UNIVERSITY OF GHANA IMPLEMENTATION OF ELECTRONIC-GOVERNMENT IN GHANA: A CASE STUDY OF DRIVER AND VEHICLE LICENSING AUTHORITY (DVLA) BY GEORGE BABINGTON AMEGAVI (10254798) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEGREE JUNE, 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I hereby declare that this work is the result of my own research and has not been presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other University. All references used in the work have been fully acknowledged. I bear sole responsibility for any shortcomings. …………………………………….. ………………………….. GEORGE BABINGTON AMEGAVI DATE (10254798) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii CERTIFICATION I hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with the procedures laid down by the University. …………………………..…………… ………………………….. DR. THOMAS BUABENG DATE (SUPERVISOR) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my mum, Mrs. Theresa Nakor Amegavi of blessed memory. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT All that starts well in the Lord ends well in the Lord. First and foremost, I would like to thank God almighty for how far He has brought me. To continue with, I would also want to thank my supervisor, Dr. Thomas Buabeng for his guidance, support and constructive criticism of my work. This dissertation would not have been possible without him. I also extend my gratitude to Dr. Kwame Asamoah, Dr. Gordon Abekah-Nkrumah, Nana Nimo Agyekum and Dr. Justice Bawole for their intellectually stimulating dialogues on the study. My sincere appreciation also goes to the Department of Public Administration and Health Services Management and faculty members for their diverse contributions to my work, not forgetting the coordinators of the MPhil seminar series which occurred in the last two semesters. I would also like to thank the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority for their cooperation and support during the data gathering process. Again, I am appreciative of the role played by my family and friends who kept faith in me through the difficult times, especially Miss Joscelyne Ahiable. Lastly, I would like to thank all the 2015 MPhil students in the Department of Public Administration and Health Services Management. The peer review and questions raised during the seminar presentations really helped in refining the study. God bless you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENTS Content Page DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... i CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... v LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... x ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1 1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background to the Study ............................................................................................ 1 1.2 Research Problem....................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Research Objectives ................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Research Questions .................................................................................................... 8 1.5 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................... 8 1.6 Scope and Limitations of the study ............................................................................ 9 1.7 Chapter Organization ................................................................................................. 9 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................... 11 2.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 11 2.1 Information Communication Technology (ICT) Environment of Ghana ................ 11 2.1.1 Electronic-Government Environment of Ghana ............................................... 14 2.2 Empirical Review ..................................................................................................... 16 2.2.1 E-government: An overview ............................................................................. 16 2.3 Opportunities and Challenges for E-government Implementation .......................... 18 2.4 Theoretical Review of Perspectives on Public Policy Implementation ................... 24 2.4.1 The Policy Implementation Model by Gordon Chase (1979) ........................... 24 2.4.2 The Policy Implementation Model by Paul Sabatier and Daniel Mazmania (1980) 26 2.5 Conceptual Framework for the Study ...................................................................... 29 2.6 Resources ................................................................................................................. 29 2.6.1 Human resources............................................................................................... 29 2.6.2 Financial Resources .......................................................................................... 31 2.6.3 Logistics and Equipment .................................................................................. 31 2.7 Operational Challenges ............................................................................................ 33 2.7.1 The client .......................................................................................................... 33 2.7.2 Nature of Services ............................................................................................. 35 2.8 Inter and Intra Agency Collaborations ..................................................................... 36 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 41 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 41 3.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 41 3.1 Research paradigm ................................................................................................... 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 3.2 Research Design ....................................................................................................... 42 3.3 Unit of Analysis ....................................................................................................... 43 3.3.1 The Study Organization .................................................................................... 43 3.3.2 Sources of Data ................................................................................................. 45 3.3.3 Target Population .............................................................................................. 46 3.3.4 Sample Size....................................................................................................... 46 3.3.5 Sampling Technique ......................................................................................... 47 3.4 Instrumentation and Data Collection Procedure ...................................................... 48 3.5 Data Management and Analysis............................................................................... 49 3.6 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................. 50 3.7 Research Validity and Reliability ............................................................................ 50 3.8 Field Experience....................................................................................................... 52 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 54 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ........................................... 54 4.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 54 4.1 Resources ................................................................................................................. 54 4.1.1 Human Resource ............................................................................................... 54 4.1.2 Financial Resources .......................................................................................... 59 4.1.3 Logistics and Technical Equipment .................................................................. 61 4.2 Operational Challenges ............................................................................................ 64 4.2.1 The Client ......................................................................................................... 65 4.2.2 Nature of Services ............................................................................................. 67 4.3 Inter and Intra Agency Collaborations ..................................................................... 72 4.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. 80 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 80 5.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 80 5.1 Summary .................................................................................................................. 80 5.1.1 Main Findings ................................................................................................... 81 5.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 85 5.3 Recommendations .................................................................................................... 86 5.4 Implications of the Study ......................................................................................... 88 5.4.1 Implications of the Study for Existing Literature ............................................. 88 5.4.2 Theoretical Implications of the Study ............................................................... 91 5.5 Areas for Further Research ...................................................................................... 93 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 94 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................... 99 Appendix 1: Interview Protocol ...................................................................................... 99 Appendix 2: Consent Form ........................................................................................... 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure, 2.1. The model by Sabatier and Mazmanian, (1980)..............................................28 Figure 2. 2. Conceptual framework for the study ............................................................... 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AD Administration Department BEC Basic Education Certificate CBT Computer Based Technology DVLA Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority DPAHSM Department of Public Administration and Health Services Management ECG Electricity Company of Ghana EGDI Electronic-Government Development Index FD Finance Department G2B Government to Business G2C Government to Citizen G2E Government to Employees G2G Government to Government GCNet Ghana Community Network HRD Human Resource Department IT Information Technology IEC Independent Electoral Commission ICT Information Communication Technology ICT4AD Information Communication Technology for Accelerated Development ITU International Telecommunication Union KII Key Informant Interviews MIS Management Information Systems NTP National Telecommunication Policy PVTS Private Vehicle Testing Stations PD Procurement Department PSDS Private Sector Development Strategy UN United Nations VELD Vehicle Examination and Licensing Division University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to examine e-government implementation at the DVLA and to generate a comprehension from the perspective of the implementers. A case study method within the qualitative approach of social research was employed. In all twelve (12) participants were purposively selected and interviewed using the one-on-one in-depth interview method. An interpretive analyses as well as secondary data from the literature review were used to analyze the results of the study. It was found that resources were a challenge for the DVLA. In other words, financial resources, human resources and logistics and equipment were all inadequate for the effective implementation of the project. It was also evident that, erratic power supply, low levels of ICT literacy amongst clients, lack of trust for e-government programmes, and poor internet connectivity were challenges militating against the successful implementation of the project. The study concludes that inadequate resources and the ineffective use of mechanisms and channels to facilitate information sharing and inter-departmental collaborations impede workflow and the effective implementation of public policies. It is therefore recommended that to achieve effective e-government implementation, there should be reliable and constant power supply, the channels of communication and collaboration must be utilized effectively and all the needed resources must be available. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction The study aimed at ascertaining the challenges to e-government implementation in Ghana. This chapter has been organized under eight sub-sections. The introduction to the chapter, background to the study and the significance of the research constitute the first three sub- sections. The subsequent sections constituted the research problem, research objectives and the research questions which provided a general guide to the study. Sections seven and eight discussed the scope and limitations of the study as well as the organization of the study. 1.1 Background to the Study The way people live, how they work, how companies do their business and how governments serve their people is currently being defined by the explosive entry of technology into every aspect of life (Silcock, 2001). Governments all over the world are aiming to provide services and information to their citizens in a timely and efficient manner through digitized means. This has led governments worldwide to adopt technology and adapt to technological trends in their business operations. However, traditionally, the rate at which private sector organizations have embraced and adopted innovative technologies and change has been quite tremendous as compared to public sector organizations (Johnson, 2012). The adoption of ICT has caught up with most developed countries and they are using their technological abilities to create e-government structures to the benefit of their citizens which is aiding their development (Evans and Yen, 2006). This technology adoption has caught up with most developing nations in their quest to also improve service delivery to their citizens. African countries are adopting and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 implementing e-government with support from donor organizations such as the World Bank with the aim of promoting development and reducing poverty (Schuppan, 2009). Bwalya and Healy (2010) in their study of the factors affecting e-government adoption in Zambia, asserted that, for a country to implement e-government and be successful, there must be well-engineered strategies and implementation plans as well as taking into account the multi-dimensionality of e-government and the socio-cultural context of the country. Thus, for public organizations to introduce technology and innovations and be successful there must be a comprehensive understanding of the IT capacity of the organization, prevailing organizational operations, managerial competencies and the readiness of the organization to either adopt the innovation or not to adopt it (Kamal, 2006). Ghana is experiencing rapid population growth and there is the need to improve governance and service delivery to citizens. To facilitate governance in Ghana, the process of adopting and applying e-government has been initiated under the ICT for Accelerated Development Policy (Frempong, 2010). This led to the introduction of various IT systems, for instance the Ghana Community Network (GCNet) which has the aim of eliminating bureaucratic inefficiencies and curbing corruption in the public services of Ghana, some public sector employees opposed the GCNet system because it was clear that it would increase process transparency and formalization, thus reducing possibilities for them to generate “additional income”(Schuppan, 2009). In addition, information technology has helped organizations improve the efficiency and effectiveness of their staff – employees can communicate easily, share information, access information and execute their assigned responsibilities more expediently which leads to cost reduction (Iddris, 2012). The benefits of e-government can only be realized if the appropriate measures are put in place. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Information Communication Technology has revolutionized the relationship and interactions between citizens and governments and this modification has brought a new form of government called e-government (Rehman et al., 2011). “Electronic government (e-government) can be broadly defined as the use of online channels for enhancing access to and delivery of any facet of government services and operations to the benefit of citizens, businesses, and other stakeholders” (Srivastava and Teo, 2010: 268). Thus in its broader context, e-government entails all the factors of governance, that is, better delivery of government services to citizens, citizen empowerment through access to information, improved interaction with business and industry and more effective and efficient management practices (Gupta et al., 2008). Against this background, this research examined the implementation challenges of e- government at the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA) through an empirical and theoretical research and drew conclusions on the issues that came up thereafter. 1.2 Research Problem The role of computers and the internet to developed and developing nations cannot be overemphasized. Computers and the internet have revolutionized how business transactions are carried out worldwide in today’s business environment. This revolution has caught up with most governments across the world and has led to the birth of e- government. The role of technology to both developed and developing countries in improving service delivery has been tremendous even though the latter has been slow in adopting e-government due to certain challenges. Previous research has shown that e-government has the potential to improve the performance of public sector organizations (Lau et al., 2008; Mossberger et al., 2008). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Apart from creating value for public corporations and government agencies, the adoption and use of e-government can also impact the performance of national government by improving the efficiency and effectiveness of service delivery (Xu, 2012; Reddick and Norris, 2012). Utilization of e-government to its maximum will help bridge the gap between the ordinary citizen and the government. E-government has been defined differently by numerous researchers but with the same meaning and focus to substantiate that there is not one set acceptable definition for e- government. “E-government refers to the use of technology to enhance the access to and delivery of government services to citizens, business partners and employees” (Silcock, 2001: 88). From another definition, “e-government is the use of online channels for enhancing the access and delivery of any facet of government services and operations to the benefit of citizens, businesses, and other stakeholders” (Srivastava and Teo, 2010: 268). From these definitions, the focus has been on how to make goods and services more accessible to citizens of a country and also to improve the delivery of such goods and services by government through the adoption and use of technology. More importantly, e- government from the following definitions aims to strengthen and drive governments toward a more effective and transparent management of a country’s resources for development (Basu, 2004). Various researchers have also argued that for e-government to succeed certain conditions must be adhered to. These conditions include training and support, demonstration of its benefits before adoption, management commitment and technology-context factors which include user friendliness, integration, efficiency, accessibility and support from vendors (Gupta et al., 2008; Hill et al., 2011; Eze et al., 2013). However, the quest of various University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 governments to meet these conditions has been very challenging. Some of these challenges include inadequacy in communication infrastructure, high cost associated with building a network structure and organizational culture (Evans and Yen, 2006; Qiang et al., 2003; Ebrahim and Irani, 2005). African countries have been plagued with lots of corruption issues and this is greatly affecting their development agenda. Schuppan (2009) in studying e-government in developing countries articulated that, e-government can help governments control the spending power of various agencies, consequently aiding in strengthening state institutions and helping check corruption. Until the issue of corruption is addressed, sustainable development will continue to be elusive for most African countries. Therefore, there is the need for African states to develop and initiate plans that will aid them to realize the full benefits of e-government. This can be achieved through a total collaboration in decision and policy making of all stakeholders (Bwalya, 2009). Most African countries lack or in some instances do not have enough resources to adopt and implement e-government. However, e-government development as a process requires lots of time, money and efforts and until these necessary conditions are put in place before its adoption, the chances of it succeeding are very minimal (Lau et al., 2008). This lack or inadequacy of resources is accounting for the slow adoption of e-government in most African states. In general, the discussion about the effectiveness of and prerequisites for e-government in developing countries is still in its early stages (Schuppan, 2009). More needs to be done in the adoption and implementation process by African countries before they can realize the full benefits of e-government. Various studies in e-government have examined a number of themes including e-government adoption barriers, factors influencing e-government University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 adoption, conditions for successful e-government adoption, as well as e-government definitions and conceptual models (Johnson, 2012; Eze et al., 2013; Asogwa, 2013; Torgby and Asabere, 2014; Almarabeh and AbuAli, 2010; Reddick and Norris, 2012; Bwalya and Healy, 2010; Rehman et al., 2011). The few studies done in this area seem to focus more on the developed rather than developing country context (Evans and Yen, 2006; Fedorowicz et al., 2010; Mossberger et al., 2008; Reddick and Norris, 2012). The importance of technology has been clearly stated in previous literature. However, what needs to be discussed is no longer the impact of technology but how to develop a proper model to mine the potential power of developing nations (Awodele et al., 2013). Also, further research is also required to examine how public sector organizations are deploying innovative technologies and the influence, if any, of such contextual factors on technology adoption and implementation within this environment of economic, political, demographic and societal change (Johnson, 2012). In the view of Van Meter and Van Horn (1975), in dealing with disparate policy areas and jurisdictional settings, it