CO M M U N IC A T IO N STR A T EG Y AND A D O PT IO N O F IN T E G R A T E D PE ST M A N A G EM E N T (IPM ) PRAC TIC ES BY V E G ET A B L E FA R M E R S A T TH E W EIJA IR RIG ATIO N PR O JEC T, GH ANA. BY \ALFRED OSEI A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTM ENT OF AG RICULTURAL EXTENSION OF THE FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILM ENT OF THE REQUIREM ENTS FOR THE AW ARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (M.Phil) DEGREE IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION DEPARTM ENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON, ACCRA JUNE 2001 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh G 371201 S B 950.394052 bltc, C.1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I, ALFRED OSEI, do hereby declare that, this thesis with the exception of the identified quotations is a product of my own research, written entirely by me. None of the materials contained herein, has been presented either in whole or in part for the degree of this University or any other degree elsewhere. DECLARATION ALFRED OSEI (STUDENT) DR. OWURAKU SAKYI-DAWSON (SUPERVISOR) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To my father, Lawrence K. Okyere, my mother, Dora Korantemaa, my siblings and my son Lawrence Osei Okyere. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AC K N O W LED G EM EN T ... ’Not by might nor by power, but by M y Sp irit’, Says the LORD o f hosts (Zechariah 4:6). I am most grateful to the Most High God for seeing me through my education to this level. Glory be to His holy name. Much o f the credit for the successful completion o f this research goes to my supervisor, Dr. Owuraku Sakyi-Dawson, for his guidance, encouragement, patience, interest and support throughout the preparation and writing o f this work. May the M ost High God bless him abundantly. I am also thankful to the other lecturers, staff and students o f the Department o f Agricultural Extension, University o f Ghana for their co-operation. To my parents, Mr. Lawrence K. Okyere and Dora Korantemaa, I say ‘Ayekoo and God bless you’ for your immeasurable love, sacrifice and unflinching support in pursuance o f my academic endeavour. Special gratitude also goes to my siblings for their love, co-operation and support in various ways. My friends Victor Afrifa Gyamfi, Frank Owusu Acheampong and Osei Yaw Ampomah are to be commended for their tireless support in diverse ways. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to the staff and farmers o f Weija Irrigation Project for their kind assistance. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A BSTR A C T To enhance food security, crop losses due to disease and pest damage must be reduced. Improved technologies for pest control using appropriate and environmentally sound technologies to promote food security is a major priority for many developing nations. Integrated Pest Management, IPM (also referred to as Integrated Crop M anagement (ICM)) is one o f such approaches to promoting food security. Its adoption by farmers is therefore critical. In Ghana, few empirical evidence about the communication strategies employed to effectively disseminate IPM practices exists. This study .therefore examines the influence o f communication strategies on adoption o f IPM. The findings are based on data collected from farmers at the Weija Irrigation Project which typifies intensive vegetable farming in the Greater Accra District. It has also been the centre o f a lot o f agricultural projects especially in the area o f Agricultural Extension, such as the IPM Farmers ’ F ield School. (IPM/FFS). Data were collected from 105 vegetable farmers comprising 55 FFS participants and 50 non-participants using structured interview schedule from March to April 2000. The analysis involved frequencies, percentages, cross-tabulations and chi-square test. Practices incorporated in the IPM/FFS for vegetable farmers in the study area and which the study focused on include: use o f neem seed extract as bio-pesticide, manure application, mulching, use of improved seeds, reduction or avoidance o f use o f chemical pesticides, scouting and row planting. The study reveals that there were generally high levels o f awareness o f all the practices incorporated in the IPM for vegetables in the study area. The main sources o f information were AEAs through FFS, agricultural input sellers, co-operative society, other farmers, friends and relatives. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Communication strategy used were mainly individual and group methods and Participatory Action Research (PAR). The adoption rate o f Farm ers’ F ield Schools participants was significantly higher than non-participants. Farmers also testified to the advantages o f using the IPM practices. These include higher yields, decreased incidence o f pests and diseases and increase in crop diversity. However, identified constraints to adoption o f IPM practices included: tediousness o f some o f the practices (high labour input), high cost and lack o f availability o f some o f the inputs. The use o f Farm ers' F ield Schools, which is a Participatory Action Research (PAR) methodology, is recommended since programmes are planned with active involvement or participation o f the target beneficiaries, and at their level o f information uptake and learning. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS Declaration Dedication Acknowledgement Abstract Table of contents List o f tables ... List o f figures ... List of appendices List of abbreviations PAGE VI xm xvi xvn xvm CHAPTER ONE: INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT AND FOOD SECURITY ....................................................................... 1 1.0 I n t ro d u c t io n ................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Food s e c u r ity .................................................................................... 2 1.1.2 Constraints to food security ... ... ... ... ... 4 1.2 IPM as an option for enhancing food security ... ... ... 5 1.3 Current developments in IPM ........................................................................ 7 1.4 Historical review o f IPM implementation in G h a n a ................................ 8 1.4.1 Pest outbreaks (1 9 8 0 -1 9 9 2 ) ......................................................... 9 1.5 The status of IPM in G h a n a ........................................................................ 10 1.6 Vegetable IPM in Ghana ......................................................................... 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.7 Problem statement ....................................................................... 13 1.8 Research questions ....................................................................... 17 1.9 Main objective ....................................................................... 17 1.10 Specific objectives ....................................................................... 17 1.11 Significance o f the Study .......................................................... 17 1.12 Hypotheses ..................................................................................... 18 1.13 Conceptual framework .......................................................... 18 1.14 Operational definitions of c o n c e p t s ............................................ 19 1.14.1 IPM ..................................................................................... 19 1.14.2 Communication strategy ............................................ 19 1.14.3 Adoption of IPM practices 20 1.14.4 Personal Socio-economic characteristics 20 1.14.5 Impacts o f IPM intervention,.. .............................. 21 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................. 22 2.0 Introduction 22 2.1 Adoption o f innovations 22 2.2 The process o f adoption 24 2.3 Attributes o f innovations and adoption 25 2.3.1 Relative advantage ......................................................... 25 2.3.2 C om patib ility ....................................................................... 26 2.3.3 Complexity ....................................................................... 28 2.3.4 Trialability ....................................................................... 29 2.3.5 Observability or visibility ............................................ 29 2.4 Personal socio-economic characteristics and adoption 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.1 Age .......................................................... .............................. 31 2.4.2 G ender......................................................... .............................. 32 2.4.3 Education ............................................ .............................. 32 2.4.4 Farm income ... .............................. 33 2.4.5 C r e d i t ......................................................... .............................. 33 2.4.6 Size of farm ................. 34 2.4.7 Tenure status ... .............................. 35 2.4.8 Labour availability .............................. .............................. 36 2.5 Communication strategies ......................................... 2.6 Channels o f communication ... 2.7 Diffusion o f innovations ....................................................... 2.8 PM FFS /TOT training m ethodology......................................... 2. 8.1 Gender issue in farmers’ field schoo l.............. 2.9 Real Returns to IPM and its diffusion ....... 2.10 Assessment o f household and village level impacts o f IPM 2.11 Summary 2.12 Conclusion 36 39 40 42 46 47 48 50 51 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction ... 3.1 Research design ................ 3.2 Study area 3.3 Population of study .................. 3.4 Sampling technique and sample size 3.5 Pre-testing .............................. 52 52 52 53 55 55 56 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.6 Instrument development 3.7 Data collection 3.8 Data a n a ly s i s .................. 59 60 57 CHAPTER FOUR: INTERGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 4.0 I n t ro d u c t io n .................................................................................................. 4.1 Conceptual basis o f IPM ......................................................................... 4.2 Training content o f farmers’ field school 4.3 Selected IPM practices for the s tu d y .......................................................... 4.3.1 Preparation and application of neem seed extract .................. 4.3.2 Manure a p p l ic a t io n ....................................................................... 4.3.3 Mulching 4.3.4 Improved seeds 4.3.5 Reduction o f pesticide use .......................................................... 4.3.6 Agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) ............................................ 4.3.7 Row p la n tin g ..................................................................................... 4.4 IPM message preparation 4.5 Conclusion CHAPTER FIVE: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FARMERS 5.0 I n t ro d u c t io n .................................................................................................. 5.1 Age o f farmers ...................................................................................... 5.2 Educational level of fa rm ers ........................................................................ 5.3 Gender distribution of farmers ............................................ 63 63 63 65 68 68 69 69 69 69 70 71 71 71 73 73 73 74 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 Farm size ................................................................................................... 5.5 Economic enterprises o f fanners ........................................................... 