University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES CENTRE FROR SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES (CSPS) EXPLORING DRIVERS OF OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE AMONG WOMEN IN THE ACCRA METROPOLIS BY: KHADIJA ABDEL-RAHMAN INDEX NUMBER: 10337117 THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES DEGREE. AUGUST, 2018 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I do hereby declare this dissertation as my own work and that it has never been presented anywhere for an award of an academic degree. All references made to other people’s work have been duly acknowledged. Name: Khadija Abdel-Rahman (10337117) Signed: …………………… Date: 6th May, 2019 Supervisor: Dr. Antoinette Tsiboe-Darko Signed: ……………………… Date: 6th May, 2019 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT This study aimed at examining the factors that contribute to the educational attainment of women in the Accra metropolis, their level of educational attainment and their resulting occupation. The study employed a qualitative design, and a sample size of fourteen (14) women was selected randomly from ten (10) categories of occupation within the Accra metropolis. Face to face interviews were conducted with these women with the aid of an interview guide and life histories as research instruments. Content analysis was undertaken based on the objectives of the study. Results reveal that the principal factor contributing to the educational attainment of women in the Accra metropolis is the availability of financial support to fund their education. Parental influence guides women to select specific subjects which leads to their respective professions. As such, occupations like that in medicine and law require additional educational attainment to achieve. The results also revealed that the decision to go a step further to achieve a post-graduate degree is then characterised by factors such as parental support and existing role models in a woman’s life to provide encouragement. The results of the study further revealed that without the passion and drive to attain a higher level of education, some women remain content with whatever level they have achieved at an early stage in their life. The study recommends that in order to properly enhance comprehension and garner support for Gender Equality Policies, the gender equality and advocacy agenda should be directed at early stages of children’s development. Again, educational syllabi should contain gender programmes to tackle the issue of gender socialisation at an early stage. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated first and foremost to God, for making all this possible, my mother Theodora Lorwia, for always supporting my dreams, my sisters Zubaida Abdel-Rahman and Suad Abdel-Rahman, and finally to Fatau Kujantira. Family is everything. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to acknowledge my mother Theodora Lorwia, for being my biggest motivator and financial supporter, my supervisor Dr. Antoinette Tsiboe-Darko for having the patience required to guide me, Armin Lutz for always pushing me to be better, my lecturers, for broadening my horizons academically, Kelly Okine and George Owusu-Gyami for their tremendous help, and finally my classmates (MA class of 2017/2018) for always providing the encouragement and banter I needed to keep going. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................ i ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENT .................................................................................................................... v LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ viii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................ ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Problem Statement ..................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Research Questions .................................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Objectives of the Study .............................................................................................................. 7 1.5 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................... 8 1.6 Organisation of the Study ........................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................... 9 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................. 9 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 9 2.2 Women’s Educational Attainment and Female Headed Households in Ghana ......................... 9 2.3 Current Occupations of Women in Ghana ............................................................................... 13 2.4 Role of Education in Securing Jobs ......................................................................................... 14 2.5 Definition of Terms .................................................................................................................. 14 2.5.1 Occupational choice .......................................................................................................... 14 2.5.2 Self-employment ............................................................................................................... 15 2.5.3 Professional employment .................................................................................................. 16 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 Hindrances Women May Encounter in Securing Formal Employment ................................... 16 2.7 Factors That Characterise the Occupational Choice of Women .............................................. 21 2.8 Theoretical Review .................................................................................................................. 25 2.9 The Gender-Socialisation Approach ........................................................................................ 29 2.10 Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................................... 30 2.11 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 32 CHAPTER THREE ......................................................................................................................... 33 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 33 3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 33 3.2 Study Area ................................................................................................................................ 33 3.3 Sources of Data ........................................................................................................................ 34 3.3.1 Secondary sources of data ............................................................................................... 34 3.3.2 Primary sources of data .................................................................................................. 34 3.4 Target Population ..................................................................................................................... 34 3.4.1 International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08) .............................. 34 3.5 Sampling Procedure ................................................................................................................. 38 3.6 Data Quality Control Measures ................................................................................................ 38 3.7 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 39 3.9 Ethical Considerations.............................................................................................................. 39 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................... 40 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS .................................................................................................. 40 4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 40 4.2 Background of Participants ...................................................................................................... 40 4.3 Presentation of Findings and Discussions ................................................................................ 41 4.4 Theoretical Relevance of the Study ......................................................................................... 41 4.5 Factors that Contribute to Women’s Educational Attainment ................................................. 43 4.5.1 Financial assistance ......................................................................................................... 44 4.5.2 Self-advancement ............................................................................................................. 46 4.5.3 Parental mentorship ........................................................................................................ 46 4.5.4 Role model effect .............................................................................................................. 47 4.6 The Influence of Educational Attainment on Women’s Occupation ....................................... 48 4.7 Additional Reasons That Influence the Occupational Choices of Women .............................. 50 4.7.1 Parental and familial support ......................................................................................... 51 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.7.2 Participant’s career passion ........................................................................................... 52 4.7.3 Cultural underpinnings and gender stereotyping ........................................................ 53 4.7.4 Marriage ........................................................................................................................... 54 4.7.5 Individual aspirations and entrepreneurial pursuance ............................................... 55 4.7.6 Religion ............................................................................................................................. 55 4.7.7 Fear ................................................................................................................................... 56 4.7.8 Health Concerns .............................................................................................................. 57 4.7.9 Financial constraints and prospective lucrative financial gains ................................. 57 4.8 Existing Policies on Findings ................................................................................................... 58 4.8.1 Addressing multi-tasking roles of women ..................................................................... 59 4.8.2 Addressing social constraints on women ....................................................................... 59 4.8.3 Addressing gender disparities in subjects of study ...................................................... 60 CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................. 61 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 61 5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 61 5.2 Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................... 61 5.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 63 5.4 Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 64 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 66 APPENDIX ....................................................................................................................................... 72 SECTION 1 - INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW .................................................................................. 72 SECTION 2 - LIFE HISTORY ...................................................................................................... 74 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Holland’s Occupational Typology .............................................................................. 28 Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 31 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Formal Educational Level and Employment Status of Women in Percentages ........ 5 Table 1.2: Variations in residence and levels of education of households headed by women in Ghana in Percentages ........................................................................................................................ 6 Table 3.1: Sample of Women Interviewed According to ISCO-08 .............................................. 37 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AMA Accra Metropolitan Assembly CSO Civil Society Organization DHS Demographic Health Survey ESA European System of National and Regional Accounts FAWE Federation of African Women Educationalists GDHS Ghana Demographic Health Survey GDP Gross Domestic Product GEU Girls Education Unit GLSS Ghana Living Standards Survey ILO International Labour Organisation ISCO International Standard Classification of Labour JHS Junior High School MENA Middle East and North Africa NGO Non-governmental Organisation OECD The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development SHS Senior High School UK United Kingdom UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development USAID The United States Agency for International Development x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study In the past three decades, the debate on the role of women in societies and their participation in economic activity has sparked a lot of controversy. There are those, who passionately argue that women are by nature nurturers and they should, therefore, maintain the domestic roles of childbearing and homemaking. It is there that their greatest pleasure and achievements should lie (Deckard, 1983). Borne of this conversation is the modern-day progressive advocacy by Civil Societies (CSOs), Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Governments for the inclusion of women, as well as ensuring equality of both sexes, in all aspects of socio-economic life. It is suggested that in pre-colonial times, gender relations ensured that men and women had different but equal roles, and worked in tandem to realise the economic empowerment and independence of both sexes. According to scholars of this school of thought, a major reason that led to the confusion of the significance of women in the economic sphere is the prejudice about the African woman by the expatriates, coupled with our significant lack of adequate records to refute this notion. European travellers projected onto the African society their belief of relegating women to the ‘delicate’ sphere or domestic life, while their men built nations and empires (Aidoo, 1985). On the other hand, other scholars argue that rather than creating gender inequalities, colonisation in British West Africa merely reinforced them (Bakare-Yusuf, 2003). In this era, policies were already 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh designed to assign women domesticated roles that matched the traditional requirements. In the economic activity arena for instance, the colonial state disregarded the belief that native Gold Coast women should participate in work outside the home and placed women in exclusively domestic roles. Within the home, the likelihood of a young female gaining entry into an educational institution was low (Bakare-Yusuf, 2003). Even if such a young lady would be so fortunate as to be educated, she would receive an education that emphasised more domestic than technical skills. It was the latter that gave more opportunity for formal sector employment (Graham, 1971). The select few who made it to the formal sector had to resign due to various reasons such as getting married and conceiving a child (Tsikata, 2013). The ever-transforming dynamics of relations of power within families and society have seen traditional roles in today’s society altered, where women now perform male roles and vice versa. The last decade in Ghana has seen more and more women engaging in formal