marriage and death as well as 
recreation and festivals. 
Traditional music is regarded as music made by the people with common philosophy to 
meet a variety of individual and social situations that require the use of music. Specific 
musical types have been created for the different occasions and events in traditional 
society to meet variety of individual and social goals of people in most communities in 
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Africa. Zibo music, the subject matter of this study, is one such type of traditional music 
performed by the people of the Volta Region of Ghana mostly the northern E3es.  
 
1.1 Background 
Prior to the arrival of the missionaries to Ghana in the nineteenth century, Alexander A. 
Agordoh (2011) noted that, Ghanaians had long recognized the role of music in traditional 
worship and this has been a significant contribution of African culture to Christian 
worship today. Maboee (1982) added that there is a strong tendency to collective worship 
and to become emotionally or spiritually involved in various parts of Africa. For him, 
music and dance are fundamental to these forms of spiritual expression.  
Traditional musical genres were considered heathen by the early missionaries who arrived 
in Ghana and their practices forbidden within the Christian worship. Agordoh (2011) 
documented that Ghanaians caught participating in traditional music and dancing were 
excommunicated from the church and that the only instruments allowed in the church 
were the organ or the harmonium. Of course, Amu‟s dismissal from the Presbyterian 
Training College - Akropong in 1933, for his musical innovations of indigenous songs and 
drums which were all considered as heathen, and his use of African cloth in the pulpit as 
devilish, coupled with his incessant defense that indigenous musical form need not be at 
discordance with Christian religion cannot be underestimated, as the early missionaries 
branded all indigenous forms of music as devilish. 
However, there was an abrupt reversal in modus operandi by the missionaries who 
believed a better way to triumph in their mission is to co.opt the traditional musical genres 
of the indigenous people, owning to the fact that, there is such a connection of the 
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indigenous people to their music, hence any attempt to estrange them is considered 
inimical to their belief system.  
Many of these traditional musical types, including Zibo music, were recontextualized to 
be able to fit into the Christian worship. 
Indoctrination thus portrays itself as that which drives a society to favor a certain religious 
belief that has been existing for decades. 
 
1.2 Statement of Problem  
Blacking, (1977:2) defined musical change as changes of ideas from within musical 
systems. According to him, changes in music, or in any cultural trait or system, depend on 
constant human creations, hence musical change must be regarded as a form of cultural 
change brought about by individual decision-making. However, in some cases human 
institutions have been created deliberately to defy the laws of change. Blacking outlined 
two schools of thought about change: the purists and the syncretists. The purists believe 
that radical changes in music come as a result of a decay in moral standards, and that 
restoration and promotion of true or actual music of the people will help to revive the life 
of the community, Blacking (1977:7).The syncretists, on the other hand, do not question 
the moral of the community, except in cases where music is seen as a factor behind the 
immorality (1977:8). They believe that change and innovation come as a result of 
successful adaptation of communities to changing circumstances.  
Zibo music is a clear example of innovation and transformation since its secular origin to 
its current liturgical use. The purpose of this study is to investigate the processes that led 
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to the changes in the ensemble, and the effects of these innovations on the group; 
particularly it‟s gradual transformation from the secular to the sacred.  
 
1.3 Objectives 
The central question this study aims to answer is: what developments necessitated the 
incorporation of Zibo ensemble into the Christian liturgy in the Evangelical Presbyterian 
Church at Ho? The study would also address the following research sub-questions; 
What are the main historical developments of the Zibo ensemble? 
What specific processes were involved in co-opting Zibo ensemble into the church?  
What are the responses of the congregants, musicians and the community to these 
changes; and what are the effects of the Christian indoctrination on the Zibo group and the 
individual members? 
 
1.4 Hypothesis 
The facts of generational conflict influenced the Christianization of zibo, that is; the 
animosities that arose between the elders and the youth of Ho - Ahoe over the formation 
of Zibo ensemble, where the group was conjectured for conflicting with moral principles 
and its criticizing roles made the zibo musicians to accept the opportunity to be 
appropriated into the church as a way of disproving the earlier assertion of the elders about 
their activities.  
 
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1.5 Significance of the Study 
Traditional music in recent times is confronted with many challenges. These challenges 
may be as a result of urbanization, Christianity, education etc. 
Zibo music is one of the traditional musical types that is adapting to new contexts, a 
religious one where its role as social commentator is minimized, perhaps replaced. This in 
a way, can be conceptualized as a metaphor of loss of culture versus transculturation. It is 
also a musical type of which little is known as far as scholarly study is concern. 
The significance of this study is to help fill the vacuum that has been created with regards 
to its scholarly investigation. It is envisaged that the findings of this study will contribute 
to a deeper understanding of Zibo traditional music. It is also intended for researchers and 
research establishments working in the field of music and for libraries. 
 
1.6 Justification of the Study 
Zibo music ridicules morally questionable behaviors in the society, but through expletive 
songs, an act deemed inimical to the core values of Christianity into which it is 
incorporated, even though the Christian faith equally frowns at wrong doing. The interest 
in the transition between the secular to the sacred, the effects and all other social dynamics 
involved in this integration is worthy to be investigated. 
 
1.7 Scope 
The focus of this study will be on the indoctrination of the Zibo ensemble at Ho in the 
northern part on the Volta Region but will limit itself to Ho Ahoe Zibo Group. It will 
however make references to the other musical types in the area like;ade3u, gbedze, zigi, 
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adabatram and many others to assist in the explanation of what constitute co-option of a 
traditional genre into a liturgical use.  
 
1.8 Theoretical Framework 
The study will to a large extent draw on the framework of Diffusion and Innovation by 
Everett Rogers (1962) and Willie Anku‟s (2000) Structural Set Analysis of African Music. 
Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels 
over time among the members of a social system. It is a special type of communication 
concerned with the spread of messages that are perceived as new ideas. An innovation, 
simply put, is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other 
unit of adoption. The characteristics of an innovation, as perceived by the members of a 
social system, determine its rate of adoption, Everett Rogers(1997: 
http://nnlm.gov/pnr/eval/rogers.html). 
Roger‟s theory of diffusion and innovation considers four elements in the diffusion of new 
ideas: 1) The innovation; 2) Communication channels; 3) Time; 4) The social system.  
The innovation refers to an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an 
individual or other unit of adoption. The innovation to spread and be adopted should show 
the following characteristics: 1) Relative advantage, 2) Compatibility, 3) Complexity, 4) 
Trialability, 5) Observability to those people within the social system. Relative advantage 
refers to the degree to which the new idea is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes.  
Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with 
the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.  
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Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand 
and use. Rogers indicates that, some innovations are readily understood by most members 
of a social system; others are more complicated and will be adopted more slowly. 
Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with, on a limited 
basis. According to Rogers, New ideas that can be tried on the installment plan will 
generally be adopted more quickly than innovations that are not divisible.  
Observability refers to the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to 
others. Communication channel, the second element in Rogers‟ theory is the process by 
which participants create and share information with one another in order to reach a 
mutual understanding.  Time, another element in the diffusion and innovation theory 
involves five dimensions for a decision to be adopted or rejected and to the 
implementation of a new idea. It include; knowledge, persuasion, decision, 
implementation, confirmation. 
 
 
 
 
Figure 1.1: Conceptual model based on Rogers’ (1995) stages in the decision making 
 
Knowledge refers to the awareness of people about an innovation and the idea of how it 
functions. Persuasion is when people form a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the 
innovation. Decision the deciding factors people battle with leading to a choice to adopt or 
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reject an innovation. Implementation refers to putting an innovation into use by people. 
Confirmation occurs when people evaluate the results of an innovation. The social system 
the fourth element in the model by Rogers is a set of interrelated units that are engaged in 
joint problem-solving to accomplish a common goal. The question here is what propels 
the indoctrination of Zibo music?  How compatible are these two values; that is, zibo and 
choral? Who persuaded who? How long has it taken the recipient to decide? And what 
opinion was formed by the people toward the transformation of Zibo in to a performing 
group in the church? Rogers‟s model helps understand transformations Zibo music 
experienced, because it provides a structure that is central in explaining the processes and 
the various stages involve in appropriating the music. Analysis of these processes of 
change and innovation in Zibo music that resulted in its indoctrination is premise on the 
fact that Zibo music originally was a secular music before gradually being transformed in 
to Christian liturgy. 
Willie Anku (2000)„Set Theory for Analyzing African multi-rhythmic music involves 
deconstructing African drum and percussive patterns into cyclical recurring ostinatos 
based on time lines of12 or 16 rhythmic divisions (in the case of zibo, this is 16). Each 
cycle contains drum and percussive patterns that have staggered entrances but it also 
includes the Regulative Time (RTP) that anchors and orientates the various sub-rhythms 
of one cyclical time line. These cycles are maintained by support drums that act as a 
rhythmic background or „drone‟ for the master-drums that can play over multiple time-
lines. As each time line set is divided into four equidistant felt pulses or „beats areas‟ the 
master drummers can use different one to enter and leave the set, or unite various sets with 
„bridges‟ (sometimes muted, silent or masked), or split them up in various ways to insert 
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or „interpolate‟ drum phrases. However, for long and complex master-drum patterns, the 
RTP must be maintained to hold the whole ensemble together. 
 
 
 
Figure 1.2: musical excerpts indicating the RTP. 
The master drum set manipulation procedure is another aspect of Anku‟s theory. He 
explored various procedures used by master drummers in Ghanaian ensembles who play 
variations and complex rhythms. According to him, master drummers draw from a stock 
of generative rhythmic vocabulary associated with specific musical genres. He believes 
these set of rhythms employed in a particular musical context are often well known to the 
community of users. He outlines principles such as shifting set orientation and the use of 
successive sets in achieving the process of improvisation. This theory is explained and 
applied in chapter four when studying the instrumental patterns of the Zibo ensemble. 
 
1.9 Literature Review 
Beeko (2005) researched into the Creative Processes in Akan Music: Innovations within 
Tradition and indicated that, due attention and recognition have been given to new ideals 
and visions, which have subsequently led to occasional alteration of ideas, systems and 
practices to suit current trends of life. His study focused on concepts of change and 
innovations and its consistency with the Akan tradition. However, dynamism of culture, a 
phenomenon that also sees most traditional musical genres experiencing change and 
innovation equally presents itself in Zibo music where it has been recontextualized to fit 
into the Christian setting. 
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Beeko(2005) explore the advent of the Europeans and the incorporation of African 
musical tradition into the Western religious institutions. He indicated that, With regard to 
the religious institutions, Christianity and Islam were brought down by the European 
missionaries and the Arabs, respectively. However, the churches, as well and to less extent 
the mosques, do incorporate a lot of traditional elements which include the singing of 
traditional songs in some of the churches and the new way of singing even the European 
hymns and anthems. According to him, drums and other traditional instruments are played 
side by side, or combined, with the foreign ones. Even the Bible and the Quran are 
reinterpreted by preachers and imams to reflect the African situations. The Akan people 
who also embraced both Christianity and Islam have recreated and reinterpreted many 
foreign elements and practices. This statement helps one to understand how Zibo music as 
one of the traditional musical types was appropriated, a bait to convert the zibo musicians 
into the church. The processes involved in incorporating the traditional musical 
instruments into the European tradition of hymn singing has not been addressed in 
Beeko‟s work as can be seen in this study.  
Beeko (2005) “Creative Processes in Akan Music: Innovations within Tradition” indicated 
that, many of the traditional forms are susceptible to change; the traditional milieu allows 
for a wealth of innovations, resulting from the creative tendencies of the composer-
performers; and most of the traditional art forms. Accordingly, Beeko believes the Akan 
musical tradition is sustained by a flow of creative activities of musicians that continually 
shape and transform the tradition. 
This study is focused on how Zibo music was, when it was introduced as a liturgical 
musical group and how it is today, that is, the pre and post changes. 
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Gelfand (2000) establish a clear distinction between traditional ensembles and cultural 
institutions. Gelfand stated that, f4nt4mfr4m has not been abandoned in favor of western 
music, nor has it been westernized in any recognizable way; and it has yet to become the 
kind of musical museum piece that exists only within the confines of the folkloric troupe. 
This fact is seen accentuating what Blacking calls non – change of a culture, the immunity 
of musics associated with religious institutions such as chieftaincy to change. Zibo music 
initially has no religious affiliation as compared to f4nt4mfr4m which is connected to 
institutions like chieftaincy which proves to be more resistant to modification of all kinds, 
hence has the propensity to experience change, the effects this study seems to outline. 
Agordoh (1994) examines the traditional musical elements in Christian worship in Ghana 
basing his arguments on the E.P. Church of Ghana. In his work, he carefully present some 
of the traditional musical elements which have been adopted by the E.P. Church in their 
service and notes that, it helps in carrying the message to the congregation as they are able 
to relate to the music in the church. The change in Zibo music fits well to Agordoh‟s 
model of adoption of traditional musical elements by the E. P. Church for liturgical use. 
Zibo music started as a secular music, to sacred and now a mixture of both secular and 
sacred. Incorporating Zibo music into the liturgy of the church is thus aiding the 
transmission of the Gospel as indicated by Agordoh. 
Agordoh (1987) The Ghanaian concept of worship stems from the awareness of the high 
God and other spiritual beings and takes the form of rituals created to establish and 
maintain contact with the visible and the invisible world.  The rituals include music, 
prayers and sacrifices.  Of these, music comes out as the most effective means of 
communal expression.  This is because; it is through music in worship that the largest 
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body of worshippers joins in expressing their faith, hope and thanksgiving. Zibo music 
originally is not associated with any religious practice, but purposely used as social 
commenting, a broad value of policing morality within community. 
John Collins (1994) in his book Highlife Time traced the history of the Akan Konkoma 
and Ewe Borborbor from the Gold Coast Regimental Bands and its Africanized Adaha 
music which was, the use of local tunes being played with European brass instruments. 
The local people changed and indigenize the brass instruments which later gave rise to 
Akan Konkoma which in turn migrated to the Ewe land and later developed to Borborbor 
music of the Ewes. Borborbor also developed from Akpese, Funky and Reggae. This sort 
of change also occurred in Zibo music, evolving from Kolomashie of the Gas to the 
present day Zibo.  
J.H.Nketia (1974) offers a broad survey of the musical traditions of Africa with respect to 
their historical, social, and cultural background as well as approach to musical 
organization, musical practices and significant aspects of style. This study also touched on 
the organization, historical, social, and cultural background of Zibo music.  
Nukunya (2003) stated in “Tradition and Change in Ghana, An Introduction to Sociology” 
that, the changes that occurred in Ghana in the last hundred years include: marriage and 
family, religion, colonialism, social change, urbanization, and political changes etc. These 
sociological changes brought a corresponding change in music, in which Zibo is no 
exception.  
Agyeman (1993) explores possible ways a traditional musical style of the Ashantis, 
Nnwonkoro, could be adopted by the Catholic Church to replace the Gregorian chant. In 
his study, Agyeman carefully makes a strong case for the incorporation and adoption of 
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Nnwonkoro in the Catholic Church as it could be used effectively to convey the message 
to the indigenes as compared with the Gregorian chant. This summarily shows how there 
have been attempts to employ more traditional elements in the church.  
Similar to Agyeman‟s work, this thesis focuses on how sister churches like the E. P. 
Church at Ho-Kpodzi adopted and incorporated Zibo music into their worship, an 
effective means to convey the message to the indigenous people. 
Ocran Sekyi Daniel (2006) researched into Continuity and Change in the Liturgy of Cape 
Coast Wesley Methodist Cathedral. He indicated that, the advent of European missionaries 
and the introduction of Western Liturgy at Cape Coast Wesley Cathedral chants, hymns, 
anthems in English language, though enhanced worship effectively, had resulted to some 
unexpected problems. He further explained that English Liturgy did not favor the mass 
illiterates on the coast of Ghana, hence Akan sacred lyric (Ebibindwom) became part of 
the former liturgy. The change in Zibo is similar to that of the Liturgy in the Cape Coast 
Methodist Church. Zibo music started as a secular music and now performing sacred 
tunes. Ocran settled on Ebibindwom as a means of effective communication with the 
indigenes of Methodist church at Cape Coast while the study on Zibo reveal the 
indoctrinating processes involved in appropriating Zibo music on to the liturgy of the E. P. 
Church at Ho – Kpodzi. 
Ampomah (2003) stated that, before 1963, the Roman Catholic Church in Ghana did not 
use drums for its services and until 1980 regulations, five hundred and eighty four (584) of 
the Methodist churches were prevented from using drums for its services. 
These developments according to Ampomah only encouraged the promotion of Western 
cultural values and practices in the church such as hymns, marches and anthems which has 
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negatively affected the importance attached to traditional music in the society. 
Ampomah‟s assertion indicates that, complete embargo was laid on the use of traditional 
musical genres in Christian worship by the Roman Catholic and the Methodist churches 
up to the sixties. This study however, focuses on co-option of a traditional musical genre 
into another Christian group, a case untypical of Ampomah‟s study. The two cases will 
however be compared and contrasted in this research work. 
Nketia (2005), the music performed in any African society is cumulative wherever 
tradition allows for creative innovation, for its music is passed on from generation to 
generation by oral or aural tradition, or learned through participation. Nketia believes 
where a tradition allows for creativity, there is continuity due to the oral mode of transfer 
from generation to generation. The study of Zibo music and its indoctrination comparably 
to Nketia‟s assertion has seen some innovation in its performance. 
Kafui (2000) traces the “gbolo drum dance” to Komla Vebleame popularly known as 
Gbolo Komla in the 1930s, which was banned as indecent by the chiefs and elders of 
Alavanyo with Komla being imprisoned for a year. Despite this gbolo became even more 
popular amongst the northern Ewes. The relevance of Kafui‟s work to this thesis is that, 
like zibo music, gbolo was also a youthful recreational dance that initially was banned by 
chiefs elders. 
 