77 5.6 Source o f farm lab o u r...................................................................................... 78 5.7 Source of credit ...................................................................................... 79 5.8 Production constraints... ... ... ■■■ 80 5.8.1 Major crop pests and diseases ............................................ 80 5.9 Pest control strategies used by farmers ............................................. 81 5.10 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 81 CHAPTER SIX: COMMUNICATION OF IPM PR A C T IC E S................. 83 6.0 Introduction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 83 6.1 Sources o f IPM in fo rm a tio n ......................................................................... 83 6.2 Methods through which farmers received IPM p rac tices......................... 90 6.3 A w areness ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 96 6.4 Sources o f information and awareness of IPM practices ... 98 6.5 Communication strategies and awareness creation of IPM practices ... 99 6.6 Constraints to effective extension delivery in the study area ... ... 102 6.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 103 CHAPTER SEVEN: ADOPTION OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT .......................................................... 105 7.0 In t ro d u c t io n .................................................................................................... 105 7.1 Adoption of the selected IPM practices .............................. 105 7.1.1 Adoption of neem seed extract ............................................ 106 7.1.1.1 Reasons for non-adoption of neem seed extract ... 107 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.1.2 Adoption of manure application ............................................ 7.1.2.1 Reasons for non-adoption of manure application 7.1.3 Adoption o f m ulching........................................................................ 7.1.3.1 Reasons for non-adoption o f mulching ................. 7.1.4 Adoption o f improved seed v arie tie s ............................................ 7.1.4.1 Reasons for non-adoption o f improved seeds................. 7.1.5 Adoption o f reduction o f pesticide use .............................. 7.1.6 Adoption o f sc o u tin g ....................................................................... 7.1.6.1 Reasons for non-adoption o f scouting ................. 7.1.7 Adoption o f row planting 7.1.7.1 Reasons for non-adoption of row planting 7.2 Communication strategy and adoption o f selected IPM practices ... 7.2.1 Extension method by adoption of neem seed ex trac t................. 7.2.2 Extension method and adoption o f manure application 7.2.3 Extension method and adoption o f m ulching.............................. 7.2.4 Extension method and adoption o f improved seed varieties ... 7.2.5 Extension method and adoption o f pesticide reduction 7.2.6 Extension method and adoption o f s c o u tin g .............................. 7.2.7 Extension method and adoption of row planting 7.3 Overall adoption pattern o f IPM in the study area .............................. 7.4 Characteristics o f farmers and adoption o f IPM practices ............... 7.5 Conclusion ............... ....................................................... 108 109 110 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 116 117 118 118 119 120 120 121 121 123 123 125 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER EIGHT: IMPACT OF IPM INTERVENTION 129 8.0 Introduction ... 129 8.1 Impact o f IPM intervention in the study area ... ................. 130 8.1.1 Crop d ivers ity ....................................................................... 131 8.1.2 Yields o f v e g e ta b le s .......................................................... 132 8.1.3 Farm size 133 8.1.4 Incidence o f pests and diseases .............................. 133 8.1.5 Business opportunity and stability o f incom e................. 134 8.1.6 Labour requirement ... 135 8.1.7 Health s t a t u s ....................................................................... 135 8.1.8 Development o f functionary g r o u p s .............................. 136 8.2 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 136 CHAPTER NINE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................. 138 9.0 Introduction ... 138 9.1 Summary 139 9.2 Socio-economic characteristics and adoption of IPM 141 9.3 Communication strategies, adoption and benefits o f IPM 142 9.4 Conclusion 145 9.5 Policy implications ....................................................................... 145 9.6 Research implications... 146 9.7 Recommendations ....................................................................... 147 REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.1 Data collection scheme-main concepts, information required, sources o f information and data collection techniques ... ... ... 59 Table 5.1 Age o f farmers ....................................................................................... 74 Table 5.2 Educational level o f farmers ........................................................... 75 Table 5.3 Gender distribution o f farmers ........................................................... 76 Table 5.4 Distribution o f farm size ......................................................................... 77 Table 5.5 Economic enterprises o f f a r m e r s ........................................................... 78 Table 5.6 Source o f farm labour ......................................................................... 79 Table 5.7 Source o f credit ...................................................................................... 80 Table 6.1 Source o f information: Preparation and application o f neem seed extract 85 Table 6.2 Source o f information: Manure application ............................... 95 Table 6.3 Source o f information: M u lc h in g ........................................................... 86 Table 6.4 Source o f information: Planting improved s e e d s .............................. 87 Table 6.5 Source o f information: Reduction o f pesticide application ... 88 Table 6.6 Source o f information: S c o u t in g ........................................................... 88 Table 6.7 Source o f information: Row planting ............................................. 89 Table 6.8 Methods o f extension: Preparation and application o f neem seed extract 91 Table 6.9 Methods o f extension: Manure application 92 Table 6.10 Methods o f extension: M u lch in g ......................................................... 93 Table 6.11 Methods o f extension: Planting improved seeds ... ... ... 93 Table 6.12 Methods o f extension: Reduction o f pesticide use ................ 94 Table 6.13 Methods o f extension: S c o u t in g .................................................. ... 95 Table 6.14 Methods o f extension: Row planting ............................................ 95 LIST OF TABLES University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.15 Awareness o f IPM practices by FFS and NFFS farm ers... ... 97 Table 6.16 Sources o f information and awareness o f IPM p rac tices................. 99 Table 6.17 Extension methods and awareness o f IPM practices.......................... 101 Table 6.18 Sources o f information and extension m e th o d s ............................... 102 Table 7.1 Extent o f adoption o f neem seed e x t r a c t ............................................. 107 Table 7.2 Multiple reasons for non-adoption o f neem seed e x t r a c t ................. 108 Table 7.3 Extent o f adoption o f manure ap p lic a tio n ............................................. 109 Table 7.4 Extent o f adoption o f mulching ........................................................... 110 Table 7.5 Multiple reasons for non-adoption o f mulching ............................... I l l Table 7.6 Extent o f adoption o f improved seed varieties ............................... 112 Table 7.7 Multiple reasons for non-adoption o f improved seed varieties ... 113 Table 7.8 Extent o f adoption o f reduction o f pesticide U s e ............................... 113 Table 7.9 Extent o f adoption o f scouting ........................................................... 115 Table 7.10 Multiple reasons for non-adoption o f scouting ............................... 115 Table 7.11 Extent o f adoption o f row planting ... ... ... ... 116 Table 7.12 Multiple reasons for non-adoption o f row planting ................. 117 Table 7.13 Extension method and adoption o f neem seed extract ............ 118 Table 7.14 Extension method and adoption o f manure a p p l ic a t io n ............ 119 Table 7.15 Extension method and adoption o f mulching .......................... 119 Table 7.16 Extension method and adoption o f improved seed varieties 120 Table 7.17 Extension method and adoption o f pesticide reduction ............ 120 Table 7.18 Extension method and adoption o f scouting .......................... 121 Table 7.19 Extension method and adoption o f row planting ... ... ... 122 Table 7.20 Overall adoption o f IPM ... ... ... ... ... ... 123 Table 7.21 Age and overall adoption pattern ... ... ... ... ... 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 7.22 Gender and overall adoption pattern ................. ... ... 124 Table 7.23 Source o f farm labour and overall adoption ............................... 125 Table 7.24 Extent o f adoption, reasons for non-adoption and implications ... 127 Table 8.1 Impact o f IPM intervention......................................................................... 131 xv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 1 Interview questionnaire for the farmer ................................ 155 Appendix 2 Checklist for AEAs .......................................................................... 159 LIST OF APPENDICES xvii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES PA G E F igure 1 A conceptual framework o f the impact o f communication strategy on adoption o f 1PM ......................................................................... 18 xvi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AEA: Agricultural Extension Agent AESA: Agro-ecosystem Analysis AIAEE: Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education ECC: European Economic Community EEC: Biological Control Committee FAO: Food and Agriculture Organisation FFS: Farm ers’ Field School GDP: Gross Domestic Product HYV: High-yielding Varieties IDA: Irrigation Development Authority IIED: International Institute for Environment and Development IITA: International Institute for Tropical Agriculture ILEIA: Information Centre for Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture IPM: Integrated Pest Management IRRI: International Rice Research Institute LDC: Less-Developed Countries LEISA: Low External-Input for Sustainable Agriculture LGB: Larger Grain Borer MoFA: Ministry o f Food and Agriculture NBCC: National Biological Control NGO: Non-governmental Organisation NPRP: National Poverty Reduction Programme OECD: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PAR: Participatory Action Research University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PPMED: Policy Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation Department PPRSD: Plant Protection and Regulatory Service Department SARI: Sahara Agricultural Research Institute SDC: Swiss Development Co-operation SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Scientist TCP: Technical Co-operation Project TOT: Training o f Trainers UNDP: United Nations Development Project USAID: United States Agency for International Development WEICO: Weija Irrigation Company WHO: World Health Organisation University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT AND FOOD SECURITY 1.0 Introduction This chapter is the introduction, and covers the background to the study, importance o f crop protection, IPM as an option for enhancing food security, 'historical review o f IPM in Ghana, the status o f IPM in Ghana and vegetable IPM in Ghana. In addition, it considers the problem, statement research questions, main and specific objectives, significance o f the study, hypotheses, conceptual framework and operational definitions o f concepts. 