would be difficult to further our understanding of the policy implementation process without the necessary framework. Thus, there is a need for the development of technological implementation frameworks for developing nations by the people of the developing nations to meet their specific and unique needs. The research explored the supply-side of e-government adoption by looking at the implementation challenges of e-government in Ghana. The study examined the strategies that have been drawn in the face of the challenges to harness e-government with tailor- made initiatives bearing strong consideration of the local Ghanaian context. This is important because Ghana is not very advanced in ICT looking at the different facets of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 country’s socio-economic structures. According to the United Nations (2014), comparing Ghana’s e-government development index of 0.3735 to the world average of 0.4712 indicates that Ghana falls in the bottom 10 per cent of the world ranking. It is the case that a one-fit-all-size e-government implementation strategy may not be realistic or desirable for every country due to the difference in contextual issues. Though, there have been studies on public policy implementations, much attention has not been placed on the challenges faced by implementing agencies in implementing ICT projects. Therefore, there is the need to explore the challenges with reference to the Ghanaian context in implementing e-government. Hence, there is room for arguably a contribution to literature in both theory and practice. This study responds to this call for research. The study identified the challenges that have been met in e-government implementation programs elsewhere in the literature. The underpinning research question is: what are the implementation challenges of e-government at the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority in Ghana? The conceptual implementation framework advocated, attempted to resolve some of the challenges and issues that are evident with the nature of e-government and its implementation in Ghana. 1.3 Research Objectives The study sought to examine the implementation challenges of e-government at Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority in Ghana. Specifically, the study aimed at achieving three objectives as stated below: 1. To examine the effects of resources on the implementation of e-government at DVLA. 2. To investigate the operational challenges in implementing e-government at DVLA. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 3. To examine the Inter and Intra Agency Collaborations in the implementation of e- government at DVLA. 1.4 Research Questions To achieve the stated objectives, the research activities were organized around the question; “what are the implementation challenges of e-government at the DVLA?” Specifically, the study sought to answer three questions: 1. What are the effects of resources on the implementation of e-government at DVLA? 2. What are the operational challenges in implementing e-government at DVLA? 3. What is the level of Inter and Intra Agency Collaboration in the implementation of e- government at DVLA? 1.5 Significance of the Study The findings from the study have both theoretical and practical significance. There have been many studies on e-government in Africa (Awodele et al., 2013; Eze et al., 2013; Torgby and Asabere, 2014), however, further research is also required to examine how public sector organizations are deploying innovative technologies and the influence, if any, of such contextual factors on technology adoption and implementation within this environment of economic, political, demographic and societal change (Johnson, 2012). This study seeks to fill the gap in the existing literature. By conducting this research, the findings of the study shall extend the understanding of public policy implementation in Ghana as well as highlight some of the factors facilitating or inhibiting public policy implementation at the institutional level in general with emphasis on the country’s quest to improve technology. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 Even though as a case study research, the findings may not be generalized across the country, it can however provide some comprehension into the implementation challenges of e-government particularly in institutions which share similar characteristics as those of the understudied institution. More importantly, the findings shall serve as a reference material for academic and other purposes as well as draw attention of stakeholders of technology development in the country and researchers to areas that require attention and further research. 1.6 Scope and Limitations of the study The study was carried out at Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority in the Greater Accra region of Ghana, (hence all data collected and analyzed will pertain to no other organization but DVLA). The rationale for using DVLA emanated from the fact that, the adoption and use of technology in the provision of quick and reliable services in public organizations have been slow and ineffective; the researcher decided to use DVLA since it is one of the public institutions of Ghana. This will limit the ability of the study‘s findings to be generalized across other organizations. That notwithstanding, the objectives were achieved and other public organizations with similar organizational structure and dynamics can also benefit from the findings of this research. 1.7 Chapter Organization The research was organized into five chapters. Chapter one was the introduction comprising the background information, statement of the problem, the aims and objectives, research questions, the significance of the research and scope and limitations of the study. Chapter two entailed the literature review in which the relevant theories and empirical literature on the phenomenon under study were reviewed and discussed. Chapter University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 three comprised the research methodology, which dealt with the procedures and data collection instruments that were used in the research. The final part consisted of chapters four and five. Chapter four focused on data presentation, analyses and discussion of the data collected from the field whereas chapter five also consisted of the summary of the findings, conclusions as well as recommendations that were drawn from the analysis of the research data and the study as a whole. The chapter, apart from summarizing and highlighting the major issues identified, also establishes their likely implications. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter presents a generic overview of e-government and Ghana’s e-government environment. It further reviews literature on some of the challenges to e-government implementation and reviews some literature on public policy implementation research. From the review, a conceptual framework was developed to analyze the implementation challenges of e-government. 2.1 Information Communication Technology (ICT) Environment of Ghana Ghana is located in West Africa and boarded at the west by Ivory Coast, at the east by Togo, Burkina Faso at the North and the Atlantic Ocean at the south. Ghana gained independence from British colonial rule in March, 1957 and was the first African country south of the Sahara to gain independence. Due to the role ICT plays in the development of every country`s economy, the government of Ghana is taking various initiatives to develop ICT in the country. The country`s medium-term development plan captured in the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (GPRS I & II) aims to improve ICT development in the country. Ghana`s ICT development is anchored within the country`s Information and Communication Technology for Accelerated Development policy framework. Within the broader ICT4AD policy framework, the government of Ghana has also adopted a National Telecommunication Policy, Trade policy and Private Sector Development Strategy (PSDS), all with the sole aim of supporting the ICT development agenda. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 Government of Ghana has established a project called the eGhana project with the aim of implementing the ICT accelerated policy. The eGhana project aims to address a wide range of issues from infrastructure, institutions, human resource, legal and regulatory frameworks to funding and public-private-partnerships (PPP). Ghana`s ICT4AD policy was passed into law by parliament in 2004. To support this agenda various laws have been passed and they include:  National Communication Authority Act, 2008, Act 769  Electronic Transactions Act, 2008, Act 772  National Information Technology Agency Act, 2008, Act 771  Electronic Communications Act, 2008, Act 775 In the development of the ICT4AD policy, various socio-economic development framework documents were taken into account and these includes: the vision 2020 Socio- Economic Development framework; the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy and Co- ordinated Programme for Economic and Social Development of Ghana. Under the Ministry of Communication The Ghana Information, Communication and Technology Directorate has been established as the national implementation and coordination body of ICT projects which are linked to the ICT4AD policy. The ICT4AD policy has fourteen priority areas and its overall objective is to facilitate an ICT led socio-economic development process with the potential to transform Ghana into a middle income, information rich , knowledge base and technology driven economy and society. To achieve the broad objective the following specific objectives were set.  To create the necessary enabling environment to facilitate the deployment, utilization and exploitation of ICTs within the economy and society. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13  To support the development of viable knowledge-based ICT industry to facilitate the production, manufacturing, development, delivering and distribution of ICT products and services.  To support the development of a competitive high value added service sector to serve as an engine for accelerated development and economic growth with the potential to develop into a regional business-service and ICT hub.  To facilitate the development, expansion and rehabilitation and the continuous modernization of the national information and communication infrastructure.  To guide the development and implementation of electronic government and governance, as well as electronic commerce and business strategies and action plans. The ICT4AD policy implementation aims to help the country address some of the development challenges it is facing. Some of these challenges include:  Limited human resource capacity characterized by the low professional, technical and managerial manpower base.  Weak scientific research base and under-developed research and development capacity.  