1.10 Methods of Data Collection 
Information is collected through participant observation, informal conversations, and 
interviews, drumming and singing lessons, field notes, and music transcriptions. Sound 
recordings constituted bulk of data from which transcriptions, analysis, and the 
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descriptions of style and repertory are drawn. Interviews and discussions were recorded on 
video and sound recorders for transcription. From „emic‟ position of ethnographic 
research, I solicited the opinion of some of the indigenes in relation to the thoughts and 
perceptions about transformations in Zibo musical practices. This served as primary 
source of information for this research. 
The second aspect of data collection consists of library and archival studies. These aspects 
constitute the documentary material that provides second-hand information to complement 
the primary sources, as well as to support the primary evidence, which began at the 
University of Ghana.  
A study of the musical cultures of other communities in Ghana by previous researchers 
was also conducted to complete and narrow down the orientation. The last two months 
within my study period was used for the transcription and analysis of the recorded music 
from the field and published as part of my thesis.  
 
1.11 Composition of the Dissertation 
Of the five chapters, the first three provide a theoretical and historical background for the 
analysis that follows in chapter four. The last is a final discussion.  
Chapter two provides an ethnographic account of the Asogli people and their geographical 
location. The chapter is also devoted to understanding of the economic conditions of 
musicians and gives a detailed description of musical traditions in the Asogli state. I also 
pay attention to the how Christianity began at Ho, the attitude of the inhabitants towards 
the missionaries and finally how they were converted. 
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I begin Chapter Three with the establishment of the origin of Zibo music that include its 
historical background, contexts of performance, occasions of performance, 
instrumentation and repertory, costume, performance style, membership, recruitment and 
training. The chapter also contains the roles play by traditional musical genre in the 
traditional worship of the Ewes, what the early missionaries perceive about the indigenous 
folks as far as their music is concern. It also covered how African instruments were 
appropriated in to the Christian worship to enhance the conversion processes of the 
indigenous people, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church and its musical tradition and 
finally, the processes involved in the recontextualization of Zibo music. 
Chapter four presents transcription and analysis of data collected from the field. Focus on 
analysis is on the drum patterns, melodic structure, harmonic structure, form and structure 
in Zibo music, rhythmic structure. The chapter also establishes disparity between songs 
connected to secular and sacred use. 
Chapter Five, the final chapter, contains the concluding part of the study. It includes the 
summary, conclusion and the recommendations. 
 
 
  
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CHAPTER TWO 
ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE ASOGLI STATE 
2.1 Brief History of the Asogli State 
In his account of the oral history of the Eʋes, Paul Wiegrebe (1938) explains that the 
people of Asogli trace their origin from Abyssinia in what is now referred to as Ethiopia. 
They migrated with other Eʋes from Abyssinia to Oyo in Yoruba land, Western Nigeria. 
From Oyo they went to Ketu in Dahome (now Benin) before settling at Notsie in the 
present day Republic of Togo in about the 12th century. Oral history has it that in their 
settlements at Ketu and Notsie, the Eʋes lived in walled cities called “Agbome”, literally 
meaning within the fence wall. At Notsie, the Eʋes were ruled by a tyrant and sadistic king 
called Togbe Agorkorli. Under the leadership of Togbe Kakla the Eʋes broke through a 
portion of the fortified wall and escaped. Togbe Kakla and his people broke the wall after 
softening it through a planned and persistent splashing of water. The conspiracy included 
a deceptive plan under which the escaping subjects walked backwards out of the walled 
city. The objective was to create the impression that the footprints they left were those of 
people who had entered the city. This confused the King's soldiers and by the time they 
realized what had happened, most of the subjects had escaped to freedom. “Gligbayi”, the 
dagger which Togbe Kakla used in breaking through the wall of Notsie, is a sacred relic of 
the Eʋes and is currently in the custody of the Agbogbomefia, the traditional overlord of 
the Asogli State. Togbe Kakla and his people broke away from the larger Eʋe group to 
settle at Komedzrale, near what is now Ho, the capital of the Volta Region of Ghana in 
West Africa. Oral history has it that Togbe Kakla had three sons and a daughter who were; 
Akoe, Letsu, Asor and Esa.   
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The descendants of Akoe and Letsu founded Akoefe and Kpenoe, and later, Takla. The 
descendants of Asor settled at present day Ho after a brief sojourn at Hofedo. The only 
daughter of Togbe Kakla, Esa, migrated and settled at present day Saviefe which lies north 
of Ho, (Asogli state council, 2011). The Asogli state hence comprised of Akoefe 
traditional area, Kpenoe traditional area, Takla traditional area and the Ho traditional 
council, of which Ho is the capital or the seat of the paramount king.  During the 
migration, the Hoawo split up into two smaller groups under the various clan heads and 
settled at Bankoefedo and Hevefedo before finally settling at their present place. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2.1: map of Africa indicating the migrating routes of the Asoglis 
(http://geology.com © 2008) 
 
 
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 BENIN                          NIGERIA                       ETHIOPIA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2.2: Asogli migration route from Ethiopia to Ho 
                                         (http://geology.com) 
The figures above indicate the migrating routes of the Asoglis and other Eʋe groups from 
Abyssinia (Ethiopia) to Oyoko (Nigeria) to Ketu (Dahome) to Notsie (Togo) to 
Komedzrale (Ghana). Figure 3 represents the countries, while figure 4 the actual 
settlements in the various countries. 
Ho is traditionally divided into five main divisions namely: Bankoe, Ahoe, Dome, Hliha 
and Heve. Malm (1994) indicated that, the Asogli people were joined by a second group 
from Yeviefe, who traced their kinsmen to the present day Ahoe 
 
 
 
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2.2 Geographical Location of Ho - The Capital of Asogli 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2.3: Regional map of Ghana showing the administrative cities and towns 
                                            (http://geology.com) 
Ho is the administrative capital of Volta Region of Ghana and the capital of Ho 
municipality. Ho lies between Mount Adaklu and Mount Galenukui (Togo Atakora 
Range). It is surrounded by all Eʋe speaking tribes; at the north is the Klefe, Matse, and 
Ziavi traditional areas, at the east by Tokokoe, Akoefe, Hodzo, at the west by the Sokode, 
Abutia, Akrofu, and in the south by the Adaklu traditional area. The current Ho 
municipality has an area of 2660 square kilometers and a total population size of 96,213 
based on the 2012 housing and population census figures released by Ghana Statistical 
Service. Perhaps because a history of military conflicts, the various divisions of Ho are 
strategically positioned to forestall the infiltration of the adversary and their aggressions 
from all directions.  
 
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2.3 Economic Background of Ho – In the Asogli State    
The people of Ho in the past predominantly engaged in farming, hunting, cotton spinning, 
weaving and trading activities. The farm produce are mainly cassava, yam, cocoyam, 
plantain, banana, orange, palm nut, millet, and maize and rice are some of the cereals.      
In the olden days group hunting was an economic venture especially among the people of 
the Asogli. These hunters organized themselves in two groups. The first group was 
regarded as professional hunters and was allowed to hunt with guns. The second group 
was formed by adolescent boys and was regarded as learners. This group at the initial 
stage was not allowed to use guns but merely to chase and direct the animals to the 
professionals. When they matured and gained enough experience to handle guns they went 
taken through an initiation rite called “tudede asi k4nu” a gun handing over ritual, the 
male version of puberty rites for girls. After hunting, Adevu music is performed for the 
hunters to display and portray their hunting skills for a successful game (Adanua 1990). 
Cotton spinning and kente weaving (a local cloth weaving) is another economic activity of 
the Asogli traditional Area. Though cotton production was not on a large scale among the 
Asoglis, cotton was inter-cropped with other crops. Women especially the elderly ones 
were engaged in this cotton spinning for economic gains to support their families. The 
yarns from the spinning serve as raw materials for local weavers who use them in kente, 
production. Though weaving has reduced tremendously in the area due to urbanization and 
quest for greener pastures, there are still traces of cotton spinning and Kente weaving in 
the municipality today.  
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2.4 Religious Background of the Asogli State   
Traditional African Religious worship dominated the Asogli State before the arrival of the 
German Bremen missionaries in the early nineteenth century.  
The people of Asogli recognize a Supreme Being of the Universe which they call 
“Mawuga” and this is manifested in the etymology of many names:“Mawuli” meaning 
there is Supreme God, “Mawulolo” meaning God is Great, others in the form of 
appellations include; “Mawu Sokpolisa Ada`uw4t4, w4a „si, w4a „f4” meaning God 
Omnipotent, All Creator and All Knowing, “Mawu Gbedegbleme ~usekat7t4 
Katakitikata ” meaning God Omnipresent, All Powerful, The Ancient of Days, and 
many others to indicate the Supremacy of God.  
Besides the existence of Mawuga, the Asoglis also believe in the presence of “trɔwo” 
lesser deities, who they believe mediate between Mawuga and the human realm. The 
ancestral spirits are often symbolized by objects such as trees, rivers, mountains, stones 
and animals held as totems. Deities and ancestral spirits are believed to offer protection.  
The Eʋes portray this through “trɔ sub4sub4”, worship of lesser deities, “tsi5o5oɖi”, 
“aha5o5oɖi gbedodoɖawo”, traditional form of prayers involving pouring of libation 
during ceremonies and sprinkling of special dishes like “te bakabakɛ” mashed yam during 
the Asogli yam festival period. However, today, three main religious activities 
characterize the worship of the Supreme Being in the Asogli State, namely the traditional 
worship and the Christian worship and the Islamic religion, with Christianity dominating. 
 
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2.5 Musical Types   
Music relates synchronically to the religion, dance, economy, war, play, funerals and all 
spheres of social life. Cultural practices such as birth rites, puberty rites, and marriage 
ceremonies always take place amidst singing, drumming and dancing as can be found in 
other African traditions (Adzei 2009). Traditional musical instruments in the Asogli area 
range from membranophones, idiophones, aerophones and chordophones. Among these 
instruments, membranophones are the most widely use and chordophones the least used. 
Oral history indicates that, most of the instruments were brought from Notsie and 
Komedzrale. Some were also obtained through the interaction with their neighbors 
especially the Adaklus, the Sokodes, and some through trade with other tribes and ethnic 
groups.  
The musical traditions may be divided into secular and sacred categories. The secular 
include all musical types for relaxation and entertainment, while the sacred is associated 
with religious rites and other ceremonies. Examples of secular types are modernb4b44b4, 
zibo, tuidzi, zigi, and gaba2a. Religious types, on the other hand are akpi, gbolo, 
a2abatram and ade3u. With the emigration of people from various parts of the country to 
Ho, the capital of the Volta Region, musical ensembles of other traditions such as; 
Agbadza, Kenka, Gadzo, Atsiagbekor, Bamaya, Adowa, Kpalongo and many others 
feature prominently in all social activities by the Center for National Culture Dance 
Troupes located at Ho.  The most performed entertainment music in Ho is b4b44b4andzibo 
music. Though brass band, public address system and recorded music types are widely 
spread in the area in recent times. These musical types are performed during ordinary days 
like Saturdays and Sunday evenings, sometimes to entertain people on festive occasions 
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and to shrug off boredom during ceremonies. The basis of musical organization of 
performing groups in African tradition is by sex or age. There is music for every group 
and every occasion in the African society.  In the olden days, there were work songs that 
minimize prostration during physical activities, and edges people to work hard during 
farming activities and communal labour.   In the past, before a young man was allowed to 
marry, he was expected to work at the in-law‟s farm to ascertain his capability to cater for 
his would-be wife and also organize people to work and put up his own building to house 
the newly married wife.  Such times called for music that carries massages of admonition 
to the couple. 
 