1.1 Background IPM developed in the 1970s as a response to the negative side effects using pesticides. Pests were becoming resistant to chemical treatments, and the health o f farmers, farm workers and consumers was in danger. These hazards were far greater in the Third World countries, and today’s evidence suggests that the situation has become even more volatile. The latest WHO figures suggest that at least 3 million, and perhaps as many as 25 million agricultural workers are poisoned each year by pesticides, and some 20,000 deaths can be directly attributed to agro-chemical use. Studies from the Philippines have computed the alarming costs o f pesticide to the national economy, showing these negative effects extent far beyond the individual (Pretty, 1995) IPM has become one o f the widely used catchwords in agricultural development and environmental conservation programmes. Successful IPM programmes are o f importance for the world’s food security and for maintaining a healthy environment. Its success also requires a change from pesticide-dominated management to information management o f cropping systems on local up to global scales. Everybody claims to like IPM and even to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh do IPM, but the actual content o f this term differs widely. A particular concern in this regard is that chemical companies redefine the term IPM in order to use it to boost pesticide sales. Hence, the question o f measuring the success o f IPM programmes becomes crucial. Major goals for an IPM initiative are to reduce dependency on chemical pesticide, and achieve sustainable intensification at a level o f pesticide use that corresponds with the social optimum (Waibel, Fleischer, Kenmore, Feder, 1999). As with the provision o f any new on-farm technology, the methods (strategies) used- to disseminate relevant information and skills to farmers and to encourage them towards their sustained practice o f IPM-are as important as the technology itself for rallying wide-scale acceptance. Although there are various IPM technologies for different crops and while there are alternative methods to diffusing these practices, all these instruments and efforts uniformly aim at altering existing farm use o f pesticides and promoting effective and efficient pest-management practices. Farmers are IPM ’s main target beneficiaries. However, others may benefit from externalities that derive from sustained IPM practice and /or the IPM dissemination efforts (Waibel et al, 1999). 1.1.1 Food Security Poor people often and consistently lack access to the food required for them to lead a healthy and productive life. Food insecurity is the oldest o f humanity’s concerns and remains the greatest o f contemporary problem (FAO, 1996). Despite improvements in the world food predicament, the underlying causes o f food crises have not disappeared. About 100 million Africans go hungry everyday and a total o f about one billion people worldwide are classified likewise (Benneh, Tims and Asenso-Okyere, 1996). Asenso-Okyere, Benneh and Tims, (1997) estimated that the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh total number o f people around the world suffering from chronic under nutrition or chronic food insecurity was between 800 and 900 million people in the last 20 years, but apparently declining slowly. Sub-Saharan Africa however showed an increase over the last period from about 100 million to about 200 million. This demonstrates the difficult problems o f Africa in past years and the appropriateness o f renewed interest in food security research and other programmes. With the supplies o f food aid decreasing around the world, reliance on food aid to supplement domestic supplies in West Africa is becoming an increasingly risky policy (Asenso-Okyere, et al, 1997). The key requirement for food security is availability o f adequate food supplies and access to food by the poor (Benneh, et al, 1996). The availability o f adequate food supplies is a function o f agricultural production. The agricultural sector dominates the economies o f most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, contributing about one-third o f the region’s GDP and employing about two-thirds o f the economically active population (FAO, 1996). Chronic food insecurity constitutes a major challenge to efforts to alleviate poverty. Ghana has been struggling with food problems and the situation has reached crises proportions. Although there are local and regional variations in the severity o f the problem, one important characteristic o f the current food crises is its national character. There have been food shortages in both rural and urban areas. The fact o f the matter is that with a population growth rate o f 2.5-3.0 percent per annum, food production has not been able to match the annual growth rate o f population, let alone outstrip it (Bourenane and Mkandawire, 1987). According to Waibel et al, (1999), successful 1PM programmes are o f central importance for the world’s food security and for maintaining a healthy environment. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.1.2 Constraints to Food Security Factors that contribute to food insecurity include the following: • Unfavourable agro-climatic conditions. • Application o f fanning practices that are unsustainable. • Limited opportunity for off-farm employment. • Low soil fertility. • High rate o f post harvest losses due to lack o f effective storage facilities as well as limited knowledge about appropriate food storage and preservation techniques. Sinha, (1976) also indicated the following: a) Labour shortages during specific seasons and/or in particular households. b) Lack o f inputs, agricultural services or institutions and appropriate technology. c) Limited opportunities to cope with food deficits due to a shortage o f employment and income-generating activities, low levels o f remuneration, lack o f incentives or price and marketing constraints. d) Conflicts and wars. In addition to the afore mentioned constraints, pests cause significant losses in productivity and their control can therefore contribute to solving the problem o f food insecurity and poverty to a large extent. Global losses in crop production due to pests are o f the order o f US$300 billion annually. The costs o f pesticides to developing countries are a major drain on foreign exchange at the national level, as well as requiring a significant outlay by farmers at the 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh village level. The estimated expenditure by international development agencies on pest control projects in 1988 was at US$150 million (Rothschild, 1991). FAO estimates indicate that up to 40% o f harvests in developing countries are lost due to weeds, diseases and insect attack. Added to this, another 10 to 20% in post-harvest losses implies that more than half o f the annual crop production may be destroyed. This figure compares unfavourably to the situation in developed countries, where crop losses total approximately 25%. With pests and diseases being one o f the major obstacles to higher agricultural production, much emphasis is put on pest control in the national agricultural programmes and strategies (Farah, 1994). 1.2 IPM as An Option for Enhancing Food Security World population will increase by 2.5 billion by the year 2020, and overall food requirements in developing countries will double. More food will have to be produced in ways that generate income for poor rural populations and that also make food affordable to poor people in cities. Growing demand must be met primarily by increasing production on land already under cultivation (productive and marginal lands), and by reducing post-harvest losses. Efforts to intensify production to meet these objectives should be sustainable, i.e. they should conserve natural resources and make minimal use o f external inputs. Crop protection,-the reduction o f losses caused by pests-is one obvious strategy for increasing the food supply. Pre-harvest and post-harvest agricultural losses are estimated to amount to one- third o f potential production. Quality aspects (pest-free and residue-free agricultural products) are becoming important in light o f market liberalization and the importance that many developing countries attach to exports (SDC, 1994). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Efforts to intensify agricultural production will continue as a result o f the need for food security among rapidly growing populations in developing countries. But changes in agricultural systems and in the intensity o f land use have impacts on the pest problem. Crop protection aspects must accordingly be incorporated as an integral part o f sustainable efforts to intensify production; they will become even more important in the future (SDC, 1994). Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a method o f pest control, which combines different pest control techniques and integrates them into the overall farming system. According to Smith and Reynolds’s (1966) definition, as cited in Afreh-Nuamah, (1996), a definition, which has been embraced by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) o f the United Nations: “IP M is a p est management system which in the context o f the associated environment and the population dynamics o f the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible a manner as possible, and maintains the pest population levels below those causing economic injury". The ultimate goal o f any IPM programme therefore should be sustainable, cost effective, within the capabilities o f the users, and should not harm humans or the environment. IPM strategy combines several benign pest control techniques such as the use o f natural predators, biological pesticides and adapted cultural practices, including breeding plants for pest and disease resistance, with a diminished and less frequent utilisation o f chemical pesticides. As the negative and dangerous impacts o f pesticides on human life and on the environment have become better known in recent decades, scientists developed more natural, cost-effective, and less ecosystem-disruptive and harmful 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh methods to control pests without heavily relying on chemical pesticides as in the case o f Integrated Pest Management (IPM) (Farah, 1994). Studies show that some IPM programmes have been and still are very successful in pest management. Examples are rice in Indonesia, cassava in Africa and Soybean in Brazil. IPM implementation has also been successful for tree crops in West Africa (NRI, 1992). This demonstrates that IPM can work in practice, a conclusion supported by the results o f case studies mostly based on experiments in farmers’ fields (Farah, 1994). It has also been recommended at a workshop held in Addis Ababa that the IP M F anner F ield School concept, which is a participatory training methodology, be adapted into G hana’s extension delivery systems. The crops selected as targets for this programme were: vegetable (tomato, okra, garden egg and cabbage), maize (storage), rice (upland and valley bottom) (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996). Ghanaian authorities are now promoting and implementing sustainable agriculture and IPM programmes as an alternative to the sole use o f pesticides. Akumadan farmers are used as an example o f how the change in policy has benefited the community in general by improving crop yields and lessening the risk o f severe exposure to pesticides (Davis, 1997). 