Under-developed physical infrastructure  Poor and limited communication and telecommunication infrastructure Apart from these initiatives, the Government of China through China EXIM Bank is helping the Government of Ghana through a concessionary loan facility to aid the extension of the current fibre-optic network to the entire country. The eastern corridor fibre-optic backbone infrastructure has been commissioned. The project covers 800 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 kilometers and will connect 120 communities from Ho to Bawku. The project aims at bridging the digital divide between the urban and rural communities in the country. The fibre optic connections will help support the country`s e-government project by connecting all Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies to the internet. Other ICT developments include the establishment of the Kofi Annan ICT Center and the expansion of broadband services beyond Accra and Tema to other regions and metropolis in Ghana. In sub-Saharan Africa, Ghana became the first country in 1995 to have “full internet connectivity” (Saffu et al. 2008). The telecom industry continues to grow in Ghana. According to the National Communication Authority (NCA) Ghana`s mobile voice subscriber base as at March, 2015 stood at 31,154,420. There are currently six (6) cellular network operators in Ghana. They are: Vodafone Ghana Limited, Millicom Ghana Limited (Tigo), Airtel Communications, Scancom Ghana Limited (MTN), Globacom Ghana Limited (Glo) and Expresso. As at the first quarter of 2014 the NCA has authorized 376 FM radio stations in Ghana out of which 291 are operational. The 376 authorized stations include 36 public radio stations, 63 community radio stations, 16 campus radio stations and 261 commercial radio stations. Also, the total number of television operators authorized by the NCA are 29, 21 are free-on-air stations, 7 are pay-per-view and 1 is for research purposes. According to the NCA as at August 2013 the overall internet penetration rate in Ghana increased from 40% to 40.7%. 2.1.1 Electronic-Government Environment of Ghana The development and progress of technological trends in Africa remains relatively slow and uneven across the continent (United Nations, 2014). Ghana like many other African University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 countries has been implementing various policies and projects with the aim of promoting e-government. With the commitments of past governments to improve and develop ICT and telecommunication infrastructure in Ghana, there has been considerable improvements in the sector over the past few years. The United Nations (2014) groups countries into four categories: Very High e-government development (index > 0.75), High e-government development (index of 0.5–0.75), Middle e-government development (index of 0.25–0.5) and Low e-government development (index< 0.25). Ghana is categorized as having middle e-government development with an index of 0.3735 below Tunisia, Mauritius, Egypt, Seychelles, Morocco, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Kenya and Libya who are the best ranked in Africa from first to tenth respectively (United Nations, 2014). The 2014 UN e-government ranking shows Ghana occupying 123rd position out of 193 countries surveyed. Table 2.1: E-Government Development Index (2014) Rank Country EGDI Online Service Component Telecomm. Infrastructure Component Human Capital Component 123 Ghana 0.3735 0.3150 0.2444 0.5613 1 Rep. of Korea 0.9462 0.9764 0.9350 0.9273 75 Tunisia 0.5390 0.6378 0.3074 0.6717 141 Nigeria 0.2929 0.3071 0.1905 0.3811 171 Côte d’Ivoire 0.2039 0.1732 0.1392 0.2992 Africa 0.2661 0.2011 0.1478 0.4492 World 0.4712 0.3919 0.3650 0.6566 [United Nations, 2014] University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 The table alludes to the fact that, Ghana is doing well on the African continent comparing the country`s EGDI with the EGDI average for Africa. However, a lot needs to be done when compared to the EDGI world average. The Online Service component, Telecommunication Infrastructure component and Human Capacity component of Ghana are comparatively high with reference to the African average. However, Ghana still has some way to go with the world average. The country has improved over the years, however, a lot needs to be done if the country is going to catch up with most of the developed countries and get the optimum benefit of e-government. 2.2 Empirical Review 2.2.1 E-government: An overview Various scholars have defined e-government differently, although with the same meaning and focus. E-government refers to “the use of technology to enhance the access to and delivery of government services to citizens, business partners and employees” (Silcock, 2001: 88). According to United Nations (2014) e-government refers to the expansion of communication channels for engagement and empowerment of people through the use of information technologies in public administration to streamline and integrate workflows, to effectively manage data and information and enhance service delivery. E-government also refers to “the use of online channels for enhancing the access and delivery of any facet of government services and operations to the benefit of citizens, businesses, and other stakeholders” (Srivastava and Teo, 2010: 268)). For the purposes of this research, Srivastava and Teo`s (2010) definition was employed. That is because this study examined the online channels the DVLA was using to enhance access and delivery of services to its clients. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 Various delivery models have been identified through which e-government services are delivered. According to Fang (2002) the delivery models include:  Government to Business (G2B) Government-to-Business e-government employs strategies which will facilitate government interactions with the private sector to reduce cost and gather better information to enhance and speed up transactions between the private sector and government. It helps government and the private sector to gather reliable data to make decisions in dealing with each other.  Government-to-Government (G2G) Government-to-Government e-government focuses on the interactions within the government. It aims at improving the relationship and interactions between and amongst government units, agencies, ministries, etc. It includes activities to coordinate and integrate the functions of government units from the national to the local level.  Government-to-Employee (G2E) Government-to-Employee e-government focuses on the relationships between government and employees to coordinate internal operations and improve the internal efficiency of business processes. The focus of (G2E) is on how to integrate the individual functions of employees into a process to streamline the whole business of government. This will help expedite the service delivery of government. However, the focus will be on how to improve the interactions between government and its employees to help improve service delivery. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18  Government to Citizen (G2C) This delivery model focuses on the ability of the government and citizen to communicate and share information with each other. The aim is to make information accessible to citizens online. The citizens benefit from these government communications. One of the most popular benefits of G2C is the simple posting of information on government web pages and making available forms and registrations on government web pages. This research aims to look at Government to citizen delivery of e-government services. Therefore, the research adopted the G2C delivery model. 2.3 Opportunities and Challenges for E-government Implementation E-government implementation has been bedeviled with many challenges even with its enormous benefits. According to the United Nations (2014) e-government has shown a lot of maturity in the Republic of Korea which currently is considered the most developed country in as far as e-government is concerned. Using a uniform benchmark and other constructs, the United Nations (2014), surveyed the e-government of member states. The report showed that: • Technologically advanced countries were leading in e-government development; • Africa was at the bottom of the global ranking and was therefore classified as the least developed continent in terms of e-government. Public sector institutions have come under lots of criticisms about the manner and ways they deliver services to their clients. Can information technology really improve the public sector since it has really transformed the private sector? (Xu, 2012). Various scholars have enumerated several benefits of e-government. According to Silcock (2001) e-government has the potential to revolutionize not just service delivery from public sector organizations University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 but the government itself. E-government has the ability to improve government service delivery and also improve information sharing amongst government ministries and departments (Asogwa, 2013). For instance, according to Schuppan (2009), until the introduction of the Ghana Community Network (GCNet) e-government initiative, bureaucratic procedures delayed imports and exports in Ghana for about up to four weeks because bureaucratic inefficiencies in exporting a shipment required making thirteen (13) copies of shipping documents which the exporter distributes personally to authorities usually in different offices for authorization. This system was very ineffective and impeded service delivery to clients. However, the GCNet initiative apart from expediting service delivery has also reduced the cost of transactions. The introduction and use of e-government in the operations of government and its institutions have tremendously helped in the reduction and management of corruption. Schuppan (2009) in studying e-government in developing countries argued that, e- government initiatives have the ability to reduce corruption since direct contact of citizens with numerous officials is reduced because of the creation of a one-stop platform created as part of e-government initiatives. For instance, in the computerization of 20 million records of land ownership pertaining to 6.7 million farmers in India, the e-government initiative made it easier for the people to obtain Record of Right, Tenancy and Crop documents which enabled them to sell and inherit land and take advantage of agricultural credit. After its implementation it was revealed that savings in bribe previously paid to accountants was estimated at over $18.3m US dollars, while government investment in the project was $4.2m US dollars (Lobo and Balakrishnan, 2002: as cited in Asogwa, 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 E-government projects have been used all over the world to improve citizens` access to information and their participation in decision making. According to Mutula, and Mostert (2010) the governments of Australia, USA and Canada have all made progress through e- governments projects by enhancing access to information for citizens through their respective government websites and other ICT gadgets. It has also led to the enhancement of the transparency in government decision and stakeholder consultations before decisions are made by government. The Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) in South Africa in partnership with cell phone providers enabled voters to check their identity numbers through a short message service (SMS) which would help indicate their eligibility to vote without going to the office of the Commission (Mutula, and Mostert, 2010). This has also helped reduce the cost of printing documents and bureaucratic procedures for citizens and government institutions. Through the avoidance of more manual processes, the margins of error by the manual processes have been greatly reduced through the use of e-government processes. Through e-government many governments have been able to cut-down tax fraud and improve their tax collection mechanisms. E-government initiatives have the potential to enhance tax administration and finance systems especially in sub-Saharan Africa where there is often a lack of well-functioning tax administration systems (Schuppan, 2009). Various scholars have asserted that, e-government