2.6 Court Music                                                                  
Nketia has written that, among the Akan, royal or state drumming has more variety, more 
efficient organization, and greater scope of expression than drumming in other contexts 
(1963b:151). Court music usually involves the outdooring of musical instruments and real 
regalia of real jewelry of gold and beads and crowns of legacy of the ancestors. The 
Asogli State owns a court ensemble which accompanies all traditional events in the court. 
The chief is led in processing by his 3ukpo a single headed cylindrical drum played with 
two curved sticks. This 3ukpo plays the chief‟s appellations and announces his approach 
towards a direction and always hung on the shoulder and played. Below is a table of some 
of these appellations in Eʋe and their translations into English. 
 
 
 
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                       EƲE                          ENGLISH 
Klebekuku His majesty 
Ele k4me k4 le t1 His presence in the debris of the 
anthill keeps it standing 
Edo le kɔme, k4 gba His absence kept it subside 
Ogbogboliogbo The great one 
Table 2.1: Appellations in Eʋe and their meaning in English 
 
Agbl43u, called the talking drum, also known in Akan as Atumpan is another musical 
instrument of the Asogli traditional court used to send messages to people outside the 
court. It is a large barrel drum with a tubular foot open at the base, thus resembling a giant 
goblet drum. Agbl43u is symbolic due to its representation as “an interethnic” borrowed 
instruments aside its unique roles, that is; agbl43u forms part of the numerous musical 
instruments borrowed from other tribes as a result of trade. 
Agbl43udrums are played upright usually in pairs of different tones by the master 
drummer who uses two angular hooked sticks. It is used to summon people to meetings of 
chiefs. At public appearances of the chief, they are also used to drum proverbs. 
Agbl43udrums are used to call the whole community since its sound travels far whenever 
there is any emergency or inversion by enemies.  The talking drums do not only call 
people but also plays appellations for chiefs and sometimes performs for people to 
gracefully dance to at the court or at the funerals of people with renowned status in the 
community. 
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2.7 Religious Music   
Religious music, purely sacred music use for traditional worship and rituals is known in 
Asogli as k4nuw4hawo, for instance according to Dzansi (1994), cleansing of the stool of 
a paramount chief is a ritual that is performed annually in certain parts of the Volta Region 
of Ghana. Dzansi indicated that, during cleansing of the sacred stool, a purification rite is 
performed for selected elders made to carry the stool by the chief executioner of the palace 
(Abrafo as in Akan) before the stool is carried to the river side for cleansing. Accordingly, 
the elders who are purified to carry the sacred stool are made to fast for three days and 
have their hairs shaven. The chief executioner leads the singing of war songs throughout 
the ceremony with the individuals involve made to swear oath of secrecy. 
 
2.8 Ceremonial Music   
Adanua K. Anthony (1990) indicated that various musics organized by Kuyu people of 
French Equitorial Africa, the Pygmies of the Ituri forest, the Akans of Ghana, the 
Marakwets and the Keiyo of Kenya organize types of hunting music before and after 
hunting expedition. Ceremonial music in the Asogli is also classified under sacred musical 
category due to the immense role they play in the rituals of various social groups. Musical 
types such as Adeʋu (hunters dance) is reserved for experienced hunters who have killed 
savage games such as lion, python etc. Adeʋu is also organized for hunters who kill savage 
animals, as means traditional purification. The belief is that, if this ritual is not performed 
for the hunter, the soul of the wild animal will live to hunt him and during this ceremony, 
great hunters display their skills used in hunting. Adeʋu features prominently during the 
funerals of hunters.  
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Another musical type found in the Asogli State is gbolo which functions in both 
recreational and ceremonial activities. This music can both be used in both secular and 
sacred context. Gbolo is traditionally a female dominated dance usually performed by 
teenage girls under the tutelage of adult women. Dowoeh (1980) stated thatgbolo is one of 
the earliest musical types which literally mean the “loved one”.  However, the author 
states that this meaning may be misleading as some song texts actually make references to 
other subjects like death, might, and lofty deeds. Its dance is associated with puberty rites 
for young girls among the Asoglis, hence its sacred significance. Apart from its functions 
as a ritual music, it is commonly used as a recreational dance especially among school 
children.  
Kal03u meaning warriors‟ music is another sacred musical type organized by the people 
of Asogli. Some people refer to this musical type as gbedze and others kutukru or 
asafo.Kal0means bravery, “3u” mean dance and “hawo” means songs, so literally, 
“kal03u” means music for the brave ones. This type of music is mostly performed to 
incite warriors to fight during wars. Similar to Asafo music, is the a2abatram,also a war 
drum of the Asoglis, which means insanity. Malm (1994) describes the a2abatramas a 
mystified ensemble, made sacred with paranormal powers so that its pulsation alone with 
sacred belief shows agitation, possession, wrath, hatred for the enemy. The sound of the 
ensemble instigates its army to fight and conquer the approaching enemy. The Asoglis 
used the rhythms of a2abatramas a charm to defeat their enemies during wars, anybody 
hearing the rhythms may want to dance to it and eventually they will be captured by the 
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performers.A2abatram also performs during the funerals of chiefs and great warriors of 
the Asogli state.  
 
2.9 Recreational Music        
The recreational musical types include all secular musical types for entertainment 
purposes. Musical types such as Borborbor, Zigi, Egbanegbe, Tuidzi, Zibo and Gabada 
features prominently in all social occasions of the Asoglis. Their primary purpose is to 
entertain its audience. Most of these musical types are also considered by many as a 
modern Ghanaian popular traditional highlife music that originated to satiate the 
entertainment needs of its audience. According to Collins (1976), Highlife presents a 
multiplicity of styles employing various musical ensembles and playing to very different 
audiences. The urban dance and brass bands and the rural Konkomba and guitar bands. 
Beside these, there are dozens of highlife – influenced traditional recreational styles – thus 
the Ga Kolomashie, Oge and Kpanlogo, Dagomba Simpa, Akan Bosoe and E3e B4b4b4 
are all classed as neo – traditional highlife music. Of late, brass band music and choral 
music are also featuring prominently in most social functions like funerals, weddings, 
engagements, outdooring ceremonies and many others. Collins (1994) stated that, the 
brass band music was brought by colonial military bands which developed into Akan 
Konkoma, also influenced the E3e b4b4b4 which forms the bulk of entertainment music 
and also adopted by churches of all kinds to accompany hymns, and organ music. 
  
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2.10 Incidental Music 
It is the type of music that comes by chance and performed only on certain days or certain 
periods, like “avihawo” (dirges), “2evinublehawo” (children songs), “glitohawo” story 
telling songs, “fefe2ihawo” play songs. Because of technology, rural and urban drift, this 
type of incidental music is being affected in various ways.  People shifted to modern mass 
media, watching video and television to the detriment of rural folk storytelling and 
children playing music. Avihawo, women musical type which is used to mourn and 
sympathize with the dead and the bereaved family as well.  The women sing and dance to 
the music and move side by side roam the streets and then move to the bereaved family.  
The music is mostly accompanied with rattles. 
 
2.11 Christianity in ho and the E. P. Church, Ghana 
Rev. Erhard Mische (2009: 2-4) reported that Christianity was introduced to Ho on 
th
November 27 , 1859, when the missionaries of Bremen Mission in Germany appeared 
before Togbe Usu Kofi, the king of Ho. The Bremen Mission had earlier started its 
African Mission in 1847 in Peki but withdrew in 1852 due to political unrest. They started 
again in Keta in 1854, followed by the mission station at Adaklu – Waya in 1856, Anyako 
1857 and finally at Ho in 1859 which later became the most dynamic and the headquarters 
of the church.  
Mische (2009) indicates that a coincidental event that offered to the missionaries an 
opportunity to bring the biblical message across to the minds of the people is the 
th
earthquake of 1962. According to Mische, on July 10 , 1862 the earth fiercely trembled at 
Ho, leaving the indigenous people terrified. There was panic, dismay and thirst for an 
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explanation. The people of Ho had never experienced this kind of natural phenomenon 
and hence, had no expression for it. According to Mische, the king of Ho Togbe Kofi 
summoned his elders, the fetish priest of Ho, the neighboring villages and the missionaries 
to ask for explanations of what had shaken the earth and why? The traditional priest 
explained that, “we call the earth our mother and this is what she is. The white people 
have lived among us already for a long time, but they have not yet given any gift to the 
fetish, therefore the fetish has shaken the earth because he is angry” Mische (2009:9), 
Hornberger, one of the missionaries attending the meeting stood with his Bible and 
expressed his joy that, finally the people were willing to hear their message. Hornberger 
explained that earthquakes are known phenomenon that occurs from time to time. He 
continued that “God who has created heaven and earth and who is our father in heaven, 
sends earthquakes when he sees that people do not want to listen to the Word of God, 
preferring rather to remain in their old sleep of sin. Then He shakes them so heavily that 
they wake up and begin a new life. We have been preaching already for two and a half 
years, but you do not change from the silent gods to the living God. He therefore sent this 
earthquake so that, you will listen to him now, the reason God has shaken and shocked 
you” Mische (2009:10).  
Some weeks later, the chief and elders of the nearby village of Kpenoe, who also formed 
part of the gathering at Ho, issued a decree that his subjects should observe Sunday as a 
day of rest like Christians, and that no one should work in the field any more on Sundays. 
Even the king of Ho, later ordered the same observance of the Sunday despite the fact that, 
he remained skeptical towards Christian Faith, Mische (2009). The earthquake of 1862 is 
thus a milestone of Christianization of inhabitants of Ho. The antecedent of this episode 
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led to the spread of other Christian denominations like the Roman Catholic Church, the 
Methodist Church, the Anglican Church, the Hall of Strength International Church and 
many others in the Ho Municipality today 
  
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CHAPTER THREE 
ZIBO MUSIC - PROCESSES OF CHRISTIAN INDOCTRINATION 
3.1 Historical Background of Zibo Music 
Zibo is a traditional musical type commonly performed by youth groups, used as vehicle 
to express disapproval of wrong doing, and an outcry directed against social injustice in 
the society. Originally it had no religious association as other forms of music of the 
Northern Ewe People such as Adeʋu (hunters dance). Zibo was mainly performed for 
pleasure, relaxation and entertainment in most social occasions.  
According to Mr. Victor Kwame Ameko, the current chairman of the Ho - Ahoe Zibo 
group, my principal informant at Ho – Ahoe in July 2015,zibo music originated from 
Kolomashie,  a typical traditional dance of the G7s also known as funeral processional 
music. According to Young Y. Paschal (2011: 154 - 158),“among the G7s in the past, 
there were no wooden coffins or hearses to transport the dead to their ancestral homes and 
then to the cemetery. Processional drumming, singing and dance became the main vehicle 
for these activities. Kolomashie groups were formed and hired to perform during these 
funeral processions in the 1920s and 1930s, hence the name “funeral processional music”. 
Kolomashie was derived from two G7 words: “kolo” and “emashie”. Kolo literally means 
“an old phenomenon”. It is also used as a nickname for the colonial masters, an 
abbreviation of the colonials”. Emashie or mashie, means, “it exists, or present”, the name 
therefore alluded to the fact that the funeral music still exist, and the influence and power 
of the colonial masters is still present even after the slavery. People also refer to the same 
musical style as “jama” by some of the coastal youth who perform it at sporting events 
(soccer games), political rallies and other social functions. Its instrumental resources 
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include; `4`4, dodompo, kyen kyen, shakers, container rattles, tamalins, two pati and the 
bass drum. Trumpet, trombone and accordion are added in its contemporary context”. Oral 
history has it that; zibo originated from Ga Kolomashie and introduced to Ho in the 1960s 
by young Ho migrant workers returning from Accra who developed this new musical 
style, with the objective of criticizing injustice through music in the community. The 
improvisation led to the addition of traditional components such as: the local idiophones 
(ade, gakogui, frikyiwa) and other instruments like; g1nu4, djembe and many others to the 
ensemble.  
Chiefs and elders during the initial stages of the Zibo group formation in the 1960‟s 
became suspicious of such a recreational group full of youngsters trying to castigate and 
tease all manner of people including the elders with their music and therefore decided to 
discontinue its formation. The elders pursue the group severally to their rehearsal grounds, 
seized and destroyed their instruments and imposed fines on its members just to deter 
them. But Zibo musicians defy the odds and acquire new instruments each time. In one of 
such pursuance, a member said in Ga language, kaa ƒe nye ma zi bo, obaa gbo (if you 
attempt it again, we will beat and kill you). This led to the name Zibo which became the 
name of the group and its music to the present. 
 
3.2 Contexts of Performance 
At Ho – Ahoe, the center of attraction for this research, different musical types exist for 
different age groups and sexes such as; Akaye musical group for women, Adeʋu solely for 
hunters, Bɔbɔbɔ for all ages and sexes and Zibo for the youth thus both male and female 
and many others. Zibo is performed at most places among the northern Eʋes in the Volta 
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Region of Ghana. Some of these places include; Ho Ahoe, Ho Dome, Ho Bankoe, Tsito 
Awudome, Klefe and many other places in the Volta Region especially the northern part 
of the Region. 
 
3.3 Occasions of Performance 
As a social dance, Zibo music features prominently in all social functions including 
funerals, outdooring / naming ceremonies, festivals, political parties‟ rallies, sports (as it 
used to be the fun club for Ho “VORADEP” Football club in the 1980s and 90s) and all 
other recreational occasions. Currently, zibo is also being use as an accompaniment in a 
religious context. The degree of involvement by the group during funerals is determined 
by the status of the dead and circumstances surrounding the death. On the death of a 
member, the group processes with the deceased from the morgue to his/her residence; 
perform at the wake – keeping till day break, and during pre burial and burial services. 
The group during this period entertains its audience even after burial and sometimes deep 
into the night depending on how active the deceased is in the group. The group also 
performs at non – members‟ funerals on hired basis, meaning people who are non–
members pay the group to entertain them during bereavement and other recreational 
occasions. 
 