1.3 Current Developments in IPM In 1957, “ Integrated Pest Management” was first proposed as a concept, which promoted the use o f biological control (mostly free), good agronomic practices (good for crop yields), and other means before investing in chemical pesticides (costly, destroy natural enemies, create environmental and health social costs) to control pests. At that time, as now, many farmers used pesticides on a calendar basis, governments promoted their use, and they were considered an essential aspect o f “modern” agriculture. Sometime later, largely due to basic misuse o f “economic thresholds”, IPM also began to be defined as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “spray only when the pest exceeds the threshold”. The original concept was to promote good practices; the second concept was useful for selling pesticides. According to Kiss and Meerman, (1991), recent developments have shown that IPM could be more practical and field-oriented to the benefit o f the ordinary farmer especially when it is adopted not as a technology, but as an approach and strategy for developing technologies for solving pest and disease problems as and when they occur. A w ider view o f IPM has been developed in recent years as a result o f farmer focused Farmer F ield School programmes. The basis o f this view is derived from the original biologically intensive IPM concepts. Academic definitions are replaced with understandable straight principles: • Grow a healthy crop • Observe field regularly (i.e. weekly) • Conserve natural enemies; and • Understand ecology and become expert in the field (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996). 1.4 Historical Review of IPM Implementation in Ghana According to Dixon, (undated), from 1980 to date, Ghana has been confronted with numerous pest outbreaks which pesticides played important role in controlling. However, in certain cases, such as the cassava and mango mealy bug outbreaks, chemical control was neither effective nor successful. This therefore necessitated the formation o f committees to take a critical look at how best to control such pests. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4.1 Pest Outbreaks (1980 -1992) Though there were other outbreaks like the variegated grasshoppers, armyworms etc. the listed pests raised concern o f the authorities and led to the formation o f various committees at different times and levels: • Cassava Mealy bugs • Cassava Green Mite • Mango Mealy bug • W ater Hyacinth K[L ‘ The outbreak o f cassava mealy bug was first detected in the Volta Region in Ghana in 1980. In 1981 it had spread to the eastern Region, where students and MoFA (PPRSD) staff formed task forces and embarked on mechanical and chemical control and imposed internal quarantine without any success. In 1982, mealy bug had spread to other regions. Without any success with pesticides and other control methods, MoFA requested for assistance from FAO in 1983. FAO in response approved a Technical Co-operation Project (TCP) for the control o f this exotic pest o f cassava. In 1984 Cassava Improvement Committee was formed involving the Research Institutions, the Universities, MoFA and the Ministry o f Health (Nutrition Department) with the under- listed objectives: • To find ways and means to control the cassava mealy bug. • To co-ordinate other cassava improvement activities in the country. • To adopt the FAO consultants report/recommendations on the biocontrol o f the cassava mealy bug. • To introduce and test improved/tolerant varieties from IITA to pests and diseases. • Larger Grain Borer 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There was also the implementation o f Biological Control Program as a com ponent o f African-wide Biological control programme under the leadership o f IITA/PHMD. In 1985, the World Bank Team commended the cassava mealy bug control programme as very successful. Between 1986-1991, there were other outbreaks o f Variegated grasshoppers, armyworms, Sigatoka, whitefly etc. In 1992, Integrated Pest M anagement (IPM) was adapted as the official strategy for pest control by M oFA/ PPRSD. There was also the establishment o f the National Biological Control Committee (NBCC) with working groups on LGB, vegetable pests, mango mealy bug and Cereal Stem borers. 1.5 The Status o f IPM in Ghana IPM has also been recognised as one o f the practical alternative measures that could be used to deal with the many problems emanating from increasing pesticide use, especially at the farm level. However, its implementation had been restricted to few isolated crops in the developed world (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996). The process o f adoption o f IPM as a major component o f Ghana’s Plant Production/ Protection Strategy is documented by Afreh-Nuamah, (1996). This was in recognition o f the fact that excessive use o f pesticide especially on crops like vegetables (tomato, cabbage and garden eggs) had led to unacceptable residues in market produce resulting in risks to consumers and commodity rejection on the international market. Increasing incidence o f farmer poisoning and long-term effects o f pesticides on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems was further causing concern to agriculturists and environmentalists. According to the document, in August-September 1993, two specialists (Director, Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Department o f MoFA and an IPM specialist o f the University o f Ghana, Legon) were sent to represent Ghana at the Global IPM meeting in Bangkok, Thailand. They noted the widespread adoption o f University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh participatory IPM (as national strategies) in South East Asian rice fields and the subsequent considerable reduction in the amount o f pesticide use. As a follow-up, a national IPM Advisory Committee (i.e. a National Integrated Crop Protection Advisory Committee) was formed in 1995. This committee chaired by the honourable Deputy Minister o f Food and Agriculture (MoFA) in charge o f crops, consisted o f prominent scientists concerned with IPM from the Universities and research institutions, directors o f relevant departments o f MoFA (i.e. Extension Services, Crop Services and Plant Protection and Regulatory Services), agrochemical sellers and farmers. After this, number o f proposals for funding by the FAO were initiated but because o f the experience o f the participatory IPM on rice, the FAO accepted to fund a pilot project for the adaptation o f the Asian IPM training methodology (the IPM farmer field schools (FFS) concept) to Ghanaian conditions under Government o f Ghana/FAO Technical Co-operation Programme (TCP/GHA/4553-Rice IPM). This pilot project was sited at the Dawhenya Irrigation Project (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996). Follow-up training programmes for rice farmers were established at five irrigation sites (Tono in the Upper East Region; Bontanga, Northern Region; Afife, Volta Region; Asutsuare, Eastern Region and Ashaiman, Greater Accra Region) from where the trainers (facilitators) were drawn. The main objective o f these follow-up programmes being to extend the experience gained from Dawhenya to other Regions so that farmers on these projects can benefit from IPM training. The results from both the pilot project at Dawhenya in 1995 and the follow-up training programmes at the five (5) irrigation projects showed marked similarities between Asian and Ghanaian irrigated rice ecosystems. For example a wide varieties o f insect pests and their natural enemies have been observed, and without use o f pesticides, rice yields were University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh increased, a good indication that IPM as practised in Asia would also work in Ghanaian irrigated rice systems. The Fanner Field School concept has been recommended to be adapted into the Ghanaian extension delivery system. It has also been recommended that pilot programmes on ciops which depend on much pesticides and with considerable scientific and technical information available both locally or from elsewhere, be established (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996). Consequently, the following crops were selected as targets for this programme: vegetables (tomato, okra, garden eggs and cabbage), cowpea, cotton, pineapple, plantain, maize (storage) and rice (upland and valley bottom). IPM FFS has actually started on cowpea under the CRSP/ Cowpea programme (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996). 1.6 Vegetable IPM in Ghana Small scale farmers are the main pillars o f Ghana’s agricultural production, producing over 90 percent o f the country’s food crops. Consequently, the Medium term Agricultural Programme (MTADP) o f the country focuses attention on increased small holder productivity for food crops through expansion o f area cultivated, increased research, efficient supply and utilization o f inputs and strengthening o f the agricultural extension services (Afreh-Nuamah, 1998). According to FAO (1993), vegetable production has a great potential in Ghana. Both private and government sectors are involved. The private sector is by far the most important. In general, small holders abound throughout the country and several companies have established vegetable farms near urban areas. Most vegetable farms are small with an area o f 0.2-0.4ha, while commercial farms cultivate between 5-10 hectares. Most farmers practise intercropping. They grow vegetables throughout the year 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh but sometimes sowing is so timed as to profit from rainfall. Other swam py areas are reclaimed for vegetable production in the dry season. The most common vegetables are: onion, shallot, hot pepper, tomato, eggplant, okra, cocoyam leaves, cabbage, cauliflower, beans and pepper. Export-oriented production focuses on pepper and okra. Weed control is reported to be the operation that takes the maximum toll o f the farmers’ time and energy, and is the reason why many farmers restrict vegetable production to smaller areas (less than an acre). Hand-picking sedentary pests is a common practice among most women vegetable growers. Farmers who can afford pesticides use them but often do so without adhering to proper and safe methods o f application. Experience has shown that Farmer F ield Schools have the greatest impact on production systems where intensive use and abuse o f pesticides and other agro-chemicals is practised. The crops that are best suited for vegetable IPM training are the ones that are most widely grown, that are currently consuming most pesticides and other agro­ chemicals, and that have major crop health problems. Two groups o f crops have been observed to be the first potential target vegetables for an 1PM training programme: solanaceous crops (tomato, pepper, garden egg), crucifers (cabbage, cauliflower). Second priority targets are okra, cowpea and water melon (Janny and Afreh-Nuamah, 1997). 