THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WOMEN'S ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THE ADEQUACY OF FEEDING THEIR PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN: THE CASE OF HO IN THE VOLTA REGION BY PEACE ABLA NORA DENUEME A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF HOME SCIENCE, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON. IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF M. PHIL DEGREE SEPTEMBER, 1993 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2 ,342662 Tx3^\*C5 J>4-B i K (2,s es m University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh D E C L A R A T I O N I, Peace Abla Nora Denueme, hereby declare that except for references to other peoples' work which have been duly cited, this work is the result of my own original research and that this dissertation had neither in whole nor in part been presented for another degree elsewhere. (Peace A. N. Denueme) Student (Clara Opare-Obisaw (Mrs.) Supervisor. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh D E D I C A T I O N Dedicated to the Glory of God who supported me throughout the course of the study. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The work of this nature would not have been successful without the generousity and kind assistance from many quarters. I would therefore like to express my sincere and heartfelt gratitude to Mrs. Clara Opare-Obisaw, a Lecturer, Home Science Department, University of Ghana, Legon, my Project Supervisor for her boundless patience in reading through my scripts, and secondly for her constructive criticisms guidance and encouragement that have gone a long way in helping me complete this project. I feel equally indebted to Mrs. Anna Lartey, Lecturer, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Prof. E. V. Doku and Dr. F. Y. M. Fiadjoe of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ghana, Legon, for the constructive criticisms and suggestions they made to improve the clarity of the work. I am most thankful to Mr. E.D. Dor for his kindness, moral and financial support. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to Mr 0 Baafi- Adomako for analysing the data and Miss Beryl S . Kotei for typing the manuscript with patience and care. A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A B S T R A C T The study examined the Relationship Between Women's Economic Activities and the Adequacy of Feeding their Pre- School children at Ho in the Volta Region. The main aim of this project was to find out the relationship between the length of time mothers spent away from home and feeding adequacy which was assessed by growth performance of the children. In all 70 working mothers with children aged 24 - 60 months were studied. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect demographic data whilst the frequency of consumption of commonly used Ghanaian foods was collected using the food frequency questionnaire. Nutrient intakes of the study children were assessed by the 24-hour dietary-recall method. Anthropometric measurements (weights and heights) were used to assess the growth performance of the children. Using various statistical tools for analysis and presentation, the study revealed that children studied had diets that were low in calories, the group mean being 66% of the Recommended Nutrient Intake (RNI) for energy. The results showed that 27.1% of the children studied were malnourished (ie. they had weights for heights below - 2 SD) . The low energy intakes of the children might probably account for the growth deficit. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There was a significant relationship between the lengths of time mothers spent away from home and the growth performance of their children. It was clear that more of those children who showed signs of malnutrition were those whose mothers spent 9 or more hours away from home daily. The main recommendations are that nutrition education be intensified for mothers of pre-school children. Secondly, Day Care Centres manned by qualified personnel be established at or near places of work to alleviate the feeding problems of pre-school children whose mothers work. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration .................................. Ai Dedication Aii Acknowledgements ................................ Av Abstract ....................................... v Table of Contents ............................... vii List of Tables .......... ix List of Appendices ........ xi CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction .............................. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem................ 3 1.3 Objectives ......................... 4 1.4 Hypotheses ................................ 5 1.5 Significance of the Study ................. 5 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms and Concepts 6 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............... 7 2.1 Food and Nutrient needs of Pre-school Children 8 2.2 Food Intakes of Pre-school Children ....... 11 2.3 Absence of Mother and Welfare of Children ... 13 2.4 Effect of Mothers Involvement in Economic activity on Breastfeeding 17 2.5 Factors other than work that influence feeding of children ........................ 19 2.6 Mode of weaning Children .................. 21 2.7 Growth Performance and its Measurement ...... 23 Page vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER Ills RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ..... 2 6 3.1 Selection of Study Location ................ 26 3.2 Population .................... 26 3.3 Sample Selection and Sampling Procedure ..... 26 3.4 Data Collection, Instruments and Procedure 27 3.5 Pretest ..................................... 3 0 3.6 Analysis of the Data . ................ 30 3.7 Limitations of the Study ................... 33 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............. 34 4.1 Description of Respondents and Study Children ................................... 34 4.2 Child Feeding Practices ..................... 40 4.3 Care arrangements made for Pre-school Children While Mothers Work ............. 49 4.4 Food Intake and Diet Quality of Stuejy Children ..................................... 55 4.5 Growth Performance of the study children 65 4.6 Hypotheses Testing .......................... 71 CHAPTER V: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 5.1 Summary and Conclusion ....................... 79 CHAPTER VI: Recommendations ........................ 84 Bibliography ................................ 86 Appendices .................... 95 Page viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table Pa9e 1 Distribution of Respondents by Age ........ 34 2 Educational Level of Respondents by Occupational Sector 35 3 Distribution of Monthly Income by Occupational Sector 36 4 Frequency distribution of Length of Time Respondents Spent Away From Home for Occupational Purposes .................... 37 5 Distribution of Respondents According to Their Reasons for Working ..................... 3 8 6 Distribution of Number of Children by Respondents 3 9 7 Distribution of Age at which the study Children were completely stopped Breastfeeding ..... 4 0 8 Distribution of Reasons for Terminating Breast Feeding of Study Children .................. 41 9 Distribution of Method Used to Stop Breast Feeding of Study Children ................. 43 10. Distribution of Age of Introduction of Supplementary Food to Study Children........ 45 11 Number of meals eaten by study Children by Mother's Occupation Sector ............... 47 12 Distribution of who Eats with Study Child ... 49 13 Reasons Given by Respondents as Indication for Well Fed Children .................... 50 14 Percentage distribution of Respondents According to Whether they Take Their Children to Work or nbt .............................. 51 15 Distribution of Where Children are left by Mothers Who do Not Take their Children to Work 52 16 Distribution of Persons who care for the Study Children in Mother's Absence ............... 53 17 Mean Energy and Nutrient Intakes of the study children by Age of Children ........ 61 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Page 18 Mean Energy and Nutrient Intakes of the Study Children by Mother's Occupational Sector .... 62 19 Mean Energy and Nutrient Intakes by Sex of Study Children 63 20 Distribution of Mean Adequacy Ratio (MAR) by Mother's Occupational Sector .............. 63 21 Distribution of Height—for—Age Z Scores of the Study Children 65 22 Distribution of Weight-For-Height Z Scores of The Study Children ................... 66 23 Distribution of Study Children below -2SD Scores by Age and Sex 67 24 Distribution of Study Children below -2SD Scores Weight for Height by Mother's Occupational Sector 68 25 Distribution of Mode of Weaning and Mother's Occupational Sector ................ 71 26 Educational Level of Mothers by Growth Performance (Weight— fot-Height) ............ 73 27 Marital Status and Growth Performance of the Respondents and Growth Performance of Study Children (Weight-for-Height) ............... 75 28 Time Respondents Spent Away From Home for Occupational Purposes and Growth Performance of the Study Children (Weight-for-Height) ..... 76 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF APPENDICES 1 Percentage Frequency of Consumption of Foods from the Various Food Groups ............ 95 2 Playdough Recipe 98 3 The Waterloo Classification (Adopted from Gibson, 1989) ............ 99 4. Study Questionnaire ....................... 100 5. Formula for Calculating Mean Adequate Ratio 110 6. Staples Conversion Table ................... Ill 7. Playdough Conversion Table ................. 