has the potential to improve the tax revenue for governments (Torgby and Asabere, 2014; Schuppan, 2009). For example, the Tanzanian Revenue Authority introduced an integrated tax management system called the ITAX and as a result, transparency and tax revenue has increased whereas the possibilities of tax fraud and processing time have all greatly reduced (Schuppan, 2009). However, without leadership support, all these benefits cannot be realized. This emphasizes the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 relevance of leadership commitment to e-government, if governments and their institutions are going to benefit from e-government projects. Various scholars have cited the importance of leadership to any e-government implementation project (Asogwa, 2013; Schuppan, 2009). But due to the high cost involved in e-government implementation, leadership support and commitment to e-government initiatives have been a challenge. E-government has enormous benefits when implemented, but has some challenges. There are many who are still skeptical about the whole concept of e-government. People have raised concerns about turning over too much information to government even though government may seem like a benevolent organization; it is possible that parties could use this information to harm the citizens of the country (Evans and Yen, 2006). According to Iddris (2012) due to the rampant internet security and fraud issues in Ghana, citizens see the internet to be insecure and would prefer an offline medium to avoid the risk of falling victim to internet fraud. Until people build trust and feel more secured giving out their details and transacting business through the internet, the quest for governments to bring service delivery to the door step of citizens would never be realized. In view of these arguments, Asogwa (2013) in studying e-government as a paradigm shift for efficient public services for the Nigerian government articulated that, the greatest of all the challenges to e-government in Nigeria is privacy and security of the citizens. E-government rides on the back of reliable and accessible IT infrastructure (Silcock, 2001). Iddris (2012) in studying the adoption of E-Commerce Solutions in Ghana postulated that, network infrastructure, security infrastructure, application server environment, hardware and operating systems, and systems management platform are what make up the IT infrastructure. However, most of these infrastructures necessary to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 deploy technological services are lacking in most African countries. For instance, according to the United Nations (2014) Africa has a telecommunication infrastructure index of 0.1478 as compared to that of Europe and America which have 0.6678 and 0.3805 respectively with a world telecommunication infrastructure average of 0.3650. Also, the number of available personal computers and internet users in Ghana per 100 inhabitants equals 0.52 and 1.72 respectively (Schuppan, 2009).These figures depict the disparity in telecommunication infrastructure deficit which has bedevilled Africa as a continent. Without a solid IT infrastructure, e-government implementation initiatives in most countries will not materialize and may lead to the non-realization of its full benefits. Various authors have argued that, the acceptance of e-government services have a strong link with the demographic and socio-cultural factors of a country- the percentage of the population living in rural areas, gender, age, education and income distribution are critical factors in the behaviour and the acceptance of people to patronize e-government services (Schuppan, 2009; Reddick and Norris, 2012). Mossberger et al. (2008) also asserted that, the level of education in a country has a strong correlation with the level of success of e- government implementation. The higher the literacy rate of a country the higher the rate of success of e-government and the lower the literacy rate of a country the lower the probability of success of e-government initiatives. For instance, Reddick (2005) in studying citizen interaction with e-government in the United States illustrated in his findings that, whites and the wealthy are more likely to engage in e-government services. To also emphasize, despite the population of Africa being over a billion which makes up 15percent of the world`s population, only 7percent of the households have access to internet and comparing that to Europe with 12percent of the world`s population has more than 75percent of its households having access to internet (United Nations, 2014). The University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 disparities in income distribution have a major link with the usage and accessibility of internet. Cognizance must be given to the country specific context within which e-government initiatives are implemented. It should not be assumed that the concept of e-government is automatically appropriate for developing countries even though e-government and its related organizational concepts were developed in industrialized countries (Schuppan, 2009). Andoh-Baidoo et al. (2012) laid emphasis on the prevailing country context by arguing that, the prevailing country specific context of developing countries must be considered for the successful implementation of e-government that is, the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in reference to the political, social, economic and technological conditions of the country. It would be inappropriate to simply transfer ICT solutions and related organizational concepts from developed to developing countries, even though e-government as a global phenomenon has the potential to reduce administrative and development problems (Schuppan, 2009). Until the necessary country specific conditions are adhered to before implementation, the chances of e-government succeeding are very minimal (Lau et al., 2008). Apart from the challenges identified above known to militate against the adoption and implementation of e-government others include- facilitating conditions such as training and support, a demonstration of its benefits before adoption , institutional readiness and availability of funds (Eze et al., 2013; Saffu et al., 2008; Gupta et al., 2008) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 2.4 Theoretical Review of Perspectives on Public Policy Implementation Governments in their quest to solve societal problems develop and implement various policies. Various authors have defined policy implementation differently but with the same focus and meaning. Van Meter and Van Horn (1975: 445) define policy implementation as “encompassing those actions by public and private individuals (or groups) that are directed at the achievement of objectives set forth in prior policy decisions. This includes both one-time efforts to transform decisions into operational terms, as well as continuing efforts to achieve the large and small changes mandated by policy decisions”. Sabatier and Mazmanian (1980: 540) on the other hand articulated that policy Implementation “is the carrying out of a basic policy decision, usually made in a statute (although also possible through important executive orders or court decisions). Ideally, that decision identifies the problem(s) to be addressed, stipulates the objective(s) to be pursued, and, in a variety of ways, "structures" the implementation process”. Throughout the implementation analysis process it is crucial to identify the issues which affect the achievement of statutory goals (Sabatier and Mazmanian, 1980). This research employed the models by Paul Sabatier and Daniel Mazmanian (1980) and Gordon Chase (1979).The choice of the model for the study was influenced by the model which best explains the variations in the research in relation to the study of public policy implementation process. 2.4.1 The Policy Implementation Model by Gordon Chase (1979) The policy implementation model developed by Gordon Chase examines the obstacles to the implementation of human services delivery programmes. The model can also be used as a comparative instrument in allocating scarce political, managerial and financial resources among human services programme and also as an aid to decision making within University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 particular programmes and to identifying obstacles that can cut across programmes. According to Chase (1979) there are three variables in the implementation of human services delivery programmes that can determine the success or failure of the programme individually or in combination. These are the difficulties arising from operational demands implied by a particular program concept; the nature and availability of resources to run the programme; and the need to share authority with, or retain support of other bureaucratic and political actors in the implementation process. Within these three variables there are fifteen sub-variables. All of these or a combination of them may be responsible for the failure in the implementation process (Chase, 1979). Under the first variable, that is the difficulties arising from operational demand implied by a particular programme concept, Chase (1979) identified sub-variables namely- the people to be served; the nature of services to be delivered; the likelihood and costliness of distortions and irregularities that may be implicit in the program concept; and the programme`s controllability. The second variable is difficulties arising from the nature and availability of resources to run the programme. The sub-variables he used to explain this variable is- money, personnel, space and supplies and technical support. Chase (1979) argues that, even assuming funds have been allocated for a programme, there will still be some outstanding issue that needs to be addressed. For instance, is the programme manager likely to get additional funding if the need arises? What is the impact and extent of any special limitation on the use of the appropriated fund? In reference to personnel, Chase (1979) argues that, if an already existing programme and the existing members of staff have the competence to implement it then there will be no need to introduce new personnel to augment the existing ones. On how easy it would be for the agency to get people with the requisite skills as well as whether the programme can attract the people with the requisite University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 capacity to implement the programme, Chase (1979) opines that, this will largely depend on the level of pay, the nature of work, and the working environment. In expatiating on the space, supplies and technical support, he mentions that, the quality of already existing facility, tools and equipment are very crucial for the success of programmes as well as their numbers in the right quantity. In explaining what he meant by the need to share authority with, or retain support of other bureaucratic and political actors in the implementation process, Chase (1979) used seven sub-variables to explain this variable, namely- the overhead agencies, other line managers, elected officials in the same government, higher levels of government, private sector providers, special interest and community groups and the media. The above are largely beyond the programme manager’s control but each will affect the programme and the programme manager in one way or the other. 2.4.2 The Policy Implementation Model by Paul Sabatier and Daniel Mazmania (1980) The model by Sabatier and Mazmania (1980) specifically and comprehensively identifies variables in reference to how statutory characteristics affect subsequent programmes. The primary focus of their model is on traditional regulatory policies where it aims at altering the behaviour of private target groups by governmental agencies. However, Sabatier and Mazmania (1980) asserted that, with slight modifications, their framework can be applicable to other types of policies. This is what this research aims to do. The research aims at applying the model to fit the context in which the research is being undertaken. The model distinguishes three categories of variables from the stages of implementation, which makes-up the dependent variables. The three broad categories are: (1) the tractability of the problem(s) being addressed by the statute; (2) the ability of the statute to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 favorably structure the implementation process; and (3) the net effect of a variety of "political" variables on the balance of support for statutory objectives. These three categories have 16 independent variables which are related to it. The tractability of the problem has to do with whether the social problem is easy to comprehend and deal with or not. Their hypothesis is that, “the greater the amount of behavioral change, the more problematic successful implementation” (Sabatier and Mazmanian, 1980: 544). Four (4) variables in this model are related to the tractability of the problem: diversity of target group behavior; target group as a percentage of population; technical difficulties; and the extent of behavioral change. The ability of the statute to favorably structure the implementation process has to do with the way the implementation is structured in the statutes. From their view, “a statute constitutes the fundamental policy decision being implemented in that it indicates the problem(s) being addressed and stipulates the objective(s) to be pursued” (Sabatier and Mazmanian, 1980: 544). Seven (7) variables are related to these according to Sabatier and Mazmanian (1980)- clear, consistent objectives; adequate causal theory; financial resources; hierarchical integration within and among implementing institutions; decision rules of implementing agencies; recruitment of implementing officials; and formal access by outsiders. The last category in the model is non-statutory variables affecting implementation. They argued that, implementation is driven by two processes: (1) the need for any program which seeks to change behavior to receive constant and/or periodic infusions of political support; and (2) the effect of continuous changes in socio-economic and technological conditions on the reservoir of support for those objectives among the general public, interest groups, and sovereigns. Also the non-statutory variables affecting implementation includes five (5) contextual and environmental factors which are: Socio-economic University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 conditions and technology; Public support; attitudes and resources of constituency groups; Support from sovereigns’ and commitment of leadership skill of implementing officials. Having discussed the independent generic variables in the implementation process, the discussion will now focus on the dependent variables. However, according to Sabatier and Mazmanian (1980), it must be viewed in terms of its several stages: (1) the policy outputs (decisions) of the implementing agencies; (2) the compliance of target groups with those decisions; (3) the actual impacts of agency decisions; (4) the perceived impacts of those decisions; and finally, (5) the political system's evaluation of a statute in terms of major revisions (or attempted revisions) in its content. The model lumped together all these under the heading of "feedback loop". Figure, 2.1. The model by Sabatier and Mazmanian, (1980). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 2.5 Conceptual Framework for the Study Two models in policy implementation research- Sabatier and Mazmanian (1980) and Chase (1979) were used as reference points in an attempt to develop a context specific framework to guide the analysis of the research. These models are very relevant however, they do not have the ability to provide context specific resources for the analysis of the research data. Due to this gap, the models were used as a guide in the development of a more context specific framework to mirror the context of the research. From the conceptual framework developed for the research, the dependent variable is e- government implementation performance whereas the independent variables are: resource challenges; operational challenges; and intra and inter agency collaborations. These independent variables will determine the effectiveness of e-government implementation at the DVLA. 2.6 Resources Extant research has enumerated many challenges and issues that need to be addressed for the successful implementation of e-government (Bwalya and Healy, 2010; Iddris, 2012). According to Sabatier and Mazmanian (1980) until programmes are accompanied by adequate resources; however the commitment to the programme objectives, commitments will contribute little to their attainment. This echoes the importance of resources to the realization of programme objectives irrespective of the commitment levels to the programme. The resources include human, financial and logistics and equipment. 2.6.1 Human resources Most developing countries have been bedeviled with the challenge of inadequate ICT skills over the past years in their quest to develop e-government programmes. According University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 to the United Nations (2014) limitations in human capacity has been one of the greatest challenges particularly to countries in the low e-government development index region. The availability of appropriate ICT skills is crucial for the successful implementation of e- government. E-government implementation requires people with the necessary- technological, installation, maintenance, designing and management skills. Many e-government projects have failed in most African countries because technologies were adopted without accompanying human skills and capacities to manage and sustain them (Asogwa, 2013). It will remain a great challenge for African states in their quest to implement e-government if the necessary people with the requisite skills are not identified in their right numbers to manage and drive the whole implementation process. According to Chase (1979) the people mandated to carry out a task are as important as the task to be implemented. This emphasizes the importance of the kind of people who are given the mandate to implement a policy. If the people do not have the requisite knowledge and skills to carry out the task they have been assigned to, the task is bound to fail and this explains the importance of human resource to the whole e-government agenda of African states. Organizations in Africa are not willing and ready to adopt technology due to the inadequacy of people with the requisite and necessary technological skills to manage IT infrastructures (Eze et al., 2013). This skills shortage is exacerbated by the brain drain caused by the few skilled ICT personnel and professionals leaving to work in developed countries or moving from the public to the private sector (Mutula and Mostert, 2010). Knowledge management programmes such as staff training, workshops and seminars are required in order to create the basic skills for e-government development on the continent to address the human resource development challenges. Asogwa (2013) postulated that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 lots of African governments rush into e-government implementation without adequately preparing themselves to make funds available to train their staff to keep up with the rapid technological changes, thereby leading to their eventual failure. E-government implementation requires funds to train the personnel who will be implementing and managing the system. Without regular and routine training for such people, the implementation process will not be effective. 2.6.2 Financial Resources Financial resources have been one of the ultimate hurdles for e-government implementation. Various scholars have argued that funding has been the number one barrier to e-government initiatives and a net add-on to already cash strapped government organizations in most developing countries. (Iddris, 2012; Eze et al., 2013). According to Iddris (2012) the initial cost of developing websites, hiring of technicians and website managers, paying of internet services and the acquisition of computer and its accessories are militating against the adoption of technology in most developing countries. The funding challenge to implementation was also echoed by the United Nations (2014) where it observed that a country’s level of income is a general indicator of economic growth, which accordingly influences its e-government development of which Ghana is no exception. It can be comprehended that funding is very important in any e-government implementation process, however if these funds are not made available for implementing agencies, then it will be difficult for the e-government process to achieve its goals. 2.6.3 Logistics and Equipment The inadequacy in communication infrastructure and the high cost associated with building a network structure inevitably has limited the use, expansion and diffusion of ICT University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 in developing countries (Asare et al., 2012). E-government rides on the back of reliable and accessible IT infrastructure (Silcock, 2001). Network infrastructure, security infrastructure, application server environment, hardware and operating systems, and systems management platform are what make up the e-government infrastructure, however, most of these infrastructures necessary to deploy e-government services are lacking in many African countries. Internet diffusion and internet charges in sub-Saharan Africa are beyond the reach of the average citizen (Asogwa, 2013). For instance, according to the United Nations (2014) Africa has a telecommunication infrastructure index of 0.1478 as compared to that of Europe and Americas, 0.6678 and 0.3805 respectively with the world average at 0.3650. These figures clearly depict the disparity in telecommunication infrastructure deficit which has bedeviled Africa as a continent. In spite of Ghana’s significant investment in ICT infrastructure, policy and regulatory framework to effectively roll out e-government services, the country faces a number of challenges with its IT infrastructure as well as its energy supply to power its IT infrastructure. Consistent supply of power is a prerequisite for an effective e-government implementation. The incessant power outage is one of the greatest challenges to e- government implementation and its development in West African States (Asare et al., 2012; Asogwa, 2013). Power as a resource is very critical for the success of e-government projects. If the necessary IT infrastructures are in place and there is no power, the whole implementation process will fail. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 2.7 Operational Challenges 2.7.1 The client The aim of e-government is to improve and bring better service delivery to people, however another issue that needs to be addressed is how to deliver the services to the intended people. Chase (1979) asserted that the ability to reach the client population easily with the service will depend on how accessible the service is to the client and how receptive the client population is to the service. There are so many people in Africa who do not have access to any internet facility even though e-government depends on the internet. The acceptance and success of e-government services have a strong link with the demographic, technological and social factors of a country- the percentage of the population living in rural areas, gender, age, access to the internet, education and income distribution are critical factors in the behavior and the acceptance of people to patronize e- government services (Schuppan, 2009; Reddick and Norris, 2012). Comparing the population of Africa to Europe, Africa has 15percent of the world population whiles Europe has 12percent, however, only 7perecent of households in Africa has access to internet whereas in Europe more than 75percent of households have access to the internet (United Nations, 2014). This acute digital divide is really hampering the adoption and implementation agenda for most Africa countries. Apart from the issue of access, the level of education is also another hurdle for the implementation process. Mossberger et al. (2008) argued that, the level of education in a country has a strong correlation with the level of success of e-government implementation. The higher the literacy rate of a country the higher the rate of success of e-government and the lower the literacy rate of a country the lower the probability of success of e- government agenda. Torgby and Asabere (2014) in their study to ascertain the challenges University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 of implementing and developing e-government asserted that, irrespective of the ICT infrastructure in place if the ICT literacy of the citizens is low, it would be difficult to achieve the full benefits of e-government. These arguments allude to the fact that as governments are taking measures to improve the ICT infrastructure of the country, they must also put measures in place to educate and ensure their citizens are ICT literates so as to ensure they derive the full benefits of e-government. A client’s level of experience with a service being introduced as well as the level of education will influence how that client receives the service. The levels of user experience and ease of use of e-government in countries with substantially lower levels of education will have users with different receptive approach and this will prevent these countries from making substantial advancement in e-government (Evans and Yen, 2006; United Nations, 2014). For instance, the world adult literacy is 84.29percent where as that of Africa is 64.65percent (United Nations, 2014). This disparity accounts for the poor e-government initiatives on the continent as compared to other continents with higher literacy rates. Ghana’s e-government implementation process has not been different from the general trends on the African continent. Awareness and trust are significant factors influencing the citizens’ intention to either use e-government services to transact business with government or to access information to conduct a transaction. Various authors have argued that in accessing information on government websites the quality of information is also very significant in influencing citizens’ intention to use e-government services (Rehman et al., 2011; Eze et al., 2013). There is a perception that e-government is risky, considering its immature nature as well as prior disappointing experiences (Johnson, 2012). For instance, according to Iddris (2012), issues of internet security is gaining prominence with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 the emergence of “Sakawa” cyber fraud activities perpetrated by some Ghanaian youth which is creating a perception of doom amongst people in relation to the internet. Hence, it is of the utmost pertinence that people understand the need for e-government and its associated benefits before implementation. Comprehensive education and awareness must be created for people to understand and appreciate the benefits ICT will offer should they employ it in their business operations before implementation (Evans and Yen, 2006; Eze et al., 2013; Reddick, 2005). The diversity of behavior of clients to be served can be very difficult for implementation thus making the success of the whole process difficult to achieve. Some of this diversity may arise from differences in educational level, trust, awareness and others (Sabatier and Mazmanian, 1980). 2.7.2 Nature of Services Also due to the complexity and the great diversity of technology, public organizations face great levels of uncertainty in developing and implementing e-government services (ITU, 2008).Services rendered in one country with a high margin of success does not necessarily guarantee success when the same service is rendered in another country without considering the complexities associated with the service and the prevailing socio-cultural, economic and technological conditions in that country. According to Schuppan (2009) it should not be assumed that the concept of e-government is automatically appropriate for developing countries even though e-government and its related organizational concepts were developed in industrialized countries. Andoh-Baidoo et al. (2012) laid emphasis on the prevailing country context and the nature of service to be rendered, by arguing that, the prevailing country specific context of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 developing countries must be considered for successful implementation of e-government. These peculiar country-specific issues include the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in reference to the political, social, economic and technological conditions of the country which ought to be well thought through to make a particular service and its complexities fit into the country context (Andoh-Baidoo et al., 2012). Due to direct transfer of services from one country to another country without first looking at the nature of the service in reference to the country specific conditions, many intelligent programs and projects are failing. It would be inappropriate to simply transfer ICT solutions and related organizational concepts from developed to developing countries, even though e- government as a global phenomenon has the potential to reduce administrative and development problems (Schuppan, 2009). Therefore, implementers of e-government programs must understand how to customize e-government initiatives that tie-together complex technology based initiatives with organizational and country structures (ITU, 2008). 2.8 Inter and Intra Agency Collaborations The level of coordination and integration existing amongst the departments of an agency can either make or unmake the achievements of the goals of the agency. Touted to be the antidote for the problems of fragmentation and duplication, inter-agency collaboration is imperative in the areas of human services, policy making and service delivering if organizations are going to address structural challenges and promote better coordination of services (Sowa, 2008). According to Sabatier and Mazmanian, (1980), one principal obstacle to programme implementation is the difficulty in obtaining collaboration and coordination within an agency and among the various semi-autonomous agencies involved in the implementation process. However, collaboration and coordination within and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 amongst agencies in the implementation process does not guarantee the instant success of a policy or programme (Van Meter and Van Horn, 1975). Collaboration refers to “any joint activity by two or more agencies working together that is intended to increase public value by their working together rather than separately” (Bardach, 1998: 8). From the definition, before the services which are intended to increase public value can be realized, agencies must work together with some level of understanding. This understanding and collaboration can only be achieved through leadership support for programmes. This goes on to highlight the importance of leadership and their commitment to the whole process of e-government as alluded to by Asogwa (2013) in his study in Nigeria. However, leadership support was identified to be a major challenge for e-government initiatives in Nigeria (Asogwa, 2013). For instance, countries like Egypt and Mauritius whose financial bases are not better than Nigeria`s can be rated higher in the UN e-government global rankings, then the problem of Nigeria is a lack of dynamic and patriotic leaders to effectively implement e-government initiatives (Asogwa, 2013). The degree of looseness of integration and coordination of a programme and its agencies has a strong correlation with the success of the programme and behavioral compliance among implementing units, officials and target groups (Sabatier and Mazmanian, 1980). One of the most important attributes of any programme is the extent to which it hierarchically integrates and coordinates the implementing units and their functions. Fedorowicz et al. (2010) asserted that various challenges impede inter and intra organizational collaboration and information sharing in reference to e-government University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 implementation and these include incompatible software and data formats, antiquated systems, limited resources, security and privacy concerns. Sowa (2008) argued that, inter and intra agency collaborations also involves the sharing of tangible and intangible resources amongst agencies and departments such as; staff, funding and professional knowledge which moves the cooperation into a formalized and institutionalized structure. Apart from some of the challenges attributed to Fedorowicz et al. (2010), Yang and Maxwell (2011) also postulated that organizational structure and bureaucracy; organizational culture, values, and norms; self-interest and cost–benefit analysis; incentive and reward; trust; power games; and IT capability of the organization are some of the factors that can also influence intra and inter-organizational collaboration. No organization is an island, it is the same with various government agencies. They depend on each other for information and resources in the implementation of their programmes. The sharing of information and resources can only be facilitated through effective communication. Sakyi (2010) in studying the communication challenges in implementing health sector decentralization in Ghana asserted that, the role of communication is unique in the entire policy cycle starting from setting the agenda of a policy to its implementation. He further argues that effective communication provides a clear understanding of the problem that the policy seeks to solve for any policy and implementation to occur. However, a vicious cycle of communication gaps are created between managers and subordinates when the basic channels of communication are not used effectively (Sakyi, 2010). Inter and intra-agency collaborations have become imperative for the efficient and effective delivery of services to customers and the organization at large. For this to be realized, the following must be operationalized; a culture of information stewardship as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 opposed to ownership must be promoted within the organization; legislative and regulatory mandates must be initiated; efforts to share information and collaborate must be strongly supported by leadership and an environment of trust must be developed based on a mutual understanding of needs and shared responsibility (Yang and Maxwell, 2011; Smith and Mogro-Wilson, 2008). When different government agencies and organizations are involved, the factors that influence inter-organizational collaborations become more complex and diversified (Yang and Maxwell, 2011). For instance, Citizens have less choice when it comes to obtaining a professional license or registering a car. These processes involve different departments and other organizations. They must provide their personal data. However, as e-government expands and government functions become integrated and inter-agency collaboration gradually increase, it is important for officials to weigh the legal and ethical implications of data collected and how they are shared with other organizational units and agencies in the execution of functions especially in countries where privacy laws do not provide guidance (Fedorowicz et al., 2010). These legal and security issues can influence how data is shared which can also affect the success of a programme especially when collaborating agencies are not forthcoming with data to help in the implementation process. Various issues have been raised about the influence of data sharing to aid the implementation of e-government. However, Fedorowicz et al. (2010) argued that even though public officials are required to provide information especially when that particular activity is legal, once the information is disclosed, the data subjects lose control over how it is subsequently used and this raises privacy problems. Therefore it is important that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 necessary measures be taken in sharing information to smoothen inter and intra agency relationships and collaborations. There is a relationship among all three independent variables of the study and the degree of goodness or otherwise is very critical to the effectiveness of implementation. As much as the adequacy of resources can enhance the effectiveness of the implementation process, operational challenges and weak inter and intra organizational collaboration if not managed effectively can derail the whole implementation process. Based on the various models and concepts reviewed, the conceptual framework below was developed for the study. Figure 2. 2. Conceptual framework for the study RESOURCES  Human Resource  Financial Resource  Logistics & Equipment OPERATIONAL CHALLENGES  The Client  Nature of Services INTRA AND INTER AGENCY COLLABORATIONS E-GOVERNMENT IMPLEMENTATION PERFORMANCE University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This section discusses the methodological approach that was employed in undertaking this research. It presents an explanation of the various activities that was done during the research. It covers the research paradigm, research design, sources of data, study area, sampling technique, target population and sample size. It also discusses the data collection and the instruments that were used, the framework for data analysis, data management and ethical consideration. The final part presents the experiences the researcher gathered, the limitations and problems that were associated with the conduct of the study. 3.1 Research paradigm The paradigm for the study was the social constructivist or interpretivism paradigm. The interpretivist paradigm was chosen for this research because it provided the researcher an opportunity to seek multiple and varied meanings to the phenomenon under study and also look for complexity of views, participants view of the phenomenon under study rather than narrowing the meanings into some few ideas (Creswell, 2003). Secondly, the paradigm assisted in an exploratory approach to a phenomenon like e-government implementation challenge which is context dependent due to the differences in the socio- cultural, economic, political and technological settings of the participants which will facilitate an inordinate comprehension of issues (Creswell, 2003). This represented the researcher’s personal views of exploring and interpreting meaning beyond what is considered a complete truth. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 3.2 Research Design The study employed the qualitative approach of social research. This approach was used because it provided a comprehensive understanding of the context within which the social phenomenon is occurring and the challenges that pertains to that specific context. Moreover, it provided a clear representation of the understanding and meanings the people who were experiencing the social phenomenon ascribe to the issues. It also gives contextual interpretations and outcomes of the social phenomena from the perspectives of the subjects involved (Bhattacherjee, 2012). In lieu of the above, the case study approach within the qualitative design was adopted. Once more, the case study was deemed the most appropriate method to realize the research objective. According to Bhattacherjee (2012), in using a case study, a phenomenon can be studied from multiple participants’ perspective using multiple levels of analysis, for instance individual and organizational. As an empirical enquiry to explore a modern social phenomenon in a real life situation, the case study provided the study with a more purposive and general approach to comprehending the phenomenon of e-government implementation in Ghana. It becomes more relevant and appropriate to adopt the case study approach for a social research especially when the phenomenon is contemporary and context specific to real life situations and the researcher has minimal control over proceedings (Yin, 2003). Another reason for the use of the case study is that it provides multiple methods for data collection, which includes interviews, observations, pre- recorded documents, secondary data and inferences about the phenomenon under study and tends to be detailed and contextualized (Bhattacherjee, 2012). These reasons provided the flexibility to collect the necessary field data from varied sources including interviews University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 and secondary sources such as documents, articles, archival records and the internet among others. 3.3 Unit of Analysis 3.3.1 The Study Organization To achieve the research objective, the DVLA was used as the case study. The DVLA offers the relevant and appropriate context for the study. Moreover, it is one sector where interaction between the government and citizens occur very often. Over the years, the DVLA has been under severe criticism from the people of Ghana for poor service delivery and poor management of client data. In the Authority`s quest to address these challenges it adopted and implemented its e-government initiative. The Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA) is a semi-autonomous public sector organization under the Ministry of Transportation. It was established by Act 569 of 1999 to be responsible for ensuring road safety. Before the enactment of the DVLA Act, the Department was called Vehicle Examination & Licensing Division (VELD). The Authority is mandated as provided in the DVLA Act, Act 569 of 1999 to promote good driving standards in the country, ensure the use of roadworthy vehicles, as well as provide for other related matters. Its vision is to be a reputable institution with internationally accepted standards for driver and vehicle licensing. The DVLA is also responsible for setting guidelines for vehicle construction and use for the public. To achieve its objectives, the DVLA has the following functions: • Establish standards and methods for the training and testing of driving instructors and drivers of motor vehicles and riders of motor cycles University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 • Establish standards and methods for the training and testing of vehicle examiners • Provide syllabi for driver training and the training of instructors • Issue driving licenses • Register and license driving schools • License driving instructors • Inspect, test and register motor vehicles • Issue vehicle registration certificates • Issue vehicle examination certificates • License and regulate private garages to undertake vehicle testing • Maintain registers containing particulars of licensed motor vehicles, driving instructors, driving schools and drivers of motor vehicles In its quest to improve service delivery to its clients, in April 2008, the DVLA announced the Computer Based Technology (CBT) system which has the following reforms; 1. Automation of foreign license conversion 2. Automation of International drivers permit 3. Automation of learner`s license 4. Automation of license upgrade and proficiency test 5. Automation of vehicle registration 6. Automation of license renewal The CBT was introduced to replace the manual driving test system and licensing processes that has been in operation over the years since the Authority was established. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 The manual system was plagued with problems including fraud, human interference and influence in the testing process, impersonation and leakage of the driving test questions. The project, a collaboration between the DVLA and Fleet Technologies Limited, an on- line information provider is the first in West Africa. The CBT system is expected to address the short falls of the manual system as well as promote accountability and transparency in the administration of driving test and the issuance of licenses. The new system allows clients to log on to the web site of the Authority to register and access its services before coming to the Authority for the online driving test. The principal objective of the CBT system is to re-engineer the procedures and processes of the Authority leading to a workflow that promotes efficiency and accountability. Since the introduction of the CBT system in 2008, it had been running concurrently with the manual system until 2014 when the latter was finally abolished. 3.3.2 Sources of Data Taking into cognizance data triangulation, multiple data collection procedure was employed. The sources of data included both secondary and primary data. The data collected from primary sources consisted mainly of data from the study participants which were done using one-on-one in-depth interviews. In view of the objectives and nature of the study, the open ended interview gave participants the freedom to express their sentiments and experiences about the phenomenon under study without any limitations. The primary data was gathered from five (5) departments within the DVLA and one Private Vehicle Testing Station (PVTS) namely, Management Information Systems (MIS) Department, Finance Department, Human Resource Department, Procurement Department and Administration Department. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 The data from secondary sources comprised of the review of existing literature consisting of published and unpublished reports on e-government. Other sources included books, peer reviewed journals and the internet. These various sources were reviewed, providing valuable introductory knowledge for the study which also informed the interview guide and the probing questions asked in the field. It also provided guidance during the analysis of field data. 3.3.3 Target Population The target population for the study was the staff of the DVLA. The MIS department is the main department in-charge of implementing the online registration and computer-based theory driving test which is one of their core functions. The MIS department has five officials working in the department. For the purposes of data validation respondents from other departments such as the Finance Department, Administration, Human Resource Department, Procurement Department and Private Vehicle Testing Stations were chosen because they collaborate with the MIS department to perform their functions as well as aid in the implemen