1.7 Problem Statement The IPM concept is far from new. Farmers used integrated pest control long before scientists coined the term. It has, however, gained widespread scientific recognition in the past two decades (Rothschild, 1991; Lutz, Biswanger, Hazell and McCalla, 1998). Traditionally, farmers have relied on indirect pest control measures o f crop rotation or University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh intercropping, supplemented by mechanical means o f control such as pulling out o f weeds, removal o f egg masses from plants, and destroying crop residues (Afreh- Nuamah, 1995). Thus, in traditional farming systems, pest management is inseparable from sound farm management. However, changes in farming systems during the past half century lost sight o f this approach, and chemical control methods became the pillar in the control o f pests and diseases in modem agriculture (Kiss and Meerman, 1991). Consequently, there have always been the issue o f economic risks and positive returns from using IPM rather than conventional, scheduled practices (Smith el al, 1989; Anon, 1990, as cited in: Afreh-Nuamah, 1996). During the past decade, however, growing concerns about the risk and negative effects o f chemical methods have spurred agriculturists, environmentalists, and economists to explore pest management strategies that have fewer side effects on public health and the environment. The most well known among these strategies is IPM (Lutz et al, 1998). Integrated pest management [IPM] is increasingly recognised as a vital element in sustainable agricultural development. In IPM, farmers use their knowledge o f ecological processes in the agricultural system to combine a variety o f compatible tactics to increase the productivity o f crops and reduce the impact o f pests, diseases and weeds. Pesticides are used as little as possible, if at all, with corresponding benefit to farmers’ income, human health and the environment. Although a number o f promising IPM options are becoming available, adoption o f IPM at farm level, especially in Africa, is disappointingly slow. Poor communication between farmers and researchers is believed by many stakeholders in the agricultural development process to be a constraint limiting IPM adoption (NGO-IPM Workshop Summary, 1999). 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh IPM appears to present such a clearly preferable approach that it may seem strange that it is not universally adopted (Bull, 1982; Rothschild, 1991; Farah, 1994). Although crop protection specialists generally accept IPM as the ultimate goal o f any crop protection measure against pests and diseases, few o f them actually practise the concept. Others however, consider it as a sophisticated, theoretical, or largely academic discipline, which cannot solve the real world’s problems (Kissman and Meerman, 1991). According to Kenmore (1989), though there is considerable research and demonstration-plot data to show that IPM is workable, there is still a lingering doubt about its reliability under all circumstances. Afreh-Nuamah, (1996) also states that although various institutions involved in research, development and implementation o f IPM have made a tremendous effort and have attempted various strategies, these have resulted in limited success. Constraints that limit IPM implementation operate across the entire political, institutional, socio-economic and technical environment in which the pest problem is experienced. Until recently, relatively little attention has been paid to the incorporation o f dissemination and adoption in research programmes (Hainsworth and Eden-Green, 2000). One o f the fundamental shifts is the greater emphasis on direct farmer involvement in Farm ers' F ield School. The IPM F arm ers’ F ield School is a novel extension mechanism, and thus involves an embodiment o f communication strategy Communication strategies used to disseminate information on innovations influence the adoption o f the innovations. Weaknesses in communication strategies therefore seem to contribute significantly to the low adoption. This makes strategies o f communicating IPM practices a critical problem, for they are likely to influence their adoption. According to Rogers (1995), the relationship between communication methods and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh attributes o f the innovation interact to slow down or speed up the rate o f adoption. Agricultural extension has the role o f helping farmers to form sound opinions and to make good decisions by communicating with them and providing them with the information they need. Once the needs o f an area or community have been identified, it is the task o f extension workers to choose the teaching methods or strategies that are most effective in achieving their educational objectives. This situation is applicable to IPM as well. Different communication strategies are widely used in different situations in the dissemination o f information in agricultural extension delivery activities. There is evidence that whenever innovation information is adequately communicated, there are high levels o f adoption o f those innovations, which translate into high levels o f development (Rao, 1966). He added that there is a strong correlation between communication and social, economic and political development. One o f the major problems o f introducing an improved or new idea into a social system is how to adequately communicate the idea. Communication does not take place in a social vacuum. It takes place in a social context o f system and sub-system variables and values (Beal, Blount, Powers and Johnson, 1966). This makes the socio-economic characteristics o f farmers very crucial in studies o f adoption as well. This study therefore seeks to address the problem that the low adoption o f IPM practices may be associated with the communication strategies used in communicating them to farmers. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.8. Research Questions 1. Which communication strategies (methods) are more effective in the dissemination o f IPM messages? 2. To what extent do personal socio-economic characteristics influence adoption o f IPM practices? 1.9 Main Objective To determine ways o f enhancing the adoption o f IPM practices through use o f more effective communication strategies. 1.10 Specific Objectives 1.To describe the various communication strategies used in disseminating IPM practices. 2. To determine the level o f adoption o f IPM practices. 3.To determine the relationship between communication strategies (methods) and extent o f adoption o f IPM. 4. To determine the relationships between personal socio-economic characteristics o f farmers and adoption. 5. To suggest communication strategies likely to enhance adoption o f IPM. 1.11 Significance of the Study The findings are likely to contribute to understanding o f how communication methods or strategies contribute to effectiveness o f empowering farmers to make their own decisions with regard to pest management. Through the enhanced adoption, it is hoped to contribute to reducing the problem o f crop losses due to pests, thus minimising the problem o f food insecurity and poverty. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.12 Hypotheses 1. There is no relationship between personal socio-economic characteristics o f farmers and adoption o f IPM. 2. There is no relationship between communication strategies and IPM adoption. 1.13 Conceptual Framework Figure 1 shows a framework for analysis o f the influence o f communication strategy or strategies on adoption o f IPM practices. It is based on the assumption that adoption o f IPM practices is influenced by personal socio-economic characteristics o f farmers and communication strategies as well as the nature o f the IPM practices themselves. Also, an IPM project is expected to produce economic and non-economic benefits. On the farm household level, economic benefits for example are: increased yield, more stable income, increased business opportunity and improved health. Figure 1: A Conceptual Framework of the Impact o f Communication Strategy on Adoption of IPM Practices 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Operational Definition o f Concepts 1.14.1 IPM Rabb (1972) defined Pest Management as the intelligent selection and use o f pest control actions that will ensure favourable economic, ecological, and sociological consequences. Van Schoubroeck, Herens, de Louw, Louwen and Overtoom, (1992), however, defined IPM as a pest management strategy that attempts to apply more than a single pest management technique in such a way that the different methods complement each other. They added that IPM is a broad ecological approach to pest control, utilising a variety o f control technologies compatibly in a single pest management System; IPM can draw upon a number o f different pest management methods. These include biological and cultural controls, physical controls, the use o f pest-resistant varieties and a number o f other techniques. Based on the above definitions, the conceptual definition o f IPM for this study is: pest management strategy which utilizes a combination o f non-chemical crop protection methods such as the cultivation o f resistant varieties, mulching, use o f neem extract, manure application, row planting and a number o f other methods in a manner that brings under control pests and diseases, whilst ensuring a sound and safe agro-ecosystem. 1.14.2 Communication Strategy Extension is the conscious communication o f information to help people form sound opinions and make good decisions (van den Ban and Hawkins, 1999). MacDonald and Hearle (1984:34) identify different communication strategies that could be used in development work. These include: individual methods, by working with groups and through the mass media. This formed the basis o f classification o f communication 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh strategies. For the purpose o f this study, communication strategy and extension method are synonymous. F arm ers’ F ield School is a methodology based on a structured learning process in a group context. The concept allows farmers to explore areas o f research that are o f particular interest and importance to them. This training concept is not only limited to IPM in the strict sense. The flexibility o f the concept and the experiential learning on which it is based has made it a widely used extension tool (Stoll, 1997). 1.14.3 A doption o f IP M P ractices A doption: According to Rogers (1995), adoption is defined as the decision (and behaviour) to make use o f a technology or practice. For the purpose o f this study, adoption o f an IPM practice is the use o f the practice as an integral part o f pest management. Any farmer who has not adopted any o f the practices is designated a non- adopter. I f a farmer adopts from one to four o f the practices, that farmer is designated a low adopter. I f a farmer adopts from five to seven o f the practices, that farmer is designated a high adopter N on-adoption is the situation where a farmer has been introduced to a recommendation but does not use it. 1.14.4 P ersonal Socio-Economic C haracteristics This is defined to include age, educational status, gender, source o f credit, labour and production constraints. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.14.5 Impacts o f IPM Intervention This is defined as the effect o f 1PM programme on farmers and their practices. This includes farmers’ health status, diversity o f crops grown, incidence o f pests and diseases, health status, use o f pesticides, labour requirement, business opportunity and stability o f income. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction IPM has not been widely adopted in spite if its numerous advantages. Whilst the causes o f the low adoption are many, inadequate communication methods seem to contribute significantly. Personal socio-economic characteristics o f farmers are also likely to contribute to its pattern o f adoption. Investigating the causes o f low adoption in light o f communication strategies and personal socio-economic characteristics would contribute to ways o f improving its adoption. The purpose o f this chapter is to review literature relevant to the study. The literature on adoption and diffusion o f innovations, the process o f adoption and attributes o f innovation as related to adoption are reviewed first. The chapter then proceeds to examine personal socio-economic characteristics o f target groups in relation to adoption. The chapter also reviews methods o f extension and returns to IPM and its diffusion methods o f extension and returns to IPM and its diffusion. 