employment outside their homes, regardless of historical obstacles. This is evident in the emerging family that is the dual-career household, which is characterised by both spouses engaging in paid formal employment. However, the burden still falls to the woman to combine household responsibilities with her career demands (Amu, 2005). In addition to the burgeoning dual-career household, women have actually made significant progress on all facets of the Ghanaian economy, notably in the agricultural and service sectors roles in the Ghanaian economy. They are therefore no longer solely confined to the home, but have spanned all sectors of the economy. Women’s participation in the labour force has contributed to household incomes and the education and health of the dependent population. It should also be noted that, women in the informal sector are paramount players in the economic activities of the nation. A 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh particularly vivid manifestation of this influence was the razing down of Makola Market, and the ensuing violence carried out against the market women by soldiers, during the 1979 Ghanaian military regime. In this instance, the traders were accused of corrupt practices such as hoarding, which consequently drove up the prices of goods. This incident was an example of how the domineering influence of men allows them to misconstrue the activities of women and other men, even in the face of such evidence (Manu, 1992). Notwithstanding the evidence of influence held by women, even in the informal sector, as greater numbers of men enter the informal workforce, “women tend to be pushed to the lowest-income end of the informal economy, often as industrialised outworkers or petty traders” (ILO, 2002a). This reinforces the idea that although women may largely dominate the informal sector, they do not necessarily occupy the more lucrative positions. The concern for the needs of women with lower incomes, has coincided with recognition of their important role in development. Since the 1950s, many different interventions have been made reflecting changes in macro level and economic and social policy approaches to development in developing countries, as well as in state policy toward women (Amu, 2005). Contrary to this progress, there are still major inconsistencies in women’s access to economic resources and education that will enable them to achieve their economic and social goals. 1.2 Problem Statement In the past decade, calls for the empowerment of women in the area of education and occupational proliferation have gained momentum globally. In view of this, several studies have been undertaken. Notable amongst these studies are those conducted by Ross and Wu (1995), Kharmis, Hanoon and 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Belarbi (2010) and Fasih (n.d.) which established a link between women's educational attainment and their occupation. These studies however, are contextually different, and may not be applicable to the Ghanaian case due to differences in the socio-cultural environment. Furthermore, published literature on this topic in relation to Ghana is limited as most of the studies done neither explored the factors that contribute to women’s educational attainment, nor explain how educational attainment influences women’s occupational choice. Education is undeniably an important means of empowering women with the knowledge, skills and self-confidence necessary to enable them participate fully in the development process (UNFPA, 1994). Over the last decade, despite attempts by the government of Ghana to raise the level of education of women in the country, the percentage of women who go ahead to get a full cycle of education from primary to tertiary is still significantly lower when compared to that of men. In Ghana, negative cultural mind-set and beliefs regarding educating female children is a challenge to achieving equity between men and women in terms of education and occupational aspiration (Amu, 2005). Although there has been changes to these negative cultural notions towards the education of women, there still exists in some Ghanaian societies factors that inhibit the ability of women to fully pursue their desired occupations. Some parents believe that an educated son will be able to provide for his family, whereas an educated daughter will become a mother and wife, regardless of her schooling (Amu, 2005). Thus they still prefer to invest in higher education and provide better opportunities for their male children. According to Amu, (2005), the relatively low educational status and literacy levels of women in Ghana is evidenced by the lower representation of women in skill and the knowledge-based industry as opposed to the higher number found in the informal private sector employment and self- employment. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Ghana Demographic Health Survey (GDHS) report of 2014 indicates a high level of correlation between women’s level of education and their employment status (GSS, 2014). Table 1.1: Formal Educational Level and Employment Status of Women in Percentages Level of Type of Occupation Education Professional Clerical Sales and Skilled Unskilled Agriculture Technical Service Manual Manual Managerial No 0.6 0.0 30.6 11.9 1.7 55.1 education Primary 0.9 0.0 51.9 14.8 2.8 29.4 Middle/JHS 1.5 0.4 62.2 17.9 2.1 15.8 Secondary 31.7 7.1 48.4 7.4 2.0 3.0 + Source: Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (GDHS), 2014. As demonstrated in table 1.1, out of the 12, 831 households included in the survey, 31.7% of females who attained secondary or a higher level of education are engaged in professional, technical and managerial occupations which are more of formal sector occupations. Sales and service sector has the highest percentage across the various levels women’s educational attainment. Although this could suggest that women's apparent preference for sales could be attributed to the comparatively low educational requirement needed to be employed in this industry, the report does not provide an in- depth explanation to this interesting finding. In Greater Accra, the situation is no different as a higher percentage of women are in the sales and service sector (GSS, 2014). Women despite their somewhat lower educational attainment when compared to men and informal occupational choices, are often found to be household heads. Another report finds that one in every 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh three Ghanaian households is headed by a female (GSS, 2014). This implies that there is potential for more economic responsibility for females who have to shoulder the economic responsibility of sustaining the household. There are some differences in the percentages found in urban and rural households and also across the different levels of education. This is shown in table 1.2. Table 1.2: Variations in residence and levels of education of households headed by women in Ghana in Percentages Country Residence Education of Household Head Urban Rural None Primary Secondary or Higher Ghana 41.7 34.6 42.8 37.2 20.8 Source: The Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Programme, 2014 Table 1.2 shows that 42.8 percent of females who are household heads in Ghana have no education. Globally, women’s economic advancement has led to increased investments in children’s education and health, and reduced household poverty (Hunt & Samman, 2016). However, a lot of the economic advancements also depends on the occupation. Women are engaged in all sectors of employment and some have more potential to provide secure incomes than others. Professional, technical, managerial and clerical occupations offer more tenure and income security (Hunt & Samman, 2016). A higher involvement of women could serve as a strong foothold to financial security and thus an increased level of economic empowerment. In order to efficiently improve the economic stability of women, it is necessary to unearth the factors that contribute to the educational attainment of women, and further 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh explore the role of education in the occupational choices made by women. Accra Metropolis is used as a case for this study. 1.3 Research Questions In light of the above discussion, this study seeks to address the following questions: To what extent is a woman’s level of education a driver of her occupational choice? What other major factors influence a woman’s occupational choice? 1.4 Objectives of the Study The aim of this study is to explore the role of education as a driver of the occupational choices made by Ghanaian women. The specific objectives of the study are: To explore the factors that contribute to women’s educational attainment in Ghana. To explain how educational attainment influences women’s occupational choice. To determine other reasons for the occupational choices of women. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Significance of the Study This study would contribute to the women’s empowerment agenda by providing an in-depth understanding of occupational choice dynamics with regards to women in Ghana. It would shed light on how women are currently affected by Government programs and policies meant to improve their socio-economic status as well as the religious, marital and biological restraints they may be faced with in contemporary times. It could also serve as an advocacy policy paper for technocrats, towards reviewing how women are affected by certain policies, programs and projects that are instituted by the government. Consequently, recommendations on how best to further address issues that may arise in the study will in the long- term, contribute towards sustainable development. 1.6 Organisation of the Study This academic paper comprises of five chapters. Chapter One, which is the introduction, encompasses the background information to the study, the problem statement, the general and specific objectives of the study, its significance and finally the organisation of the study. Chapter Two is a review of the literature pertaining to the study. Chapter Three provides an explanation as to how the research will be carried out. This includes among others, the outline of data collection methods, research instruments to be employed, and so on. Chapter Four comprises of data analyses and interpretation of results. Finally, Chapter Five contains the summary of the findings, the conclusion of the study and possible recommendations. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter presents the literature review of the study. It is concentrated on the definition of occupational choice, theories of occupational choice, and the categorisation of occupation employed in Ghana. An attempt is also made to discuss factors that characterise the occupational choice of women, the role of education in women’s career choices, hindrances women encounter in the formal sector, and finally, the conclusion. 2.2 Women’s Educational Attainment and Female Headed Households in Ghana The population of a country is made of individuals whose abilities contribute to the betterment of the society. The task of education is to actualise the individual’s potential and also properly utilise the human resources. Additionally, education, which provides human capital for any given state, is an important catalyst in improving the standard of living of citizens, while simultaneously battling poverty (Bhaduri, 1998). Several approaches have been made by the Ghanaian government in a bid to reform the education system. The introduction of the Education Act of 1961 could be pegged as the genesis of such movements (Amu, 2005) In its wake, primary education was declared compulsory and free. Sanctions were also put in place to discourage parents from keeping their children away from classrooms. Such sanctions included fines imposed on parents who refused to send their offspring to school. However, regardless of primary education being free at the time, there were still several other costs that parents had to bear with regards to giving their children proper education. Additional requirements such as 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cost of registration fees, school uniforms, stationery and textbooks were still borne by parents. Contrary to this, the act did, at the time, significantly increase school enrolment rates (Amu, 2005). Because these costs, among other factors still serve as a deterrent to some parents, the government has undertaken several projects to address these issues. First and foremost, it was noted that parents could not afford to send all their children to school. In light of this they chose whichever child they deemed the best investment. In some cases, they were selected based on gender, where the boy was allowed to be educated because of the perceived rewards associated with educating boys (Amu, 2005). In order to alleviate the cost burden on parents, the Ghanaian government provides free lunches for students during school hours. Furthermore, textbooks, school uniforms and other school supplies are provided to some deprived schools. Secondly, the cultural mindset and beliefs regarding educating female children is an unavoidable dynamic in the study of female education in Ghana (Amu, 2005). Although these negative cultural notions towards the education of women is changing, there are still pockets of Ghanaian societies where impenetrable mindsets and persistent sexism of women exists. Men have a sense of entitlement and superiority, while many women lack self-esteem or believe that they can accomplish much. Parents believe that an educated son will be able to provide for his family, but an educated daughter will become a mother and wife anyway, regardless of her schooling. Nationally, women have completed a median of 7.8 years of schooling. Looking at age, women in the 20-24 age group have the highest median years of schooling (8.5 years) while those age 45-49 have the lowest number of median years of schooling (4.9 years). Urban women have completed a median of 8.5 years of schooling compared with 5.7 years among rural women. Median number of years 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh completed is highest among women from Greater Accra (8.7 years) and lowest among women in the Northern region (0.0 years) It was established in the 1940s, by Warner, Meeker, & Eells (1949) that socio-economic status had a strong influence on the relationship between education and occupational level; both separately and together (Amu, 2005). Subsequent enquiries and studies conducted by social scientists have only reaffirmed this finding (Levine, 1976). However, it should be noted that the precise manner in which this influence manifests has still not been established, despite data from various countries based on samples ranging from under a hundred subjects to into the tens of thousands. In light of this, people's knowledge about the steps required to achieve educational and occupational goals differs by social origins, therefore the execution of educational and occupational plans varies, which in turn reflect in the choice of courses chosen to be studied in school (Levine, 1976). The relatively low educational status and literacy levels of women in Ghana previously discussed above, could explain women’s lower representation in skill and knowledge-based industry as opposed to the higher number found in the informal private sector employment and self-employment, which could be classified as informal sector occupations (Amu, 2005). This goes to show that there exists in Ghana a potentially productive human capital in the form of women, which needs harnessing. To tap this potential would require adequate investment in the form of education and skill training and to provide the requisite guidance and capital needed to apply this potential to actual productive activities (Amu, 2005). Female headed households is a widespread phenomenon in Africa (Amu, 2005). This is also prevalent in societies that practice polygamy, and spousal separation of residences. The spate of easy divorce has also contributed to the rising number of female-headed households. Furthermore, in areas where 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh migration occurs, that is, the move from rural to urban settlements are high, there is the likelihood of encountering female-headed households. Several demographic surveys have highlighted the surge in female headed households in Ghana. First and foremost, the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS) 6 report, reveals this phenomenon as it records one in every three households to be headed by a female (GSS, 2014). However, there are some disparities when it comes to location (rural/urban). For instance, while the national average of female-headed households is about 34%, the percentage of female-headed households is about 40% in rural coastal areas while it is about 20% in the rural savannah areas. In Accra alone, female-headed households account for about 33% of all households. The DHS (2014) report corroborates the findings of the GLSS 6, as it also reports one in three households being led by a woman. These statistics go to reveal that an increasing number of women are becoming the bedrock of their family units. Some may however argue that the definition of head of household varies across households. That is, age, and other demographic variables may be the defining medium of a head of household of some families (DHS, 2014). However, Awumbila (2006), highlights the increasing number of female-headed households in Ghana and also shows change in the marital circumstances of these heads, over time. A larger proportion of female household heads were widowed, divorced or separated in 2000 as compared to 1960. Others are without current conjugal relationships with men and thus have a lower likelihood of getting financial support from them. This implies that there is economic responsibility for these females who are also heads of their household. Thus, they have to shoulder the economic responsibility of sustaining the household. This has consequences on the socioeconomic support they give to their families. In light of this, their economic independence is instrumental to the survival of their households. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In their bid to take care of their dependents, women inadvertently contribute to the economic activity and productivity of the economy by first engaging in economic activity, and also exercising their purchasing power through the payment of school fees, purchasing of books, and so on (Amu, 2005). 2.3 Current Occupations of Women in Ghana Work within the economy as a whole is conceived as being dispersed along an “informal-formal” continuum (Chant & Pedwell, 2008). The informal sector could be described as that part of the economy run by those who endeavour to make ends meet through their own initiative and enterprise. Although it lacks the private sector support, the informal sector serves as a safety net to the prevention of household poverty (Thembela, 2015). That notwithstanding, greater degrees of formality tend to indicate more effective regulation and greater access to rights, social protection and collective bargaining power (Chant & Pedwell, 2008). It would therefore serve the interest of all to shift higher numbers of workers towards the formal end of the continuum as this affords holders of these positions benefits like social security, healthcare, pension schemes, and so on (Chant & Pedwell, 2008). According to the GDHS report of 2014, there are gender disparities in type of occupation. The survey concludes that more than half the total sample of women are employed in sales and services, (51%). Other occupations in which women are engaged include agriculture (24%), skilled manual labour (14%), professional, technical, or managerial work (7%), and unskilled manual labour and clerical positions (2% each). Women’s apparent preference for sales could be attributed to several reasons. Among them are, the comparatively low educational requirement needed to be employed in this industry, low to moderate 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh start-up capital (especially in retail) and the relative ease with which to conduct trading business. Of the female population, the lower number of women in professional work is significantly low which is unfortunate because this sector comprises the decision makers and policy advisors who influence the society. 2.4 Role of Education in Securing Jobs The GDHS report of 2014 shows that, occupation varies significantly by gender. More than half of women in the survey are employed in the sales and services sector (51%). Other occupations in which women are engaged include agriculture (24%), skilled manual labour (14%), professional, technical, or managerial work (7%), and unskilled manual labour and clerical positions (2% each). The relatively low educational status and literacy levels for women discussed above could serve as a precedence to the low representation of women in skill and knowledge-based industries, as well as their apparent preference for informal private sector employment and self-employment, which could also constitute the informal sector (Amu, 2005). This demonstrates that Ghana has a reservoir of potentially productive human capital in the form of women, which needs to be utilised. To unearth this potential, the provision of quality education, skills enhancements, capital investments on women would serve as a stepping stone in achieving economic stability among women (Amu, 2005). 2.5 Definition of Terms 2.5.1 Occupational choice The International Labour Organisation (ILO) simply defines occupation as the specific kind of work performed in a job. It is a collection of jobs which have comparable tasks and duties (ILO, 2008). Furthermore, it refers to the type of employment one chooses to engage in for economic gain. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Occupational choice therefore is the developmental process that spans decades in one’s life, which is attributed to the various crossroads, pathways, and decisions made that eliminate alternatives and ultimately influence one’s choice of occupation (Blau, 1959). It is essential that the right career is chosen by any individual, in order to maximise utilisation of human resources (Bhaduri, 1998). In order for a nation to thrive, it should not only depend on the natural resources obtained from the geographical disposition of the country, but should also take into account the importance of capitalising on its wealth of diverse human resources. It is through the efficient capitalisation of expertise and knowledge of its people that Japan, a country with relatively limited material resources, is counted among the top five nations with regards to quality of life. On the other hand, African countries blessed with abundant natural resources remain impoverished, due to low level of human resource utilisation (Bhaduri,1998). 2.5.2 Self-employment The European System of Accounts (ESA) outlines employment as the engagement of persons, both employees and the self-employed, in economic activities. Self-employed persons are those who are either part owners, or sole owners of the businesses, enterprises or corporations within which they work. However, quasi-corporations which include businesses which are not maintained as a legal corporation, known as incorporated enterprises do not fall within the bracket of businesses that a self- employed person could claim as his or her own. Self-employed categories of occupation include unpaid forensic workers, as well as individual or collective workers carrying out economic activities for the benefits of either capital creation or their own utilisation. The ILO (2008) describes self-employment as any person who independently operates their own economic venture with one or more subordinates is known as an employer. There are also individuals who operate their own business ventures without any employees. These people are known as own 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh account workers. The average table-top tomato seller with no employees, for example, is an own account worker. These two categories of workers, constitute the self-employed category of occupation. Although the boundaries between the informal and formal sectors of the economy and between informal and formal employment are blurred, informal work does not abide by regulatory frameworks (Chant & Pedwell, 2008). In light of this, some self-employed persons are not subject to national labour legislation, income taxation, social protection or entitlement that come with formal employment. 2.5.3 Professional employment Any employee engaged in work predominantly intellectual and varied in character as opposed to routine mental, manual, mechanical, or physical work, is said to be professionally employed. Professional employment involves the consistent exercise of discretion and judgment in its performance (Parks, Altman and Lavelle, 1995). Professional employment is characterised as formal sector employment. This sector largely increases an individual woman’s access to skills development, market information, credit, technology and other productive assets, social protection, pensions and social safety nets, which could significantly enhance her socio-economic status, as well as provide her with greater autonomy and negotiating power (Corner, 2011). 2.6 Hindrances Women May Encounter in Securing Formal Employment Sexual Harassment Sexual harassment is described in the simplest terms as an unwelcome attention of a sexual nature that makes a person feel uncomfortable. It includes a range of behaviours from mild transgressions and annoyances to serious abuses, which can involve forced sexual activity. Sexual harassment is 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh considered as a form of illegal discrimination as well as a type of psychological and sexual abuse (Hejase, 2015). Any person who ends up a victim of the afore mentioned definitions is said to have been sexually harassed. More prevalent in the developing countries where more progressive advocacy for social change is the order of the day, within each organisation or each community, there are a standard set of rules and guidelines that spell out what their definition of sexual harassment is. Anyone can be a victim sexual harassment. This means regardless of sex (male or female), position or rank within the organisation (teacher, student, employee, employer), client, stranger, friend and so on, every individual stands the risk of being a victim. In the same vein, the sexual harasser could be anyone regardless of sex, position, and so on. The sexual harasser is not necessarily a member of the opposite sex, as sexual orientation plays a huge role in who the harasser chooses to victimise. In some cases, and mostly in patriarchal societies where men are the dominant sex, some offenders are unaware of the unlawful or unacceptable nature of their words or actions. Some women may also be under the impression that their unwanted advances towards men constitute sexual harassment. Sexual harassers often select their prey based on certain preferred traits such as, age, perceived passivity, lack of assertiveness, poor education, low self-esteem and other areas of vulnerability (Kalra & Bhugra, 2013). According to Britz (2007), several forms of sexual harassment exist, namely: • Verbal - Words with sexual implications, suggestive comments, jokes of a sexual nature, sexual propositions or sexual threats. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Non-Verbal - Sexual suggestive objects or pictures, graphic commentaries, suggestive or insulting sounds, leering, jeering, whistling or obscene gestures. • Physical - Unwanted physical contact, including touching, pinching, brushing the body, coerced sexual intercourse or assault. In order to relieve themselves of being subjected to sexual harassment in the workplace, some women tend to leave the security of formal employment and venture out on their own. Others simply take measures to protect themselves by reporting cases to the relevant authorities. Cultural Differences Undeniably, in historical times, there were a considerable number of religious beliefs and taboos coupled with social customs that prevented the massive efficient transition of women into the labour market to seek employment. In recent years, these restrictions are constantly being mitigated to allow women into the workforce, while simultaneously ensuring their economic empowerment (Gupta, 1960). However, regardless of significant improvement, women’s participation in economic activities is still not given the same attention as that men’s participation receives. In spite of the economic activities compelling women to seek employment, their work is still often considered secondary and frivolous. Today, and significantly in developing nations, women still deal with the challenge of discrimination in wages, where they earn significantly less than male counterparts in the same roles, less additional work benefits, as well as opportunities for promotions within the workforce and restrictions to access to more engaging jobs. Additionally, women are required to effectively balance majority of household 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and child nurturing duties, regardless of their work status. Consequently, a woman’s work is never really done (Rakshanda, Bushra, Qamar, and Asghar, 2005). Women in developing African countries still find it hard to jump the hurdle that is the limitation of a woman’s worth to child bearing and homemaking roles. All through the centuries, women had not been allowed to play roles that suggested their worth as active and equal members of society. Archaic thinking and beliefs that suggest that a woman who is gainfully employed could not be competent mothers and homemakers is disputed by research that highlights the positive effects of dual-career marriages on the socio- economic status of the family (Rakshanda et al., 2005). Not all dual-career marriages are however, without kinks in their relationship dynamics. Some husbands are opposed to their wives pursuing full time careers. Some have backed this opposition by alleged neglect of children and home keeping. Perhaps it could be attributed to male ego-problems. In some cases, traditional relatives equate a woman in paid employment as having loose morals as being financially liberated and independent may cause a woman to forget her actual place in society; the lesser sex (Rakshanda, et al., 2005). The limited employment opportunities available to women, perpetrated throughout the years was a result of the perceived status of women as second-class citizens. Societal constructs of what gender roles should be, and the prescribed activities each sex could and could not engage in, constituted to the discouragement and exclusion of women from competing with men, right from their nurturing period. Open discrimination faced by women when entering into formal employment, somewhat condescending and judgemental attitudes from some members of society, as well certain bias confronted by working women in relation to their status and role in the economic life, adversely affected the maximum capitalisation of their talent and working capabilities (Mahmood, 2013). 