112 Page xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.1 INTRODUCTION Children are the future leaders of nations so child nutrition and welfare have become a major concern of governments the world over. Recent reports by Ghana's Ministry of Health indicate that the result of a survey carried out on a sample of children 0 - 6 0 months revealed that over 50% of the children showed signs of malnutrition (Steel, 1989). The feeding practices a mother follows are a major factor in the nutritional well-being of the child. As the adage goes, "You are what you eat", so what a child becomes depends to a large extent on the type of foods and the way these foods are fed to the child. Malnutrition, a result of poor feeding especially during the early years, has a lasting effect on the child. The most far-reaching effect of malnutrition is on the learning ability if the time of insult occurs at a crucial period of brain growth. The children may never attain their intellectual potential even if they are well nourished later. Another effect of malnutrition is the prevention of a child from attaining his full potential physical growth. These disabilities subsequently reduce productivity in adulthood. In all cultures, women, among a host of responsibilities, are the providers of food as well as caretakers of children. In the past, Ghanaian women were involved in activities that kept them in and around the house. These included looking after the home, raising children and giving assistance with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh farm work tasks which did not separate them from their young children. Their young children were therefore near so that they could easily feed and care for them. However, as a result of rapid socio-cultural and economic changes women are now engaged in a number of different economic activities both in the modern and traditional sectors. Amuah (1986) and Aryee (1987) found that women in Ghana are involved in many types of economic activities ranging from top level managerial posts in the formal sector to farming and trading in the informal sector. Often such job responsibilities of women leave them with very little time to spend with their children. Sometimes, the involvement in these economic activities take them away from home. The mothers therefore have to delegate most of the responsibilities of child care to other people. One such responsibility is feeding of the children for which the mother is ideally suited (Marshal, 1987). Mothers' absence from home more often than not, has negative consequences on the health of the child. Most children in Ghana are started well because breast feeding is universally practiced, especially for the first few months of the child's life, during which time the child grows normally. From the onset of weaning the growth of most children slows down (Nutrition Division Report, 1989). This crucial period in the development of the child requires great attention. However, the involvement of mothers in economic activity 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh resulting in divided attention jeopardizes the child's well­ being if she cannot provide satisfactory substitute care. After complete weaning the role of the mother is even greater. She has to prepare or purchase the food the child needs. In most households in Ghana, mother and father work which results in an ever-diminishing amount of time either parent can spend with their children. From a study carried out by Kumekpor (1974) in Accra, 93 per cent of the women spent an average of 9 hours away from home daily. During their absence observation have showed that the feeding of their children may not be well-supervised, particularly when children are in the care of the aged, inexperienced maids and siblings. In some cases where children can buy food for themselves, mothers give them money to do so. But these mothers lose sight of the fact that cooked food vendors do not prepare special dishes suitable for the nutritional needs of the children. Therefore, mothers involvement in economic activities may result in inadequate feeding of their children, which may have negative consequences on healthy development. The aim of this study therefore was to investigate the effect of women's activities on the feeding patterns of their children and to evaluate the adequacy of their diets in meeting their nutrient requirements for normal growth. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The pre-school years are crucial in the development of 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh children and also in the establishment of sound eating patterns for later years since food habits are shaped early in life. The pattern of feeding which a mother adopts during these years is greatly influenced, among other factors, by the time available to her. In view of the increased number of women entering the labour force and the high incidence of malnutrition among pre-school children, this study will examine the feeding practices and child care arrangements that working mothers make for their pre-school children (2-5 years) and also find out the relationship between these and the growth performance of the children. 1.3 OBJECTIVES The following objectives were set: 1. To find out the general child feeding practices of working mothers at Ho. 2. To find out the usual food intakes of the study children and determine the adequacy of their diets. 3. To find out the child care arrangements that working mothers make for their pre-school children. 4. To assess the growth performance of the study children. 5. To find out the relationship between selected demographic characteristics of mothers and the growth performance of their children. 6. To establish the relationship between the hours working mothers spend away from home and the growth performance of their children. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 THE HYPOTHESES Hol: There is no relationship between the mode of weaning and mother's occupation. Ho2: There is no relationship between growth performance of the study children and their mother's educational level. Ho3: There is no relationship between marital status of respondents and the growth performance of the study children. Ho4: There is no relationship between the time mothers spent away from home for occupational purposes and the growth performance of their children. 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY As a result of the worsening conditions of child nutrition and the ever-increasing number of women working and turning over child care responsibility to other people, it is timely to carry out this study in order to alert and create awareness in mothers of feeding problems that are likely to arise as a result of their pursuit of economic activities. This, it is hoped will help mothers improve upon the child care arrangements and feeding practices they put in place while they work. The findings, it is hoped, will be useful to the Community Health Personnel who are involved in the education of mothers on child welfare issues. Feed back of the results of this study will be sent to 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Liic wCScr.' c organizations and movements in the Volta Region. It is expected that this will result in establishment of more day care centers and the improvement of existing day care facilities as well as the provision of nutritious meals for the pre-school children at the centers. Very little or no work has been done in the Volta Region on the relationship between mother's involvement in economic activities and feeding of their pre-school children and so this study will provide an important information for the records. 1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS Economic Activity : Is defined as work for which a person is paid directly or indirectly but not house keeping done in one's own home. Formal Sector : Is the type of economic activity where employees work according to specified rules and regulations and within a rigid time schedule. Informal Sector : Is the economic activity that include work of the self-employed and people who work within a flexible time schedule. Growth Performance: Is the extent to which an individual follows the normal course of increase in weight and height (as indicated by NCHS1 reference data) as a result of his or her nutrient intake. NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO 2.0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE A report from Ghana's Ministry of Health indicated that the number of malnourished children has doubled over the last decade. Data from various growth monitoring centers supported by Catholic Relief services have suggested that the malnutrition rates is worsening, with the percentage of under weight children having increased from 35 per cent in 1980 to 51 per cent in 1985 (Commey, 1990) . A cross sectional study conducted in May 1988 of the nutritional status of 512 pre­ school children at Gomoa Fetteh, Gomoa Onyadze/Ostew Junkwa showed that 2.9 per cent of the children were wasted (actually malnourished), 28.5 per cent were stunted (chronically malnourished), 27.7 per cent were stunted or wasted (under nourished), (Nugouchi Mem. Institute, 1987). This occurrence could be attributed to absence of mothers from home because of job responsibilities. Scattered reports seem to suggest that more women in Ghana are involved in wage earning activities than used to be the case. The picture of women working in Ghana will not differ from that of other countries. In many countries working women now out-number those who stay at home. Of all women aged 15-64 years, the percentage who work are : France 55.7%, Germany 54.4%, Spain 39.4-s, U.K. 63.5%, U.S.A. 66.9% and Japan 58.4% (Newsweek Magazine October, 1991). Most working mothers as reported by Peilj(1975) and Aryee^ (1980) have no facilities to allow the presence of children at or near their work places. This leads to their inability to 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh feed or supervise the feeding of their children. The hard­ ships suffered by these children left by their mothers at very tender ages cannot be over-emphasized. The literature reviewed covers the following topics: 1. Food and Nutrient needs of pre-school children. 2. Food Intakes of pre-school children. 3. Absence of mothers and welfare of their children. 4. Effect of mother's involvement in Economic activity on breast feeding. 5. Factors other than work that influence feeding of children. 6. Mode of weaning children. 7. Growth performance and its measurement. 2.1 FOOD AND NUTRIENT NEEDS OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN By the time children are two years old they will have learned to know and like most of the common foods that will be available to them throughout life. They may be less interested in food than formerly because of the many distractions at this age (Martin and Coolidge, 1978). Although there is a slowing down of the rate of growth during this period, the pre-school child's body continues to change dramatically (Hamilton et al. , 1988) indicating steady growth. Activity also increases as the child becomes increasingly mobile. It is a period that the pre-school child learns skills like counting, eating from spoon, talking and 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh walking. As activity increases after the child learns to walk, calorie needs increase. The pre-school years being a time of growth and development, the need for all the nutrients especially calorie is great (Hutchins, 1979). The pre-school child's requirement for energy in terms of body weight is about 3 times that of an adult. The energy is needed to maintain the rapid growth and meet their increased need for activity. A child within the pre-school period therefore needs 1560 calories per day (Hurdson, 1991). The pre-school child needs proteins for maintenance, repair and growth of new tissues especially muscles. As the child begins to walk and run his or her muscles must grow. This requires protein. Hurdson, (1991) reported that the pre-school child needs 25.9 g protein daily. The need for vitamins, due to the rate of growth of the pre-schoolers in relatively high. The B-complex vitamins are especially high as they vary with energy intake, the higher the number of calories recommended the greater the amount of B vitamins needed. Bone growth is rapid in the pre-school period so the need for calcium, phosphorus and magnesium are high. As the child grows the total amount of blood increases as a result, the need for iron is also high. The pre-school child needs 15mg iron daily to grow well. Energy, protein, calcium and iron are very important requirements for growth. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The pre-school child's meals could be chosen from the family meals. The various foods eaten by the other members of the family are usually suitable only the amounts and sometimes the form of the foods needs to be adjusted to meet the child's needs. Food should be prepared simply for pre-school children because they prefer to learn to enjoy individual foods for their own distinct flavours (Martin and Coolidge, 1978) . The pre-school child grows steadily and will need to be fed to obtain the necessary nutrients to support his growth. Since the child's capacity remains relatively small, one between meals snack may be needed between each of the three meals of the day. It is important to keep healthy eating guidelines in mind when selecting snack foods. In Ghana the major body building foods include meat, fish, eggs, milk, beans, groundnuts, agushie, shell fish, crab and snails. Energy giving foods include maize, millet, rice, sorghum, cassava, yam, cocoyam, plantain, gari, sweet potatoes, palmnuts, groundnut, palm kernel oil, other vegetable oils and shea butter* The foods that protect the body against diseases are kontomire, garden egg, mango, lemon, pineapple, pawpaw, guava and watermelon. A meal produced from a selection of the right quantities of foods from the groups will provide the nutrients required for the growth of the pre­ school child. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 FOOD INTAKES OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN Pre-school age children are most vulnerable to the effect of malnutrition resulting from poor weaning practices and food habits. The diets of pre-school children are based on the staples found within the area in which the young children reside. Floris and Garcia, (1959) in their study of Guatemalan pre-school children found that their diets consisted of bread, tortilla and spaghetti, all derived from cereals. Some quantity of rice was also consumed. They further discovered that children between 3-5 years were given diets as for adults and also these children were fed at irregular intervals. The work by Brew-Graves, (1978) in Accra, showed that the predominant pattern of eating among pre-school children per day was that of 3 meals. This comprised breakfast, lunch and supper. Some of the mothers however, added snacks to the meals, van Staveren et al., (1971) also found this same trend among the Surenamese pre-school children he studied. This mode of feeding may not aid the child to obtain the nutrient requirements for this period of rapid growth. This is because most young children with a limited capacity for food are more likely to obtain all the dietary essentials if they are fed something in mid morning and mid afternoon (Robinson, 1978). In Northern Nigeria it was found that the diet of pre­ school children was based on maize, guinea corn, millet and rice (Addo, 1983). These cereals according to Addo, (1983) were consumed at least once a day in a variety of forms with 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vegetables. Simic, (1971) also found that cereals form the main staple in Ghana. Corn is the predominant cereal used for the preparation of meals for pre-school children in the southern portion of Ghana. A fair amount of rice is also consumed by the children. Cereals are valuable chiefly as an economical source of energy. They are also a significant source of protein in the diet (Hughes and Bennion, 1970), providing one third of total protein of the diet in Ghana. (Simic, 1971). A survey of the diet of 80 rural pre-school children aged 2-5 years was carried out at Jannie Madu, India. Their daily intakes of food were estimated. The results of the survey revealed that the diets of the children contained adequate protein and iron. However, Calcium and calorie intakes were low (Sundararj, 1972). Popkin and Solon, (1976) found that in the Cebu Sample they studied, simple cross tabular analysis showed that the Calorie, protein and iron intakes of children whose mothers work were low. Flores and Garcia, (1959) also reported that the dietary intakes of most of the children in their study were inadequate especially in good quality protein and vitamin A. The mean intake of the children 2-3 years were near the RDA except for calcium, Vitamin A and riboflavin which were about half (50%) of the RDA. While diets of 3-5 years old children supplied 75% of the RDA for Calcium, protein and thiamin and about 50% for calorie. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3 ABSENCE OF MOTHER AND WELFARE OF CHILDREN In all cultures women are providers of food as well as caretakers of children. They grow food or earn money to buy it, they prepare it and they mediate its distribution among household members (Roger and Youssef, 1986) . The primary responsibility of child-care is nowhere in the world left to men. More mothers are working in both the modern and traditional sectors. Even mothers with young children now find it necessary to venture further from home in order to provide a livelihood for the family. Thus as Leonard and Lander, (1991:2) observed: "Women with children under the age of six are employed and the trend appears to be growing. The number of women returning to the job market in the USA within one year of giving birth, for instance, rose from 31 percent in 1976 to 50.8 percent 1987. In Nairobi Kenya, 25 per cent of mothers surveyed were working by the time their children reached six months and 29 per cent were employed when the child was nine to ten months of age" - Traditionally, the Ghanaian woman has been known to work both in and out of the house, but under conditions that permitted the care of the child when it needed help within her own appointed time. She traded in and around the house or the market place or had contributed to the labour force on the family farm (Williams, 1978). Under these conditions the care of the child did not create any problem because the child goes 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh along with the mother. According to Kumekpor, (1974) with the introduction of cash economy, trade and commerce, a new dimension, that is external location of women's work, was added. Women were employed then in bureaucratically organized work situations. They were required to operate within specifically defined structure and rigid time schedules. In the U.S.A. before the 19th Century the location of women's work was inside the home. However, over the course of the 19th Century the location of women's work changed from the home to external locations (Kleinberg, 1988). This trend of affairs was also observed in Kenya by de Glenvile et al. , (1979) who found that women in East Africa were employed in a wide variety of jobs in industry, trade, teaching and government as well as in agriculture. Women in Ghana have also experienced the change taking place elsewhere as far as location of work is concerned. Ghanaian women are now involved in a lot of economic activities both in the formal and informal sectors (Ako, 1978; Aryee, 1987). Studies carried out in Nigeria also show the same trend. Addo, (1983) and Feyisetan, (1986) found that in Nigeria, with the rapid increase in urbanization, the growth of large commercial and industrial establishments coupled with the need for additional income to supplement the husband's income, many mothers of pre-school children work away from home for long hours. These mothers sometimes are employees of establishments where children are not allowed. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This means that the mother is unable to take her child along during those hours she has to be away from home. The job responsibilities of women now leave them with very little time to spend with their children. Jelin, (1984) in her study found that women who are employed outside the home spend only close to 33 hours a week on house work which include child care. The data from work done by Walker, (1973) revealed that the average amount of time spent on household work by employed women ranged from 4-8 hours daily and for non-employed women 5-12 hours daily. Child care as reported by Savane, (1984) is an aspect of conflict between salaried work and motherhood and in places where there is total absence of Creches and day-care nurseries, the problem is not easily resolved. Popkin, (1980), examined the effect of labour force participation of mothers on dietary and time input into child care as well as the resultant impact on the nutritional status of the children from 34 rural areas in Laguna, Philippines. The results suggested that the market work status of rural mothers has net negative effect on the average nutritional status of children aged between one to seventy-one months in each rural household. Tripp, (1982) further confirms that the occupational activity of the mother is most significantly associated with the nutritional status of the child, since a mother's job seriously affects the amount of time she is able to devote to child care. Again, according to Roger and Youssef, (1986) the 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mother's involvement in economic activity puts the child s well-being at risk. They stress the nutritional importance of breast feeding which can only be done by the mother and which is diminished by mothers' work. Working mothers make various child care arrangements for the pre-school children while they work. Some of these mothers are reported by Nerlove, (1974) to transfer the responsibilities of child care to child nurses. Lavine and Lavine cited by Nerlove, (1974) stated that the responsibility of these child nurses cannot be described as casual because it includes feeding, cleaning and long hours of carrying the children. Williams, (1978) carried out a study of 247 working mothers employed in 14 different Ministries of the Government of Ghana in Accra. She found a variety of child care arrangements made by working mothers for their children. Most mothers left their children in the care of househelps, grandmothers or family members in Accra or outside Accra and a few left the children in day care centres. Date-Bah, (1976) and Otchere, (1978) also discovered the same arrangements in their respective works. The findings of the study by Williams, (1978) further suggest that some of the children were separated physically from their mothers. On such physical separation, Shermon, (1972) has this to say: "A factor which might influence consumption and the effect of food eaten on the body is emotional disturbance of the young child. Emotional disturbance has been seen 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as generally resulting from a child's removal from its mother." Abbi et al. , (1991) also found that 30 per cent of the children of working