2.1 Adoption of Innovations An innovation is an idea, method or object which is regarded as new by an individual, but which is not always the result o f recent research (van den Ban and Hawkins, 1999). According to Feder, Just and Zilbermann (1982), adoption o f technological innovations in agriculture has attracted considerable attention among development economists because the majority o f the population o f less-developed countries (LDCs) derives its livelihood from agricultural production and because new technology apparently offers opportunity to increase production and income substantially. But the introduction o f many new technologies has been met with only partial success as measured by observed University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh rates o f adoption. The conventional wisdom is that constraints to the rapid adoption o f innovations involves factors such as the lack o f credit, limited access to information, aversion to risk, inadequate farm size, inadequate incentives associated with farm tenure arrangements, insufficient human capital, absence o f equipment to relieve labour shortages (thus preventing timeliness o f operations), chaotic supply o f complementary inputs (such as seed, chemical, and water) and inappropriate transportation infrastructure. For instance, McGuirk and M undlak’s (1991) analysis o f the adoption o f high-yield varieties in the Punjab showed that adoption was restrained by the availability o f water and fertilizer. Private investment in the drilling o f wells, and private and public investment in the establishment o f fertilizer production and supply facilities removed these constraints and contributed to the diffusion o f modern what and rice varieties in the Punjab. However, many development projects have sought to remove some o f these constraints by introducing facilities to provide credit, information, orderly supply o f necessary and complementary inputs, infrastructure investments, marketing network etc. Removal o f these constraints was expected to result not only in adoption o f the improved practices but also in a change in crop composition, which was thought to further increase average farm incomes. Expectations, however, have been realized only partially. As past experience shows, immediate and uniform adoption o f innovation in agriculture is quite rare. In most cases, adoption behaviour differs across socio-economic groups and time. Some innovations have been well received while other improvements have been adopted by only a very small group o f farmers (Feder, Just and Zilbermann, 1982), University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 The Process of Adoption Rogers, (1962), as cited in, Feder et al, (1982) defines adoption process as “the mental process an individual passes from first hearing about an innovation to final adoption” . Final adoption at the individual farmer’s level is defined as the use o f a new technology in long-term equilibrium when the farmer has full information about the new technology and its potential. This definition corresponds to Schultz’s (1975) as cited in Feder et al, (1982) contention that the introduction o f new technologies results in a period o f disequilibrium behaviour where resources are not utilized efficiently by the individual farmer. Research studies have demonstrated clearly the extensive delays which often occur between the time farmers hear about favourable innovations and the time they adopt them, and what happens during this time. The following stages are often used to analyse the adoption process: i. Awareness: the individual first hears about the innovation; ii. Interest: the individual seeks further information about it; iii. Evaluation: the individual weighs up the advantages and disadvantages o f using it; iv. Trial: the individual tests the innovation on a small scale; v. Adoption: the individual applies the innovation on a large scale in preference to old methods (van den Ban and Hawkins, 1999). In most cases, agricultural technologies are introduced in packages that include several components, for example, high-yielding varieties (HYV), fertilizers, and corresponding land preparation practices. While the components o f a package may complement each other, some o f them can be adopted independently. Thus, farmers may face several distinct technological options. They may adopt the complete package o f innovations introduced in the region or subsets that can be adopted individually. In these cases, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh several adoption and diffusion processes may occur simultaneously. The definition o f adoption above refers to the “degree o f use” o f a new technology as a quantitative measure o f the extent o f adoption. A distinction needs to be drawn, however, between new technologies which are divisible (such as HYV or new variable inputs) and innovations, which apply to the whole farm and are not divisible, at least at a practical level (e.g., harvesters). For non-divisible innovations, the extent o f adoption at the farm level in a given period is necessarily dichotomous (use/ no use); but, in the aggregate, the measure becomes continuous (e.g., the percentage o f farmers using harvesters (Feder et al, 1982). 2.3 Attributes of Innovations and Adoption For an innovation to be easily adopted, it must have certain characteristics. The following characteristics o f innovations have been identified: 2.3.1 Relative Advantage Relative advantage is the degree to which a technology is perceived to be better than the idea it supersedes in terms o f economic profitability, social prestige, physical convenience, low initial cost, lower perceived risk, decreasing discomfort, psychological satisfaction or saving o f time. A cheaper technology will be adopted faster than a more expensive one (Rogers, 1995; Roling, 1990 in: Mwangi, 1998). The relative advantage o f an innovation, as perceived by members o f a social system, is positively related to its rate o f adoption (Rogers, 1995). Availability and cost also influence technology adoption. In Kenya, for example, many farmers adopted tractor land preparation, though costly, because the government made tractors readily available to farmers for hire. As an example o f how physical convenience University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh influences technology adoption, many farmers in Kenya preferred planting maize and beans in the same hole, against research recommendations, because it was more convenient. They also refused to plant two rows o f beans between rows o f corn, recommended by researchers through the Training and Visit Extension System, because doing so required more labour for planting and weeding which was a major constraint during the weeding period (Mwangi, 1998). Technologies can be classified as cost-reducing or cost-increasing. Here one may distinguish the impact o f innovation on fixed cost and variable cost. Since cost derives from a number o f inputs, some cost-reducing innovations are categorized according to their impact on specific inputs to production. For example, a new and improved type o f harvesting equipment may be most noted for its labour-saving effect. A new irrigation technology may be described according to whether and to what extent it has a water- saving effect. In some cases an innovation may have multiple effects. For example, the tomato harvester is labour-saving but capital- and energy-using. Modern irrigation technologies are yield-increasing, water-saving, and capital-using (Caswell and Zilberman, 1986). 2.3.2 Compatibility Compatibility is the degree to which a technology is perceived to be consistent with the farmer’s goals and aspirations; socio-cultural values, norms and beliefs, and past experiences; needs o f potential adopters; and existing farm practices. Technologies compatible with existing farm practices encourage a positive attitude toward change, improve the agent’s credibility, and may be adopted faster. An idea that is more compatible is less uncertain to the potential adopter, and fits more closely with the individual’s life situation. Such compatibility helps the individual give meaning to the 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh new idea so that it is regarded, as familiar. An innovation can be com patible or incompatible with socio-cultural values and beliefs, with previously introduced, or with client need for innovation. An innovation’s incompatibility with cultural values can block its adoption (Rogers 1995; Mwangi, 1998). For example, Punjabi farmers covered their new tractors with blankets to keep them warm (as they had done their bullocks) but never thought to replace the oil or air filters, causing the tractors to break down (Rogers, 1995). An innovation may be compatible not only with deeply imbedded cultural values but also with previously adopted ideas. Compatibility o f an innovation with a preceding idea can either speed or retard its rate o f adoption. Old ideas are the main mental tools that individuals utilise to assess new ideas. Previous practice provides a familiar standard against which an innovation can be interpreted, thus decreasing uncertainty. Obviously, however, i f a new idea were completely congruent with existing practice, there would be no innovation, at least in the minds o f the potential adopters. In other words, the more compatible an innovation is, the less o f a change in behaviour it represents. One dimension o f the compatibility o f an innovation is the degree to which it meets a felt need. Change agents seek to determine the needs o f their clients, and then to recommend innovations that fulfil these needs. Discovering felt needs is not a simple matter; change agents must have a high degree o f empathy and rapport with their clients in other to assess their needs accurately. Potential adopters may not recognise that they have a need for an innovation until they are aware o f the new idea or its consequences. In these cases, change agents may seek to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh generate needs among their clients but this must be done carefully or else the felt needs upon which a diffusion campaign is based may be only a reflection o f the change agent’s needs, rather than those o f clients. The compatibility o f an innovation, as perceived by members o f a social system, is positively related to its rate o f adoption (Rogers, 1995). 2.3.3 Complexity Complexity is the degree to which a technology is perceived as relatively difficult to understand or use. Any new idea may be classified on the complexity -simplicity continuum. Some innovations are clear in their meaning to potential adopters whereas others are not. The complexity o f an innovation, as perceived by members o f a social system, is negatively related to its rate o f adoption (Rogers, 1995; Mwangi, 1998). It may be necessary to introduce a package o f several relatively simple but related innovations. Each on its own may be easy, but the relationship between them may be difficult to understand (Rogers, 1995). For instance, a young Bahati farmer attempted to keep pigs without knowing what that entailed. He consulted livestock professionals on housing and feeding but later wondered why his weanors were experiencing unusually low growth rates. He had neglected regular control o f internal parasites. For him, swine production was a complex technology that required a thorough understanding for effective implementation (Rogers, 1995). A committee o f rural sociologists has classified practices in terms o f their complexity, which roughly represents the speed with which acceptance may be expected to occur. The gradient is as follows: (1) Change in materials and equipment only, without change in techniques or operation (e.g. new variety o f seed); 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2) Change in existing operations with or without a change in materials or equipm ent (e.g. change in rotation o f crop). (3) Change involving new technologies or operation (e.g. contour cropping). (4) Change in total enterprise (e.g. from crop to livestock farming). 