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In this era of economic tension, more and more women feel the need to contribute financially to their family’s well-being to relieve the burden of anxiety that may be faced by the breadwinner to single handedly cater to the needs of all family members. Women are finding means by which to maintain the equilibrium between home and career. Undeniably, self-employed women are more likely to be financially independent, support their families and are a testament to the positivity that comes with women empowerment. Regardless, in some cases, they are still disregarded. Gender inequality leading to inefficient allocation of resources Women, in addition to generally having restricted access to paid employment, and lower levels of educational attainment than men in developing countries, are paid less for their labour at equal skill attainment levels as their male counterparts, as well as have less access to land acquisition, credit and both human and financial capital (UNCTAD, 2003). Furthermore, unfair land division and inheritance laws adversely affect women as there are disputes and unsatisfactory information on women’s land ownership which has led to their inability to pay back loans. Again, traditional prejudices, leads to subpar allocation of credit and capital, which is unfavourable to women trying to cumulate resources to start a business. Credit, capital and productive inputs are also inaccessible to small-scale female landowners and entrepreneurs. All over the world, wage rates attributed to labour force participation are still higher for men as opposed to women. This happens in spite of the participation of women globally. Women constitute 25% of the labour force in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and constitute 45% in Europe and Central Asia and in East Asia and the Pacific (Livani, 2007). 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Although gender barriers can now be crossed for the fortunate few women seeking employment, there still remains professional segregation. Women are over-represented in service occupations, clerical jobs, sales, and professional and technical jobs, particularly in Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries (Korinek, 2005). However, although African countries such as Botswana can boost the same, this cannot be made for other developing African countries, and certainly not for Ghana. In turn, men are highly over-represented in manual production jobs as well as in higher-paid administrative and managerial jobs (Livani, 2007). In many developing countries, women and girls on average attain lower levels of education than men and boys, despite these Governments’ bid to close this gap. Consequently, female productivity is less than that of males. This in turn leads to less earning power or women. Nevertheless, even at comparable skill levels, women in developed countries earn less than men. On average, women earn 77% of men’s wages. More surprisingly, less than 20% of this earnings gap can be explained by educational attainment or work experience. In developing countries, women’s earnings represent 73% of men’s earnings (Hugo, Daza & Ramos, 2011). 2.7 Factors That Characterise the Occupational Choice of Women Job Satisfaction Data obtained from Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom (U.K) revealed that, that higher levels of reported job satisfaction amongst those entering into self-employment are significantly correlated with the absence of hierarchy and a general sense of autonomy. The ready availability of alternative employment also plays an important role in one’s decision to transition into self-employment. Nonetheless, opportunity cost considerations should be taken into 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh account. That is, the wage rate that might have been earned in paid-employment. In a fundamental study undertaken by Rees and Shah (1986), evidence was found, advocating for the rational decision- making between self-employment or paid-employment on the basis of a consideration of the difference of the expected earnings in the two employment states (Dawson, Henly & Latreille, 2009). Individuals generally appear to be attracted to self-employment because of anticipated potential higher earnings, thus, it is suggested that the difference between an individual’s predicted earnings in either paid employment or self-employment exerts an undeniable dominating influence upon the employment decision (Dawson, Henly & Latreille, 2009). On the other hand, other studies have extensively questioned this finding. Such scholars include Gill (1988) and Earle & Sakova (2000) (Dawson and Henley, 2012). These conflicting empirical results may be attributed to the diverse nature of data sources employed. Therefore, there is a debate as to whether the expected financial gain from choosing self-employment is a significant driver in the determinant of occupational choice, or whether other non-monetary factors play an equal or superior role (Dawson, Henley & Latreille, 2009). Flexible Working Hours According to Pierce (2009), flexible time is intended to ensure that the work of the organisation is accomplished while granting employees and their supervisors work schedules that allow them ample time to attend to personal needs, as well as family needs. With the progressive inclusion of women in the workforce, organisations are now faced with the challenge of catering to the needs of an increasingly diverse workforce that includes nursing mothers, single parents with young children, employees with very different responsibilities, and those taking classes or pursuing degrees to improve skills and abilities or for self-improvement. The concept of flexible working hours has motivational appeal to many of these workforces. Research furthermore pin-points flexible 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh scheduling as a motivational factor in seeking out employment. Job satisfaction is generally improved and absenteeism significantly reduced. The ability to accommodate employee needs, especially women, who may be loath to spend long hours at work while relegating their families to the background, is a healthy, positive and motivational approach to encouraging one to enter the workforce. This therefore highly supports women who need much time on their hands to attend to other responsibilities. This flexibility is ideal as ensures the woman is in control of her dealings, and she is not under duress to either deliver or be sacked. Although deadlines would still need to be met, this is done at the employee, more specifically, the woman’s convenience. Demographic Variable: Age Many business owners are within the age category of 25 to 45 years old (Storey, 1994; Reynolds et al., 1999), it peaks as people approach the age of 40 and levels out (Bates, 1995). Nascent entrepreneurship rates tend to be relatively high for people within the age category of 25 to 34 years old (Verheul, Thurik, & Grilo, 2006). Lévesque & Minniti (2005) argue that when individuals are older, the prospect of wage-employment becomes more alluring than self-employment (Verheul, Thurik & Grilo, 2006). This could be in part attributed to the general decline of motivation amongst older individuals. The story may however be different for female entrepreneurs as they may have a different age profile than male entrepreneurs. Generally, women tend to withdraw from employment after marriage. Marriage and the presence of children; that is, newborn babies, toddlers and so on, play a huge role in the decline of women’s engagement in employment (Volling, 2012). These additions to a woman’s life may negatively affect the probability of her employment. This could, in part be due to the woman’s own choice, or her presumed reluctance to be a working mother, as one 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh aspect (child, marriage or job) may take a backseat to the others. Other factors include societal pressure, from her husband or family, work demands, and so on. Matthews and Moser (1996, p. 40) note that women tend to be older when they start a business for the first time. This is not the case in men, and could be because her children are no longer at the age when she is needed the most. This indicates the difference in preference for and the decision to become self-employed among both sexes of the same age. However, Arenius & Minniti (2005) do not find evidence for an interaction effect of age and gender on foundling entrepreneurship. Human Capital: Education Level Human capital may refer to general and specific knowledge (Castanias & Helfat, 1991; 2001). General knowledge can be acquired through education whereas specific knowledge refers to entrepreneurial and industrial experience garnered through time spent in employment. Individuals with higher levels of human capital may be better at perceiving entrepreneurial opportunities, and therefore more likely to engage in entrepreneurial activity (Davidsson & Honig, 2003). Although women and men may not differ vastly with respect to their education level, women and men with the same level of education may differ with regards to the decision to become self- employed. Employment and start-up rates are higher for women with post-secondary education than for women with lower education (Verheul, Thurik, & Grilo, 2006). In relation to men, it is found that women appear to be more dependent upon securing advanced education in their decision to become self-employed (Bates,1995). However, Burke et al. (2002) find that post-compulsory education has a negative effect on the probability of male self-employment, and no effect on female self-employment (Verheul, Thurik, & Grilo, 2006). 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.8 Theoretical Review There are four major themes of occupational choice that can conceptualise how people select an occupation. The ensuing paragraphs contain theories of occupational choice subsequent to the theme they are categorised within. Developmental Theories of Occupational Choice Developmental theories are theories that suggest that occupational choice is not a one-off decision, but rather a continuous process subject to pressures, modifications and adaptations (Bhaduri, 1998). An occupational decision can be thought of as a long series of small decisions that characterise the interests and skills of an individual. These decisions ultimately lead him or her to choose one occupation or another. Furthermore, as an individual garners experience and new skills, potential occupations are pursued and replaced as new information becomes available and skills are honed. Due to this, career choice is a progressive process (Miekle, 2008). Proponents of Developmental theories are Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad & Herma (1951). Ginzberg’s Theory of Occupation Choice Ginzberg et al (1951), discuss an important aspect of occupational choice. According to them, an individual’s attributes, educational background and situational constraints have a large impact on their occupational choice. The movement of the individual through various stages of life is irreversible and once an option is made it cannot be undone. Additionally, three stages of development were proposed by Ginzberg et al (1951); The fantasy stage (3 years to 11 years) where the child is free to pursue any occupational choice. At this stage, the child’s preferred activities are identified and related to future career choices. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The tentative stage (12 years to 16 years) where the pre-teen or young person, further identifies their interests, values, skills and capabilities for an occupational choice. This results in the adolescent beginning to make out their career path and acknowledging the responsibilities and consequences of that choice. The realistic stage (17 years and above) is the stage whereby three processes take place; exploration, crystallisation and specification. In the exploration stage the adolescent begins to restrict their choice to suit personal likes, skills and abilities. During the crystallisation stage, an occupational choice is made, and consequently, reaches the specification stage where the individual pursues the educational experiences required to achieving their career goal. Decision Theories of Occupational Choice A decision theory of occupational choice is one whereby occupational choice is viewed as a decision- making task. Based on the assumption that there are multiple occupational options available to one individual, decision theories are concerned with how one eliminates alternatives and arrives at a choice (Miekle, 2008). Individuals tend to go for an occupation that promises maximum satisfaction. This does not, however, imply that alternatives are always rationally or dispassionately considered. Therefore, decision-making stresses the need for information and self-knowledge in choosing a more suitable occupational option. Furthermore, perception of rewards and deterrents are of great significance in taking final decisions. A notable proponent of this theory is Vroom (1964). Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Vroom (1964) propounded that an occupational choice is a rational decision-making process whereby a course of action is chosen based on its perceived rewards and consequences. In order to succeed, 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh one must first have a defined set of desired goals and outcomes, and consequently determine which outcomes or rewards are the most highly valued by the individual. Psychological Theories of Occupational Choice These theories assert that occupational choices are a personality matching process. According to psychological theories, an individual’s personality structure, early experiences, needs and motivation affects occupational choice and development. Career alternatives are selected, based on the assessment of these needs, abilities and interests, and a career decision is made based on what the individual deems himself or herself compatible with. Although this process hardly unfolds in such an orderly fashion, it stresses the importance of psychological needs as a determinant of occupational choice, as the individual reflects on his or her abilities and interests before selecting an occupation (Miekle, 2008). Holland’s Occupational Typology John Holland’s (1957) posited that, occupational development is a process of finding a proper environment that will serve as an avenue for the personality of an individual to thrive. In simpler terms, individuals are attracted to a particular occupation that meets their personal needs and provides them satisfaction. His theory is solely based on four assumptions. First and foremost, persons can be categorised as one of the following personality traits; Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising or Conventional. Secondly, there are six modal environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. Due to these establishments, his third assumption is that people search for environments that are in line with their values, as well as enable them to 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh effectively execute their skills and abilities. Consequently, behaviour is determined by an interaction between personality and environment. Figure 2.1: Holland’s Occupational Typology Source: http://psydocinfo.blogspot.com/p/httppsydocinfo.html 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sociological Theories of Occupational Choice Sociological theories stress the importance of the environment a person is surrounded by, in shaping the options available to them, as well as the way values and interests curated by the individual. Environmental factors such as past influences like family of origin, place of residence or social class, and present influences, like the current political, social, and cultural climate, have an effect on individuals’ world view and how they define their place in it (Miekle, 2008). Additionally, chief proponents of this theory such as Miller & Form (1951) and Hollingshed (1949) emphasised that such influences as home, school and community contribute to the occupational choice, in that, more often than not, it is found that one’s occupational choice depends upon the social background from which the individual hails (Bhaduri, 1998). An example cited is the unlikelihood of a young man from upper class of society choosing an occupation belonging to the lower social ranks (Bhaduri, 1998). 2.9 The Gender-Socialisation Approach Despite the popular arguments of the proponents of the theories, another school of thought centres more on the gender socialisation approach. This approach asserts that, women bring different values and traits to their work roles than men do. However, earlier gender training is considered to be the disparate factor in the development of values (O’Connell & Betz, 1996). It is apparent that social influences play a large role in the occupational choice behaviours of women. This could be through the establishment of gender-appropriate norms and values which reinforce gender segregation in the workforce as well as obstacles to educational achievement. Furthermore, these norms values and traits shape subsequent work-related interests, career decisions, and behaviours. There is the common belief among proponents of this theory that men are socialised to be more assertive and to exhibit competitive interpersonal traits, while women are socialised to be less assertive, be nurturers and to 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh exhibit more relationship-oriented interpersonal traits. This differential socialisation begins in the formative years, when as young girls are encouraged to be reserved and polite. In contrast, young boys are rewarded for aggressive or rowdy behaviour (Eisenhart, 1996). These influences emerged from diverse origins, including family, peers and within the school system. By reinforcing participation of a child in only accepted binary gender-appropriate activities, the opportunity and desire of this child to branch out and participate in non-traditional experiences is reduced. This lack of opportunity and exposure can dampen a young woman’s interest in traditionally male subjects. Exposure to a perpetual existence of primarily gender-appropriate activities and experiences will characterise an individual’s distinct set of interests, skills and values to reflect that society. For example, it could affect the choice of subjects and coursework selected by a female in high school or the tertiary level which are later translated into the selection of a tertiary level programme that provides the opportunity to refine and enhance her set of traits, and consequently, an occupation. 2.10 Conceptual Framework Each of these perspectives and overarching themes of occupational choice go a long way to explain the procedures which characterise the occupation one chooses to engage in. That notwithstanding, no singular theme or theory can solely account for the entire process. In reality, and in Ghana, there are several other forces at work from each of the above themes that work in tandem to guide and shape the choice process (Miekle, 2008). The study sought to explore further, the relevance of these theories in the Ghanaian context. Figure 2.2 summarises the combined influence of these factors known to explain the occupational choices of women. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework Educational Personality Attainment Returns and Expectation Occupational Choice Gender Socialisation Development Process Figure 2:2 shows that, according to literature, educational attainment coupled with developmental processes are thought to be primary influencers of occupational choice. Therefore, as one goes through the development stages, the choice of what to study or what educational attainment is needed changes. However, theoretically, some scholars believe that any individual’s personality as well the expected returns from engaging in an occupation greatly influence their choice. Other schools of thought propound that gender socialization is the primary influence of any one’s occupational choice. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.11 Conclusion Contrary, to the fact that some factors are beyond their control, women find themselves faced with the task of making a decision that would empower them economically. They choose to either seek formal or professional employment, which they may not necessarily be comfortable with or switch occupations to more flexible or available options, regardless of the daily tasks involved. Factors like age, the rewards system, education, sexual harassment, job satisfaction and the like are contributive factors why some women decide to set up their own businesses. Knowledge about dynamics, characteristics and processes of occupational choice, and the mechanisms that characterise those processes, is undoubtedly needed. This will enable the relevant decision-makers and technocrats design and promote potentially successful policies and incentive schemes towards sustainable employment and entrepreneurship. Furthermore, more women can effectively be encouraged to engage in formal employment to increase their economic influence. 
 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter provides in detail, information about the methodology and the techniques used in the study. This is an exploratory study which employed the use of purely qualitative method of research to gain extensive insight into the pathways and factors that led women to their current occupation choice. According to Creswell (2007), qualitative research enables one to effectively comprehend the context which participants in a study address a problem, while addressing the uniqueness of individuals in the study. This helped in generalisation and deriving themes to be addressed in subsequent interviews. This research work seeks to explore factors which influence occupational choice of women in Ghana. This chapter encompasses the population from which the sample was selected, research design, sampling procedure, data collection instruments and techniques, sources of data, data analysis, ethical considerations, and so on. 3.2 Study Area The study was conducted in the Accra Metropolis. This district has a population of 1,963,264, 51.9% of which are female (AMA Demographic Survey, 2010), representing the highest population density in Ghana. Furthermore, data was collected from respondents in Accra due to the existence of all International Labour Organisation (ILO) occupational categories engaged in, within the metropolis. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Sources of Data 3.3.1 Secondary sources of data Secondary sources of data include literature reviewed for the purpose of the study. Among these are the Ghana Demographic Health Survey (GDHS) 2014 report, which provides empirical evidence of the literacy and educational levels of the population, as well as the occupational categories of the population by sex. Additionally, the Accra Metropolitan Development Plan also sheds insight into the characteristics and demographics of the Accra Metropolis. Finally, the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08) is employed as a guideline to what the classification of Informal and Formal occupations entails. Due to the globalisation of the labour market, this system is used as a relevant basis for international reporting for both statistical and administrative purposes (ILO, 2008). 3.3.2 Primary sources of data Primary data was obtained through fourteen (14) in-depth interviews and life histories with women engaged in different occupations. An unstructured interview guide was used in twelve (12) in-depth interviews. The aim was to allow respondents to provide as much detailed information as possible. Life histories were also undertaken on two (2) additional women. All interviews were conducted with women between the ages of 15 to 49 who were currently employed. 3.4 Target Population 3.4.1 International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08) An occupational classification is a tool for organising all jobs in an establishment, an industry or a country into a clearly defined set of groups (ILO, 2008: Hoffman & Scott, 1993). Generally, it consists 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of two components, occupations and occupational groups, which in turn spell out descriptions of the tasks and duties in addition to all other facets of the jobs which fall under the defined groups. These descriptions can be said to constitute a dictionary of occupations; the classification system itself, which gives the guidelines on how jobs are to be classified into the most detailed groups of occupations and how these detailed groups are to be further aggregated to broader groups (Hoffman & Scott, 1993). The International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08) is an exceptionally functional model for developing countries that do not have their own occupational classification systems (ILO 2008). Due to the globalisation of the labour market, this system is used as a relevant basis for international reporting for both statistical and administrative purposes. In light of this, the Ghana Labour Report (2015), employed the use of the ten major categories of occupation marked out in the ISCO-08, as its basis for data collection and occupational classification. According to the ISCO-08, the ten major categories are as follows; 1. Managers 2. Professionals 3. Technicians and Associate Professionals 4. Clerical Support Workers 5. Services and Sales Workers 6. Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Workers 7. Craft and Related Trades Workers 8. Plant and Machine Operated Assemblers 9. Elementary Occupations 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 0. Armed Forces Occupations The target population for this study was women across all categories of employment found within the ISCO-08. The study sample was initially to consist of a respondent from each of the 10 ISCO-08 categories. It is believed that the diversification of the respondents included in the study would adequately capture the views and dynamics that shape occupational choice of women in Accra. However, due to the reluctance of women found in some categories to participate, there were no respondents interviewed in the Armed Forces, Plant and Machine Operators Assemblers, and Craft and Related Trade Workers. A total of fourteen (14) women were included in the sample. Ritchie and Lewis (2003), suggest that within qualitative research the sample size is usually small primarily because phenomena only need to appear once to be part of the analytical map after which saturation occurs with additional data collected. Saturation was achieved after in-depth interviews was conducted amongst the fourteen women sampled for the study. Table 3.1 explains how the women were sampled from various occupational categories to ensure the sample was representative. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.1: Sample of Women Interviewed According to ISCO-08 Major Category Sub-Category Frequency Managers Hospitality, Retail and Other 3 Service Managers Professionals Science and Engineering 1 Professionals Health Professionals 2 Legal, Social and Cultural 1 Professionals Technicians and Associate Business and Administration 2 Professionals Associate Professionals Clerical Support Workers Customer Service Clerks 1 Services and Sales Workers Sales Workers 2 S k i l l e d A g r i c u l t u r a l , Market-Oriented Skilled 1 Forestry and Fishery Workers Agricultural Workers Craft and Related Trade Electrical and Trade Workers Workers P l a n t a n d M a c h i n e Operators Assemblers Elementary Occupations Cleaners and Helpers 1 Armed Forces Occupations Commissioned Armed Forces Officers Source: ISCO-08 International Classification of Labour (2008) 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5 Sampling Procedure The research utilised non-probability sampling techniques in choosing respondents. These techniques were convenience sampling and purposive sampling techniques. Convenience sampling was used to select women who were available and willing to participate in the study at the time of data collection. Based on the need to select respondents from specific categories of occupation, purposive sampling was used to target respondents who fell within the required occupational categories. Purposive sampling allowed for the researcher to carefully select respondents based on their occupational activity, age and years of experience. In order to diversify the sample population, respondents interviewed for the study had varying levels of educational attainment and different number of years of experience in their chosen fields. This was done because it was believed each woman had different socio-cultural experiences that influenced their occupation choice. 3.6 Data Quality Control Measures In order to ensure the authenticity of the data, the study was arranged to ensure quality data collection, handling and management. Research objectives were given considerable thought in designing research instruments, in order to ensure that objectives are adequately met. The interview guide therefore encompassed all the necessary information needed. The researcher personally transcribed all data derived from the interview, in order to avoid the exclusion of certain relevant data obtained through observation. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Data Analysis Each tape recording of the interviews was transcribed manually and separately to ensure all information was captured verbatim. This enabled the interviewer to immerse herself in the experiences and stories told by the interviewees. In analysing the data, synonymous ideas were grouped together, and different ideas were also grouped together. Unusual ideas singular to certain respondents were further explored. Content analysis of the data was used as the main data analysis procedure for this study. Relational analysis was used to identify concepts present in each transcript. The relationships between some concepts identified were further explored. Consequently, the report was written to include the views expressed by all respondents. 3.9 Ethical Considerations Respondents were only interviewed after their verbal consent was given. They were further assured by the researcher of confidentiality and privacy to ensure their anonymity throughout the study. Names or identification data were not requested of the respondents to reiterate the assurance of anonymity. At every point in time, respondents were at liberty to withdraw from the study, if they no longer wished to participate. Only the researcher currently has access to recorded tapes and transcribed documents obtained from the interview. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Introduction This chapter contains findings of the study as well as discussions of the findings under each objective, in relation to the literature reviewed. 4.2 Background of Participants This section describes the attributes of the respondents interviewed in the study. It briefly explains the gender of the participants, age, religion, ethnicity, marital status, educational qualification and occupation. In total, fourteen (14) females participated in the study. Their ages ranged from 22 to 45. Out of the fourteen participants interviewed, ten were professionals whereas four were non- professionals. The professionals included the managers of an enterprise, a customer service clerk, a petroleum engineer, an accountant, a doctor, a nurse, lawyer and business administrators. The non- professionals were a cleaner, a mushroom farmer and two (2) traders. Although their educational attainment levels were varied, all participants had at one point, attended school. Two (2) of them were Junior High School (JHS) leavers, two (2) were Senior High School (SHS) leavers, eight (8) participants were degree holders and two (2) were second degree leavers. When questioned about their religious backgrounds, eleven (11) participants self-identified as Christian whilst three (3) said they were Muslim. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Presentation of Findings and Discussions This section presents the data obtained from the field. The data are presented in themes based on the objectives of the study. The ensuing paragraphs contain discussions of the study, in relation to the literature. 4.4 Theoretical Relevance of the Study The conceptual framework from which this explorative study on the occupational choices among women in the Accra metropolis was carried out, was derived from four main theories. These are, Ginzberg’s Theory of Occupation Choice, Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, Holland’s Occupational Typology, and the Gender-Socialisation Approach. The subsequent paragraphs will highlight the findings, vis a vis the underlying theories. Principally, the findings support the theoretical position of Ginzberg’s theory of occupation choice. The hypothesis that an individual’s attributes, educational background and situational constraints play a significant role in their occupational choice was true for majority of the respondents in the sample. Participants in the study attested to this citing varying factors such as financial support in acquiring an education, educational attainment, deliberate self-advancement, passion, proper mentoring, parental counselling and availability of opportunities as components of their occupational choices. Additionally, when asked if they had alternative occupations they would rather be employed in, only a few respondents replied no. The majority had other aspirations when growing up, and narrowed their options as the years progressed. Their admission of their decisions to eliminate and reform their choices as they got older buttresses Ginzberg’s theory of occupational choice being a developmental process. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Moreover, the study also reaffirms Holland’s occupational typology theory which stipulates that occupational development is a process of finding a proper environment that will serve as an avenue for the personality of an individual to thrive. According to Holland (1957), individuals are attracted to a particular occupation that meets their personal needs and provides them satisfaction. This theory is empirically in line with the findings of the study as respondents confirmed how their environment, which consisted of positive parental influence, parental education and their own ready access to education afforded them a conducive environment to choose their occupations. Furthermore, the decision to engage in more lucrative positions to earn more is an indication that they needed to ensure their satisfaction. With regards to the theory’s assertion of occupational choice being a personality matching process, the findings supported this because almost all respondents were working within a discipline they believed suited their personalities and their strengths. The penultimate theory, Vroom’s Expectancy Theory was especially reiterated during the course of this study. Based on the financial gain all respondents expected to acquire from their chosen occupations, it was evident that a conscious decision was made by each participant with the predominant aim of potential financial gain. Two respondents further reiterate this theory by admitting to eliminating alternatives and settling on their current chosen professions due to the maximum rewards expected from those particular positions, as opposed to just monetary gain in the other alternatives. In their case, it was breaking gender barriers. Although respondents cited cases of societal influences preventing their colleagues from pursuing certain careers, they did not particularly face these barriers. However, the deliberate choice of a respondent to engage in her profession with the intention of dispelling the myth of that profession was reserved for men, is an acknowledgement of existent gender stereotyping proposed by the gender socialisation approach. That notwithstanding, according to the respondents, personally, their sex and 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh gender were not necessarily determining factors in their occupation choices. In light of this, they chose to engage in their professions without gender limitations. 4.5 Factors that Contribute to Women’s Educational Attainment Participants of the study gave varying reasons on what had influenced or contributed to their educational attainment. These varying factors ranged from financial support, deliberate self- advancement, passion, mentor effect, parental counselling and availability of opportunities. According to the respondents, majority of such factors emanate from available financial support and the personal motivation to attain the best of educational heights in light of job security and family responsibility. Additionally, a handful of respondents attested to the fact that, their parents served as a push factor in climbing to the heights of education. The findings from the field indicated a strong or robust relationship between the availability of financial support and educational attainment. Furthermore, there were a considerable number of cultural and religious beliefs coupled with social customs that participants admitted could massively influence the educational level of women. A respondent, for example, was not given the same opportunity as her younger male siblings to attain a higher level of education. This confirms Amu (2005) assertion that parents with financial challenges are more likely to select a male child to carry on with school due to perceived results of education a male. Even within schools the choices of programs studied are unequally distributed as some courses have significantly larger males enrolled in them than females (Daddieh, 2003). This could be attributed to early gender socialisation stages where binary roles are set out for both genders. Subsequently, women are over-represented in sales and service occupations that require comparatively lower educational requirements. This consequently confirms the findings of (Klasen, 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1999) which asserts that, while gender barriers can now be crossed for the fortunate few women seeking employment, there still remains professional segregation. 4.5.1 Financial assistance All respondents interviewed fervently agreed to discuss the factors that contributed to their educational attainment. Majority of them revealed that obtaining financial assistance was instrumental in the level of educational attainment they had reached. Without financial assistance, some respondents admitted that, they needed a break to work in order to be able to fund their schooling themselves. “There was really nothing free for me during my school days in Graceland International School, Wesley Girls’ and University of Ghana, Legon. I am serious. My accommodation, tuition fees, extra courses were covered by my parents. There was total financial support from my parents in that regard.” (Source: Interviewee, Doctor). Other respondents also recounted having to work and attend school simultaneously in order to fund their education at some point. “My mum has been the one sponsoring my education from basic level to SHS level. She was there when my dad passed on. But after graduating from SHS something changed. Actually, financial issues, I was supposed to work for some time.” (Source: Interviewee, Trader). “The government gave us books. I think the only thing we bought at that time were only notebooks, pens and all that, like textbooks and all that were provided. Though at the end of school we returned 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh it. My parents did pay fees during, let’s say basic, JHS and SHS tier." (Source: Interviewee, Customer Service Clerk). The above quote from the customer service clerk, was the primary reason why she had to take a break from school to work. However, some respondents implied that inadequate financial support deprived them altogether of the ability to further their education. “Because my dad didn’t have the money to take me.” (Source: Interviewee, Trader). “During my schooling days, there nothing like free education, my parents supported me till SHS. Mum was selling bread. The people stop buying the bread, before they were buying it but later on, they stop buying it. My dad didn’t have the money to take me to school. So, I stopped at JHS level because, there was no money to support me." (Source: Interviewee, Cleaner). These findings corroborate the work of Ginzberg et al (1951) who posited that an individual’s attributes, educational background and situational constraints have a large impact on their occupational choice. From the study, it was implied that given the availability of financial assistance, if presented with the opportunity to be educated to the tertiary level, all respondents would further their education. Consequently, this could affect the type of occupation an individual would later engage in. Furthermore, limitations posed through situational constraints lead some women to take a break from work to engage in an occupation to later further their education. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5.2 Self-advancement Some of the participants confirmed that their quest to self-advancement is one of the many factors that contributed towards their educational attainment. Participants confirmed that they saw the need for self-advancement in the realm of education. Below are statements that explain this theme: “I think the need to empower oneself brought me this far. I worked hard to that effect. I believe the zeal to go this far will assist you in taking more responsibility as well as been secured in terms of job or opportunities. You need to work on yourself. Self-empowerment is of the essence. You cannot be empty.” (Source: Interviewee, Customer Service Clerk). “I think it is more of strength and challenge (inaudible), when people ask about petroleum engineering, it is male dominated course, people were saying I had made a big mistake. There was a time, when applied for petroleum engineering my dad didn’t have the funds, and he was like where would you going work? What you are going to do? There was a lot of… I would not say, nonsense, but maybe they were concerned. But I think that was my motivation, if I want to do it, I can do it if I want to. But the gender thing was not a problem, I went to the same school with males, we took the same exams. Yes, that part of you that tells you to push forward and empower yourself. It is worth it.” (Source: Interviewee, Petroleum Engineer). 4.5.3 Parental mentorship Some of the respondents interviewed ardently cited that career mentorship from their parents, as well as their encouragement played a key role in their pursuant of their educational achievements. There were two sides to parental influence in educational attainment as they were not all satisfied with the courses they were persuaded to read. On one hand, their parents served as role models they wanted 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to embody in their later years. Therefore, they chose the same educational path. On the other hand, although some respondents followed their parents’ educational paths, they were coerced into doing so. The statements below highlight theses admissions made by some respondents. “My parent’s highest level of education is the tertiary level. In common place they sponsored my education to degree level. They spurred me to go beyond first degree. So, their mentorship or advice played an enormous part doing my MPhil on Agriculture. Sometimes it is so much of a privilege to be raised in an educated home. It really influenced me in the right direction. I am forever grateful in this regard.” (Source: Interviewee, Accountant). “I have a dad who believes so much in education, working in the formal institution. For my dad, if you want to pursue your goal or dream, you need to do it yourself and pursue your education. To this point I strongly believe daddy assisted me in terms of choosing education to degree tier.” (Source: Interviewee, Business Administrator). 4.5.4 Role model effect Specific respondents interviewed enthusiastically admitted that their role models played a huge part in influencing their educational attainment level. Although they had not reached the level they wanted to attain, they aspired to become like said role models. This rang true for the professionals whose role models were mainly their parents, and who had achieved an educational level of at least first degree. Those who were not educated to tertiary level did not necessarily want to carry on due to role models, as they did not seem to have any. The statements below indicate the existence of such admissions made by some of the interviewees. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “My mother, my mother has been my role model. My dad too. They all did their second degree. So, growing up, I wanted to either better their feat in education or equal it. They did advise me to pursue school and be responsible in the future. I attended university of Ghana, University of Sheffield then college of law in Birmingham University.” (Source: Interviewee, Lawyer) “Growing up was fascinating, I always saw my role model being revered in her discipline. This largely served as a push factor to pursuing the profession. Indeed, I was poised to step in the same shoes as my mentor. I aspired to be one.” (Source: Interviewee, Accountant) 4.6 The Influence of Educational Attainment on Women’s Occupation Specifically, educational attainment was seen to influence the choice of occupation of the participants in the study. Some respondents attested to the fact that education actually influenced their choice of occupation. The following were recorded as some of the reasons regarding the influence of educational attainment on occupational choice. “During JHS days, Yes, I felt I could be an artist. Going forward, my education was an influential factor to my career choice. It made me see the reality of pursuing a profession with immense security." (Source: Interviewee, Doctor). “Yes, education the most influential factor in deciding my occupation because you need to learn, accounting is not a free skill for all, and you need to study for it. So, if you really… I will say it is education that has really given me that occupation. It is a profession that you need to learn.” (Source: Interviewee, Accountant). 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From these findings, respondents attested to education being a driving force behind choice of occupation. This was done two ways; either by limiting one’s occupational prospects, or by opening up an individual to available opportunities. This limitation occurred with participants who had not achieved at least a tertiary education. They agreed that had they pursued their education, their occupational choice would have been influenced. This also confirms the findings of (Verheul, Thurik, & Grilo, 2006) which concluded that employment and start-up rates are higher for women with postsecondary education than for women with lower education. It was also apparent from the findings that, participants who pursued higher education (i.e. tertiary) made their career choices based on their educational heights. However, educational attainment did not seem to be the major motivation behind majority of the respondent’s occupations. Although it could not be denied that their level of education gave them a fair advantage of being able to decide, their particular fields of study did not always correlate with the professions they found themselves in. “Actually, being a personal assistant is not my career path, but I felt it was a little in line with what I studied back in school. By weighing in the strengths of my occupation, I feel like it is okay per my educational background in human relations. Though it is a bit challenging, there is energy." (Source: Interviewee, Business Administrator). Furthermore, with some respondents, the decision to go back to school to take a particular course was done after they had already chosen a profession and needed some certification to advance. Some respondents were even offered formal employment without a tertiary level degree, simply due to their literacy and experience in related fields. Completing a tertiary degree was then an afterthought. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It was also suggested that, regardless of educational attainment, most women would do what they needed to do in order to earn a living. An example was made of the recent phenomena of unemployed university graduates resorting to performing menial jobs for pay, as well as the burgeoning “sugar daddy-sugar baby” trend in Ghana. It would be remiss, to ignore that of the sample interviewed, although their level of education gave some respondents the opportunity to secure more lucrative occupations, their choices and respective fields were not limited to subjects and programs they studied in school. Only four respondents had occupations within their academic disciplines. In addition, findings from the study also confirmed (Davidsson & Honig, 2003) research outcome which posits that individuals with higher levels of human capital may be better at perceiving entrepreneurial opportunities, and therefore more likely to engage in entrepreneurial activity. (Davidsson & Honig, 2003). Additionally, the findings further corroborate Afiouni, (2014) which posits that the women’s educational level is influenced by the tendency of it assisting them in their occupational undertakings. 4.7 Additional Reasons That Influence the Occupational Choices of Women Interviewees of the study shared different reasons regarding the other factors that influences the occupational choices of women. The several factors ranged from career passion, cultural underpinnings, aspirations or dreams, religion and spouse influence. The career stories of women in the sample reflect well specific gender scripts rooted in these salient factors; financial support, self advancement, passion, mentor effect, parental counselling and availability of opportunities. More importantly, it was apparent from the study that most of the participants admitted to religion, cultural 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh underpinnings, passion and aspirations served as other factors that played a role their occupational choice. The findings below are highlight the aforementioned factors that influence respondents’ occupational choices. 4.7.1 Parental and familial support In a study of American women, Fernandez (2007) and Fernandez and Fogli (2009) show that the variation in work behaviour of second-generation American women was due to the general level of participation of females in the labour force, as well as their general attitudes in their parents’ country of origin. By whittling down focus to solely the family as a medium of norm transfer, Fernandez, Fogli and Olivetti (2004) and Olivetti, Patacchini & Zenou (2016) illustrated that economically active mothers transfer different work ethics and preferences to their offspring than non-working mothers. Working mothers not only make it more attractive for their daughters to invest in labor market skills, but also for the wives of their sons, since these men more likely prefer a working wife themselves. Women within this study sample were influenced by their mothers’ work ethic as those who had mothers currently or previously engaged in formal employment, were also engaged in formal employment, and even in similar professions. This study corroborated these findings as parental influence seemed to be a major driver of occupational choice among women in the sample. In this regard, parents’ occupation seemed to influence their offspring’s occupational decision. For example, a parent who is a nurse would want their child to be a nurse and a parent who is a doctor, may want their child to be a doctor. Although respondents admitted to being influenced by their parents, they did not attest to being forced into their occupations, save one woman who was observed to be uncomfortable with her choice of occupation. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This could be the case for other women, who decide to go with one occupation over the other, tampering down their passion in favour of their parents’ preferences. Below are some quotes from the interviews. “I did it primarily because my mother was my influence and …erm…of course I wanted to be like her.” (Source: Interviewee, Lawyer). "Also, my dad wanted me to be a doctor so…” (Source: Interviewee, Doctor). “I didn’t go to school to become a nurse, but after SSS and I had to choose a profession, my parents influenced the decision.” (Source: Interviewee, Nurse) 4.7.2 Participant’s career passion Some of the respondents interviewed suggested passion as a driver of their occupational choice. This is especially in line with Holland’s (1957) theory of occupational choice as a matching process. It was apparent that some women chose their occupations based on their personal likes, strengths and passions. This was however mostly the case for women in professional employment. These statements below indicate the evidence of such admissions made by part of the interviewees. “Interestingly, I like serving people as well as working with people. This transcended me into Omnibank. I think my ultimate is to be a consultant in customer service." (Source: Interviewee, Customer Service Clerk). 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “Yes, my passion made me an accountant. I love recording. I think when I was in SHS. I love business management and mathematics as well. So, it was from day one. This is my dream occupation, so I didn’t think of any plan B or any other choice of or maybe perhaps it worked for me, so from the education I was getting and the grades that came through, I hardly thought of any other profession. Then again, the course I was offered in the University of Ghana for first degree was not accounting. So that took me to a different school. I can firmly agree that my occupation as an accountant was purely motivated by personal passion.” (Source: Interviewee, Accountant). 4.7.3 Cultural underpinnings and gender stereotyping These empirical findings largely align with Mahmood (2013), findings which contend that open discrimination faced by women with regards to securing formal employment, condescending and judgmental attitudes of influential members of society adversely affected the maximum capitalisation of their talent and working capabilities (Mahmood, 2013). This judgement tends to limit women in terms of which occupational options they deem available to them. Additionally, the study supports a number of empirical enquiries that established that social norms of one generation are strongly influenced by the behaviour and norms of previous generations (Barigozzi, Cremer and Roeder, 2017). This is evident in respondents citing cultural limitations and gender stereotyping as occupational drivers of women in today’s society, contrary to the recent wave of gender-equality advocacy campaigns. All participants agreed that such underpinnings act as added influences on women’s occupation choices. They revealed that, even within their chosen fields, certain roles and positions are filled by men. In light of this, there are women who specifically choose certain paths within their disciplines, in a bid to break gender stereotypes. One respondent attested to being inspired by the fact that her 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh chosen field was male dominated, and this was a push factor in her decision to enter into it. Below are some specific cultural factors identified. “Societal practices like *pause* societal influence, this is not a woman’s role. Or this is not for a woman or … mmmmm… yeah. I think it’s more society, society has decided gender roles, stereotypes; “A” is for a man and “B” is for a woman. We even get it here, so we find people here, well mitigation is not for everyone, its more transactions, court actions.” (Source: Interviewee, Lawyer). 4.7.4 Marriage Although the majority of respondents had no problem juggling married life with their economic activities, it was suggested that marriage played a role in the occupational choice of women at large. It was put forth that some men would not allow their wives to go into occupations which are deemed tasking. Furthermore, some women placed more importance on being a wife than a working woman. Thus, even though they were currently employed, they would gladly give up their jobs if their husbands asked them to. Additionally, some single respondents admitted that if they got married to well-to do men, there would no longer be then need to work for financial independence. This corroborates Tsikata (2013) assertion that, women in developing African countries still find it hard to jump the hurdle that is the limitation of a woman’s worth to child bearing and homemaking roles. Below are quotes from a respondent: “Sincerely speaking other factors such as marriage in some cases affects once choice of occupation. I think if you marry somebody and the person can actually take care of you, it quite limits you. If you can get the fruits of a particular occupation in marriage, there is a tendency of abandoning it for a different calibre of occupation." (Source: Interviewee, Doctor). 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “I would say marriage, if you give birth, it is hard to get the strength to walk about your activities. (Source: Interviewee, Trader). “Family trumps beliefs, family will tramp career.” (Source: Interviewee, Lawyer). 4.7.5 Individual aspirations and entrepreneurial pursuance The respondents also asserted that personal aspirations are one of the many other factors that influenced their career choices. Below is their submission regarding the above-mentioned theme. “Aside from financial insufficiency, I strongly believe that your dreams and aspirations can influence your career choice. I have always dreamt of being at the forefront of employing people to a better job. I have an aspiration of being a great person in future. Per my dreams, I intend pursuing human relations in order to be a great HR.” (Source: Interviewee, Trader) “…and I decided that engineering is me and engineering is actually a broad topic for you to specify. Like the chemical, physical, biomedical and my strength was biomedical, that was what I was interested in. and unfortunately, that was not available to the institution. You see I was yearning to feed on my passion.” (Source: Interviewee, Petroleum Engineer) 4.7.6 Religion Religion was a potent factor that was voiced by almost every respondent. However, it was suggested as a constraint that guided a woman’s career decision by external actors, and not by the woman herself. Apparently, some religions restrict a woman’s free will to choose whatever occupation she 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh wants. With the Islamic faith, however, Islamic women were suggested to be more pious therefore placing their faith and its teachings at the forefront of their occupational decisions. Below is an admission of the above theme. “I will say it is religion. Though it might not cut across all religions. Personally, Islamic religion can prevent women from so many things, because in some work settings, wearing a very short skirt is recommended. For me, becoming an air-hostess for example, is a no no. My parents won’t side with me at all.” (Source: Interviewee, Trader) 4.7.7 Fear Three respondents suggested that women’s occupational choices were predominantly characterised by fear. According to these respondents, women did not choose their occupations based off passion, but often based off fear of rejection in trying to pursue their actual dream careers. Or simply because they do not believe themselves to be adequate enough. This could be as a result of how women are socialized in their formative years. Women are socialized to be nurturers while men are raised to be assertive (Eisenhart, 1996). This could influence some women’s decisions in what occupational path to take. “Okay… the reason why I say fear is mmm. many people are scared to take that step forward. When I was at Telefonika, I didn’t have a degree and nobody needed to tell me that you want to work in the bank you need this, you need that before you can work in the bank. But I dared to do it.” (Source: Interviewee, Customer Service Clerk). 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.7.8 Health Concerns Although the previous literature did not cite health as a major driver of one’s occupational choice, it is worth noting that one respondent cited health concerns as a driver of occupational choice of some women. According to this respondent, the strenuousity involved in the execution of tasks related to some occupations may serve as a deterrent to women who may otherwise be interested in pursuing such an occupation. Women may therefore choose less demanding occupations. She explained that a woman might want to join the military, for example, but could decide otherwise due to biological constraints like her menstrual cycle. “When, some married women are experiencing menstrual period, they feel sick. This can stop specific women from doing many things. For instance, if you want to be a military person, be ready for challenging moments.” (Source: Interviewee, Trader) 4.7.9 Financial constraints and prospective lucrative financial gains According to some respondents, women are generally hindered from pursuing their career choices due to financial constraints which may lead them to take alternative paths. For example, a woman might want to start her own business but lack the capital investment needed to do so. In the same vein, the lack of available funds to pursue the education required for their dream jobs have landed women in their current jobs. Furthermore, for some women, the pressing need for money have led them to take up occupations they otherwise would not have, irrespective of educational background. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “… as with the cooking, that’s what I like so the main thing will be that I would be happy doing it but the constraints, you know trying to set-up a business you know in Ghana, I know, you know the kind of stress you would go through so I think that will be the only thing but aside that if everything is set and done, I think I have the right people to work with, I think I will be good.” (Source: Interviewee, Business Administrator). “mmm… I think maybe their finances, I don’t think they do not have enough money also, if they did, they could maybe even pursue a tertiary course.” (Source: Interviewee, Doctor). Without financial constraints, respondents seemed to choose their occupations due to their potential earning power. Regardless of whether lucrative or not, financial gain was definitely a motivating factor in their decision to enter into a specific occupation. This is in line with decision making schools of thought that propound that based on the assumption that there are multiple occupational options available to one individual, an individual will eliminate alternatives and arrive at a choice that is best suited to their expectancy (Miekle, 2008). “I think this one had the most money, or maybe I am mistaken.” (Source: Interviewee, Petroleum Engineer). 4.8 Existing Policies on Findings The ensuing paragraphs highlight some implications of the findings on current Ghanaian gender policies. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.8.1 Addressing multi-tasking roles of women In light of the multiple roles women play in the Ghanaian society, that is, caretakers of homes coupled with parenting and professional duties, there is the tendency for women to give up their chosen occupation to pursue more “family-friendly” professions. Furthermore, overburdening women with various tasks does not augur well for optimum performance in their workplaces. This could be a setback to Ghana’s National Gender Policy. An upward battle is being fought when women are encouraged and motivated to occupy more decision-making positions only to drop out in subsequent years due to over-burdening. Additionally, the absence of child-care facilities at work places for women employees, could also be a contributing factor to a woman’s decision to leave a work place due to marriage or starting a family. This could serve as a deterrent for women who would otherwise have wanted to engage in formal employment may not do so because they would not want to leave behind their young children at home or in expensive day care centres. 4.8.2 Addressing social constraints on women The traditions of most African communities are gender-blind and, therefore, largely silent on the participation of women at the forefront of issues or, they may deliberately play down on women's role in society. Additionally, even when they want to advance in a profession, some women lack strong social networks and mentors among themselves, to serve as a beacon of hope. They also do not encourage each other to seek positions. Women in decision-making positions are the minority, and are sometimes devoid of support. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Under the auspices of the current Girls’ Education Unit (GEU), and in partnership with the Federation of African Women Educationalists (FAWE, Ghana Chapter), a District Girls’ Education Officer (DGEO) has been nominated in each district. Their principal task is to create awareness of the need for female education and empowerment, through networking and advocacy. 4.8.3 Addressing gender disparities in subjects of study Several interventions have been made to increase the enrolment of females into schools. Affirmative Actions and Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) are such. Yet, once females are enrolled in school, how do their experiences differ from those of their male classmates. Based on empirical evidence, even the choices of programs studied are unequally distributed as some courses have significantly larger males enrolled in them than females (Daddieh, 2003). Additionally, the level of education females are allowed to attain is different from males. Several factors, ranging from social-cultural discrimination, glass ceiling effects, mechanisms of recruitment and promotion, stereotyping, limited access to resource and lack of adequate education constrain women's advancement and effective participation in certain occupational fields in Ghana. In order to even out the enrolment of both sexes in predominantly male dominated subjects, the Ghana Education Service (GES) has rolled out the Science, Technology and Mathematics Education (STME) to encourage female participation in these subjects. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION 5.1 Introduction This chapter concludes the report on this study with the summary of the main findings in the research analysis. It further highlights the research objectives, and drawing from the findings, suggests relevant policy recommendations to be considered by the government, and other stakeholders. 5.2 Summary of Findings The study focused on factors that contribute to the educational attainment of women in the Accra metropolis and the role their educational attainment played in their choice of occupation. It further explored other factors that characterised their current occupational choices. A sample size of fourteen (14) women were selected randomly from 10 categories of occupation within the Accra metropolis. They granted in-depth interviews and life histories which unearthed their educational history, as well as the processes that landed them in their current occupational paths. The results of the study revealed that educational attainment does influence a woman’s occupation to only when needed for specialised professional work. These occupations include law, medicine, engineering and so on. In this regard, specialisation is needed to secure employment. However, educational attainment is not necessarily the major driver in a decision to choose one particular job. Without fear hindering a woman from applying for certain positions, literacy and experience can serve as a push in gaining employment in some fields. From the findings, respondents choose their 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh professional occupations regardless of their educational attainment, and only went back to school for advancement. In the same vein, the results of the study revealed that women who read certain courses do not necessarily take into consideration the courses they studied when making an occupational decision. An example of this scenario was when a lawyer admitted to studying political science in the university and ended up working in a bank before going back to school to earn her law degree. Furthermore, in some public universities in Ghana for example, a person might not be offered their desired course when applying for admission. In order to earn their degree anyway, the person could study this course, but later choose an occupation in a different discipline upon completion. Based on the findings on how education influenced women’s occupational choices, it was necessary to further identify other factors they deemed significant in choosing their occupations. Family support seemed to be a major driving factor. When women have parental role models, they feel the need to advance. More specifically, daughters of mothers who work in professional fields, inspire their children to achieve similar success. This is not to say that women without working mothers were not motivated. They are motivated, to an extent, to exceed their mothers’ level of occupation. Furthermore, the findings suggest that even within certain occupation disciplines, gender stereotyping and socialisation have led some women to settle for more feminine roles, even though they may be in enviable occupations. This is apparently often the case with the law profession where women deal with litigation and men deal with mitigation issues. However, gender stereotyping has served as a stepping stone on which some women have deliberately chosen their occupations and are seen to be thriving. Other driving factors unearthed which explained women’s occupational choice in the Accra metropolis are marriage, religious beliefs and prospective financial gains. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 Conclusion The study concludes that there are economic, social and cultural factors that still contribute to the educational attainment of women. Although the principal factor is the availability of financial support to fund their education, there are several other underlying reasons to this. Financial support can only take a woman so far but does not necessarily contribute to the choice of subject to study whilst in school. In this regard, parental influence is what seemed to guide the women within the sample to select specific subjects. Professions like medicine and law required additional education attainment to achieve. The decision to go a step further to achieve a post-graduate degree is then characterised by factors such as parental support and existing role models in a woman’s life to provide encouragement. Furthermore, without the passion and drive to attain a higher level of education, some women may be content with whatever level they have achieved still at an early stage in their lives. This means they would settle for whatever education can give them an income. Usually, they resort to informal employment which requires a lower educational attainment. Without the need to advance in their chosen occupations, others may not see the need to return to school at all. As was the case of some respondents who only admitted to returning to school solely for career advancement. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 Recommendations The study on the drivers of occupational choice among women in the Accra metropolis has unearthed underlying challenges facing women, that consequently drive their occupation choices. The economic empowerment of both sexes would serve as a catalyst for the overall wellbeing and development of the nation. The provision of an enabling environment in which women can realise their potential is imperative in achieving economic empowerment. In light of this, I recommend the following: • In order to properly enhance comprehension and garner support for Gender Equality Policies, gender equality and advocacy agenda should be directed at the grass-root stages of child development. Educational syllabus should contain gender programmes to tackle the issue of gender socialisation at an early stage. This could effectively even out the disparities in sex enrolment of certain subjects in schools. • Due to the tendency of some women to settle into somewhat less fulfilling economic roles after childbirth, there is the need to pay attention to their practical needs and the burden of their reproductive roles. This could be done by investing in child care welfare. The establishment of child care and day-care facilities in workplaces could serve as a beckoning factor in a woman’s decision to enter into professional employment. Furthermore, this would enable women to further reconcile motherhood with professionalism, without the usual guilt. • Policy makers must also take into account about both the actuality of women’s lives and how they are reconciled with institutions and ideas (political, cultural, economic, and religious). Gender- 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh transformative policy can grant women the resources which will permit them to take enhanced control of their lives, to determine what kinds of gender relations they want to live with. • Additionally, in order to build the self-confidence and ambitions of women, there should be provision of access to career counsellors to eradicate fear of success among women who do not have role models in their parents. • Although education for its own sake certainly has an intrinsic value, acquiring the right education and training is fundamental in choosing the right occupation. Girls should therefore be provided with job-relevant skills that employers actually demand, or skills that they can use in launching their own business. • Finally, tax reductions in the salaries of dual-earner families could serve as an incentive for male spouses to encourage their wives to choose formal employment. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Aidoo, A. A. (1985). Women in the History and Culture of Ghana. Amu, J. N. (2005). The Role of Women in Ghana's Economy. Accra: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. Arenius, P., & Minniti, M. (2005). Perceptual variables and nascent entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 24, 233-247. Awumbila, M. (2006). Gender Equality and Poverty in Ghana: Implications for Poverty Reduction Strategies. Bakare-Yusuf, B. (2003). “Yorubas don’t do gender‟: A critical review of Oyewumi’s “The invention of women: Making an African sense of Western gender discourse”. Barigozzi, F., Cremer, H., & Roeder, K. (2017). 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Number of siblings (older or younger): Part 2- Educational Attainment 11. Why did you finally stop school/ continue school? 12. Who sponsored your education? 13. Was the person educated? If yes, What level? 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14. What was the person’s occupation? 15. Where did you go to school? 16. Did you ever have free education? 17. If free, were there any other extra costs? 18. Who paid for them? 19. Did you study outside your area of residence? 20. Did you reach the level of education you wanted to attain? 21. If not, why did you withdraw? (If lower than secondary) 22. Was it too far? Money? Pregnancy? 23. Would you have continued if given the opportunity to? 24. What level would you have gotten you? Part 3 - Role of education in occupation choices and other factors. 25. What is your present occupation? 26. What encouraged you or motivated you to do what you’re doing? 27. Why did you choose this profession? 28. At what stage in your life did you choose this occupation? 29. Did you study to achieve this occupation? 30. Would you have preferred another occupation? 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31. Was there a time before, during or after your choice of occupation that you became or have become frustrated? 32. Was education the most influential factor in deciding your occupation? 33. If no, what was the most influential factor in your decision to choose this occupation? 34. If you had progressed up to (insert level) would you still be in this profession? 35. Would you have chosen something different (even if you like what you do now)? 36. Would you have been allowed to? (parents, spouse, etc) Was it your decision? 37. Would you have faced any constraints? (time etc) 38. Besides education, what do you perceive prevents other women from doing what they actually want to do? SECTION 2 - LIFE HISTORY Part 1- History/ Background 1. Please tell me a little bit about yourself. 2. Where and when were you born? 3. What was it like there? 4. What was the residence like that you lived in? 5. Could you please describe the family you grew up in? For instance, did you grow up with both parents? 6. What were your parents like? What is the most important thing they taught you? 7. How many siblings did you have? 8. Were they older or younger? 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9. Was your family religious? What religion did you practice? 10. How long have you been living at your current residence? 11. Did your parents tell you stories from their childhood? 12. Where were your parents from? 13. Were they educated? To what level? 14. Did your parents work? 15. What job did your parents do? 16. At what age did you start school? 17. What level did you attain? 18. Who paid the cost of your education? 19. Do you know how many number of years you spent in school? Part 2 - Education/Schooling Years 20. Where did you go to school? Was it in the community? 21. How did you get there? 22. Were there any subjects you particularly liked? 23. Why did you like those subjects? 24. Were you free to choose the subjects you wanted to study? 25. Did you achieve the level of education you wanted to achieve? 26. How old were you when you left school? Why did you leave? What did you do next? 27. What challenges did you face while you were in school? 28. Until what age or grade do you think it is appropriate for girls to get an education and why? Is it different for boys and why? 29. In your opinion, what are some of the ideas/customs/attitudes that promote or discourage girls’ education? 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Part 3- Occupational Choice 30. When did you first decide what occupation you wanted to engage in? 31. Why did you choose this occupation? 32. Did you face any resistance from parents? 33. Did you face any challenges? 34. Was education an influential factor in deciding your occupation? 35. Where did you first work? 36. How did you feel about this job? 37. What were your relations like with your workmates? With your boss? 38. Given the opportunity to, would you have decided on another occupational choice? 39. Did you know any females that chose their occupations for different reasons? 40. What were they? 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 77