mothers studied were looked after by siblings and as high as 57% by grand parents. From the studies of Addo, (1983) and Feyisetan, (1986) it was evident that working mothers entrust their children in the care of nannies, relatively inexperienced unskilled housemaids, whose services are sometimes unreliable or older siblings who have little knowledge of child care and nutrition. Under these circumstances pre-school children may not meet their nutritional requirements and may consequently become malnouri shed. 2.4 EFFECT OF MOTHER'S INVOLVEMENT IN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY ON BREASTFEEDING Breast milk meets the child's needs as no other substance or source can (Uddoh, 1980). Breast feeding has many advantages. It is labour saving because it requires little or no preparation. The milk is of the right temperature, uniform composition, always clean and sterile. There is less risk of contamination with pathogens. It confers immunity on the child against such infectious diseases as measles and tuberculosis during the early weeks of life (Uddoh, 1980) . In spite of all the advantages of breast feeding, there is a world-wide decline in its prevalence and duration (Anyanwu et al., 1985) . It is clear from studies conducted in Bahrain, 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Burma, Iraq, Dar-es-Salam, Libya and Ghana that there is a decline in breast feeding. (Amin et al. , 1988, Bantje and Yambi, 1983; Musaiger, 1983; Oo-Tin-Tin, 1985; Darwish et al. , 1982, Adjei-Donkor, 1981, Otchere, 1978). The studies also revealed that working mothers especially those in urban areas, breast fed their infants for only one to three months. There are a lot of factors that influence the prevalence and duration of breast feeding. Taba, (1970) identified the following factors as being responsible for the continuing decline in breast feeding : modernization, urbanization, affluence, changes in family life and gainful employment of mother outside the home. In addition, Popkin and Solon, (1976) found that increased female labour force participation as well as change in location of female work are key factors in the decline of breast feeding. According to Nerlove, (1974) among the Gurrii of Kenya, women are responsible for corn and millet cultivation upon which the society primarily depends. The young children are cared for by child nurses while the mothers are working. These substitute nurses, can do little about breast-feeding. They may offer only supplementary foods. The study concluded that mothers who are involved in subsistence activity introduced their children to supplementary foods before the child is one month old. Working mothers replace some of the breast feeding by bottle feeding after a short period of 6 weeks - 3 months because they have to return to work (van Staveren et al., (1977) 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Di Dominico and Acuni, (1979), observed at Ibadan that women in traditional working environment such as the market where the children can accompany mothers have a definite tendency to breast feed longer than those in modern working environment where working hours are inflexible and the child must be left at home. The trend towards longer breast feeding is even more apparent if manual workers are contrasted with white collar professional workers. 2.5 FACTORS OTHER THAN WORK THAT INFLUENCE FEEDING OF CHILDREN Besides the mother not having the time required to feed or supervise feeding her child personally, there are other factors at play leading to the increase in malnutrition. It is well documented that the following factors are those that affect feeding of children : ethnic background of mother, household composition and family size, educational level of mother, income, marital status, and religious sentiments. (Marshal, 1987; Ablometi, 1988; Aguillon et al., 1982; Purvis, 1985). Researchers have on record that mothers who have some education are able to bring up children with better nutritional status than do illiterate mothers. (Piwoz, and Viteri, 1981; Chandhury, 1986; Gopaldas, et al. 1988; Futrell, et al., 1971). This is an indication that educated mothers understand some of the developmental needs of children and are able to feed them better. Working mothers add substantially to the family income and they spend a higher 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh proportion of their income on food. This would improve nutritional status of a household. Abbi et al., (1991) reported that low family income appears to be a major detrimental factor on nutrition and health of children of working mothers. However, Futrell et al., (1971) found that women's work has a positive effect on family income and hence nutrition of the family. In the same study Futrell et al. , (1971) found some but not a strong relationship between per capita income and nutritional status. The benefits accruing from an increase in income may be offset if the amount of time a mother can give to her child is inadequate or has increased expenditure for hired child care or purchase of commercial infant foods. Increased family size as stated by Chandhury, (1986) may adversely affect the nutritional status of every member of the household including pre-school children, because it may be associated with a decrease of per capita food intake. A study by Aguillon et al., (1982) , confirmed that a large family size was significantly negatively associated with good nutritional status. It should however, be noted that it is not always the family size per se that adversely affects nutritional status of the household. The composition structure of the household is the crucial factor influencing the nutrient intake of the children. Thus the fewer the adults in the household the higher the nutrient intake of pre-school children. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 MODE OF WEANING CHILDREN Weaning is the gradual removal of the child from the breast onto other foods. The weaning period is the total period when breast milk is being replaced with other foods. This period starts when a mother introduces the child to semi­ solid and solid foods and it continues until the child is completely removed from the breast. The method of separation from the breast is often very relevant, particularly, as to how and when this is carried out. A study by Darwish et al., (1982) identified 2 methods of weaning, namely gradual and abrupt weaning. In several cases breast feeding is stopped abruptly in Ghana by smearing bitter concoctions on the nipples to prevent the child from sucking or covering the nipples with plaster (Agble, 1991). In other cases mothers are physically separated from their children by sending them to grandmothers or relatives so that they can return to work. Such practices can make the child lose appetite and refuse to eat, and sometimes become sick. This leads to poor feeding and eventually malnourishment. Gradual weaning is preferable because it allows the child to get used to foods before breast feeding is completely stopped. It also enables the child to form better feeding habits. Weaning is the most momentous time in the child's life. It is the time when he is most likely to become malnourished if he has not learned to like a mixture of foods. The weaning foods given to the child at this crucial period are very important. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Studies have shown that most weaning foods used in developing countries do not provide adequate amounts of nutrients to meet the young child's needs. Okeke and Nnanyelugo, (1990) reported that the gruels prepared for the children in Nigeria are thin and nutritionally inadequate due to high water content, low energy density and low protein content. Orraca-Tetteh, (1972), found that the protein values of weaning foods in his studies were considerably lower than the recommended values for the growth of infants. It is now increasingly being recognized that timely supplementation with weaning foods and adequate feeding during the weaning period are at least as critical as breast feeding to child health and growth. Frequent feeding is essential during this period since small children have limited capacity to consume large amounts of food at any one time. This means that the mother or other care-takers need to spend time feeding the child at intervals throughout the day (Roger and Youssef, 1988). On the other hand a study carried out by Woolfe et al., (1977) indicated that the Ghanaian diet as eaten by non­ affluent families permits a wide range of energy intake by young children. This range includes the intake of energy recommended by FAO (1985). It was therefore concluded that there is no need for Western foods such as milk products and processed fat to be added to the traditional food pattern as additional sources of energy, because the diets, are certainly able to support growth of young children. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh After weaning and introduction of solid foods, the role of the mother becomes even greater. It is she who has to produce or purchase the food that the young child needs and also to choose and prepare this food. Though the total household welfare appears to have improved with the mother's involvement in economic activity, child welfare has been found to suffer. Feeding and taking care of children especially young ones are very intensive and time consuming. 2.7 GROWTH PERFORMANCE AND ITS MEASUREMENT Anthropometric measurements like heights and weights are frequently used in the evaluation of nutritional status and growth performance of infants and children (Thimmayamma and Naida, 1974). Anthropometric indices are of increasing importance in nutrition assessment as the procedures have several advantages. The procedures are simple, safe, noninvasive and are applicable to large sample sizes. The information generated on past long-term nutritional history cannot be obtained with equal confidence using other techniques. The procedures can assist in the identification of mild to moderate malnutrition, as well as severe states of malnutrition. The methods are also precise and accurate if standardized techniques are used. The most widely used anthropometric measurements of growth are those of height and body weight. Weight-for-height is sensitive index of current nutritional status. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For evaluation of anthropometric indices the appropriate reference data which will allow comparison of the distribution of the anthropometric indices of the study group with those of an apparently healthy population must be chosen. The reference data could be local or international if the local one is not available. As indicated by Gibson, (1989) the World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the use of the United States National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) growth percentiles as an international reference. The NCHS data were selected because the sample was cross-sectional, data collection procedures were well-standardized and fully documented, raw data on individuals are available to any investigator. The population examined appear to have attained their full growth potential. Furthermore, the sample was large and representative, including 200 well-nourished individuals in each age and sex group. In contrast, in less industrialized countries like Ghana, appropriate "local" reference data are rare or nonexistent. The use of standard deviation (SD) scores is recommended by Gibson, (1989) for evaluating anthropometric data from less industrialized countries. The method measures the deviation of the anthropometric measurement from the reference median in terms of standard deviations or z scores. Several systems are available for classifying individuals as malnourished based on anthropometric indices. All these 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh systems utilize at least one anthropometric index and one or more reference limits drawn from the appropriate reference data to identify individuals at risk of malnutrition and in some cases identify the type and severity of malnutrition. The simplest, uses a single reference drawn from a percentile or SD scores of the reference data. Schemes such as the Gomez and the Wellcome classification utilize weight-for-age for the anthropometric index and reference limits corresponding to specified percentage of the Havard weight-for-age influence median. The Waterloo classification system uses two anthropometric indices, height-for-age and weight-for-height together with risk categories designed to indicate the severity as well as type of malnutrition. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 SELECTION OF STUDY LOCATION The study was conducted at Ho, the capital town of the Volta Region. The choice was determined by the fact that Ho, being the regional capital, has different categories of women involved in a variety of economic activities both in the formal and informal sectors. Again the researcher has lived in Ho and therefore it was much easier to establish rapport with the respondents. 3.2 POPULATION The target population was all working mothers at Ho with children aged 2-5 years. 3.3. SAMPLE SELECTION AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE A sample of 70 working mothers with children aged 2-5 years was selected for the study. The sample was drawn from women engaged in seven different economic activities common in the area of study. A quota of 10 was assigned to each economic activity. The seven economic activities were grouped into two: the formal and informal sectors. Those that represented the formal sector included teachers, nurses and office workers. The sample was drawn from the female workers in the Ministries of Education, Health and Agriculture. The rest were primary 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh school and JSS teachers and nurses from the Ho Regional Hospital. The informal sector was represented by market women, farmers, dressmakers and women traders who sell near or in their homes. The sample for the sector was drawn from various identifiable associations like the Ho Market Women's Association, National Dressmakers and Tailors Association, 31st December Women's Movement and farmers working with the Department of Women in Agricultural Development. The sample was drawn following a purposive sampling procedure. During the sampling, only mothers who fell within the criteria set by the researcher were included in the study. The respondents were selected using the snowball technique. To select respondents for each economic activity, the first respondent was identified and interviewed. After each interview the respondent helped the researcher to identify the next respondent who satisfied the set criteria. As this went on the sample size increased (i.e. the snowball increases in size) this process continued until the target number of respondents for each economic activity was exhausted. The same procedure was repeated for each economic activity until the seventy respondents for the study were obtained. 3.4 DATA COLLECTION, INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURE The data was collected between April and June, 1992, using the following instruments : 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (i) Interview; (ii) 24 - hour - recall; (iii) food frequency questionnaire; (iv) anthropometry; An initial visit was paid to Ho and the following ministries and associations were identified for use : Ministries of Education, Health and Agriculture, 31st December Women's Movement, National Dressmakers and Tailors Association. Letters of introduction from the Department of Home Science were distributed to the Directors, Chairpersons and Presidents in the Ministries, Departments and Association concerned. The researcher was then introduced to the officers in charge of the women's Wings of the various Ministries, departments and associations. In some cases the researcher was assisted to identify the first respondent the same day. For others it took some days after the initial contact for the officer-in-charge of the organization to help the researcher identify the first respondent. (i) Interviews A structured questionnaire was developed based on the objectives of the study. The objectives of the study were explained to the respondent in order to establish rapport and allay suspicion. Thereafter, a date was fixed for the interview. During the interview, background data, perception and attitudes concerning food use, child feeding practices and child care arrangements 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were collected. The interview was conducted by the researcher herself in the local language for uniformity. (ii) 24 Hour - Recall To estimate the food intakes of the study children, the mother or mother substitute was asked to recall the foods eaten by the study children the previous 24 hours. The foods included all foods eaten during the main meals and also snacks and drinks consumed in between the meals. Porridge, rice, soup, stew, sugar and palm oil were estimated in household measures like stew and soup ladles, tablespoons, dessertspoons, teaspoons and cups. "Banku", "Fufu" and "Akp_Ze", were estimated by asking the mothers to break off a lump of play dough equivalent. This lump was then rolled into a ball and the circumference recorded. The Cedi value of purchased ready-to-eat foods were recorded. (iii) Food Frequency Questionnaire To find out how often the study children were fed on various food items, food frequency questionnaires were used to determine the frequency with which a list of commonly consumed Ghanaian foods was used and to determine the dietary diversity of the children. (iv) Anthropometric Measurements Heights, weights and mid-upper arm circumferences of the study children were taken, using standard procedures described by Gibson (1989). 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The heights of the children were taken using a wooden stadiometer designed by the researcher and constructed locally. It was calibrated by the researcher in centimetres to the nearest 0.5 centimetre. The weights were taken with a new bathroom scale that measured to the nearest kilogram. All the children were weighed naked or with only their pants on. Apprehensive children were weighed with their mothers or mother substitutes. The weight of the child was obtained by subtracting the weight of the mother from the weight of mother and child. The mid-upper-arm circumferences of the study children were determined with a flexible non-stretch tape made of fibre glass and calibrated in centimetres. The ages of the children were established by the mothers recall and cross-checked with the records on growth monitoring cards of the children. 3.5 PRE-TEST The questionnaires were pre-tested using 7 working mothers with children aged 2-5 years at Akatsi a district capital with similar characteristics like those of the population at Ho. 3.6 ANALYSIS OF THE DATA 3.6.1 Interviews The data were edited and coded. Percentage and frequency distributions were obtained using the Statistical Package for 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Social Science (SPSS) software. The relationship between various variables were obtained by cross tabulations. To guard against drawing unjustified conclusions, chi-square was used to test the significance of the relationships between selected variables. The level of statistical significance was set at P<0.05 or 5%. Therefore if probability value computed is less than .05 then the relationship is considered significant. 3.6.2 Dietary Data The data from the 24-hour recalls were analysed by first buying and weighing the various food items estimated by the mothers so as to convert all measures into weights of food. Soups and stews which were estimated by mothers in stew ladles were converted into weights using the conversion table developed by Ferguson, (1990). See Appendix 6. The playdough lumps broken off to represent the estimates of 'Fufu' 'Akple' and 'Banku' eaten by the children were also converted into weights using a conversion table developed by Ferguson, (1990) . See Appendix 7. On the basis of the estimates from the 24-hour-recalls the nutrient contributions of the food items were calculated using the Ghana Food composition tables (1975) and the composition of Foods by Paul and Southgate, (1979) . The Recommended intakes (RNI) of nutrients suggested by FAO (1985) were used as the standards of reference. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The means for each nutrient for all the children and the percentage group mean of the intake were also computed. To evaluate the adequacy of the diet the Nutrient Adequacy Ratio (NAR) for protein, calcium and iron for each of the sectors were computed (Protein values were corrected for Net Protein Utilization using the 0.7 factor) . Percentage distributions of the frequency of consumption of food items in the food frequency questionnaire were tabulated. 3.6.3 Anthropometric Data Z scores of heights-for-ages and weights-for-heights based on growth reference curves of the US National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) and Center for Disease Control (CDC) were computed using the CDC Anthropometric software package. This method measures the deviation of height and weight measurements from the reference median in terms of standard deviations or Z scores. Z scores rather than percentiles are recommended for use in less developed countries so that individuals with indices below the extreme percentiles of the reference data can be classified accurately (Gibson, 1989). The Waterloo classification which uses both height-for- age and weight-for-height was used to categorize the children as normal or malnourished. For the mid-upper arm circumferences of the children, the cut off point of 14 cms (King et al. , 1972) was used to categorize the study children into normal and malnourished children. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Children at or above 14 cm are classified normal and those below are classified as malnourished (King et al. , 1972). 