2.3.4 Trialability Trialability is the degree to which a technology may be experimented with on a limited basis to determine its efficacy before adopting it on a large scale. New ideas that can be tried on the instalment plan are generally adopted more rapidly than innovations that are not divisible. A farmer will be more inclined to adopt an innovation which he has tried first on a small scale on his own farm, and which proved to work better than an innovation he had tried immediately on large scale. The latter involves too much risk. This trial is a means to dispel uncertainty about the new idea. The trialability o f an innovation, as perceived by members o f a social system, is positively related to its rate o f adoption (Rogers, 1995). A farmer tried to grow 20 acres o f maize in Kitale D istrict in Kenya but lost the crop due to drought. A second farmer sowed 100 acres o f wheat in Mau Narok but excessive rain destroyed the wheat. I f these farmers had grown the crops first on a smaller scale, they would have avoided crippling losses (Mwangi, 1998). 2.3.5 Observability or Visibility Observability is the degree to which the results o f a technology are visible or observable. The result o f some ideas are easily observed and communicated to others, whereas some innovations are difficult to observe or to describe to others. Farmers learn much from observing and discussing their colleague’s experiences. The observability o f an innovation as perceived by members o f a social system, is positively related to its rate o f adoption (Rogers 1995). The more viable a new practice is and the easier its results are University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to observe, describe and communicate to others, the more rapidly it will be adopted. Material innovations and concrete ideas that are easily observable are adopted faster than less concrete ones (Mwangi, 1998). Although it cannot be said with certainty, the following additional generalisations seem likely to apply to practice adoption rates: 1. Practices involving large capital outlay will be adopted more slowly than those requiring small amounts o f capital. 2. The more compatible a practice with existing farming operations, the more likely it will be adopted quickly. 3. Traits or practices readily communicated by conventional method used by farmers will be adopted more readily than those that are not. 4. The more difficult it is to retract a decision and the subsequent consequences, the slower adoption is likely to be. 5. Costly and complex practices that can be taken a little at a time will likely be adopted more quickly than where this is not possible (Lionberger, 1968). 2.4 Personal Socio-Economic Characteristics and Adoption In communication-adoption studies, it is usual to investigate the personal and social characteristics o f respondents in order to understand their relative influence in the adoption behaviour (Onu, 1991). Van den Ban and Hawkins (1999) stated that there are many situations in which all farmers cannot be recommended to adopt an innovation because this decision should depend on their resources and personal values. Fliegel (1984) noted that each farmer, male or female, young or old, more or less educated, is ultimately a unique individual with a host o f characteristics that may well affect how information is received, processed and either used or not used in the production process. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Lionberger, (1968) also stated that all people are to some degree “set in their ways” and, to a degree, incapable o f perceiving pertinent relationships in new situations, or analysing them in terms o f adjustment alternatives, and o f making satisfactory adjustments to them. Nevertheless, people vary greatly in this respect. The farmer who is inclined to mental rigidity tends to resort to the traditional formula o f hard work, persistence, and thrift in matters o f farm management. A mentally flexible person is capable o f perceiving significant elements in novel situations, o f dealing with them mentally, and o f making adjustments to them. The latter would most certainly be associated with high adoption rates. Reasons why farmers adopt farm practices more quickly at one time than another relate to the situation in which they find themselves when alternative courses o f action become known. Although situational factors are many and varied, only a few have been the subject o f research. These include farm income, size o f farm, tenure status, community prestige, sources o f farm information used, level o f living, and the complexity o f the practice or change involved. He adds that individual and personal factors like age, years o f school completed and such selected psychological characteristics as mental flexibility and orientation toward farming as a business, also affect adoption (Lionberger, 1968). 2.4.1 Age Elderly farmers generally seem to be somewhat less inclined to adopt new farm practices than younger ones. However, according to Rogers (1995), there is inconsistent evidence about the relationship o f age and innovativeness; about half o f some 228 studies on this subject show no relationship, a few show that earlier adopters are younger, and some indicate they are older. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.2 Gender The issue o f misconception and non-recognition o f the role o f women in agricultural development has been gaining momentum since the early 1970’s. It is gradually being recognised that the role o f women in agriculture is important, and that the neglect o f women in development interventions is a major reason why many programmes fail to reach target goals (Roling, 1988 in: Ahmad and Ismail, 1988). According to Ahmad and Ismail, (1988), there is an increasing recognition o f the need to integrate women in mainstream agricultural development. From a global perspective, the Food and Agriculture Organisation o f the United Nations developed a plan o f action for strengthening the role o f women in agricultural development. 2.4.3 Education Schooling has been valued as a means o f increasing knowledge about new farm technology. The assumption is that schooling facilitates learning, which in turn is presumed to instil a favourable attitude toward the use o f improved farm practices. Be that as it may, the relationship between years o f schooling and farm practice adoption rates is likely to be indirect, except in cases where persons learn specifically about new practices in school. Where this is not the case, education may merely create a supposedly favourable mental atmosphere for the acceptance o f new practices (Lionberger, 1968). Rogers (1995) stated that earlier adopters have more years o f formal education than later adopters. He added that earlier adopters are more likely to be literate than are later adopters. Huffman (1977), as cited in: Feder el al, (1982), stated that farmers with higher education possess higher allocative ability and adjust faster to reduction in nitrogen prices by adopting nitrogen-intensive technologies. He further noted that education is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh particularly important when extension activities are less intense. Evenson (1973) as cited in (Feder et al, 1982), found that education plays a strong role in determining rates o f adoption o f technology in developing agriculture. Some indirect support for this assertion can be inferred from other studies surveyed in Lochheed, Jamison, and Lau (1980) in Feder et al, (1982). These studies found a significant relationship between education indicators and farm productivity. Since adoption o f innovations generally increases productivity, the importance o f education (and extension) in affecting adoption behaviour seems to be implied. 2.4.4 Farm Income High farm income nearly always is associated with high farm practice adoption levels. A reciprocal cause-and-effect relationship is likely. Alertness to change and quick adoption o f new farm practices suited to prevailing farming conditions leads to higher incomes. This in turn makes more capital available for the adoption o f new practices. However, the fact that low-income farmers are slow to adopt practices that they could well afford suggests that factors other than income are operative. The actual adoption and use o f an innovation involves some cost to the farmers, for instance the initial cost o f the innovation itself. As such, the individual needs to have a certain level o f income if he is to adopt the innovation (Lionberger, 1968). 2. 4.5 Credit The need to undertake fixed investments may prevent small farmers from adopting new innovations quickly. Access to capital in the form o f either accumulated savings or capita! markets is necessary in financing the adoption o f many new agricultural technologies. Thus, differential access to capital is often cited as a factor affecting differential rates o f adoption. This is, in particularly, the case with indivisible University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh technology, such as tractors or other machinery that requires a large initial investment. These implications have been confirmed by descriptive and empirical work on the role o f credit as well (Lipton, 1976; Bhalla, 1979; Cline, 1979 in: Feder el al, (1982). On the other hand, others have argued that lack o f credit is not a crucial factor inhibiting adoption o f innovations that are scale neutral. A number o f studies, however, have found that lack o f credit is an important factor limiting adoption o f HYV technology where fixed pecuniary costs are not large (Feder et al, 1982). 2.4.6 Size of Farm Farm size is one o f the first factors on which the empirical adoption literature focused. Farm size can have different effects on the rate o f adoption depending on the characteristics o f the technology and institutional setting. More specifically, the relationship o f farm size to adoption depends on such factors as fixed adoption costs, risk preference, human capital, credit constraints, labour requirements, tenure arrangements etc (Feder et al, 1982). However, according to Lionberger, (1968), size o f farm is nearly always positively related to the adoption o f new farm practices. He added that m any new technological advances require large-scale operations and substantial economic resources for their use. Also, use o f improved farm practices produces economic benefits which permit expansion o f farming operations, which in turn makes it economically possible to use more improved farm practices. An often-mentioned impediment to adoption o f new technology by smaller farms relates to fixed costs attached to implementation. Large fixed costs cause a reduced tendency to adopt and a slower rate o f adoption on smaller farms Feder et al, (1982). These conclusions are supported by Weil, (1970) in Feder et al, (1982), who found in Africa that adopters o f ox cultivation cropped larger areas and operated significantly larger farms than those using hand cultivation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Several studies reviewed by Binswanger (1978) in Feder et al, (1982) have found a similarly strong positive relationship between farm size and adoption o f tractor in south Asia. Other empirical studies have shown that inadequate farm size also impedes efficient utilization and adoption o f certain types o f irrigation equipment such as pumps and tubewells (Hodgdon, 1966; Dobbs and Foster, 1972; Gafsi and Roe, 1979 all in: Feder et al, (1982). 