3.4 Instrumentation  
The instrumental resources of Zibo ensemble consist exclusively of idiophones and 
membranophones. They include; gakogui (double-mouthed bell), frikyiwa, ade(banana 
st nd
bell), djembe, gɛnuɔ, 1  and 2 tamalin (hand held framed-drum), Zibogã (master drum). 
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Ade (The banana bell) 
The banana bell locally known as ade is a forged-iron instrument. It is held on the palm of 
the weak hand of the player and struck with a small forged iron rod held in the player‟s 
strong hand. Ade functions as the principal instrument on which the timeline is built. It 
plays an ostinato pattern that controls temporally the ensemble. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.1: Banana bell 
  
 
  
Figure 3.2: rhythmic pattern of Gakogui (the double bell) 
 
Gakogui is a bell also known by the E3es as gakpevi, or gaŋkogui. The Akans call it 
dawuro. It is an instrument played with a wooden stick, made out of forged iron and 
consists of a low-pitched bell (often referred to as the parent bell) and a high-pitched bell 
(or the child bell, which is said to rest on the bosom of the protective parent), which are 
bound together. Some people compare its high and low pitches to the male and female 
voices. Its playing technique consists of holding the flat side of the rim in one palm and 
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striking the rim with a wooden stick, with the stick held between the thumb and the first 
finger. Gakogui plays an ostinato pattern that complements the principal bell in the 
ensemble. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.3: gakogui 
                                                  (www.pinterest.com) 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.4: Excerpt of gakogui pattern 
 
  
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Frikyiwa (castanet) 
Frikyiwa is an Akan name for Castanet which is also use by the Zibo ensemble. It is a two 
– piece metal instrument. One piece is a bold ring worm held around the thumb. The 
second is a lemon–sized open bell, oval in shape with pointed bottom and a hoop at the 
top that enables the player to grasp with the third finger of his or her strong hand and 
rhythmically hit the lemon-sized bell against the bold ring to produce a definite pitch. 
Frikyiwa plays as a complementary pattern in the ensemble.  
 
 
 
  
 
Figure 3.5: Frikyiwa (Beeko 2005) 
 
 
 
Figure 3.6: Excerpt of frikyiwa pattern 
 
G1nu4 (The bearded drum)  
G1nu4 or the bearded drum is one of the supporting drums used in the Zibo ensemble. 
“g1” in E3e means beard, and “nu4” means mouth, hence “g1nu4”means the beard 
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mouth. The name originates from the numerous beards around the instrument. The beard 
is made from the fiber of the raffia palm designed into strings on the body of the drum. 
The instrument is a hollowed barrel shaped single - headed drum, of about one meter tall. 
It is made of wood and covered with a stretched membrane. The drum is about 150 cm tall 
and is broader in the top than in the bottom. Eight peg holes are bored on the frame of 
about ten centimeters from the mouth of the drum to hold the membrane fixed on the main 
drum firmly, and to aid in tuning for a desired pitch. The weight of the instrument is about 
5 kg, and it is hanged on the neck of the player during processions or pegged between the 
tights when playing in static positions. 
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
       Figure 3.7: front view of g1nu4 drum          Figure3.8 g1nu4 in performance context 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.9: Excerpt of g1nu4 pattern 
  
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Djembe drum 
Djembe in Ga and bambara in Mali, is a rope-tuned skin-covered goblet drum played with 
bare hands (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia), and used as one of the supporting drums in 
the Zibo ensemble. The weight of a djembe drum ranges from 5 kg to 13 kg, depending on 
the size and shell material used. The djembe can produce a wide variety of sounds, making 
it a very versatile drum. The drum is very loud, allowing it to be heard clearly as a solo 
instrument over a large percussion ensemble. It is the drum that solos when the master 
drum takes a rest in the Zibo ensemble.     
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.10: djembe drum 
 
 
 
Figure 3.8: djembe rhythmic pattern 
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Figure 3.9: djembe in performance context 
 
The tamalin (frame drum) 
Zibo tamalin is an array of different sized hand held frame-drums. It is a drum that has a 
drum head width greater than its depth. The head is made of a stretched membrane 
constructed over rectangular shaped wood of the size of about 39 by 31centimeters. (See 
figure 8 and 9). The instrument is held with the weak hand one hand of the player and 
played with the strong palm. The playing position is either by sitting and partly supporting 
the instrument on the laps or standing and holding it firmly. (See figure 8 and 9). The Ho 
Ahoe Zibo ensemble uses two of these frame drums of the same size called Tamalin 1 and 
Tamalin 2, to play different rhythms. The tamalin can be played using the hand or sticks. 
 
 
 
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Figure 3.10: Zibo tamalins in pictures 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.11: Excerpt of tamalin 1 pattern 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.12: Excerpt of tamalin 2 pattern 
 
 
 
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Zibogã (the master drum) 
Zibogã, the master drum of the Zibo ensemble is also a frame drum but much larger in 
size than the tamalins. It controls the ensemble. Zibogã is also played with a stick. 
 
 
 
Figure 3.13: Excerpt of Zibo master drum rhythmic pattern. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.14: Zibogã leading a performance 
 
3.5 Costumes 
The Zibo ensemble uses black and red costumes during funerals, and white and blue 
colored costumes on other social occasions.  
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Figure 3.15: zibo costumes 
 
3.6 Performance Practice 
The Zibo ensemble mostly employs free style dance style in their performances but 
during processions the formation becomes a cluster movement. For instance during 
processions, an approach termed “the motorcade style”, where all participants walk in 
one straight line, instrumentalists hang their instruments around their necks and 
perform in a military–like march is used. A typical motorcade style requires no song 
accompaniment; one can only hear only the instruments.  Performances may also be 
organized in a horse-shoe style, where drummers sit in the middle, singers stand 
behind them and dancers in pairs dance in front of them, with song accompaniment. 
Performances usually begin with an introductory song intoned by the cantor and 
responded by the group with the accompaniment of the idiophones. Dancing is done in 
pairs, normally male and female at a time in a “free style, choreograph romantic 
movements”. The cantor sometimes sings an entire song before the chorus is made to 
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join in the performance. Call and response is another style employ in organizing 
repertories for Zibo group, where the cantor sings a phrase and the chorus answers 
with responsorial phrases. Two lead singers are always employed during Zibo 
performances.  Average duration for Zibo performance lasts between one 45 minutes 
to 1hour depending on the occasion.  
Performances may also be organized in a horse-shoe style, where drummers sit in the 
middle, singers stand behind them and dancers in pairs dance in front of them. 
 
 
 
 
 
           Figure 3.16: Motorcade style of performance         
Figure 3.20: Horse-shoe style 
 
 
3.7 Membership, Recruitment and Training 
 Membership is opened to both natives and non-natives. The group ensures continuity and 
growth by recruiting and training new talents. Nketia (1979) indicates that, recruitment 
and training of members refers to equipping individuals with the requisite skills needed to 
execute specific roles in any social arrangement that ensures the availability of specialists 
for established roles and positions in society. In zibo ensemble, individuals may approach 
the group with the intention to join, and at other times, the group approaches people 
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especially endowed with the potential in playing instruments since natural endowment 
regarded as crucial for recruitment.  
Zibo group and its music have been affected tremendously by its indoctrination into the 
liturgy of the E. P. Church, a transformation that enables the ensemble to conform to the 
ethics of the church. However, Zibo music is primarily secular and has a specific role of 
being a pressure group that castigates wrong doing in the society with abusive text. This 
traditional practice at times conflicts with the formalism of the E. P. Church. 
 
3.8 Indigenization of Christian Liturgical Music in Ghana 
According to Agordoh (2011: 40 - 42) “Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman (a Methodist 
missionary) laid the foundation for the appropriation of traditional music practices by 
Christian churches in Ghana in 1835 when he allowed the inclusion of Ebibindwom (Akan 
sacred lyrics that allow hand clapping and the use of traditional music instruments) to be 
used in church worship”. 
Agordoh cited similar indigenization of the musical aspects of the church‟s order of 
worship embarked upon by the Presbyterian Church of Ghana in the late 1970s where the 
church had introduced the use of talking drums (atumpan) during her annual Synod 
meetings which is now the General Assembly of the church. It is this indigenization 
movement by most orthodox churches like the Methodist church and the Presbyterian 
Church in Ghana that caused the E. P. Church, moderated by the very Rev Professor 
Dzobo to establish the Department of African Church Music at the Theological Seminary 
at Peki with Dr. Ndo as its first director. The formation of Dumedefor, a renowned choral 
group in the E. P. Church, Ghana helped to experiment with the incorporation of 
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indigenous musical practices into Christian worship, Agordoh (2011).The purpose of 
forming this choral group was to help carry the Gospel to its recipients through African 
indigenous rhythmic compositions and performances. This indigenization process gave 
rise to the incorporation of many traditional ensembles such as Bɔbɔbɔ, Agbadza, Zigi and 
Zibo musical groups in to the E. P. Church, in the early 1990s and late 2000s.Meyer 
(1992), indicates that, whereas in the 1960s the EPC leaders still vehemently opposed the 
introduction of Pentecostal practices and thereby risked losing many members to such 
churches, by the end of the seventies the church started to Africanize its liturgy. In 1978, 
in order to extend the project of Africanization to the doctrine, the church‟s theologian and 
then Moderator N. K.  Dzobo (1981 - 92), started to develop the Meleagbe (I am alive) 
theology which conceptualized elements of the traditional religion in a positive way 
 
3.9 History of the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ho – Kpodzi  
The Evangelical Presbyterian Church is a mission church that originated from the North 
German Missionary Society (Bremen Mission) among the Eʋes in 1836, Mensah etal 
(2009). Mensah indicated that, “Rev. Wolf, one of the missionaries through Prince 
Nyangamagu, the son of Togbe (King) Kwadzo Dei Tutu Yao III, arrived at Peki in the 
then Trans–Volta Togoland in 1847. At first, the missionaries tried to use Peki as a spring-
board for evangelizing the Eʋe people, but due to the great distance between Peki and the 
coast they considered opening sub stations at various places to enable them access the 
entire Eʋe community. They also realized that by moving to the coast, they would receive 
their necessary supplies in time and would have frequent contact with their homeland. 
They finally decided to move to the coast and in 1853 fresh missionary stations were 
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opened at the following stations; Keta along the coast, Adaklu – Waya in 1856, and 27  
November, 1857 in Ho” Mensah (2009: 20).  
The first missionaries Revs. Illg and Steinemann who arrived in Ho were warmly received 
by Togbe Motte Kofi Howusu VI, the King of Ho (Wiegrebe 1862). The missionaries 
preached around Ho and vigorously pursued and visited stations at Kpenoe, Akoefe, 
Klefe, Avatime, and many other places. The missionaries were concerned with the 
education of the people, especially the young ones, a medium they employed to teach their 
doctrines to the indigenes. In 1864, the first institution to train teachers and other church 
workers was opened at Ho by Rev. Kholhammer. Mische (2009) reported that “in 1869, 
the peaceful atmosphere under which the missionaries were operating sadly ended. In an 
attempt to find a way to the coast, the Ashantis started a war against the Eʋe tribes. When 
they approached Ho, Togbe Kofi I, advised the missionaries to leave Ho immediately. The 
missionaries heeded and flee in time to Waya, together with their families, students and 
mission workers”. Illg and Hornberger however returned to Ho to resume work in 1875. In 
1890, the Governor of the Gold Coast informed the missionaries in Ho that Togoland had 
come under the German Government through an agreement between the two 
Governments. With this agreement, the greater part of the mission‟s field and schools fell 
under the British Government. However, the missionaries manage to get a few children to 
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continue with the German schools. After the 50  Jubilee celebration in 1909, two sons of 
Ho Reverends; Robert S. Kwami and Elias Awuma were ordained first indigenous 
ministers of the church. 
The Germans were devastated after First World War and this affected their colonies and 
missions overseas including the E. P. Church, Ghana. The Scottish mission took over from 
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where the Bremen Mission left off in 1923. In the same year, the church received good 
news from Inspector Schlunk that the German churches were allowed to send out 
missionaries again. This meant that the British mandated Togoland would receive 
missionaries from Germany once more to continue with their work from where they have 
left off. Upon the return of the German missionaries, work was extensively done on the 
Eʋe language and many books written in Eʋe language. Examples include; Eʋe Kristo 
Hame (the Eʋe Church of Christ). The Second World War in 1939 again scourged the 
activities of the church.  
Another important event in the history of the E. P. Church was the breakaway crisis from 
1988 to 1991, spearheaded by the spiritual wing of the church. The tenure of office of the 
moderator was cited as the conflagrant issues that led to the breakaway of the now Global 
Evangelical Church from the E. P. Church. The crisis spread very quickly like wild fire 
throughout every congregation in Ghana. The Global Evangelical Church, a presumably 
spiritual church like most spiritual churches in Ghana, incorporated many African features 
into their church worship such as possession, spiritual cleansing, exorcisms and the use of 
local drum and dance. The E.P. Church, it was Rev. Francis Amenu‟s arrival to Ho in 
1990 that reorganized the church. It is this re-organizational strategy that led to the first 
appropriation of the Zibo Group into the church as a singing group. Ho-Kpodzi E. P. 
Church is today the biggest E. P. Church congregation in Ghana with over five thousand 
members.  
  
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3.10 Musical Traditions and Groups in the E. P. Church, Ho - Kpodzi 
The E. P. Church, Ghana is one of the traditional churches that emphasize the singing of 
Hymns. Music plays an integral role in Christian worship, both enhancing individual 
experience and facilitating participation through collective singing. Ho-Kpodzi E. P. 
Church also known in Eʋe as Ho-Kpodzi Nyanyuie Hame (Church of Good news) 
established singing groups at around 1919.According to Mensah etal (2009), “the early 
missionaries depended on mass hymn singing activities to preach the gospel. However, in 
1919 Mr. Karl W. Lemgo, a native of Ho and a teacher at Atakpame in Togo returned to 
Ho to established a five member singing group which is later known as the Great Choir 
(Hadzihaga) to spearhead the choral practice in the church”. Today, the congregation has 
fourteen organized singing groups on its liturgy that promote hymn singing and anthems 
in Eʋe and English during worship on Sundays and other special occasions. 
 