3.7 LIMITATIONS OP THE STUDY Like all other social researches, this study does not go without limitations. The 24-hour-recall relies on the memory of the respondent therefore estimates given may not be very accurate. The foods that are not eaten often may be underestimated and those eaten often may be over-estimated. As such it is probable that the results of calculations from the 24-hour-recall data is not the actual intake of the study children for the day in question. They are only approximations. The stadiometer was constructed by a carpenter and calibrated by the researcher. This instrument is subject to constructional and calibration errors. However, the measurements were taken by only the researcher to minimize measurement errors. The sample was purposively selected therefore the results cannot be generalized to the entire population defined for the study. The results are only true of the sample studied. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.0 The results and discussion are presented under the following headings : 1. Description of respondents and study children. 2. Child feeding practices. 3. Care arrangements made for pre-school children while mothers work. 4. Food intakes and quality of diets of study children. 5. Growth performance of the study children. 6. Hypotheses testing. 4.1 DESCRIPTION OF RESPONDENTS AND STUDY CHILDREN 4.1.1 Age of Respondents A total of seventy mothers or mother substitutes were interviewed. The ages of the respondents ranged between 16 and 50 years. Table 1 gives the age distribution of the respondents. TABLE 1:DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY AGE (YEARS) AGE RANGE (YEARS) FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE 16-20 1 1.4 21-25 12 17.1 26-30 15 21.4 31-35 22 31.5 36-40 15 21.4 41-45 4 5.7 46-50 1 1.4 Total 70 100.00 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The majority (91.3%) of the respondents were aged between 21-40 years, the most active period of production and reproduction for women. 4.1.2 Marital Status and Ethnic Background Ninety per cent of the respondents were married while 5.7% were single1 and the rest were either separated, divorced or widowed. About 60% of the married respondents lived with their husbands, while the rest were living on their own because they were either second wives or their husbands had migrated to work elsewhere. Ninety-seven per cent were Ewes and the rest included a Guan and a Krobo. 4.1.3 Level of Education of Respondents Table 2 indicates the level of education of the respondents. TABLE 2: EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS BY OCCUPATIONAL SECTOR OCCUPATIONAL SECTOR EDUCATION LEVEL NONE PRIMARY MIDDLE/ JSS SEC/ COM VOCATIONAL TRAINING TOTAL Formal Sector - 4 2 24 30 Informal Sector 3 3 26 8 40 Total No. 3 3 30 10 24 70 Percentage of Sample 4.3 4.3 42 . 8 14 .3 34.3 100 All respondents except a few (4.3%) have had formal education ranging from primary to vocational training. Mothers who have some 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh education have been found to bring up children with better nutritional status than illiterate mothers (Gopaldas et. al., 1988: Chandbury, 1986). It is therefore expected that almost all the children involved in the study should be of sound growth performance. 4.1.4 Income The monthly income of the mothers is presented in table 3. TABLE 3 s DISTRIBUTION OF MONTHLY INCOME BY OCCUPATIONAL SECTOR OCCUPATIONAL SECTOR MONTHLY INCOME 3.84) we reject the null hypotheses (Ho) in favour of the alternative hypothesis (HI) . That is there is a statistically significant relationship between occupational sector of mothers and the mode of weaning adopted by mothers. Most mothers in the formal sector gradually weaned their children and their counterparts in the informal sector did it abruptly. Mothers in the formal sector worked within organised time frames so they were able to plan their weaning strategies gradually. From Table 4, it is clear that most of the mothers who worked in the informal sector stayed longer away from home. This might be because they worked within a lot of uncertainties especially those who buy and sell. If they travel to buy their wares they could be delayed unduly because of unforseen circumstances like unavailability of transport. This situation could prevent them from coming back home and could even last for days. Therefore, the mother could say if the child survived without her for a day or two she might as well stop the breast feeding there and then. Weaning therefore would become a spontaneous decision and not planned and carried out systematically. Table 2 also revealed that the majority of respondents in the formal sector had higher education than those in the 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh informal sector. The respondents in the formal sector might have knowledge of the adverse effects of abrupt weaning and as a result avoided the practice. 4.6.2. Hypothesis 2 Hypothesis 2 was based on the relationship between Educational level and Growth Performance. Ho - There is no statistically significant relationship between Educational levels of mothers and the growth performance of their children. Responses on Educational levels attained by mothers and the Waterloo classification of Growth Performance were used to test this hypothesis. The distribution of responses is shown in Table 26. TABLE 26: EDUCATIONAL LEVEL BY GROWTH PERFORMANCE GROWTH PERFORMANCE EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS NONE PRIM JSS/MID SEC/COM VOC/TRG TOTAL Normal 2 (2 .2) 2(2.2) 25 (26.2) 11 (10.2) 11(10.2) 51 Wasting 1[ 08) 1( .8) 11( 9.8) 3 ( 3.8) 3( 3.8) 19 TOTAL 3 3 36 14 14 70 X2 Cal = 0.80 D.F. = 4 a = 0.05 Most of the respondents 51% were JSS/Middle School leavers and 73% of the children had normal growth performance. When the chi-square test of independence (X2) was used to test the relationship between the level of education of mothers and 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the growth performance of their children, the calculated chi- square (X2Cal) yielded a value of 0.8 and the critical value of the chi-square (X2Crit) with 4 degrees of freedom at 0.05 alpha level was 9.49. Since the calculated value was less than the critical value (0.80<9.49), the Null hypothesis of Zero relationship was not rejected. It is therefore concluded that the educational level of mothers had no significant influence on the growth performance of their children. Education is a necessary but not sufficient condition for proper feeding and care of children. The care and feeding of children goes beyond formal education. Most educated people may know what is good for their children but prevailing conditions may not allow them to do the right thing. One may obtain the highest degree in education yet will not know much about child care and maintenance. 4.6.3. Hypothesis 3 Hypothesis 3: Was based on the relationship between Marital Status of Respondents and the Growth Performance of their children. Ho: There is no statistically significant relationship between the marital status of mothers and the Growth Performance of their children. To test this hypothesis responses from the marital status of mothers and the Waterloo classification of Growth Performance (See Appendix 3) were used. The distribution is reported on Table 27. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE 27 : MARITAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS AND GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF STUDY CHILDREN (WEIGHT-FOR-HEIGHT) GROWTH PERFORMANCE MARITAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS SINGLE MARRIED DIVORCED SEPARATED WIDOWED TOTAL Normal 2(2.9) 45(45.9) 1( .7) 1(.7) 1(.7) 51 Wasting 1(1.1) 18(17.1) 0 (. 3) 0 ( . 3) 0 ( .3) 19 TOTAL 4 63 1 1 1 70 X2 =1.25 df = 4 a = 0.05 Out of the 70 mothers 63 (90%) were married mothers and 8% were single mothers. Finding out whether the marital status of mothers had any bearing on the Growth Performance of their children, the chi-square test of independence was again used. The calculated value was 1.25 and the critical value (X2crit) with 4 degrees of freedom at 0.05 alpha level was 9.49. Since the calculated value of the chi-square was smaller than the critical value (1.25<9.49) we failed to reject the null hypothesis (Ho) . It is therefore conclusive that there is no statistically significant relationship between those two variables and any trace of association is just a change factor. Men usually played little or no role in child feeding and care so whether a woman marries or not may not have any bearing on the way she cares for her child. Even though a married woman may seem to have benefit of financial support from the husband thereby giving better care and attention to 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh her child this may be offset by the divided attention the woman gives to husband and child. 4.6.4. Hypothesis 4 Hypothesis 4: was based on the relationship between time spent away from home by mothers for occupational purposes and Growth Performance of children. Ho: There is no Statistically significant relationship between time spent away from home by mothers and the Growth Performance of their children. To test this hypothesis the responses to working hours of mothers and the Waterloo classification of Growth Performance were used. This is shown in Table 28. TABLE 28: TIME RESPONDENTS SPENT AWAY FROM HOME FOR OCCUPATIONAL PURPOSES AND GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF THE STUDY CHILDREN GROWTH TIME AWAY FROM HOME (HOURS) PERFORMANCE 1-4 5-8 9.12 Total Normal 12(11.7) 28(23.3) 11(16) 51 Wasted 4( 4.3) 4 ( 8.7) 11 (6) 19 Total 16 32 22 70 X2 = 9.31 df = 2 O' = 0.05 Among the 70 mothers, 51 (73%) had children with normal growth performance while 19(27%) had poor growth performance. The chi-square test of independence was used to find the 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh association which exists between these two variables. The calculated chi-square value (X2Cal) was 9.3 and the critical value of the chi-square with 2 degrees of freedom at 0.5 alpha level was 5.99. The magnitude of the calculated value over the critical value (9.31>5.99) leads to the rejection of the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative Hypothesis which states that there is a statistically significant relationship between the time spent away from home by mothers and the growth performance of their children. We see that 58% of the children who were wasted had mothers staying between 9-12 hours away from home daily while only 22% of the children with normal growth performance had their mothers spending 9-12 hours. Time is a crucial factor in child care and feeding. The time input especially of low income households is important in the etiology of malnutrition. As stated by Popkin and Solon (1976), feeding and taking care of children are time intensive. It is therefore important for mothers to have time to be able to take care of their children well. Mothers who spend virtually the whole day at their work places will not have time to prepare the meals of their children, feed or supervise their feeding. The income levels of the respondents in the study were low and would not permit them to hire trained care givers who might be a suitable substitute. Since the pre-school years is a period of vulnerability children who are not fed well would have growth faltering. It is therefore 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh not surprising when 58% of the children with poor growth performance were from mothers who spent 9-12 hours away from home for occupational purposes. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE 5.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The aim of this study was to find out the feeding practices and care arrangements that working mothers made for their pre-school children, and to determine the relationship between the time the mothers spent away from home and the growth performance of their children. Seventy working mothers with pre-school children aged 2-5 years participated in the study. The data was collected using questionnaires, 24-hour-recalls, food frequency questionnaire and anthropometry. The results showed that most mothers were aged between 21 and 40 years. The majority were married. The mothers spent long hours away from home for occupational purposes (an average of 7 hours daily). All the study children were breast fed earlier in their lives. For the majority of the children, breast feeding was terminated between the ages of 12-30 months. The children were either weaned gradually or abruptly. The findings showed that mother's work was the most powerful determinant for terminating breast feeding. Furthermore, it was found that majority of the children were mostly introduced to supplementary foods between the ages of 3-6 months. However, a quarter of the mothers, practised early introduction of supplementary foods. The weaning foods given were based on the 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh staples corn and yam. In most cases the children received typically adult diets as soon as breast feeding was terminated. In some cases modifications were made to make the food softer or lighter for the children. It also became evident that these young children were fed 3-5 times a day. All the children consumed the three main meals of the day. For those children who had more than three meals a day the extra meals were snacks. The meals were eaten by most of the children alone and others shared their meals with brothers, sisters or their mothers. The diets of the children at the time of the study comprised mainly corn, yam, cassava and wateryam. The children also consumed a fair amount of vegetables and fruits. The consumption of most animal products on the other hand was low. However, a large proportion of the children ate some amount of smoked fish daily. The results of the frequency of consumption of various foods confirmed the 24-hour-recalls made by the mothers. It became clear that the food items that mothers reported they never gave to their children did not feature at all in the meals recalled by the mothers. Thus it could be said that the recalls and results of frequency of consumption portrayed the usual food intakes of the children. Besides, no foods other than those available in the area of study were given to the children. The nutrient intakes of the children was assessed from the 24-hour-recalls. To do this it was assumed that the meals 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh recalled constituted approximately 100% of the day's food intake. The assessment of the meals recalled revealed that on the average, the intakes of all the children their exceeded requirement for protein, calcium and iron but satisfied only 6 9 percent of their energy requirement. As a matter of fact the notion that Ghanaian children are fed on foods which provided a lot of calories was not confirmed by this study. As a result of the care arrangements mothers made for their pre-school children, two groups of mothers emerged. One group took their children along to work, while the other left them mostly at home. These children were as a result fed and cared for by househelps, mother's relations, siblings and neighbours. The evaluation of the growth performance of the study children using the that height-for-age index indicated that 8.6% of the children were stunted. Weight-for-height index showed that 27.1% were wasted and these were mostly children of mothers in the informal sector. The results also revealed that mothers in the formal sector wean their children gradually while those in the informal sector did so abruptly. The analysis of the relationship between educational level, marital status of the mothers and the growth performance of the children showed that these variables had no influence on the growth performance of their children. It was however, found out that the time mothers spent away from home had some influence on the growth 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh performance of their children. Mothers who stayed 9 - 1 2 hours away from home daily had more children with poor growth performance and most of these mothers worked in the informal sector. CONCLUSION: The results show that the pre-school children studied were fed mainly 3 4 times a day by their mothers and care givers a practise which is not sound for the growth of the children. The diets of the children were based on the local staple yam and corn; and the main source of protein of high biological value was fish. The children also ate some legumes and groundnuts. The diets were found to be adequate in respect of protein, calcium and iron but low in calories. Most of the mothers in the formal sector left their children at home in the care of relatives or neighbours an arrangement which seemed better than those who left them at the day care centers, nursery schools or taken along to work. Some of the children showed signs of malnutrition. The poor growth performance of these children was found to be a result of low calorie intakes arising from lack of supervision of feeding the children especially those whose mothers worked in the informal sector. Mother's educational level and marital status were found to have no significant influence on the growth performance of their pre-school children. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The results, however, indicated that the time mothers spent away from home for occupational purposes has a negative effect on the growth performance of their pre-school children. Most of the children who showed signs of malnutrition, belonged to those mothers who spent more than nine hours away from home. 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX 5 RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations are made based on the results of this study which may be useful to the various organizations and departments involved in child welfare and health. 1. As a result of insufficient time and finance only 24- hour-recall was used to estimate the nutrient intakes of the children. In the future it might be useful to use other methods of dietary assessment like the weighed food record in addition to the 24-hour-recall to evaluate the nutrient content of the foods consumed to see whether the nutrient intakes will change. 2. There is evidence from the study that some of the study children ate only 3 meals a day. In addition, it was clear that the children ate meals that were low in calories. It is therefore recommended that nutrition education be intensified to make mothers aware of the nutritional requirements of their children. To reach all mothers, Maternal and Child Health Clinics, organization and associations that women belong to as well as the mass media should be used as channels in the nutrition education programmes. 3. In order to boost the nutrient intakes of the children it is advocated that at least two snacks be given in addition to the 3 main meals fed to pre-school children. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. Observations show that most of the mothers who carried their children to work left them on their own hence, feeding was not properly supervised. It is recommended that Day Care Centres manned by qualified staff be established at or near work places to provide adequate supervision of their feeding among other care needs of the children. These centres should be run in such a way that the children and mothers close at the same time. Also, facilities in the existing Day Care Centres must be improved by reducing the attendant/child ratio to enable the pre-school child get individual attention. 5. A major conclusion from this study is that mothers who stayed away from home for long periods (9 or more hours) a day have more children who are malnourished. It is recommended that such mothers if possible leave their children at home because with proper supervision their children will be better fed and cared for. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh BIBLIOGRAPHY 1- Abbi, R., Christian, P. Gujral, S. and Gopaldas, T. (1991). The impact of maternal work status on the nutrition and health status of children. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 13(1) 21-25. 2. Ablometi, C. E. (1988). Socio-economic factor that affect the feeding pattern of Ghanaian children : the case of Amedzofe. Unpublished Long Essay submitted to the Nutrition and Food Science Department, University of Ghana, Legon. 3. Addo, A. A. (1983). 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Ecology of Food and Nutrition, Vol. 6 175-181. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX I PERCENTAGE FREQUINCY OF CONSUMPTION OF FOODS FROM THE VARIOUS FOOD GROUPS Daily A few time a week Weekly Forth- ingly Monthly Seaso­ nally Occa- siona- . ^ . Never Animal Products Fresh Meat 7.1 28.6 20.0 1.4 1.4 1.4 37.1 2.8 Bush Meat 1.4 4.3 2.9 0 0 7.1 60 24.3 Poultry 2.9 0 7.1 5.7 10.0 4.3 40 20.0 Smoked Fish 91.5 4.3 1.4 0 0 0 2.9 0 Fried Fish 2.9 37.1 31-4 1.4 0 0 27.1 0 Fresh Fish 2.9 21.4 8.6 5.7 0 22.9 32.9 0 Dried Fish 41.4 48 .6 2.9 0 1.4 0 5.7 0 Tin Fish 2.9 24.3 2.9 0 2.9 1.4 50 .0 15.7 Egg 10 47.1 10.0 10 0 1.4 21.4 0 | Milk 15.7 31.4 2.9 2.9 1.4 1.4 41.4 2.9 Snail 2.9 14 .3 1.4 0 0 32 .9 1.4 47.1 Cereal & Cereal Products C o m 87.1 10.0 0 0 0 1.4 1.4 0 Rice 14.3 80.0 5.7 0 0 0 0 0 Millet 2.9 5.7 1.4 0 0 2.9 10 .0 77.2 Sorghum 2.9 2.9 1.4 0 0 2.9 14.3 75.7 Bread 72.9 14.3 4.3 0 0 0 4.3 4.3 Biscuit 11.4 74.3 7.1 0 0 0 4.3 2.9 Wheat-Soy-Blend 1.4 10.0 0 0 0 0 4.3 84 .3 Wheat 0 1.4 0 0 0 0 22.9 75.7 j Weanimix 1.4 0 0 0 0 0 17.1 65.7 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX I COHTD. Daily A few time a week Weekly Forth- ingly Monthly Seaso­ nally Occa­ siona­ lly Never Lecrumea nnH Oil Seedn Beans 27.1 65.7 1.4 0 0 0 1.4 4.3 Groundnut 10 82 .9 4.3 0 0 0 0 2.8 Agushie 1.4 47.1 0 0 0 1.4 42.9 7.1 Soyabeans 1.4 5.7 1.4 0 0 0 0 85.8 Palmnuts 40.0 57.6 2.4 0 0 0 0 0 Fats and Oils Refined Oil 7.1 58 .6 1.4 0 0 1.4 30.0 1.4 Coconut Oil 4.3 20.0 0 0 0 1.4 64 .2 0 Kernel Oil 0 11.4 0 0 0 0 54.3 34.3 Margarine 7.1 42 . 