2.4.7 T en u re S tatus It is well known that farm owners have more complete control over farming operations than tenants. Owners can make decisions to adopt new practices, but tenants m ust often obtain the concurrence o f the owner before trial or use. This is particularly true where some financial backing by the owner is required. Consequently, adoption rates are usually higher for farm owners than for those who rent their farms. According to Lionberger (1960), a farmer may farm on his own land, or he m ay be a tenant farmer. Tenancy can range from lease, rent or mortgage depending on local conditions. The kind o f user or ownership right that an individual has over the farmland tends to affect the farmer’s decision to adopt or reject innovations. Where the farmer has individual ownership rights, he has more control over his operations than a tenant who has to rely on the good will and willingness o f the landlord to adopt certain innovations. However, differences between owners and renters are likely to vary greatly regionally due to differences in tenancy arrangements and freedom accorded the renters to make decisions. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.8 Labour Availability Labour availability is another often-mentioned variable which affects farm ers’ decisions regarding adoption o f new agricultural practices or inputs. Some new technologies are relatively labour saving, and others are labour using. For example, ox cultivation technology is labour saving, and its adoption might be encouraged by labour shortage. On the other hand, high yield variety (HYV) technology generally requires more labour inputs so labour shortages may prevent adoption. Moreover, new technologies may increase the seasonal demand on labour so that adoption is less attractive for those with limited family labour or those operating in areas with less access to labour market (Feder et al, 1982). Hicks and Johnson (1974) in: Feder el al, (1982) have found that higher rural labour supply leads to greater adoption o f labour-intensive varieties in Taiwan. 2.5 Communication Strategies Farmers have need as to the kind o f extension methods and channels o f communication to be used to present messages to them (Maunder, 1973). For messages to reach farmers effectively, certain methods need to be used. Mwangi, (1998), citing M ung’ala, (1996) and Rudebjer and Temu, (1996) stated that change agents may know the solution to problems confronting farmers, yet be unable to communicate these solutions if they lack effective communication skills, and do not apply sound extension education principles. Maunder, (1973) and MacDonald and Hearle (1984:34) identify different communication methods that can be used in development work. These include individual methods, by working with groups and through the mass media. Individual methods are important because learning is an individual process so that although extension agents must use group and mass methods to reach large members o f people and to stimulate joint action planning and carrying out projects o f common University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh interest, personal contacts serve many essential purposes. Individual methods include farm and home visits, office calls, telephone calls, personal letters and informal contact. Group methods include general meetings, meetings for method demonstrations, results demonstrations, farm walk or tours, field days or farmers’ days at agricultural experiment stations. Group methods are essentially effective in moving people from the interest stage to the trial stage o f learning. When the reaction o f the majority o f the group is favourable, the majority o f the members may proceed to the adoption stage. Group extension methods, effectively arranged and conducted, take full advantage o f the external and internal forces o f group dynamics. Choice o f farmers who participate in group meetings and who are visited by extension agents is also very important. I f the farmers choose these people themselves, m ost o f the contacts are likely to be with the innovators and the early adopters. The extension agent can try to establish contacts with the opinion leaders in order to increase his impact on a wider group o f farmers. Active promotion o f an innovation may be taken over from extension agents by farmers who have adopted it already. Such farmers are not always well suited to this task if the innovation is difficult to implement. Such is the case with Integrated Pest Control where management has to be adapted to a farm er’s specific situation (van den Ban and Hawkins, 1988). Mass methods include the use o f radio, newspapers, magazines, posters, exhibits and printed materials to reach large numbers o f people quickly. These methods are particularly useful in making large numbers o f people aware o f new ideas and practices or alerting them to sudden emergencies. They serve as an important and valuable function in stimulating farmer interest in new ideas (Maunder, 1973). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Participatory Action Research (PAR) is an extension methodology developed during the 1970s and draws together the personal and the political. Recognising the marginalizing effects o f ‘universal science’ and the ways in which it produces ignorance, PAR aims to challenge relations o f inequality by restoring people’s se lf respect and agency. By exploring the experiences and knowledge o f poor, oppressed and exploited groups, PAR works to confront systems o f domination. Local people are involved at all stages in research. Rather than being the objects o f research, they become the producers and owners o f their own information. The techniques employed in PAR include: > Collective research - meetings, socio-dramas, public assemblies; > Critical recovery o f history - through collective memory, interviews and witness accounts, family coffers; > Valuing and applying ‘folk culture’ - through the arts, sports and other forms o f expression. > Production and diffusion o f new knowledge through written, oral and visual forms (IIED, 1993). Extension work deals with people o f different educational status, levels o f living, cultural background, age and values. These differences therefore demand a wide range o f approaches and a great variety o f methods in order to arrive at the ultimate aims o f the rural extension, which are to increase the knowledge o f the rural population, change their attitudes and improve their skill. It has been recognised that the flow o f information, both upstream and downstream, could be improved at all levels. Identified constraints include inadequate farmer involvement in identifying problems and in testing technical 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh recommendations, poor information transfer between research organisation and extension services and badly disseminated research results (lies and Sweetmore, (1991). 2.6 Channels o f Communication A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to another. The nature o f information-exchange relationship between a pair o f individuals determines the conditions under which a source will or will not transmit the innovation to the receiver, and the effect o f the transfer (Rogers, 1995). Channels o f communication, i.e. visual, spoken and written are used to package the message through the various methods to farmers. “ Seeing is believing” is an axiom o f extension education. Picture writing is an ancient form o f communication. Pictures, charts, diagrams, exhibits and posters perform vital communication functions in most advanced society. Visual and oral channels are about the only ones for extension workers to serve illiterate people. Spoken channels are useful for all types o f extension methods such as farm and home visits, office calls, meeting o f all kinds, radio, and television and telephone calls. Except for radio and television, they allow two-way communication, which is a big advantage. Lack o f understanding can be detected and cleared up on the spot. N ot only words but also gestures and expressions o f both speaker and listener contribute to clear communication. Written communication has greater status and carries more authority than oral communication (Maunder, 1973). Research has shown that different channels perform different functions in the adoption- diffusion process. Some channels enable the idea to be heard or read while others enable a practice to be seen. Each channel is suited to a particular stage in the adoption- diffusion process. According to Wilkening el al, (1962), a farmer may hear about a new University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh idea through one channel; learn more about it through another and learn the specific details needed to put it into practice through still another. Farmers are exposed to sim ilar information from a variety o f senders in both the public and private sectors. Those senders use a range o f channels to reach audiences and consciously use message repetition to make an impact on their audiences. Different communication channels have different effects (van den Ban and Hawkins, 1988). Mass media channels are often the most rapid and efficient means to inform an audience o f potential adopters about the existence o f an innovation, i.e. to create awareness knowledge. It is also good for emergency purpose. Mass media channels include the use o f media such as radio, the stage and public platform which enable a source o f one or few individuals to reach an audience o f many. On the other hand, inter-personal channels are more effective in persuading an individual to accept a new idea, especially in the channel links two or more people who are similar in socio-economic status, education or other important ways. Interpersonal channels involve a face-to-face exchange between two or more individuals. 2.7 Diffusion o f Innovations The nature and speed o f diffusion o f innovations depend ultimately on the combined effect o f a large number o f recurring factors. They include the features o f the innovation, the characteristics o f the adopters and their situation, the type o f information sources that come into play, the structure o f the communication relationships, the course o f preceding stages o f the process and the results o f new forces in the psychological field o f the potential adopters o f the innovation. The dissemination o f innovations depends on the specific condition o f particular situations. One and the same factor can have a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh com pletely different significance and possibly also a completely different effect. Thus the extension worker is well advised to analyse each situation afresh and with great care to find out which factors can cause the target groups to change their behaviour (Albrecht, Bergmann, Diederich, Grosser, Hoffmann, Keller, Payr and Sulzer, 1989). People do not live apart from others and independent o f their influences. We are all members o f many social groups or systems. This is a requirement for achieving desired ends for se lf and society. Few decisions can be made without regard for others whom are involved directly or indirectly. Whether a farmer lives in a neighbourhood or a community, he always has neighbours (Lionberger, 1968). Farmers are keen observers o f how other farmers work, and in some countries, but not all, they spend much time discussing their farm experiences with their friends and neighbours. They learn much in this way, although most realise that they learn more from some colleagues than from others. They know who gets good yields or good results in their village, and who experiments with new methods. Some o f these successful or progressive farmers are willing to share their experiences with other farmers. In this way, they become opinion leaders in the village because they help other farmers solve problems they consider to be important. Thus, opinion leaders have considerable influence on the way in which people in their village think and