3.11 Using the Theory of Diffusion and Innovation to trace the Processes Involved in 
Co-Opting Zibo Music into the E.P. Church, Ho – Kpodzi 
Rogers‟ (1962) theory of diffusion and innovation seeks to explain how, why, and at what 
rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. This theory offers an interpretative 
lens to understanding the processes involved in appropriating a secular musical type such 
as Zibo music into the Christian liturgy at the Ho-Kpodzi E. P. Church. The appropriation 
of Zibo music into the Ho-Kpodzi E. P. Congregation began with Rev. Francis Amenu, in 
1990. This in the first place came as an exigency strategy to bring back to the church 
lethargic Christians, during the church‟s point of extreme decline in the late eighties and 
early nineties. Secondly, the rhythmic character of African musical culture ensures 
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participation and with this assumption, Rev. Amenu conceived an opportunity to convert 
the massive patrons of Zibo musical ensemble mostly the youth, to the church. Mensah 
etal. (2009: 36) “Rev. Amenu managed to bring the Zibo Group to join the church as a 
Para-group”. Rev. Amenu‟s efforts of sustaining the Zibo ensemble as liturgical group in 
the church were however short lived as the Zibo musicians did not remain long. Activities 
of the group in the church became extinct in 1995. Zibo converting process was however 
revamped in 2007 by Rev. Kumi Agbodza, the parish pastor of the congregation and a 
native. The processes involved in appropriating Zibo ensemble into the church will be 
based predominantly on its resurfacing in 2007.  
In a conversation, Rev. Agbodza indicated that, Christianity is born into a culture or a 
tradition, a factor that enables the understanding of God in one‟s own context. Four 
justifications were outlined by Rev. Agbodza defending the appropriation of Zibo music 
into the church, these are: 
1. Zibo rhythms harmonize well with the hymns of the E. P. Church, and thus could serve a 
better accompaniment to the hymns. With traditional musical types such as;b4b44b4,zigi, 
agbadza and atumpan rhythms already in use in the church as means of accompaniment, 
Zibo rhythms were also perceived as a suitable accompaniment to the numerous hymns of 
the church in accomplishment of the same purpose as other existing traditional musical 
instruments in the church. 
2. Theprocess of co – opting Zibo music into the church signifies an opportunity to 
evangelize execrated souls. Mathew 28:19, states; “Go ye therefore and make all disciples 
of all the nations, baptizing them into the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the 
Holy Spirit” being the theme on which the E. P. Church was founded, he deemed it 
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necessary to reach out to the Zibo musicians whose morals were considered felonious to 
societal peaceful coexistence.  
3. “Everybody can be somebody” – Acts 1: 19, the Biblical story of transforming Saul during 
his time of pursuing Christians to Apostle Paul (Preacher of the Gospel) confirm the idea 
that, anybody could be called to work in the vineyard of God no matter his/her status in 
the society. There is a potential in every individual, hence the desire to reach out to the 
Zibo musicians. 
4. Jesus Christ in Mark 2:17 indicated that, He did not come for the righteous but for sinners, 
an indication that, the job of the pastor or an evangelist transcends the chapel to the 
spiritually less privileged.  
 
Stages in the Indoctrination Decision – Making Process 
Rogers‟ theory of diffusion of innovation outlines five stages in making an informed 
decision as far as new ideas are concern. These include; knowledge, persuasion, decision 
(to accept or reject), implementation and confirmation. Below is a tabular representation 
of the five processes involved in the indoctrinating decision making process.  
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.17: Stages in the decision making process 
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This section frames the process of Zibo indoctrination by E. P. Church with Rogers‟ five 
stages of decision making process. 
 
Knowledge 
The knowledge phase refers to the awareness of people about an innovation and the idea 
of how it functions. 
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The idea of indoctrinating Zibo musicians started on Sunday the 18  of February, 
2007when Rev. Kumi – Agbodza, the Parish Pastor at Ho-Kpodzi met with his church 
elders to deliberate on the idea of incorporating the Zibo Ensemble from Ho-Ahoe and 
Heve as one of the church‟s singing groups. After a heated debate the parish pastor 
persuaded his elders to carry on with the idea and justified it as part of the church‟s 
evangelizing mandate. It is therefore their responsibility to reach out to the group and 
transform them. This was heavily endorsed by the church session and a green light given 
the pastor and two other members to execute the task of bringing the group to the church. 
These members were Presbyter Emmanuel Botsoe and Mama Atrato III (Queen mother of 
Ho-Dome).  
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On the 19  of February, 2007, the committee met with Mama Victoria Adzah, a sub – 
queen mother in charge of the youth at Ahoe and first broke the news to her. The message 
was very simple and read in Eʋe, meaning, “the Ho-Kpodzi E. P. Church wants to 
incorporate your music into the church‟s liturgy as one of the singing groups”. Mama 
Adzah, being the youth leader always answers questions on behalf of the youth at the 
Chief‟s court, and with the activities of the Zibo group becoming nuisance to the 
community, she is always finding ways to help the youth overcome their exuberance and 
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its associated problems. She was therefore overwhelmed with the idea from the church to 
help transform the group and other youths of the area.  Mama Adzah quickly mobilized 
the Zibo group and communicated the news to them, but this drew misfiling among them, 
judging the antithesis of zibo operations and the Christian faith. The figure below 
indicates the medium through which knowledge was disseminated. 
 
Figure 3.18: medium of information flow 
 
Persuasion 
Persuasion phase refers to the formation of favorable or unfavorable attitude towards an 
innovation. The duration from the conception of the idea to appropriate the Zibo ensemble 
into the church, to the adoption by the Zibo musicians took ten months and nine official 
meetings with the Zibo musicians. The Zibo musicians showed lackadaisical approach 
towards adoption of the innovation from the initial stages of this phase, but the persistent 
persuasion from the change agents motivated the musicians to adopt the innovation later.  
During these meetings, the change agents designed “new convert classes” and “re-
evangelized lessons” for the adopters. The new convert class is a Pre-Christian concept 
designed for new members yet to undergo Christian lessons. It also includes biblical 
lessons and tutorials on morality for the musicians. The re-evangelized classes were on the 
other hand organized for backsliding Christians, as a medium of reminder.  On the seventh 
meeting with the musicians, the committee decided to break bread with the group for the 
first time. This was in line with Jesus‟ acceptance of Zacchӕus in Luke19:5-10, a signal 
that they have been accept and ready to join the Christian faith in communion with Jesus 
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Christ. The bread-breaking ceremony however took the form of a snack. This is to enable 
the musicians form a favorable attitude toward the new idea. The figure shows the attitude 
expressed by the musicians from the phase of awareness through persuasion. 
 
Decision 
Decision engages individuals in activities that lead to choice making that is the choice to 
adopt or reject an innovation (yes or no). The Zibo musicians accepted the offer in various 
degrees. The willingness to attend new convert and re-evangelized lessons is a clear 
indication of adopting the innovation, even though the initial stages express low level of 
enthusiasm.  
 
 
 
Figure 3.19: Decision making model 
 
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On the 15  December, 2007, the group attended its first service and was formally 
nd
introduced to the congregation, on the 22  December, 2007, fifteen of the members were 
st
baptized into the church as new converts amidst jubilations, and on the 31 night of 
December 2007, the parish pastor led a procession of the Zibo group through the principal 
streets of Ahoe and Heve to the chapel for inauguration. That same night the musicians 
received their first communion with the congregation. There was great jubilation by. The 
above characteristics exhibited by the zibo musicians show their choice and adoption of 
the innovation. 
 
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Implementation and Observability 
This phase accounts for visible representations of the new idea and its practical effects. 
Zibo musicians engaged in services such as undertaking cleanup activities, engaging in 
communal labour both in the church and the community. These are visible results for the 
congregation and the Ho community to see. Accordingly, it was recorded by Rev. 
Agbodza that, the size of the congregation rose to one thousand eight hundred participants 
from an anticipated one thousand five hundred on the inaugural night of the group, as 
many people attended the service to witness the inauguration ceremony in anticipation of 
the group‟s performance. Testimonies of the group‟s successful integration included the 
status of the group as a singing group in the church and their dedication to communal 
activities of the church and the community. Witnesses also stressed that this 
transformation has bridged a former gap between the community elders and the group. 
 
Confirmation 
Confirmation occurs when people evaluate the results of an innovation. Arguably, 
Christianization of the Zibo musicians and incorporation of their music into liturgy is what 
settled the tension between elders and the youth. This is because, the Ho community 
charges Christians with the power to solve all types of communal conflict. The adoption of 
the innovation marks a turning point in the lives of the Zibo musicians. Now the group 
relies on the elders as patrons, and for financial assistance. All these came as a 
confirmation of the innovation. 
  
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Elements in the Diffusion of Innovation Process 
According to Rogers, there are four main elements in the diffusion of new ideas. Below is 
a table of the classifying elements of the theory and its connective interpretations based on 
this study. 
 
The Innovation    Communication Time       The Social 
Channels System 
Co-opting Zibo Inter – personal February, 2007 Evangelism 
music for mode of to  December, committee of 
liturgical use. communicating the 2007 Ho-Kpodzi E. P. 
innovation Church and the 
Zibo Musicians 
Table 3.1: Elements in the diffusion of innovation process 
 
This study, however, focuses on the innovation and its characteristics of indoctrinating the 
Zibo ensemble and its music into the E. P. Church. 
 
The Innovation 
Rogers‟ model establishes the following characteristics in the diffusion of new ideas in a 
system, thus relative advantage, compatibility, complexity.  
 
  
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Relative advantage  
This is the degree to which a new idea is perceived more advantageous. The idea of 
indoctrination sounds better to the Zibo musicians because: 1) The musicians in the first 
place were promised special lessons on baptism and confirmation rites to enable them 
become communicants of the church at no cost; 2) There is an opportunity to become 
Christian and still perform their music to the church but this time, in a more sacrosanct 
manner to reflect the religiosity of the Christian faith; 3) The Zibo group can rely on the 
church‟s hymnody as a source of repertory; and 4) It is said that “show me your friend and 
I will tell you your character”. The association of the Zibo musicians to the church reflects 
their behavioral patterns. The antithesis of the above is that, now the Zibo musicians have 
been confined into a faith, a situation that makes them less independent especially in the 
choice of their repertoire to play and also their private lives will be highly monitored by 
society. 
 
Syncretic compatibility 
Compatibility is explained by Rogers as the degree to which an innovation is perceived as 
being consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential 
adopters. Syncretism is drawn in due to the fusion of this two different inflectional values. 
One major compatibility of the idea of indoctrination to the values of the zibo ensemble is 
that; The activities of the zibo musicians is geared towards fighting injustice in the society 
even though the approach of doing it is considered detrimental to societal harmony. This 
phenomenon is similar to what the Christian faith practices. The church frowns at wrong 
doing in the society but uses different approach in handling such acts.  
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Complexity 
This phase signifies the difficulty to understand an innovation. According to Rogers, new 
ideas that are simpler to understand are adopted more rapidly and innovations that are 
complicated will be adopted more slowly. The main issue of complexity in the 
indoctrinating process was seen in the inability of most of the zibo members to read and 
understand the Bible which goes down to lack of formal education. Out of the seventy-six 
(76)zibo musicians only eight (8) completed the senior secondary school, indicating mass 
illiteracy rate, since majority dropped out of school at the middle school level or at the 
secondary level. The process of indoctrination was however based on the Bible which is 
the main working tool of the Christian. Sermons and other scriptural explanations were all 
Biblical. The inability of these members to read and understand mean an idea that is 
supposed to be simple would have to take more time since the adopters depend largely on 
the change agents for facts. 
 
Characteristics of the Innovation 
This aspect categorizes the social system into sub-groups according to the duration of 
adopting the new idea, and the associated behaviors. The categories include; innovators, 
early adopters, early majority, late majority and the laggards. The total number of Zibo 
musicians who were indoctrinated numbered seventy – six. 
 
Innovators 
These are the first, two (2) members out of the seventy-six total number representing 2.5 
percent of the Zibo group members who adopted the new idea of accepting to be 
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transformed. They are the community youth leader and the chairman of the Zibo 
ensemble. This group accordingly was only looking for the opportunity of transformation, 
so as to get their colleagues changed. They thus grabbed this chance and thought of 
making the best out of it. Asked why they adjusted so quickly to the innovation, they 
responded affirmative, “midi be Zibo na xɔ ŋkɔ nyuie, menye ŋkɔ gbegble ko ɣesiaɣi o, 
amewo le nu ƒom le mia ŋu akpa, eva glo” meaning, we “want a good name for Zibo 
group, and not bad names always, people are talking bad about us too much, enough is 
enough”. 
Their change was also fast tracked because of their regular presence at all meetings 
between the group and the change agents. These innovators subsequently served as gate 
keepers who acted as role-models for the many other members of the Zibo group who 
were considered potential adopters, their instrumentality in getting the innovation diffused 
in the potential adopters, who are also referred to as the critical mass, hence rapidly 
advanced the successful co-opting process. Secondly, the ability of the innovators to 
understand and apply complex technical knowledge in the indoctrinating process 
eliminated the uncertainties of the critical mass about the innovation at the time of its 
adoption and aided the activities of the change agents. The innovators thus played “a gate-
keeping role” according to Rogers, in the flow of novelty into the social system. See 
figure 15, for details.  
 
  
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Early adopters 
These are the next ten (10) representing thirteen percent of the Zibo group membership 
that adopted the new idea after the innovators; they were all in the age bracket of thirty to 
thirty-five. They initially show signs of skepticism but got convinced after two months.  
Asked why they did not decide early as the innovators, they responded; “mie di be mia trɔ 
tɔtrɔ vavãtɔ eyata mie di be mia kpɔ ametrɔlawo ŋutɔ ƒe nɔnɔme akpɔ be wo dzèa, hafi 
awɔ ɖoɖo ɖe tɔtrɔ ŋuti” meaning, carefulness is our criteria in decision making; we 
wanted to read along the lines and make a lasting decision, we also want to see whether 
the change agents themselves are worthy to undertake the task of changing others for God, 
in other words, we want to access the behaviors of our change agents before engaging in 
decision making. 
 
Early majority 
Twenty-six (26)of Zibo members representing thirty-four percent belong to this group. 
They are one of the two most numerous adopter categories, making up one-third of the 
members of Zibo group. Approximately aged between twenty-five (25) to early thirties, 
the early majority also known as “average members” adopted the new idea after a varying 
degree of time that is significantly longer than the innovators and early adopters. 
Conservative as the group is, nonetheless show willingness to attend the new convert 
classes, but was pessimistic about the new idea; their common slogan is "be not the first 
by which the new is tried, nor the last to lay the old aside". They therefore have to wait for 
a total of four (4) months to see evidences manifesting before finally deciding. These 
evidences include; their association with the change agents that include preaching of the 
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Gospel and good moral life messages to them, and the love, care and concern shown them 
by the community due to the awareness of the change process. This convinced them that, 
they are not condemned outright, but there is hope for life. 
 
Late majority  
The next twenty-six (26) representing thirty-four (34) percent of the Zibo group members 
to fully adopt the new idea is the late majority group. This group took five (5) months to 
assimilate the innovation. They receive the new idea just after the average members (early 
majority) of the group decided. The early majority mostly age between eighteen (18) to 
twenty-five (25) felt comfortable with life as it is, and believed early decision to 
Christianize oneself is a recipe for self denial. They see their stage of life as a level to 
experiment with life before accepting Jesus Christ fully at latter years in one‟s life. They 
perceived the idea of Christianity to be for the aged and not for the youth. Their adoption 
therefore came as a result of persistent network pressures from the earlier peer adopters. 
Like the early majority, the late majority make up one-third of the members of the group. 
They approached the new idea with a skeptical and cautious air, and had to wait until most 
others in the group have done so.  
 
Laggards 
These are the last sixteen percent of the individuals in the group to adopt the idea.  They 
were so skeptic about the entire process because to them, they do not envisage the zibo 
group and the church coexisting as they always refer to the past on the first attempt to co-
opt the group by Rev. Amenu which could not materialize. They tend to be suspicious of 
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the change agents on the basis of truncating their freedom. They also held the assertion of 
the late majority that Christianity is for the aged; this is quoted in Ewe saying “ɣeyiɣi mele 
ɖekakpuiwo kple ɖetugbuiwo si woa subɔ Mawu o” meaning “the youth cannot have the 
time resources to worship God”. The efforts of the change agents in organizing new 
convert classes and persuasions from the innovators other earlier adopters however, 
enabled them to adopt the new idea as finally, they became certainly convinced during the 
bread breaking ceremony that, they can integrate and share things in common with the 
church. The actualization of the process thus took seven months to accomplish. Nine out 
of fifteen, representing sixty percent, of the new converts who received their baptism on 
nd
the 22  December, 2007 belong to this category. 
The table below shows tabular representation of the various categories of members and the 
period taken to complete the adoption cycle. 
 
Theoretical Categories Number of Percentage of Duration taken to 
People in each People in each adopt 
(TC) 
Category (NPC) Category (%) (da) 
Innovators 2 2.5 1month 
Early Adopters 10 13.5 2 months 
Early Majority 26 34 4 months 
Late Majority 26 34 5 months 
Laggards 12 16 7 months 
TOTAL 76 100  
Table 3.2: categories of members, percentage in each category and the duration 
taken to adopt the innovation.   
  
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KEY 
TC represents theoretical categories in the social system 
DTA represents duration taken to adopt an innovation in a social system 
PPC represents percentage of people in a category who adopted an innovation 
DC represents duration taken to adopt an innovation in a social system 
Theoretical Category (TC) is used against Duration taken to adopt the innovation in the 
system. 
Cylindrical Chart 
35
30
25
20
DT
15
10
5
0
INNOVATORS EARLY EARLY LATE MAJORITY LAGGARDS
ADOPTERS MAJORITY
 
Figure 3.20: Cylindrical chart of table 3.2 
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CHAPTER FOUR 
TRANSCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS 
4.1 Analysis of Drum Patterns   
Timothy Sexton (2007) indicates that, African oral traditions have been largely 
accompanied by drumming an assertion that suitably applies to the zibo ensemble as its 
instruments blend rhythmically with other vocal performances. The zibo ensemble uses 
five drums and three idiophones. 
Analysis of the rhythmic patterns in this work draws on the theory of Structural Set 
Analysis of African music by Willie Anku (2000). Anku explains that many West African 
ensembles superimpose various rhythmic ostinati organized around a timeline which spans 
4 pulses. In his article “Circles and Time: A Theory of Structural Organization of Rhythm 
in African Music” (2000), he puts emphasis on the fact that, performances in Africa 
consists of a steady ostinato framework of multi-concentric rhythms on which various 
manipulations of the set are realized by the lead drummer. The timeline concept relies on 
the idea that the performance can be segmented into units or time cycles. Events of the 
performance which may include multiple instruments, a body of songs and dances are all 
organized around this structural matrix, making it possible for performers to go in and out 
of the cycle without losing themselves. Anku defines the time cycle span as unified events 
with common recurring undercurrent of one regulative beat per cycle which is divided into 
four equidistant beats. 
The drum ensemble consists of two basic concepts, thus the background ostinato and 
the master drum variation. 
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The rhythmic ostinati is formed by all the instruments in the ensemble except the 
masterdrum. All the instruments forming the ostinato patterns, according to Anku, 
constitute a background for the masterdrum variations which are concurrently regulated by 
the common timing principles of the time cycle. Each instrument often has a separate 
entry point with respect to the timeline resulting in staggered entry relationships. The 
individual positioning in this rhythmic framework is therefore crucial in order to maintain 
the rhythmic cohesion of all the instruments that are engaged in the performance. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Figure 4.1: zibo ensemble 
 
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Figure 4.2: Typical variations of the zibo master drum 
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The above transcriptions represent the full texture of ostinati of the zibo ensemble and the 
typical variations played by the master drummer. The full drum score forms the 
accompaniment for all vocal transcriptions in this study. From Figure 4.1, it is evident that 
each instrument has a different entry point with respect to the RTP that results in staggered 
effects and yet, they all keep their respective paths to end the performance and this 
provides an ostinati background for master drum manipulations. 
Anku‟s Structural Set module has four equidistant beat areas, one occurrence of a 
regulative beat polarizing into two symmetrical halves of 8 or 6 subdivisions each. Anku 
uses Regulative Time Point (RTP) or the Regulative Beat (RB) as a way of classifying 
individual lines by their rhythmic relationships to the timeline. Simply put, RTP shows on 
which pulse of the timeline the phrase beginning of most ostinati falls. 
Anku explains that master drummers can manipulate a set by shifting its orientation, that 
is, by shifting the perceived position of the RTP within the time cycle. The various sets 
can now be quantified and represented in a schematic formula for each of the pattern. 
  
 
Figure 4.3: Zibo principal bell (ade) 
 
The rhythmic pattern in Figure 3 is the principal bell pattern for Zibo and functions as a 
timeline with the regulative beat occurring on the first beat of the bar. The pattern can be 
divided into four equidistant beats and has a total of 16 minimum subdivisions represented 
by semi quavers.  
  
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The raw configuration of intervals of zibo timeline is 33424.  
 
 
Figure 4.4: Zibo configured principal bell. 
 
Willie Anku (1992) has studied extensively the role of master drummers in West African 
drumming ensembles. According to him, the master drummer generates a series of 
rhythmic variations “drawing from a stock of generative rhythmic vocabulary associated 
with specific musical genres”. He explains that there are two main principles involved in 
the process: 1) the shifting set orientation and 2) the use of successive sets.  
1) Shifting set orientation means displacing the perceived RTP of a rhythmic theme by 
inserting a transitional theme called the bridge. According to Anku, there are two types of 
bridge statements. One in which the previous set rhythm is cut short and the other in 
which a built-in stock rhythm, an idiomatic passage provides an important rhythmic and 
choreographic prompt to both dancers and performers of response drums. Idiomatic 
bridges constitute a coherent passage and are variant in character, usually spanning 
beyond a prescribed set. In both cases, a new vertical relationship is established between 
the timeline (along with the rest of the ostinati) and the master drummer variation. 
 
 
 
 
 
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Figure 4.5: shifting set orientation with a built-in stock 
 
 
 
Figure 4.6: shifting set orientation with the principal rhythm cut short 
2) The technique of successive sets implies that the master drummer‟s variation is 
segmented into subsections (usually labeled with letters, a, b, etc.) and these 
subsections are reorganized following various procedures. Anku categorizes these 
procedures as: 1) Extrapolation2) Masking of set units3) Superset and 4) Set 
interpolation. These procedures are exemplified with a typical variation used by Zibo 
master drummers (see Figure 6) 
 
A= abb                                                                                                
 
Figure 4.7: Zibo principal bell and master drum showing variation ‘A’, subdivision ‘abb’ 
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The figure above is the main theme labeled A=abb where „a‟ is the first bar „b‟ in the 
second bar and „b‟ repeated in bar 3.  
An extrapolation occurs when the subdivision „a‟ is repeated „aa‟and „b‟also having 
“bb” such that we have full sets of A= aabb. 
 
 
Figure 4.8:Extrapolation 
In the masking procedure, any (or all) of the subsections „a‟ and „b‟ may be masked with 
equivalent silent sections while the structural span of the set rhythm is maintained. 
Masking is the situation where a whole unit of division „a‟ is replaced with rests; hence 
the sound is not heard at all or masked. For example: 
 
A= ab-- 
 
Figure 4.9: Excerpt indicating masking 
  
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4.2 Analysis of Repertoire And Text 
The repertory of the Zibo music in Ho since its indoctrination into Christian worship 
can be categorized into two main groups according to song text: sacred and secular. 
 
TAXONOMY OF ZIBO REPERTORY 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.10: taxonomy of Zibo repertory 
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SACRED REPERTOIRE 
Sacred music is devoted exclusively for deity worship. David P. Goldman (2009) defines 
sacred music as music that assists liturgy or prayer. His categories include Protestant 
hymns, Christian rock, church chant. Adding to Goldman‟s categories is the adaptation of 
popular and traditional genres for liturgical use of which the zibo ensemble can be 
classified as a typical example. The E. P. Church has special hymns for the celebration of 
special religious rites from which all liturgical groups including the Zibo group draws 
their repertory from. The hymns by virtue of their text, portrays the scriptures aligned with 
the rites. 
The Zibo ensemble as part of its liturgical renditions explores sacred themes in their 
repertoire selections and compositions. The choice of repertoire for divine service is 
classified into two main categories. 1) Hymns from the E. P. Church hymnal, and 2) 
Gospel compositions external to the church‟s hymnal which I refer to as Gospel tunes. 
 
Repertoire from the E. P. Church hymnal 
Accentuation of hymn singing that depends heavily on Biblical content is unique to 
Churches of the Reform Traditions of which the E.P. Church belong. The church depends 
heavily on her own hymns from her hymnal known as “Nyanyui Hame Hadzigbale”, 
literally translated as the Good news Church Hymn book, which consists of a pool of 
sacred compositions by both Western and indigenous composers. The hymnbook, which is 
currently used in the church (Nyanyui Hame Hadzigbale 2002), classifies its hymns 
according to “tanyagãwo”themes and “kɔnuwo” rituals of the church. The tables below 
show songs categorized into themes and rituals in Eʋe and translated into English. 
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Tanya g7woThemes 
Mawu ƒe nɔnɔme                                           The Nature of God 
Mawu ƒe Ɖekatɔnyenye                                The Trinity of God 
Xexemewɔwɔ                                                     Creation of the universe 
Nuvɔmedzedze kple ɖeɖe                                   Sin and redemption 
Yesu dzidzi                                                         Birth of Christ 
Yesu ɖe dɔwɔwɔ                                                 Christ‟s works 
Yesu ƒe fukpekpe kple ku                                   Christ‟ suffering and death 
Yesu ƒe tsitretsitsi                                               Resurrection of Christ    
Yesu fe dziƒoyiyi kple ŋutikɔkɔe                        Christ‟s ascension and Holiness 
Gbɔgbɔ Kɔkɔe la                                                The Holy Spirit 
Kristohame kple nyanyuikaka                           The Church and spreading of the Gospel 
Kristo ƒe agbenɔnɔ                                           The life of Christ 
Kristo hame kɔnuwo                                         Special rites of the church 
Vihɛhɛ ɖe go                                                    Outdoory of new born child 
Mawutsideta                                                     Baptism 
Kelilixɔxɔ                                                        Confirmation 
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Nududu Kɔkɔe                                       Communion 
Srɔɖeɖe                                                 Marriage  
Hamedɔwɔlawoɖoɖo                             Presbyters‟ initiation ceremony 
Nuwo ŋutikɔkɔ                                       Dedication of items 
Ku kple ameɖiɖi                                   Burial ceremony                                      
By virtue of its expansion beyond the Eweland, the E. P. Church has translated her hymns 
into Twi, (another dominant indigenous language in Ghana). But for the purposes of this 
analysis, focus will be on only song categories used by the Zibo ensemble during worship 
which are in Eʋe and its literal translations into English language. Focus will also be on 
songs used in; baptism ceremonies, confirmation ceremonies, marriage ceremonies, 
Christmas festivities, and Easter festivities. 
 
Baptism ceremony 
The E. P. Church as part of its mandates to fulfill the scripture in Mathew 28:19-20, that 
stated that, “Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father 
and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have 
commanded you” carry out this ordinance as a ritual to admit new entrants into the 
Christian faith. James Innell Packer (1955) indicated that, baptism seals and declares one‟s 
union with Jesus Christ, a union that is fundamental for the concept of Christian salvation. 
Hymns for baptism rites prior to the arrival of zibo, were performed at slower tempo. 
Since the introduction of zibo as an accompaniment the performance of these hymns has 
accelerated in tempo. Hymn 541, is an example. 
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Lyrics in Eʋe                                   English translation 
Yesu vevi, mieva „fii                         Gentle Jesus we have come here  
Wo ɖoɖo kɔkɔe dzi wɔ ge                 To perform your sacrament, 
Wotsɔ ɖevi sia va „fii;                      These children were brought here; 
Esi nède se na mi be:                       In accordance with your admonishment: 
Mina ɖeviwo nava gbɔnye,             That let the children come to me, 
Wo tɔe nye dzifofiaɖufe.                     For theirs is the heavenly kingdom..  
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.11: E. P. Hymn 541use in baptism 
Confirmation rites 
Confirmation marks affirmation of one‟s baptism in church. Below is the score and 
lyrics of a hymn associated with the rite. The zibo group, like other performing groups 
in church, renders repertoires as an interlude to shrug off boredom during confirmation 
ceremonies. The instrumental rhythms of the ensemble add accented patterns as 
variations that maintain a steady tempo to these repertories. E. P. Hymn 545 is 
commonly accompanied with zibo rhythms during this ceremony. 
  
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Lyrics in Eʋe                                                English translation 
Mekpɔ Afetɔ Yesu ɖa,                                    I have seen the Lord Jesus 
Medo ɖe eƒe ŋku me                                     And appeared before Him 
Exɔ nye nuv-wo nam                                    He took my sins upon Himself 
Mekpɔ xɔxɔ                                                   And I have received salvation 
Madze Yesu ko yome ɖaa,                             I will forever follow Jesus 
Eya gbɔ nye xɔxɔ le                                      For with Him is my salvation 
Madze Yesu ko yome ɖaa,                             I will forever follow Jesus, 
Eya nye sitsoƒe na nye luʋɔ                           He is the redeemer of my soul 
Mawɔ eƒe lɔlɔnu ko ɖaa,                                I will forever do His will, 
Kplɔla nyui ŋutɔ wonye na amegbetɔwo,       He is a Good Shepherd to mankind,  
Eyata ko manɔ eyome ɖaa!                           For this, I will forever follow Him! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Figure 4.12:E.P. Hymn 545 linked to confirmation rite 
 
Marriage rites 
Hymns performed during these occasions serve as marital input for the couples. The 
ensemble by virtue of its accompaniments transformed the previously slow tempo to a 
faster style of performance maintaining the basic pattern (time) of the music. Zibo music 
today also plays an engaging role by performing a series of interludes during this 
ceremonies; a reason the church believes can attract the youthful members of the ensemble 
to conduct similar sacred rites. Below is Hymn 565, a typical supplicatory rendition for 
the almighty God to grant the couples with the tenacity for a successful marriage. 
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Lyrics in Eʋe                                               English translation 
O lɔlɔ vivi sidzedze blibotɔ,                        Precious love with insightful understanding  
Biam miele „gbe sia na nɔvi siawo,             Is what we pray for, for this couple, 
Miele kuku ɖem, nyrɔ wo ɖe wo nya me,   We pray thee to sock them in your word 
Be woawɔ ɖeka yi ɖe ku me ke.                  To remain one till death do part them. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.13: E.P. Hymn 565 linked to marriage rites. 
 
 
Funeral rites 
The text of songs used in this context expresses sorrow and grief with hymn performances 
meant mostly to mourn the departed and to console the bereaved. Zibo rhythms noted for 
its metrical accompaniments features prominently during funerals and attract participation.  
The ensemble hybridizes the western hymns with African drum accompaniment. 
Repertoires in the simple duple and simple quadruple signatures are always accompanied 
by the ensemble. The portability of zibo instruments present them favourite accompanists 
whenever church services are held outside the church premises. This is because, the 
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instruments are easy to carry compared to other ensembles such as Agbadza and many 
others. Traditional dirges are also known as avihawo or kutefehawo. Below is EPH 587 in 
lyrics and in score. 
Lyrics in Eʋe                                             English translation 
Nɔviwo, migatɔ o!                                      Brethren do not stop 
O, mizɔ yi ŋgɔ ko!                                      But just surge forward  
Mikpɔ ale si mia „gbe                                All see how our lives 
Le ʋaʋlam le yiyim.                                   Are blazing forward 
Fifia ke yɔdo vi la                                      Now the grave shall grasp 
Axɔ mia ŋutila;                                          Our mortal remains 
Ya ta gbe la be: egbe mile mɔzɔti la          The voice echoed, today!  
Dziƒo ko dzudzɔ le, dziƒo ko                      Hold firm the journey staff  
dzudzɔ le,                                                    Only Heaven, only Heaven 
Dziƒo ko0 dziƒo ko0 dziƒo ko dzudzɔ le.   Only Heaven yes only Heaven can joy be  
                                                                experienced. 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.14: E.P. Hymn 587 linked to funerals. 
  
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Christmas festivities 
Songs in this category are subdivided into Advent songs and Carols. 
Advent 
This is a preparatory period for the celebration of the birth of Christ, which is marked 
with special hymns in the church. These hymns give the indication of an approaching 
Christmas. Zibo‟s main role is to provide accompaniment to the songs. Below is an 
example of E. P. Hymn 85. 
Lyrics in Eʋe                                     English translation 
Mele ago dom nawo hee!                   Behold! am knocking at your door, 
Wo amekae ma hã?                           Who is that knocking? 
Nye Yesu wo Xɔla vevi,                      I am Christ! Your Savior, 
Meva gbɔ wo dze ge                          I have come to reside with you. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.15: E.P. Hymn 85 linked to Advent period. 
  
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Carols 
Carols are usually rendered during Christmas day and a few weeks beyond the festivities 
with the notion that the yuletide is still hovering. The ensemble provides accompaniment 
to the general hymn singing in the church, and performs interludes when called upon.  
Hymn 104 of the E. P. Church hymnal is an example: 
Lyrics in Eʋe                                                    English translation 
Luʋɔ fɔ mega dɔ lɔ o,                                         Rise up oh, sleeping soul! 
Kekeli do na mi                                                 Light has appeared to us 
Nukuɣletivi la gblɔ bena,                                     The wonderful Star has indicated to us, 
Mia ɖela la tu mi.                                              That, our Savior is near us.                                                                                                                          
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.16:E.P. Hymn 104, a Christmas Carol 
  
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Easter festivities 
This commemorates the suffering and the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Hymns perform 
during this period are also grouped into; 1. Crucifixion of Jesus Christ, 2. Resurrection of 
Jesus Christ.   
Crucifixion of Jesus Christ 
Hymns perform during this period expresses grief, an indication of sharing in the pain and 
death of the Lord Jesus Christ. Zibo offers accompaniment to the hymn general hymn 
singing of the church and performs during liturgical selections. Below is an example of E. 
P. Hymn 155. 
Lyrics in Eʋe                                              English translation 
Nye fiaɖufe metso xexe sia me o,              My Kingdom does not come from this world 
Ɖe wotso xexe sia me la,                            If it were to be from this world, 
Anye ne Fofonye aɖo dɔlawo ɖo ɖa,         My Father would have send forth His angels 
Bena ne wova ʋli tanye.                            To fight the struggle on my behalf. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.17: E.P. Hymn 155 linked to crucifixion of Jesus Christ. 
  
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Resurrection of Jesus Christ 
The text of the hymn below restores hope that Christ has triumphed over death, and that 
death is no longer an enemy because in Christ, there is no longer fear for the punishment 
that comes after death. (1 Corinthians 15:55-57) “O death where is your victory? O death, 
where is your sting?” The sting of death is sin, and the power of sin is the law. But thanks 
be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ! Zibo provides 
instrumental accompaniment as a main role during congregational singing. Example of 
EPH. 173 is transcribed below. 
Lyrics in Eʋe                                                     English translation 
Enɔ yɔdo la me,                                                 Low in a grave He lay, 
Yesu xɔlanye!                                                    Jesus my Savior! 
Mɔ kpɔm na ŋkeke la                                        Waiting the coming day 
Yesu xɔnye!                                                       Jesus my Lord! 
Eva do go tso yɔ me,                                        Up from the grave He arose, 
Eɖu eƒe fuwo kata dzi                                     With a mighty triumph o‟er His foes 
Edo go abe dzidula ga de „ne,                              He arose a Victor from the dark domain, 
Enɔ „gbe be yeaɖu dzi kple eviawo                 And He lives forever with His saints to reign 
Efɔ hee! Efɔ hee!                                             He arose! He arose! 
Haleluya! Efɔ hee!Hallelujah!                         Christ arose! 
 
 
 
 
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Figure 4.18: E.P. Hymn 173, hymn for Christ’s Resurrection 
 
Gospel tunes 
Aside the repertoire from the church‟s hymnal, the Zibo group also performs other 
contemporary sacred tunes exterior to the church‟s hymnody. These compositions employ 
sacrosanct themes and texts that depict the Christian faith. This is sub-categorized in to 
recreational tunes and dirges. It is worth noting that in all situations below, the text and 
music in the various categories are set to zibo instrumental accompaniment for 
performance. 
 
Recreational tunes 
Repertoires from this category are compositions that express jubilant moods and are 
mainly used during chuffed occasions such as naming ceremonies, puberty rites, 
marriages, birthday celebrations, political parties‟ rallies and many others. The example 
below is an exclamation to God to extend His divine protection to the defenseless. 
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Lyrics in Eʋe                                    English translation 
Lem ɖ‟asi o, nye Mawu!                    Hold me with your hands, oh my God 
Asiwo malé ɖ‟asi,                              Your hands will I clench 
Wo nuɖusi, awɔ kal0!                        Your right hand is defensive! 
Wo ŋusẽ hã anya futɔwo ɖa.             Your strength scatters the enemy away. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.19: Zibo gospel tune 
Dirges 
This is exterior but similar to the expressions grief in the renditions from the church‟s 
hymnal.  
The lyrics below metaphorically compares death to an entrance of a path leading to farms, 
where even as one walks with others in group towards the same direction, once you arrive 
at your entrance, regardless of the excitements, one must branch to the final destination. 
 
  
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Lyrics in Eʋe                                        English translation 
Eku ya agblemɔnu ye,                             Death is like entrance of path leading to farms, 
Tɔwomɔnu ko nadze to,                           Your entrance is where you branch 
Ame aɖeke madze to nɔvia tɔme o,        Nobody branches through the friend‟s entrance, 
Nenema Yesu ŋlɔe da ɖi,                         That is how Jesus established it, 
Ame aɖeke madze to nɔvia tɔme o,         Nobody branches through the friend‟s entrance 
Tɔwomɔnu ko nadze to!                          Your entrance is where you branch 
Tɔwomɔnu ko nadze to.                           Your entrance is where you branch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.20: Zibo gospel dirge 
 
SECULAR REPERTOIRE (NON SACRED) 
This category includes songs primarily linked to non-religious activities. These have 
classified into; 1. Songs for recreational purposes and 2. Dirges 
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Recreational songs 
Songs in this category are sub grouped into; Patriotic, Erotic (Profane) and Mundane 
1) Patriotic songs 
The Zibo group being the motorcade for political campaign especially in and around Ho 
has songs that fit these occasions. The zibo group provides entertainment to its massive 
patrons during occasions like this.  The repertoires for these occasions are mostly songs 
with strong patriotic content, through which the history, culture, struggles and the need to 
promote peace prior, during and post electoral activities. The text from the excerpt below 
reminds citizens of Ghana on the need to unite and fight for a common goal, towards the 
development the nation.  
Lyrics in Eʋe                                English translation 
Ɖekawɔwɔ me ŋusẽ le,                   In unity lies strength 
Miwɔ ɖeka ne du nenyo loo,         Unite and develop our dear nation, 
Ɖekawɔwɔ me ŋusẽ le,                   In unity lies strength 
Miwɔ ɖeka ne du ne nyo loo.        Unite and develop our dear nation. 
Miwɔ ɖeka, miwɔ ɖeka,                 Unite, unite, 
Miwɔ ɖeka ne du ne nyo loo,       Unite and develop our dear nation 
Miwɔ ɖeka, miwɔ ɖeka,                Unite, unite, 
Miwɔ ɖeka ne du ne nyo loo.       Unite and develop our dear nation. 
 
 
 
 
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Figure 4.21: Zibo patriotic score 
2) Erotic (profane) songs 
To be born into an African society is to be born into a culture that also cherishes 
morality. The African tradition therefore inculcates in its young ones the excellencies 
of its cherished principles to enable them appreciate, internalize and practically display 
them in their moral lives.  The Ewe tradition frowns at immorality, indecency which 
also includes erotic languages and profane songs. The Zibo ensemble however 
performs some of these repertories in the secular context mainly to entertain. 
Contextually, these repertoires are performed for puberty girls and young male adults 
in amorous relationships. The lyrics of the piece below reveal an ecstatic sexual 
moment of a lady with her lover. 
  
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Lyrics in Eʋe                                          English translation 
M4m sevente digris                                  Fuck me seventy degrees  
Nyema f4 fu  nawo,                                 I will not be pregnant for you 
M4m nainte digris                                   Fuck me ninety degrees  
nyema f4f  na wo,                                  I will not be pregnant for you 
M4m aleke aleke                                     Fuck me erratically 
Nyema f4f na wo                                   I will not be pregnant for you 
Elabena k4nd4m b4,                       Because condom is in abundance, 
Elabena k4nd4m b4.                               Because condom is in abundance. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.22: Zibo erotic song 
3) Mundane 
Repertories in this category fall between the patriotic and the erotic. It is neither patriotic 
nor erotic, but ordinary. The ensemble performs this repertoire for entertainment purposes 
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in all social gatherings. The excerpt below admonishes people on the treacherous nature of 
the human race and the need to exercise carefulness when dealing with friends.  
Lyrics in Eʋe                                                    English translation 
Nɔvi nya zɔzɔ kple x-l-wo                       Brethren beware of friends 
Kple x-l-wo.                                     Indeed with friends. 
Woa nɔ ŋu wo!                                                 They will relate with you! 
Woa nɔ ŋu wo!                                                 They will relate with you! 
Lãwoada wo nye!                                             They are like beast! 
Wo me zɔ na kple fe o,                                    Who do not walk with open claws, 
Wo ƒe fe la „ku me.                                         Their claws are hidden. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.23: Zibo mundane repertoire 
 
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Dirges 
The text of these repertoires in this category also expresses grief and console the bereaved. 
Comparatively with sacred dirges, the discrepancy is the text. While sacred dirges deal 
with religious themes and text, the secular dirges have no affiliation to religiosity but 
offers proverbial incentive for consolation. The zibo ensemble performs these repertoires 
during funeral ceremonies as a means of entertainment. Below is an example in text and 
score; 
Lyrics in Eʋe                                         English translation 
Vinye mele agbe nɔ ge nam o,                My child is not going to stay alive for me, 
„Yata melea „gbefua kpe,                        Am suffering all in vain, 
Zã do metsia „l- madɔ,                            I remained sleepless all night 
Vinye mele agbe nɔ ge nam o,                My child is not going to stay alive for me, 
Mexa „ya dɔ wɔ.                                     I labored in vain. 
Nye ya medzo loo! Awo!                         For me, am gone 
Medzo loo! Mexa „ya dɔ wɔ                   Am gone, I labored in vain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Figure 4.24: Zibo secular dirge 
MELODIC ANALYSIS 
Zibo ensemble is a male dominated musical group. The cantors are mainly men who sing 
in the middle range, doubled by the female voices an octave higher. This effect stretches 
the melodic range from the middle C to C on the treble staff. The cantor chooses keys that 
are convenient to the group even though they perform hymns which are originally written 
in keys. F major and G major keys are the most common keys used by the group during 
performances. The melodic intervals used in Zibo performance range between major 
seconds, thirds, perfect fourths and fifths and octaves. 
 
 
 
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Figure4.25 showing pitch ranges of zibo 
 
 
 
Figure 4.25:Zibo excerpt showing melodic intervals 
HARMONIC STRUCTURE 
Zibo music does not adhere to strict Western harmonic principles even though the group 
performs repertories from E. P. Church hymnal which is harmonically structured. 
Harmonic rendition comes as a spontaneous reaction, as individual singers may decide to 
add a second part either a third below or above the cantor‟s pitch making it parallel thirds 
or sixths at random.  
 
 
Figure 4.26: traditional harmonic style of zibo ensemble 
In the above extract, a section of the chorus chose to add parallel thirds (major and minor) 
to the melody, as a traditional method of harmonizing songs. 
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FORM ANALYSIS 
The form employed in Zibo performance is usually a call-and-response between a cantor 
and a chorus. The cantor and chorus alternate each other during performance, and often 
overlap. The cantor sometimes sings an entire iteration of the piece before the chorus joins 
in and sometimes he cues the chorus‟ entry with specific phrases. Due to the length of 
performances, a Zibo group may have two cantors alternating the leading role. The first 
cantor usually raises a phrase of the song, cantor two joins before the response from the 
chorus. Below is an excerpt. 
 
 
 
Figure 4.27: excerpt of Zibo song in call-and-response style. 
TEMPO 
Zibo rhythms are very fast in tempo and are used to accompany repertories composed in 
only simple duple and simple quadruple time signatures. Zibo cares little on tempo 
indications on compositions, to the ensemble all repertories that falls within the signature 
bracket must be performed in the zibo style, that is “tempo di allegro”.  Below is an 
excerpt of E. P. Hymn (EPH) 191 in its original tempo and in Zibo performance style. 
 
 
 
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Figure 4.28:excerpt of EPH 191 in original tempo “b4k44” 
The tempo indicated in the above excerpt “b4k44” mean slow (adagio). A hymn mostly 
used in meditations and prayers hence the slow tempo. Below is the same excerpt 
performed in the zibo style (tempo di allegro). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.29: Excerpt of EPH 191in Zibo style (tempo di allegro) 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
SUMMARY,CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
5.1 Summary 
This dissertation has discussed the processes and effects of Christian indoctrination of 
Zibo music by the Ho Kpodzi Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ghana. This closing 
discussion answers my research questions, puts Zibo music in broader contexts, and offers 
lines for future research. 
The central question addressed by this dissertation is: what developments necessitated the 
incorporation of Zibo ensemble into the Christian liturgy in the Evangelical Presbyterian 
Church at Ho? I hypothesized that: 1) the activities of the Zibo ensemble were considered 
inimical and incompatible to the Christian religiosity professed by the E. P. Church. 2) 
The animosities between the elders and the youth of Ho - Ahoe over the formation of zibo 
ensemble, and the perceptions held about the group for conflicting with traditionally held 
moral principles of the society made the Zibo musicians accept the offer to be 
appropriated into the church, as a way of countering negative assertions held about them. 
 A critical study of the Zibo ensemble, however, revealed that the appropriation of the 
ensemble into the church was mainly due to: 
1) The E. P. Church saw the need to convert the zibo ensemble and its patrons into 
the church because the church has endorsed the principle of normative worship as 
compared to the regulative principle of worship that was introduced by the early 
missionaries of the church. The early missionaries practiced the regulated principle of 
worship which indicates that, the corporate worship of God is to be founded upon specific 
directions of the Bible, Derek Thomas (2010). In other words, the worship of God should 
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include only the instructions or commanded elements that are in the Bible. Drum 
accompaniments were perceived as incompatible and even sinful by the early 
missionaries. The church however reverted to the normative principle of worship, that 
allows musical instruments which were not acknowledged in the Bible such as zibo 
musical instruments to become beacons of hymn accompaniment in the church. The 
normative principle teaches that, whatever is not prohibited in Scripture is permitted in 
worship, so long as it is agreeable to the peace and unity of the Church, Thomas (2010). 
This phenomenon led to the appropriation of most traditional musical styles into the 
church to serve various purposes. 
2) The Zibo duple and quadruple rhythmic characteristics fit into the churches‟ hymnody 
and thus serve a better accompaniment. With traditional musical types such as; b4b44b4, 
zigi, agbadza and atumpan rhythms already in use in the church as means of 
accompaniment for various rhythmic compositions, the zibo instruments were thought to 
be a plausible accompaniment to western hymns and thus to create a hybrid and 
harmonious style that pleases devotees. 
3) The mission of the church is to evangelize to everybody especially the spiritually less 
privileged of which the musicians of Zibo were classified. The zibo artists were seen as 
fallen souls and needed spiritual uplifting. Indoctrination of the zibo musicians can 
therefore be described as a major accomplishment by the church. 
4) Zibo musicians seized the opportunity to counter the negative image they had because of 
the “immoral” lyrics of their songs and their boldness in challenging the elders. The 
actions and activities of the group right from the formation stages are considered taboo in 
the Ghanaian society. These insubordination attitudes eroded the identity of the group 
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compelling them to struggle for acceptance in the society. The indoctrination hence 
presented an opportunity to redeem the lost glories.  
 
5.2 Historical Developments of Zibo Ensemble 
The second question explored in this dissertation has to do with the main historical 
developments of the Zibo ensemble. Zibo is a youthful recreational ensemble that 
originated from a Ga ensemble from Ghana called Kolomashie. Kolomashie dance was 
used by the people in Accra to castigate the over indulgent behavior of the colonial elites 
in the 1920s. Some Ho migrant workers returning from Accra decided to improvise 
similar dance at Ho. Criticizing injustice through music was their main objective in the 
community. Their criticisms however conflicted with societal structures as chiefs and 
elders were not spared. The group engaged in several struggles with the community 
leadership and got banned several times, and many times they resuscitated with their 
music. It was as a result of such struggles that led to the name of the group “kaa ƒe nye 
ma zi bo, obaa gbo” in Ga meaning “if you attempt it again, we will beat and kill you”. 
One major development experienced by the genre is its recontextualization into a new 
setting. The lyrics of zibo are profane and erotic, a situation that limits them to secular 
stage of performance. The indoctrination of the group however broke this limitation and 
made them more functional in the Ho community. Another major development in the 
annals of the group is the reconstruction of the already soiled identities of the musicians in 
the society. The earlier struggles with community elders coupled with exhibition of 
indecency by some of its members prejudice the group as a defiant ensemble, an identity 
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they battled with. The indoctrination therefore helped to reconstruct their identity as 
Christians with a superior morality in the eyes of the community. 
 
5.3 Processes Involved in Co-opting Zibo into the Church 
In order to respond to the question of the specific processes involved in co-opting Zibo 
ensemble into the church, this study employes the framework of diffusion of innovation 
by Rogers to trace the various steps involved in the indoctrinating process. This theory 
unveils how new ideas are embraced by different individuals in a group. The study 
revealed the following as main processes used to achieve the set target:1) One-on-one 
encounters with members of the group. This appears more like a guidance and counseling 
session for the members, where individual needs were addressed. And 2) group encounters 
where new convert classes and re-evangelism classes sprouted from. It is also revealed 
that the relatively conservative mode of adopting the new idea truncated similar process in 
the past with Rev. Amenu. The change agents (church) hence developed an approach of 
persistent pursuance which enabled them to succeed this time.  
 
5.4 Responses of Congregants, Musicians, and Ho Community to Zibo Indoctrination 
I also inquired into the responses of the congregants, musicians, and the community the 
changes derived from the introduction of Zibo music into the E. P. Church. These include: 
1) Bringing zibo musicians into Christiandom to the congregation, is the greatest 
fulfillment of a Divine mandate, (Mathew 28: 19) that instructed “Go ye therefore and 
make disciples of all nations”, but with a responsibility to nature the group until they 
attained maturity as Christians. 2) The zibo musicians perceive the indoctrination as 
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means of spiritual upliftment, emotional and physical empowerment. To them, the process 
is an enabling factor to partake in the Holy Communion of Christians which is the sharing 
in the spiritual food of the church. 3) The musicians have also become full members of the 
church, qualified to access all facilities such as welfare funds, guidance and counseling 
services etc. for their physical, emotional and spiritual growth. 4) The religious influence 
from the early missionaries in Ho greatly impacted the natives including the chiefs of Ho. 
The entire community of Ho believes in the capability of the church to transform the 
insubordination behaviors of the zibo musicians and the erotic lyrics of their songs into a 
morally resounding one. The entire Ho community was ecstatic in responds to the 
indoctrination of the zibo musicians. The presence of Togbe Kasa II, and Togbe Anikpi 
III, divisional chiefs of Ho - Ahoe and Ho - Heve respectively during the inauguration of 
the ensemble in the church is a clear manifestation of peace and endorsement; and 5) the 
control of indecent zibo lyrics allowed the ensemble to participate in celebrations such as 
the traditional Asogli State yam festival that involve local chiefs who were initially hostile 
to zibo. 
 
5.5 Effects of Christian Indoctrination on Zibo Ensemble 
Through this research I found that the indoctrination of the Zibo ensemble had various 
effects on the music. These include: 1) The repertory renditions of the group were 
modified in order to adapt to the new setting. This meant a gradual change from secular to 
sacred song performances, but without completely abandoning secular programs. The 
Zibo ensemble with the indoctrination has added volumes of song repertoires to their 
album, because the churches hymnal is available for them. 2) The group lost some of their 
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autonomy. They have been limited somehow in both conduct and performance. They are 
now careful in selections of repertories. 3) The ensemble has become a gospel propagating 
agent of the church. The power of Zibo music to transform and its potential therapeutic 
power to heal has been successfully exploited by the church. 4) Another effect of this 
indoctrination is the recontextualization of the Zibo by means of Syncretic compatibility 
approach. The main objective of Zibo is to police misdemeanor by castigating the erring 
members of the society. The church also frowns at social transgression and preaches 
against it, an act that is analogous to what the zibo group does, but with different 
approaches. While the Zibo group attack wrongdoing with vulgar texts and ending up 
incriminating themselves, the church approaches the same behaviors with gentleness, 
through guidance and counseling, moral talks, preaching to get the offender to understand 
the consequences of their acts and to work towards transformation. The indoctrination has 
therefore presented a better option to the zibo musicians on the best methods of policing 
perverse conducts. 5) The zibo musicians have become developmental oriented emerging 
as the workforce of the church and the community. The group actively participates in 
communal activities in the church and the Ahoe and Heve communities. They frequently 
organize clean up exercises in and around the church and the communities surrounding 
them. The church has become a bigger family for the zibo musicians.  6) The group relies 
mostly on the new family for supports. Most of the group members being artisans get 
employments from the immediate family. The church thus seeks the welfare of the group 
and its members. 
The group also benefits from youth training workshops organized by the church. The 
church as part of its growth and youth empowerment agenda, frequently organizes youth 
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training workshops to equip the youth in the church with leadership and survival skills to 
independently run their economies. Derek Thomas (2010) 
 
5.6 Conclusion 
Several factors have conspired to encroach on traditional music in Africa. One of such 
agents is via indoctrination which comes through, the quest to transform, and the 
enthusiasm to propagate the gospel. This phenomenon is what inspired the Evangelical 
Presbyterian Church, Ho-Kpodzi to modify Zibo music in order to conform to Christian 
standards and still maintain its identity as a traditional group.This is because the ensemble 
has dual contextual stages to function, both in, and outside the church with different song 
repertories. A group that has been scolded for its operational values has been embraced 
through religious indoctrination. 
In sum, the following remarks encapsulate the finishing of this thesis: 1) The arrival of the 
missionaries in Ho has greatly impacted the religious activities of the natives of Ho. 2) 
The loss of the E. P. Church congregation during the 1988 – 91 split occurred as its 
breakaway spiritual wing allows the use of dance and other local musical resources, and 
thus capturing many youths away from the more orthodox E. P. Church that was using 
hymns. The E. P. Churches response was therefore to Africanize their music through zibo 
and other traditional rhythms. 3)Zibo was not associated to paganism and so, like other 
recreational form of traditional music (e.g. b4b44b4), can easily move into the church. 4) 
Zibo and other recreational forms of local music are informal and associated with the 
youth and so can change more easily than the more conservative and formal musical forms 
associated to ritual and court institutions.5)Like Kolomashie, Zibo uses lightweight 
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portable instruments such as bells, shakers, and hand-held drums, so was and is 
particularly convenient for both church processions and the moving of drums around 
between a secular to a sacred venue. 6) The zibo musicians benefited tremendously from 
the indoctrination process.7) The zibo ensemble has responded to positive innovation that 
suits a contemporary audience. 8) To the zibo musicians, the modification reconstructed 
their identity in the society. 9) The zibo musicians are of great liturgical value, and agents 
of development to the church.10) The group lost some of their autonomy. 11) Whereas 
th
among the northern Ewes there was a lot of Akanisation from the 19  century, the case of 
zibo presents a Ga – Eʋe musical syncretism and 12) Zibo ensemble adds up to other 
traditional ensembles to contribute to the richness of the local culture of Ho.  
This dissertation discusses Christianization of traditional musical genres like zibo, with 
focus on the processes of achieving a desired result and its possible effects on the 
ensemble. These processes have been discussed by other authors like Agyeman (1993) 
who studied the adaptation of Nnwonkoro by the Catholic Church to replace the Gregorian 
chant. Agyeman strongly argued for the incorporation and adoption of Nnwonkoro in the 
Catholic Church as it could be used effectively to convey the message to the indigenes as 
compared with the Gregorian chant. Like the Catholic Church, the E. P. Church also 
performs chants during communion rites of which zibo ensemble does not feature as in 
performance. Incorporation of zibo into the E. P. Church therefore is not for the 
replacement of any liturgical order as advocated for by Agyeman for the entire chant to be 
replaced with Nnwonkoro, but to offer accompaniment to the existing hymns and also 
perform as one of the liturgical groups in the church.  
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Another author who studied similar processes to this thesis was Agordoh (1994), who 
examined the traditional musical elements in the E.P. Church of Ghana. In his work, he 
carefully present some of the traditional musical elements which have been adopted by the 
E.P. Church in their service and notes that, it helps in carrying the message to the 
congregation as they are able to relate to the music in the church. The presence of zibo in 
the church is similar to the adoption of other traditional musical elements by the E. P. 
Church to their liturgy as indicated by Agordoh.  
Ampomah (2003) stated that explicit bans existed for the use of traditional musical genres 
in Christian worship by the Roman Catholic and the Methodist churches before the early 
sixties. Zibo‟s indoctrination can thus be seen as an expression of liberation from these 
institutional restrictions. 
 
5.7 Recommendations 
Having made critical observation of the Zibo music, processes and effects of its 
indoctrination, the following recommendations have been proposed for careful 
consideration; 
1. African traditional musical genres are not demonic as perceived by many 
especially in the diaspora. African rhythms can blend favorably with several repertories, 
hence must be projected as accompaniments to compositions both local and foreign.  
2. Contemporary choirs should endeavor to fuse traditional elements with the 
conventional components. 
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3. Traditional music should not be left in the hands of the illiterates; the elite in the 
society should join the performance of our traditional music to remove the inferiority 
complex associated with it.  
4. Interest in music in general should be promoted in pupils in the basic schools with 
music made an examinable subject. 
5. The future of every tradition largely depends on how best its youth acclaims it, and 
since the youthful age is a period of vulnerability and susceptibility to social vices, the 
society should be more interested in mentoring them in order to make them fit into the 
standards of the society. Religious and corporate bodies should adopt youthful groups 
such as Zibo and shape them. 
 
Further Studies  
Zibo continues to be appropriated into other contexts beyond the church. Future research 
could show how this tradition continues to grow. One of such contexts is accompaniment 
for jazz or highlife dancing groups. An interesting question would be: how can we achieve 
a balance between jazz, highlife and zibo rhythms? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Adanua, A. 1990. Adevu: A Study of Ve Hunters‟ Music. Diploma Thesis, University of 
Ghana, Legon. 
Adzei M. 2008. Aesthetic Norms in the music of the Awudome people of the Volta 
Region.M. Phil. Dissertation, University of Ghana, Legon. 
Agawu, V. K. 1995. African Rhythm: a Northern Ewe Perspective. Cambridge University 
Press.  
_______________ Study of West African Rhythm. Ethnomusicology 30, no.1 (1986).  
_______________ The Rhythmic Structure of West African Music. Journal of 
Musicology 5, no.3 (1987).                      
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