8 0 0 0 2.9 34.3 12.9 Palm Oil 85.8 10 . 0 0 0 0 1.4 1.4 0 Groundnut Oil 5.7 2.9 0 0 0 1.4 15.7 74.3 Butter 1.4 0 0 0 0 0 2.9 95.8 Shea Butter 0 0 0 0 0 2.9 2.9 94.3 Starchy Hoots and Plantain Cassava 62.9 27.1 0 0 0 0 10.0 0 Yam 15.7 81.4 0 0 0 2.9 0 0 Wateryam 0 88.6 0 0 0 1.4 1.4 8.5 Sweet potatoes 0 87.1 0 0 0 4.3 7.1 1.4 Plantain 8.6 87.1 0 0 0 1.4 0 1.4 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX I CONTD. Daily A few time a week Weekly Forth- ingly Monthly Seaso­ nally Occa­ siona­ lly Never Fruits Vegetables Mango 1.4 2.9 0 0 2.9 87.1 1.4 4.3 Orange 4.3 90.0 0 0 0 4.3 0 1.4 Pineapple 0 85 .7 0 0 0 0 10.0 4.3 Banana 22 .9 72.9 0 0 0 0 2.9 1.4 Watermelon 0 2.9 0 0 0 0 17.1 79.0 Grape Fruit 0 1.4 0 0 0 40.0 18.6 40.0 Leaves 78 .6 11.4 0 0 0 5.7 4.3 0 Pawpaw 10.0 8.6 0 0 0 55.7 14.3 11.4 Garden Egg 92.9 4.3 0 0 0 0 0 2.9 Tomatoes 100 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Onion 97.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.9 Pepper 94.3 0 0 0 0 0 1.4 4.3 Carrot 4.3 8.6 0 0 0 4.3 24.3 58.6 Cabbage 0 5.7 0 0 0 2.9 31.4 60.0 Miscellaneous Tea 7.1 54 .3 2.9 0 0 0 18.6 17.1 Milo 65.7 18. 6 0 0 0 0 15.7 0 Coffee 1.4 1.4 0 0 0 0 21.4 75.7 Fanta 4.3 0 0 0 0 0 74 .3 21.4 Coca Cola 5.7 0 0 0 0 0 85.7 8.5 Ice Cream 5.7 0 0 0 0 0 78 .6 15.7 Ice Lollies 0 0 0 0 0 4.3 68.6 27.2 Yoghurt 0 0 0 0 0 2.9 34.3 62.8 Vit. Supplements 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 2 PAYDOUGH RECIPE 1 Cup flour M T Salt 2 T Vegetable oil 1 T Alum Yi Cup Water Method: Mix all ingredients Add % cup of water and mix Knead like bread dough (The water should be added until the dough is quite elastic but not too sticky). 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 3 THE WATERLOO CLASSIFICATION Weight-for-age Degree of Stunting Weight-for-height Degree of Wasting Percent Grade >90% (0) 80-90%(1) 70-80% (2) <70% (3) >90%(Grade=0) 95-90%(Grade=l) Normal Was ting 85-90%(Grade=2) <85-s (Grade=3) Stunting Stunting & Wasting The Waterloo classification Adapted from Gibson (1989) 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 4 STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE The relationship between Women's Economic Activities and the Feeding of their Pre-School Children. The Case of Ho in the Volta Region. House No. 1. Demographic and Socio-Economic Characteristics. (1) Name of Study Child (2 ) (3) (4) (5) (6 ) (5) (7) (8 ) [ ]Sex: 1. Male Age of Child. Age of Mother 1. 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 50 Marital Status of Mother 1. Single Married Divorced Separated Widowed 2. Female: [ ] 2 . 3 . 4 . 5. 6 . 7. 8 . Father. If married, do you live together with your husband? Yes [ ] No [ ] Educational level, Highest Level attained Mother (9) Father 1. Primary [ ] [ ] 2 . Middle/JSS [ ] [ ] 3 . Secondary/Comm./Voc. [ ] [ ] 4 . Teacher Tr./Poly/Agric.[ ] [ ] 5 . University [ ] [ 1 6 . None [ ] [ ] 7 . Other (Specify) ..... 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (10) Primary occupation of parents: (a) Mother: ...................... (b) Father (ii) Secondary Occupation: (a) Mother: ........ (b) Father (11) Ethnic Background: (12) Religion: ..................................... (13) Where was the study child delivered? 1. Hospital [ ] 2. Health Centre/Health post [ ] 3. Clinic [ ] 4. Maternity Home [ ] 5. At Home [ ] 6. At the TBA's house [ ] 7. Other (Specify) [ ] (14) Did you attend Maternal and Child Welfare Clinic with the study child? Yes [ ] No [ ] (15) In what ways does the father contribute towards the feeding of the child? 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABOUT MOTHER (16) How much do you earn per week or month from your: (a) Primary Occupation: (b) Secondary Occupation: (17) What are your working hours? From: ............... To: ..................... (18) How far is your work place from home? (19) How many children do you have alive? 1. [ ] 4. [ ] 2. [ ] 5. [ ] 3. [ ] 6. [ ] (20) How old are the children? 1 2 3 4 5 FEEDING PRACTICES (21) Do you breast feed your new borns: 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (If no go to Q. 23) (22) If yes, how long do you normally breast feed your children? (23) If No, why? (24) Do you breast feed the study child? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (If no go to Q. 23) (25) If yes, at what age did you stop breast feeding the study child? (26) Why? (27) If No, why not? 1. No breast milk [ ] 2. Mother gone to work [ ] 3. Child allergic to milk [ ] 4. Child can't such [ ] (28) What did you feed the child then? 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (29) How did you stop breast feeding? 1. Gradually [ ] 2. Abruptly [ ] (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) III. (35) (36) (37) What method did you apply to stop breast feeding? At what age did you start giving the study child supplementary foods: How many times did you feed the child in a day? What foods did you give the child? How did you introduce the supplementary foods to the child: 1. By hand [ ] 2. Forced Feeding [ 3 3 Cup and Spoon [ ] 4. Bottle Feeding [ ] CHILD CARE ARRANGEMENTS Do you take your child along to work? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (If yes go to Q43) If No, where do you leave the child? 1. At Home [ ] 2 . In a neighbour's house [ ] 3 . In a nursery school [ ] 4 . Other (Specify) [ ] Who takes care of the child in your absence? 1. A househelp [ ] 2 . Neighbour [ ] 3 . A relative (Specify) .. 4 . In a nursery school [ ] 5 . Sibling [ ] 6 . Other (Specify) ....... 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (3 8) Who feeds the child in your absence? 1. A househelp [ ] 2. Neighbour [ ] 3. A relative (Specify) ............ 4. In a nursery school [ ] 5. Sibling [ ] 6. Other (Specify) ................. (39) who prepares the meals? 1. A househelp [ ] 2. Neighbour [ ] 3. A relative (Specify) ............ 4. In a nursery school [ ] 5. Sibling [ ] 6. Other (Specify) ................. (40) Personal particulars of the Caretaker: 1. Age (ii) Educational level: 1. Primary [ ] [ ] 2 . Middle/JSS [ ] [ ] 3 . Vocational/Secondary [ ] [ ] 4 . None [ ] [ ] 5. Other (Specify) (iii) How did you get her? (iv) How much do you pay her? ........................ (v) Relationship of helper to family: ............... (41) Do you feel comfortable with the child care arrangement you have made? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (42) If Yes, what way? ................................. (43) If No, why not? ................................. (44) If Yes, (Q.34) how many times do you feed the child in a day at work?.................................. 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (45) On what foods do you feed the child at work? (4 5) Who prepares the meals? 1 . Myself [ ] [ ] 2 . Househelp [ ] [ 1 3 . Relative (Specify) [ ] [ 1 4 . Food Vendor [ ] [ ] 5 . Other (Specify) .... (47) Are there any foods you would not feed your child on? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (48) if Yes, list the foods and give reasons (49) Who eats with the study child? (50) If you have the choice would you prefer being a full-time housewife to being a working mother? Give reasons LIST REASONS NO REASONS 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (51) Does the type of food given to children have any effect on their growth? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (52) If Yes, what are the effects? FOOD EFFECTS (53) Do you think your child is well fed? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (54) If Yes, why do you say so? ........... (55) If No, what do you think is wrong? (56) What measures can be taken to correct the problem? (57) Child's physical appearance: 1. Hair 2. Knee (enlargement) 3. Skin 4. Stature 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (58) How often do you feed the following food items to the study Child? ?ood Group & ?ood Item Daily Few Times a week Weekly Fort­ nightly Mon­ thly Seaso­ nally Never toiimal Product r Fresh Meat 8ush Meat Poultry Smoked Fish Fried Fish Dried Fish rined Fish 3gg dilk Snail Cereals and Cereal Products Bread Biscuit Wheat-Soy-Blend Weanimix Lecrumes & Oils Seeds Beans Groundnut s Agushie Soyabeans Palmnuts 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Food Group & Food Item Daily Few Times a week Weekly Fort­ nightly Mon­ thly Seaso­ nally Never Starchv rnot- = and Plantain Cassava Yam Water Yam Plantain Cocoyam Sweet Potatoes Fats and Oils Refined Cooking Oil Coconut oil Kernel oil Groundnut oil Palm oil Margarine Butter Shea butter Fruits and Vegetables Banana Orange Pineapple Pawpaw Mango 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Food Group & Food item Daily Few Times a week Weekly Fort­ nightly Mon­ thly Seaso­ nally Never Fruits anH Vecretabl <*.<= Watermelon Garden egg Onion Carrot pepper Carrot Miscellaneous Tea Milo Ovaltine Bournvita Coffee Fanta Coca Cola Ice Cream Ice Lollies Yoghurt Vitamim Supple­ ment Others (specify) 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 5 FORMULA FOR CALCULATING MEAN ADEQUACY RATIO NAR = Subject's daily intake of a nutrient RDA of that nutrient Average of the Nutrient Adequacy Ratio (NAR) value for each of the selected nutrients yeild a mean adequacy ratio (MAR) MAR = Sum of the NARs for X nutrients X 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh appendix 6 STAPLES CONVERSION; TABLE Staples, Soups, Stews and Porridge ( weights in grams) POOD Tbsp Stew Ladle Soup Ladle Cup Mash Plantain __ 50 120 -- Gari Fortor -- 40 85 180 Mpotompoto -- 65 150 280 Mash Yam __ 60 135 225 Rice __ 40 70 185 Koko -- 45 105 280 Palm Soup 15 40 95 270 Kontomire Soup 15 35 90 265 Groundnut Soup 15 35 95 270 Okro Soup 15 40 95 270 Light Soup 15 35 95 270 Tomato Stew 15 45 95 270 Kontomire Stew 20 50 110 275 Garden Egg Stew 20 50 115 280 Okro Stew 20 45 105 265 Cabbage Stew 15 40 95 250 Fish Stew 15 45 105 270 Egg Stew 15 45 105 270 Groundnut Stew 15 45 105 275 Bean Stew 20 50 115 280 Egushie Stew 15 45 105 275 Hot Pepper 15 45 105 270 Fruits and Plantain ( weight in grams) Boiled Unripe Plantain Width ( inches ) 1 1.25 1.5 Grams per inch of length 18 22 25 Banana Length Edible Portion (inches) (grams) 3 40 4 50 Oranges Circumference Edible Circumferei 2 35 (inches) 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 Portion (grams) 35 45 55 70 85 (inches) 8.5 9 9.5 10 Portion (grams) 100 120 140 160 Source : Furgesonj (1990) 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 7 PLAYDOUGH CONVERSION TABLE A. Circumference Conversion Factors f.~ ; ' Iyti Circumference Banku Fufu-Cassava Fufu-Cassava Konkonte (inches) (grams) (grams) & plantain (grams) 3.5 15 15 15 4 25 25 25 25 4.5 35 40 40 35 5 45 50 50 50 5.5 60 60 60 60 6 75 80 80 80 6.5 95 100 105 105 7 120 130 130 130 7.5 145 155 155 155 8 175 185 190 190 8.5 200 215 220 220 9 250 265 270 270 9.5 300 320 325 325 10 350 370 380 375 10.5 410 425 430 425 11 460 490 500 495 B. Weight Conversion Factors Weight Ratios 0.80 0.85 0.87 0.86 Source;Furgesons(1990). 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh