University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT AND ADVERTISING MESSAGE STRATEGY: AN APPLICATION OF THE STIMULUS ORGANISM RESPONSE MODEL BY ANNE AKUA RENNER (10225962) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN MARKETING DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP JULY 2020 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I certify that this thesis, which I now submit for examination for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, is entirely my own work and has not been presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other university. All references used in the work have been fully acknowledged. This thesis has been prepared according to the regulations for postgraduate study by the University of Ghana. …………………………….. ……………………………… ANNE AKUA RENNER DATE (10225962) ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CERTIFICATION I hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down by the University of Ghana, Legon. ____________________ ________________________ Professor Robert Ebo Hinson Date (Principal Supervisor) ____________________ ________________________ Dr. Evans Y. Tweneboah-Koduah Date (Co-Supervisor) ____________________ ________________________ Dr. Kobby Mensah Date (Co-Supervisor) iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my darling husband and our precious daughter. Thank you for your love, patience and encouragement throughout my period of study. Thank you, my dear, for putting up with me all this while as I worked on this thesis. I would not have been able to make it without your support. God richly bless you. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Thank You, Lord Jesus, for being so merciful toward me. If it had not been for Your mercy and grace, I surely would have given up along the way. Many special thanks to my supervisors, Professor Robert Ebo Hinson, Dr. Ernest Yaw Tweneboah-Koduah and Dr. Albert Kobby Mensah for your guidance, counsel direction and correction. Thank you so much for the various hands-on opportunities you gave me to learn. I am highly indebted to you. Special thanks also go to all the Faculty at the Department of Marketing and Entrepreneurship for their support in diverse ways throughout my PhD journey. Most especially Dr. Thomas Anning Dorson for always making time whenever I needed to discuss challenges I was facing and helping bring clarity with what I wanted to do. This work would not have been possible without the help, encouragement and prayers of the following friends of mine, John Paul Kosiba, Mrs. Irene Bokpin (looking after Dael so I could work), Ps. Enyonam Ewoade, Mrs. Linda Agyeman for helping around the house and attending to Dael, Mrs. Shereece Temeng Osei, for your encouragement, Ms. Abigail Quaye, for being the most amazing roommate and for your encouragement. Thank you, Ps. Michael Hagan for your kind words and prayers. Thank you, Angela Alu for our times of sharing. I enjoyed our times together as I was guaranteed to leave refreshed and strengthened to plod on. To my colleagues, I say thanks for your support. Thanks, especially to Drs. Akpabli, and Nutsugah for regularly checking up on me and for the mutual encouragement. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To my parents, Mr. O’Neil George Renner and Prof. Lorna Renner, what can I say? You have always been there for me. God bless you above and beyond for your support, concern, love, in fact for everything. Thank you for stepping in to help look after Kuukuwa when I needed some help. Efua, God bless you and prosper you for your support as well. I love you all! I am profoundly grateful to my in-laws, especially Mama Queen and Mandy for showing me love and support in my academic pursuits. I can’t thank you enough for being there to baby-sit Kuukuwa whilst I worked. I love you! Finally, I’d like to thank my amazing husband who beat me to the title of Doctor…Dr. Douglas Coleman. I am immensely grateful for your support, keen interest, rebukes (haha) and encouragement. God bless you lots. I love you. To Kuukuwa, my PhD baby gem, I love you. You sure kept my hands full this past year but I wouldn’t trade you for anything. Thanks for being you. vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ ii CERTIFICATION ............................................................................................................. iii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................. v LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................... xiii ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 1.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW .......................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ......................................................................... 1 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND RESEARCH GAPS ............................. 4 1.2.1 Gaps in Theoretical Approaches ............................................................................ 6 1.2.2 Gaps in Context ...................................................................................................... 8 1.3 RESEARCH AIM, OBJECTIVES ........................................................................... 9 1.4 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................ 10 1.5 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF ENGAGEMENT FOR THIS STUDY ......... 12 1.6 SYNOPSIS OF CHAPTERS AND STRUCTURE OF THESIS ............................ 13 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 15 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................... 15 2.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ........................................................................................ 15 2.1 ABOUT THE NATION OF GHANA .................................................................... 15 2.1.1 Nation Demographics .......................................................................................... 16 2.1.2 The Ghanaian Economy ....................................................................................... 17 2.1.3 The Ghanaian Industry ......................................................................................... 17 2.2 CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT AMONG FIRMS IN GHANA ............................ 18 2.2.1 Social Media Use and Customer Engagement among Firms in Ghana ............... 19 2.3 BRIEF BACKGROUND OF THE GHANAIAN AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY .. 20 2.3.1 Key Developments in the Ghanaian Automobile Industry .................................. 21 2.2.3 Mercedes-Benz .................................................................................................... 22 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3 BACKGROUND TO THE GHANAIAN PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY .................................................................................................................. 23 2.3.1 Pepsodent Toothpaste .......................................................................................... 24 2.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY ......................................................................................... 25 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 27 A REVIEW OF THE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT LITERATURE ........................... 27 3.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ........................................................................................ 27 3.1 CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT .............................................................................. 28 3.1.1 The Concept of Engagement ................................................................................ 28 3.1.2 Emergence of Engagement Research in Marketing Scholarship ......................... 37 3.1.3 Marketing Constructs Related to Engagement ..................................................... 40 3.1.4 The Definition, Nature and Dimensionality of Engagement................................ 46 3.1.5 Customer Engagement on Social Media .............................................................. 51 3.1.6 Pansari & Kumar’s (2017) Conceptualisation of Customer Engagement ............ 54 3.1.7 Antecedents of Customer Engagement ................................................................ 57 3.1.8 Advertising as an Antecedent of Customer Engagement ..................................... 62 3.2 TAYLOR’S (1999) SIX SEGMENT MESSAGE STRATEGY ............................ 70 3.2.1 The Transmission View ....................................................................................... 71 3.2.2 The Ritual View ................................................................................................... 72 3.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY ......................................................................................... 75 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 79 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES ....................................................... 79 4.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ........................................................................................ 79 4.1 THEORIES EMPLOYED IN THE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT LITERATURE ...................................................................................................................................... 79 4.1.1 Relationship Marketing Theory ........................................................................... 80 4.1.2 Service Dominant Logic ...................................................................................... 81 4.1.3 Social Exchange Theory ...................................................................................... 82 4.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY- THE STIMULUS- ORGANISM-RESPONSE (S-O-R) MODEL ............................................................... 84 4.2.1 The Stimulus Variable ......................................................................................... 86 4.2.2 The Organismic Variable ..................................................................................... 87 4.2.3 The Response Variable ........................................................................................ 89 4.2.4 Customer Engagement Research Underpinned by the S-O-R Model .................. 89 4.2.5 Applying the S-O-R Model to the Current Research ........................................... 92 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.1 Advertising Message Strategies, Emotions and Attitude towards Advertisements .................................................................................................................................... 100 4.3.2 Emotions and Customer Engagement ................................................................ 102 4.3.3 Attitude towards the Advert and Customer Engagement ................................... 104 4.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY ......................................... 104 4.5 SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 107 CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................ 110 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 110 5.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ...................................................................................... 110 5.1 RESEARCH PARADIGMS AND PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS ........... 110 5.1.1 Research Paradigms ........................................................................................... 110 5.1.2 Common Paradigms in Management Research ................................................. 111 5.2 RESEARCH APPROACH ................................................................................... 116 5.2.1 Research Approach used in this Study ............................................................... 116 5.3 QUASI-EXPERIMENT AS A RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................ 118 5.4 DATA COLLECTION ......................................................................................... 119 5.4.1 Advertising Message Strategies ......................................................................... 120 5.4.2 Data Collection Instrument ................................................................................ 121 5.4.3 Sampling ............................................................................................................ 123 5.4.4 Data Collection Procedure ................................................................................. 125 5.5 MODE OF ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 126 5.5.1 Multivariate Analysis Techniques ..................................................................... 126 5.5.2 Analytical Instruments Employed ...................................................................... 131 5.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 137 CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................... 139 PRESENTATION OF EMPIRICAL DATA .................................................................. 139 6.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ...................................................................................... 139 6.1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS .............................................................................. 139 6.1.1 Profile of Respondents ....................................................................................... 142 6.2 RESULTS OF THE ONE-WAY MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (MANOVA) ................................................................................................................ 143 6.2.1 Homoscedasticity of the Dependent Variables .................................................. 143 6.2.2 Estimation of the MANOVA Model .................................................................. 143 6.3 RESULTS OF THE STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING ..................... 149 6.3.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis ............................................................................ 149 6.3.2 The Structural Model ......................................................................................... 152 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 155 CHAPTER SEVEN ........................................................................................................ 158 DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ................................................................. 158 7.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ...................................................................................... 158 7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 158 7.2 ADVERTISING MESSAGE STRATEGIES, EMOTIONS AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE ADVERT ....................................................................................... 160 7.2.2 Transmission Message Strategies, Emotions and Attitude ................................ 162 7.2.3 Effects of Pleasure, Arousal and Attitude towards the Advertisement on Customer Engagement ................................................................................................ 164 7.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 166 CHAPTER EIGHT ......................................................................................................... 170 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ............................................... 170 8.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ...................................................................................... 170 8.1 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH AND MAJOR FINDINGS ......................... 170 8.2 REFLECTIONS .................................................................................................... 174 8.2.1 Reflection on Theory (Stimulus-Organism-Response Model)........................... 175 8.2.2 Reflection on Research Framework ................................................................... 176 8.2.3 Reflection on Methodology ............................................................................... 177 8.3 CONTRIBUTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH ................... 178 8.3.1 Theoretical Implications .................................................................................... 178 8.3.2 Implications for Management/Practice .............................................................. 181 8.4 CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH LIMITATIONS ........................................ 182 8.5 DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ........................................................ 183 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 185 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................ 247 APPENDIX A – QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................................... 247 APPENDIX B – ADVERTISEMENT AD 01 ............................................................ 249 APPENDIX C – ADVERTISEMENT AD 02 ............................................................ 250 APPENDIX D – ADVERTISEMENT AD 03 ............................................................ 251 APPENDIX E – ADVERTISEMENT AD 04 ............................................................ 252 APPENDIX F – ADVERTISEMENT AD 05 ............................................................ 253 APPENDIX G – ADVERTISEMENT AD 06 ............................................................ 254 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: Six Segment Message Strategies……………………………………..73 Figure 4.1: Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) Theoretical Framework as Modified for this Study……………………………………………………………………...99 Figure 4.2: The Research Model………………………………………………...107 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Engagement Conceptualisations across Disciplines………………….32 Table 3.2: Summary of Engagement Research in Marketing……………………39 Table 3.3: Concepts Similar to Customer Engagement………………………….41 Table 3.4: Summary of the Antecedents of Customer Engagement used in Extant Literature…………………………………………………………………………58 Table 3.5: Summary of Studies…………………………………………………..65 Table 5.1: Summary and Comparison of four Main Research Paradigms in Management Research………………………………………………………….115 Table 6.1: Descriptive Statistics………………………………………………...141 Table 6.2: Profile of Respondents………………………………………………142 Table 6.3: Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances………………………143 Table 6.4: MANOVA Results for Transmission Advertising Message Strategies………………………………………………………………………...144 Table 6.5: MANOVA Results for Ritual Advertising Message Strategies……...145 Table 6.6: Tests of Between Subjects Effects…………………………………...146 Table 6.7: Descriptive Analysis…………………………………………………147 Table 6.8: Multiple Comparisons (Scheffe’s)…………………………………...148 Table 6.9: Model Fit Measures…………………………………………………..150 Table 6.10: Standardised Factor Loadings………………………………………151 Table 6.11: Reliability and Validity……………………………………………..152 Table 6.12: Model Fit Measures for SEM Model……………………………….153 Table 6.13: SEM Model – Hypotheses Testing…………………………………154 Table 8.1: Summary of Major Results/Findings………………………………...173 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AMOS - Analysis of Moments of Structures ANOVA - Analysis of Variance AVE - Average Variance Extracted B2B - Business to Business B2C - Business to Consumer C2C - Consumer to Consumer CFA - Confirmatory Factor Analysis CFI - Comparative Fit Index CR - Composite Reliability DVLA - Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority FCB - Foote, Cole and Belding FDA - Food and Drugs Authority G-D Logic - Goods-Dominant Logic GDP - Gross Domestic Product GNA - Ghana News Agency MANOVA - Multivariate Analysis of Variance Mercedes-AMG - Mercedes Aufrecht Melcher Großaspach MSI - Marketing Science Institute MSV - Maximum Shared Value PAD - Pleasure, Arousal, Dominance S-D Logic - Service-Dominant Logic SEM - Structural Equation Modelling S-O-R - Stimulus-Organism-Response SRMR - Standardised Root Mean Residual SSAL - Silver Star Auto Limited WOM - Word of Mouth xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT It has been documented in the literature that customer engagement, defined as ‘‘customers’ behavioural manifestation toward a brand or firm, beyond purchase, resulting from motivational drivers”, leads to increased profits, sustained differentiation and superior competitive advantage. Scholars for a while have therefore focused on understanding the dynamics of this concept and, in particular, the factors that account for it. They have particularly called for studies that focus on message strategies that are employed in advertisement on social media which is a form of customer engagement. Others have asserted that such studies should be conducted in unexplored areas like Africa, South America and the Middle East. (Barger et al., 2016; Islam & Rahman, 2016b). This study, therefore sought to examine the customer engagement and advertising message strategy within the Ghanaian context. The objectives of this research include to determine which transmission message strategy has the greatest impact on customer emotions and attitude, to highlight the specific ritual message strategy that has the greatest impact on customer emotions and attitude, to ascertain if the emotions of pleasure and arousal, derived from an advertising message strategy stimulus leads to customer engagement, and to uncover if attitude towards advertisement is a determinant of customer engagement. The study draws on the stimulus-organism response model and Taylor’s (1999) advertising message strategy and aims to provide insights into the most effective advertising message strategies for both hedonic (luxury) and utilitarian (functional) products. Through an extensive literature review, a conceptual framework and empirical results from over 400 individuals in top to middle-level management, the study employs a within-subjects quasi experimental research, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), confirmatory factor xiv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh analyses along with structural equation modelling. The findings of the research show that for hedonic products, the most effective ritual message strategy is the social strategy, which has the most effect on emotions and attitude towards the advertisement. This is followed by the ego and then finally the sensory message strategies. In addition, the findings also show that for utilitarian products, all transmission message strategies have virtually the same effect on attitudes and emotions. Finally, regarding the relationship between emotions, attitude towards the advertisement and customer engagement, the study finds that pleasure and attitude towards the advertisement have a significantly positive effect on customer engagement. From the findings, it is recommended that marketers should craft advertisements for hedonic products using the social message strategy in order to stimulate the emotions and attitude of customers. Also, when advertising utilitarian products, marketers are at liberty to choose among the transmission strategies. xv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter discusses the background to the study, research problem, research aim and objectives and research questions. The study’s significance and organisation are further discussed in subsequent paragraphs. 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Competition within the global economy is reaching heightened levels of fierceness and myriad companies “battle” for virtually the same markets. The breakdown of trade barriers in some countries and the onset of technology in the form of e- commerce has meant the customer now has a wide range of product and service providers from which to choose (Cuillierier, 2016). Not only are the customers exposed to similar products and services from their home countries, they now have the luxury of making purchases overseas at the simple touch of a button. Hence, for firms to stand out, relying on the elements of the traditional marketing mix and on the management practices of years gone by can no longer suffice (see Gronroos, 1997). Even more startling is the reality that merely seeking to satisfy the customer does not necessarily provide sustained immunity from the pressures of competition (Pansari & Kumar, 2017). Pansari and Kumar (2017, p. 294) put it this way: …both managers and academicians understand that over the course of time, it is not enough to simply satisfy the customer to make him/her loyal and profitable. Profitable loyalty and satisfaction need 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to be evolved to a higher level, a level of desired differentiation and of sustainable competitive advantage. In a bid to mitigate against the current pressures of competition, management seems to have shifted from a preoccupation with selling and the benefits of relationships to now “engaging” with actual and potential customers on all fronts and in every way possible (Sawhney, Verona & Prandelli, 2005; Wang, 2006; Kumar et al., 2008; Wang, 2010). The aim now is to emotionally connect with the customer in such a way that (s)he becomes bonded with the firm, remains loyal, makes repeat purchases, and ultimately on their own becomes a brand ambassador (Kumar & Pansari, 2016). According to Pansari & Kumar (2017, p. 295): Firms have been slowly shifting their focus from the objective of selling to emotionally connecting with their customers with the hope of generating sales and ultimately ensuring a lifetime of profitable loyalty. In other words, a firm’s focus is shifting to personalising interactions, delighting its audience, and understanding customers’ unique challenges to make their lives better and involving them as spokespersons of the firm. It is this bonding (engagement), that scholars have discovered, leads to sustained differentiation, cost reduction (Thomas, 2011), sales growth (Neff, 2007 as cited in Hollebeek, 2012), profitability (Voyles, 2007) and superior competitive advantage (Sedley, 2008). Engagement, according to Pansari and Kumar (2017), is “the mechanics of a customer’s value addition to the firm, either through direct or/and indirect contribution” (pg. 295). Evidence from a cursory examination of practitioner forums and conferences on engagement reveals the increased interest in engagement in industry. For instance, the Customer Engagement Summit, heralded as Europe’s biggest customer and 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employee engagement event, boasts such big names as Accenture, AT&T, Bosch, DHL, Financial Times, McDonalds, Mercedes Benz, Virgin Atlantic as past delegates since its inception about eight years ago (Engage Customer, 2018). Additionally, that majority of the topic streams for the November 2018 edition of the summit bordered on how to engage customers is in itself indicative of the active interest industry has in the topic of engagement (Engage Customer, 2018). Despite its popularity in the business world and development in practitioner literature, there is limited understanding of the concept of engagement in marketing academic research (van Doorn et al., 2010; Hollebeek, 2012). Relative to other concepts deemed similar to it such as involvement and satisfaction, there is a deficit of empirical studies on engagement (Bitter & Grabner-Kräuter, 2016). Additionally, what exists tends to be focused on what Barger, Peltier and Schultz (2016) term “consumer-based” antecedent factors and consequences of engagement (see for example, Packard & Wooten, 2013; Goldsmith et al., 2013; Blazevic et al., 2014; Barasch & Berger, 2014; Eisingerich et al., 2015; VanMeter et al., 2015; Carvalho, 2016). In other words, current engagement research bordering on antecedents and consequences majorly centres on variables dependent on customers’ goals, traits and resources (Islam & Rahman, 2016b). Firm-specific antecedent factors (that is to say, those factors that firms control, such as brand characteristics, service quality and improved work environment) are not employed as much as the former (Islam & Rahman, 2016b). 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Scholars have called for more research on firm-specific antecedent factors of customer engagement, particularly advertising (see Islam & Rahman, 2016b; Barger et al., 2016). In a 2018 special issue of the Journal of Advertising, it was revealed that scholarly work on advertising and customer engagement was lacking and there was the need for research into the same (Rodgers & Thorson, 2018). Lamberton and Stephen (2016), Gavilanes, Flatten and Brettel (2018) and Kim, Ahn, Kwon and Reid (2017), made similar assertions, arguing for the conduct of empirical research into advertising and customer engagement on social media. It is interesting to note that despite the existence of findings that imply that firm-specific factors, such as the tools, strategies and channels a brand uses have an impact on consumers’ propensity to engage with a brand, (see for example Ashley & Tuten, 2015) to this date there is a relative paucity of research that specifically addresses advertising as a tool for engagement on social media (Rodgers & Thorson, 2018). This is alarming considering the fact that advertising is one of the most resource- intensive investments a firm can make, inevitable for firm survival (Park & John, 2012). 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND RESEARCH GAPS Generally speaking, there is a call for the growth of research into advertising and customer engagement (Islam & Rahman, 2016b; Barger et al., 2016; Lamberton & Stephen, 2016; Kim, Ahn, Kwon & Reid, 2017; Gavilanes, Flatten & Brettel, 2018). This is because despite the fact that advertising plays a central role in business, it generally is not an area that has received much attention in the customer engagement literature. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Limited extant scholarly work enables us understand that customer engagement can be a precursor to advertising effectiveness (e.g. Calder, Malthouse & Schaedel, 2009). However, with regard to advertising’s impact on customer engagement on social media, not much work has been carried out, except for a few studies (see Roberts & Alpert, 2010; Islam & Rahman, 2016b). Though these report that advertising has an effect on customer engagement, scholars have called for more research into this particular area to generate further understanding (Brettel et al., 2015; Khang, Ki & Ye, 2012; Okazaki & Taylor, 2013) particularly with regard to message strategies that are employed in advertisements on social media (Ashley & Tuten, 2015; Tafesse & Wien, 2018; Gavilanes, Flatten & Brettel, 2018). Although some prior research has examined the link between advertising message strategy and customer engagement (e.g. Swani et al., 2013; Araujo et al., 2015; Ashley & Tuten, 2015; Kim et al., 2015; Swani et al., 2016; Gavilanes et al., 2018), insights that have emerged from these few studies have been far from consistent. This, according to Tafesse and Wien (2018), is due to the diverse ways in which the message strategies have typically been defined and conceptualised in the extant literature. Theory-based approaches that in a comprehensive manner define and conceptualise message strategy have for the most part been lacking (Tafesse & Wien, 2018). Literature makes it clear that advertising message strategies generally take two basic approaches (1) transmission/informational and (2) ritual/transformational which are further broken down into sub-strategies (see Carey, 1975; Wells, 1980; 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Laskey et al., 1989; Taylor, 1999). The type of product/service to be advertised typically determines the approach to be used (Holbrook & O’Shaughnessy, 1984; Johar & Sirgy, 1991; Shavitt, 1990, 1992; Rodgers & Thorson, 2012; Ahn et al., 2013; Behboudi et al., 2014). Specifically, scholars have stated that for products that are purchased for hedonic (pleasure/luxury) purposes, a ritual/transformational approach should be used (Ahn et al., 2013; Lynn, 2015; Klein & Melnyk, 2016) whereas a transmission/informational approach is to be employed for those that are purchased mainly for utilitarian (functional) reasons (Ahn et al., 2013; Behboudi et al., 2014; Kleinc & Melnyk, 2016). Most studies to date, however, and to the best of this researcher’s knowledge, seem to overlook this and are equivocal in showing which transmission and ritual strategies are the most effective in generating customer engagement as far as hedonic and utilitarian products are concerned. Specifically, most studies conclude that strategies that fall within the transformational approach are most effective, regardless of product type. This arguably is not practical, considering the fact that this “one-size fit all” approach propounded by previous studies does not take into account the fact that not all products and services can be advertised with one particular approach. This study was poised to contribute to literature by taking main advertising message strategies traditionally used for hedonic and those for utilitarian products and seeing which of them is a greater generator of customer engagement. 1.2.1 Gaps in Theoretical Approaches The customer engagement literature seems to majorly rely on (1) relationship marketing (e.g. Bowden, 2009; Brodie et al., 2011, 2013; Hollebeek, 2011; Vivek et al., 2012, 2014; Cambra-Fierro et al., 2013, 2015; Islam & Rahman, 2016b) and 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2) service dominant logic theories to explain the concept of customer engagement (e.g. Brodie et al., 2011, 2013; Hollebeek, 2011; Breidbach et al., 2014; Chathoth et al., 2014; Vivek et al., 2014). In recent times, however, there seems to be a slight shift towards adopting other theories, particularly personal behaviour theories (see Islam & Rahman, 2016b). According to Islam and Rahman (2016b), these theories exemplify customer behaviour (from intent to actual deed) at the individual or personal level. Notable among this group of theories is Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) stimulus-organism- response (S-O-R) model. According to it, stimuli in the environment provoke the emotional (pleasure and arousal) and attitudinal responses of an individual, which then drive a behavioural response (Donovan & Rositer, 1982). In the literature it has been employed to explain the effect of (1) online environmental characteristics (Mollen & Wilson, 2010; Zimmerman, 2012; Melton, 2013; Demangeot & Broderick, 2016; Sahoo & Pillai, 2017; Carlson et al., 2018; Claffey & Brady, 2014; Islam & Rahman, 2017), and (2) company strategies (Palmet & Ghasemi, 2019; Choi & Kandampully, 2019) on customer engagement. It has, arguably, not been applied to study the impact of advertising message strategy on customer engagement. Aside these studies, fairly none of the empirical works on advertising and customer engagement have been situated on the foundations of the stimulus-organism- response model at the time of this review. Despite the fact that there has been some work (though scant) in relation to the application of this theory in the broader 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh customer engagement literature, the question of how message strategy acts as a stimulus to generate customer engagement remains to some extent unexplored. This research approaches the study of customer engagement from the perspective that stimuli in the form of advertising message strategies affect the internal emotional and attitudinal states of the individual customer and as a result, elicit customer engagement. In light of this, the more popular theories of relationship marketing and service dominant logic are not suited for this work. The use of the stimulus-organism-response model is in addition a response to the call for the further application of personal behaviour theories in customer engagement research (see Islam & Rahman, 2016b). 1.2.2 Gaps in Context The current customer engagement research stream mostly emanates from Europe, North America (particularly the United States of America), and Australasia (Australia and New Zealand). Very few works originate from Asia, particularly China, India, Korea and Singapore. With regard to developing regions (i.e. Africa, Middle East and South America), research is scarce, to say the least. An internet search of extant customer engagement studies emerging from Africa using Science Direct, Emerald, Scopus, JSTOR and Google Scholar academic databases, for instance, yielded very few results. Additionally, what emerged centred on the effect of trust (Kosiba et al., 2018), brand attachment (Hinson et al., 2019) and relationship marketing (van Tonder & Petzer, 2018) on customer engagement. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Engagement is contextual in nature (Sprott et al., 2009 as cited in Hollebeek, 2011; Verhoef, Reinartz, & Krafft, 2010), and in fact, as van Doorn et al. (2010) reveal, contextual factors (e.g. political, legal and economic climate) have an impact on it. Prior research having been conducted mainly in regions which arguably bare some semblance to each other in terms of the aforementioned contextual factors could mean that to some extent, extant customer engagement research is somewhat biased to those contexts. As a result, and for the purpose of enriching “the emerging research area of customer engagement” (Islam & Rahman, 2016b), calls have been made for the emergence of studies from largely unexplored regions, particularly Africa, South America, and the Middle East (Barger et al., 2016; Islam & Rahman, 2016b). Many opportunities for multinational enterprises abound in these developing markets and insights from same would prove useful. 1.3 RESEARCH AIM, OBJECTIVES The central question posed for the current study is “What advertising message strategy is most effective in enabling firms realise customer engagement on social media?” Using the stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) model as the theoretical lens through which to view and explain the advertising message strategy and customer engagement phenomenon, this research seeks to provide insights into the most effective advertising message strategies for both hedonic and utilitarian products. The S-O-R model argues that individuals react behaviourally to stimuli in the environment because of the emotions of pleasure and arousal as well as the attitude 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh they have towards the stimuli when they come into contact with the stimuli. With this understanding, this current research seeks to contribute to existing literature by achieving the following objectives: 1. To determine which transmission message strategy has the greatest impact on customer emotions and attitude 2. To highlight the specific ritual message strategy that has the greatest impact on customer emotions and attitude 3. To ascertain if the emotions of pleasure and arousal, derived from an advertising message strategy stimulus, leads to customer engagement. 4. To uncover if attitude towards advertisement is a determinant of customer engagement. 1.4 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY From an academic standpoint, there have been calls for research on the effect of advertising, with particular reference to message strategy, on customer engagement as highlighted in previous paragraphs. This is because to a large extent it has been ignored in the literature (Brettel et al., 2015; Khang, Ki & Ye, 2012; Okazaki & Taylor, 2013; Ashley & Tuten, 2015; Tafesse & Wien, 2018; Gavilanes et al., 2018). This study, in that regard, is a response to this academic call. The current study in its uniqueness will also contribute to existing literature on customer engagement by providing evidence from a developing country, which has been 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh scant, and for which reasons scholars have made calls for same (Barger et al., 2016; Islam & Rahman, 2016b). This study employs the S-O-R model in order to address some of the gaps identified. It is positioned to add on to the body of knowledge in marketing and in particular enhance the customer engagement discourse regarding advertising message strategies. This study is not only relevant but also timely, given the importance of advertising in a firm’s long-term survival (Park & John, 2012). Recent developments in Ghanaian industry with particular reference to the creation of new portfolios in the form of customer engagement officers/managers (Ghana Guardian, 2018) and firms’ drives to create opportunities to engage with customers (thebftonline, 2019) show the growth in interest among industry players in engaging customers. In recent times there has also been a mass adoption of social media in Ghana and firms upload brand-related content and advertisements in a bid to directly engage with their customers (GhanaWeb, 2014; Amponsah-Twumasi, 2016). Recently, there was a call for the development of social media guidelines in order to help Ghanaian firms navigate social media to achieve business goals (Ansah, 2014). This study is thus significant in attempting to provide some guidelines regarding company advertisements on social media that will ultimately lead to the achievement of corporate goals. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In respect of policy, this study will create more awareness on the most suitable message strategy for customer engagement for both hedonic and utilitarian products. 1.5 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF ENGAGEMENT FOR THIS STUDY From a scholarly standpoint, there is as yet no agreed-upon definition of engagement in marketing literature and this may be related to the fact that there are inconsistencies regarding its nature and dimensionality (Dessart et al., 2015, 2016). Some authors opine that the concept is one-dimensional (e.g. Sprott et al., 2009), whereas others maintain that it is multidimensional, comprising either two or three dimensions (e.g. Bowden, 2009; Mollen & Wilson, 2010; van Doon et al., 2010; Brodie et al., 2011; Hollebeek, 2011; Vivek et al., 2014; Bowden et al., 2015, 2017). According to Mollen and Wilson (2010), for instance, engagement is “the cognitive and affective commitment to an active relationship with the brand as personified by the website or other computer-mediated entities designed to communicate brand value”. Additionally, Bowden (2009) defines engagement as an emotional and cognitive psychological process. Hollebeek (2011, p. 790) also views engagement as “the level of a customer’s motivational, brand-related and context-dependent state of mind characterised by specific levels of cognitive, emotional and behavioural activity in brand interactions”. Sedley (2007 in Chaffey, 2007) additionally define engagement as “repeated interactions that strengthen the emotional, psychological (cognitive) and physical (behavioural) investment a customer has in a brand.” 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Despite the existence of other definitions and conceptualisations of the concept as indicated above, for the purposes of this study, Pansari and Kumar’s (2017) definition and multi-dimensional conceptualisation of engagement is adopted. According to this conceptualisation, engagement comprises buying/purchase, referring, influencing and feedback and is “the mechanics of a customer’s value addition to the firm, either through direct or/and indirect contribution” (pg. 295). Other definitions tend to exclude transactional customer behaviour (e.g. purchase), which, this study opines, is fundamental to the existence of the firm. For instance, van Doorn et al. (2010, pg. 254) define engagement as ‘‘customers’ behavioural manifestation toward a brand or firm, beyond purchase, resulting from motivational drivers”. This implies the exclusion of purchase as a customer engagement behaviour manifestation. Just as this definition indicates, engagement arises from certain motivational triggers, which, we agree. However, to exclude purchase from customer engagement is somewhat erroneous. First of all, it is only natural to consider purchase as one of the means through which a customer interacts or engages with a firm and secondly, it is a behavioural manifestation that can follow motivational drivers (Kumar et al., 2010). Subsequent chapters will discuss this conceptualisation in detail. 1.6 SYNOPSIS OF CHAPTERS AND STRUCTURE OF THESIS After this introductory chapter, this is how the remainder of the research is structured: chapter 2 is the context of the study. It is devoted to discussions on Ghana, a hedonic product (Mercedes-Benz) and utilitarian product (Pepsodent 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh toothpaste). Issues outlined here include a brief overview of the Ghanaian economy (including demographic information); key developments in same, and a discussion on the two brands in question. Chapter 3 is a review of literature on the engagement concept. It begins with a brief synopsis of the concepts from across disciplines and then narrows to the marketing literature. This is done to examine the current state of literature in order to identify existing gaps this thesis is to fill. Following from this, Chapter 4 provides an overview of theories that have characteristically underpinned engagement research and culminates in discussions on the selected theory for this study. It then proceeds with a discussion culminating in a set of testable hypotheses. This is designed to guide the analysis and collection of empirical data for the study. Chapter 5 discusses the methodological considerations related to this research. It examines the research design, and the empirical data collection approach employed in this study. Chapter 6 is the data presentation chapter. Chapter 7 is a comprehensive discussion of findings based on the various hypotheses and objectives outlined in this introductory chapter. Finally, chapter 8 discusses the managerial and theoretical contributions of the study. It also includes the limitations of the study and directions for future research. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO CONTEXT OF THE STUDY 2.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter reviews journal articles, magazines as well as internet publications on the Ghanaian economy, Ghanaian automobile and consumer goods industries respectively and then proceeds to specific discussions on Mercedes Benz and Pepsodent toothpaste, the two specific brands chosen for this particular study. 2.1 ABOUT THE NATION OF GHANA The Republic of Ghana, previously referred to as the “Gold Coast”, is a West African country bounded by Burkina Faso in the north, the Gulf of Guinea/Atlantic Ocean in the south, Togo in the east and Ivory Coast in the west(WorldAtlas, 2017). It covers an area of approximately 238,533 km sq., or 92, 098 sq. miles (Government of Ghana, 2019). It was the first African country to be liberated from colonial rule, led by its founding fathers namely, late, William Ofori Atta, Ebenezer Ako-Adjei, Dr Kwame Nkrumah, Edward Akuffo-Addo, Emmanuel Obetsebi- Lamptey, and Joseph Boakye Danquah(Embassy of Ghana The Hague, 2019a). This feat occurred on 6th March, 1957, as a result of which Dr Nkrumah became the first Prime Minister of the country. After Ghana became a republic on 1st July, 1960, Dr Nkrumah became its president. Ghana is rich in both minerals and other natural resources (Government of Ghana, 2019). It is one of the global leaders for the exportation of cocoa and gold and also 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh exports bauxite, manganese and electricity (Government of Ghana, 2019). Almost a decade ago Ghana discovered oil along its coast. This discovery changed the fortunes of the nation and since then, oil has been a major contributor to the country’s foreign exchange reserves and economic growth (Ghana Country Commercial Guide, 2018). In 2016 the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) had to settle a maritime border dispute between Ghana and Ivory Coast which halted offshore oil production before the case was settled (Ghana Country Commercial Guide, 2018). A ruling in favour of Ghana in September 2017 resulted in an increase in the country’s offshore territory by 80 kilometres square, opening the way for drilling to resume (Ghana Country Commercial Guide, 2018). In February 2019, the Government of Ghana announced oil production will increase in four years (Ministry of Finance, 2019b). 2.1.1 Nation Demographics According to the Ghana Statistical Service, the population of Ghana currently stands at approximately 30.3 million, an increase from the official 2010 census figure of 24.2 million (Ghana Statistical Service, 2019a). Out of the 30.3 million people in Ghana, around 48.8% are male, whereas the female population is around 51.2% (Ghana Statistical Service, 2013). Major ethnic groups in Ghana include Akan, Dagbani, Ewe (representing 47.5%, 17% and 14% respectively), Ga- Adangbe, Gurma, Guan, Gurunsi, and Bissa (7%, 6%, 4%, 2.5% and 1% respectively) (World Population Review, 2019). Although English is the official language of Ghana, due to the multi-ethnic landscape of the country, there are reportedly over two hundred and fifty (250) languages and dialects spoken (Embassy of Ghana The Hague, 2019b). 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1.2 The Ghanaian Economy Ghana is said to be the fastest-growing economy in Africa (Ministry of Finance, 2019a). According to the Ghana Statistical Service, the real gross domestic product (GDP) for the third quarter of 2018 grew by 7.4% (Ghana Statistical Service, 2019b) compared to 8.7% recorded for the 3rd quarter of 2017. At the end of the year 2018, Ghana’s GDP was 65.56 billion US dollars (Trading Economics 2019). Additionally, according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) 2019 GDP growth projections, Ghana’s economic growth was robust in the first three quarters of 2018 mainly because of oil production (Ministry of Finance, 2019a). The services sector has remained the highest contributor to overall GDP for many years (Ghana Statistical Service, 2019b). At the end of the third quarter of 2018, for instance, the sector was reported to have accounted for approximately 45.50% of the overall GDP (Ghana Statistical Service, 2019b). The agricultural and industry sectors followed with 19.2% and 35.3%, respectively. Overall, the industry sector recorded the highest growth of 11.7% in that same period (Ghana Statistical Service, 2019b). Despite being the second highest contributor to overall GDP, the industry sector seems likely to become the sector to spearhead Ghana’s economic growth in the not too distant future (GhanaWeb, 2018). 2.1.3 The Ghanaian Industry Ghana possesses a sizeable consumer and industrial goods and services sector which also serves other countries in West Africa (PWC Ghana, 2019). Medium- 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sized local companies and multinational firms’ subsidiaries form the bulk of establishments within the sector (PWC Ghana, 2019). 2.2 CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT AMONG FIRMS IN GHANA Although customer engagement emerged in theory and practice over ten (10) years ago in developed countries, anecdotally, it seems as if it is only in recent times that developing countries such as Ghana have begun to take engagement seriously. Searches via the Google search engine yield results that seem to show that customer engagement may not have entered into the Ghanaian business terminology prior to 2016. Currently, firms in Ghana are increasingly placing importance on the need to engage with customers (actual and potential). Hence a number of firms continue to put in place measures and interventions in order to create an atmosphere for customer engagement to occur. The measures that are taken to create customer engagement vary. For instance, some firms now have a “customer engagement officer” position and others periodically organise customer engagement training workshops and sessions for their employees. In recent years, numerous companies in Ghana have also turned to social media in a bid to engage with their actual and potential customers. This is because such platforms provide superior channels of communication, increased user interactivity, and extensive network connectivity (Haughn, 2017). 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.1 Social Media Use and Customer Engagement among Firms in Ghana In Ghana, approximately 14.76 million people, representing a penetration rate of 48%, are connected to the internet (Kemp, 2020). Social media penetration is estimated at 40% with 5.6 million social media users (Zurek, 2018). 71% of internet users aged between 16 and 64 years use Facebook, 62% YouTube and 61% and 37%, respectively, use Instagram and Twitter (Kemp, 2020). In the recent past years, social media use among firms in Ghana has increased. Many firms across a wide range of industries such as banking/finance, hospitality, real estate, manufacturing, automobile, personal care, etc., are logged on to various social media platforms. Most of these, however, employ Facebook and Twitter and upload a variety of content ranging from products/services posts, to news/trending posts, promotions, competitions, infographics, videos, questions, quotes/memes and at times livestreams. Despite all this, it must be said that many companies are till date struggling to find effective and lasting ways of navigating their way through social media. First of all, marketers are challenged when it comes to demonstrating the impact of social media, especially since in general it is increasingly becoming challenging for brands as far as their organic reach and user engagement are concerned (Hubspot, 2016, Thomson, 2018). In addition, it is reported that the rate at which consumers are engaging with branded content is reducing, despite there being an upsurge in content marketing efforts (Erskine, 2018; Moran et al., 2019). This is to a large extent due to the enormous amount of content found on social media (Moran et al., 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2019). As a result, one pressing question remains for marketers regarding what to do to achieve engagement with online consumers (eMarketer, 2015; Moran et al., 2019). Many marketers in Ghana are not taking advantage of social media to grow their business (ThinkExpand, 2018). 2.3 BRIEF BACKGROUND OF THE GHANAIAN AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY Vehicles first made their appearance in Ghana at the turn of the 20th century, not very long after they took to the road in Europe in the 1890s (Bokpe, 2016). The automobile industry in Ghana is characterised by heavy importations of brand new and in particular second hand cars and car parts (see OEC, 2019). In fact, according to a recent study by the Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA), over one million vehicles were imported into the country from 2005 to 2016, 80% of which were second hand (GNA, 2018). Service businesses in the sector generally consist of (1) new and used car dealers; (2) independent garages/shops; (3) specialty garages /shops; (4) service stations or garages; and (5) fleet garages/shops (Africa Business Pages, 2019). All cars imported and manufactured in the country are registered with the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA) The DVLA provides licensing to both vehicles and drivers, promotes good driving standards and ensures only roadworthy vehicles are used(DVLA, 2019). There are currently over one million registered cars (private and public), according to the DVLA (Bokpe, 2016). 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.1 Key Developments in the Ghanaian Automobile Industry The government of Ghana, at the latter part of 2018, signed memoranda of understanding with three (3) global car manufacturing firms (Volkswagen, Nissan and Sinotruk) to establish assembly plants in the country (GhanaWeb, 2018). In March 2019, Suzuki, Toyota and CFAO motors also announced a joint venture to produce and sell vehicles in Ghana (Ghana Export Promotion Authority, 2019). CFAO motors is the sole distributor for international brands Citroën, Mitsubishi Motors, Bridgestone and Suzuki in Ghana (CFAO Automotive, 2019). In addition to these new developments, Ghana launched her maiden local automobile manufacturing company, Kantanka Automobile Manufacturing Company in 2015 (Effah, 2015). Toyota is the most sought-after car in Ghana’s second-hand automobile market (Peacefmonline, 2015). The Japanese brand owns the largest share of the second- hand car market in the country (approximately 33% share of the total car market) with Nissan and Kia following with 13% and 7%, respectively (Peacefmonline, 2015). Altogether, all three brands command about 53% of the total market share. These brands are the most popular for their fuel efficiency, affordability and availability of spare parts (Car Ghana, 2018). Popular brands in the Ghanaian luxury car market include BMW, Mercedes Benz, Rolls Royce, Land Rover, Maserati and Bentley. Mercedes-Benz, however, has the biggest market share among them in the Ghanaian context (Car Ghana, 2018). This 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh study will focus on the Mercedes-Benz brand of luxury cars. The decision to use Mercedes-Benz was influenced by the objective to determine the most effective message strategy for hedonic (luxury) products. 2.2.3 Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz, a division of Daimler AG, is a German automobile brand known for trucks, coaches, buses and luxury vehicles, (Daimler, 2019). It is headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Mercedes-Benz sold approximately 2.31 million cars in 2018 and as a result was the largest selling luxury car brand (Taylor et al., 2019). Mercedes-Benz Ghana Mercedes-Benz operates in Ghana through its general distributor Silver Star Auto Limited (SSAL). Silver Star Auto Limited was incorporated as a limited liability company on December 11th, 1996 (Silver Star, 2019). As general distributor, SSAL distributes the Mercedes-Benz range of vehicles (comprising the A, B, C, CLA, CLS, E, G, GLA, GLC, GLE, GLS, S, SLV and V classes) as well as Mercedes-AMG cars, spare parts and accessories (Silver Star, 2019). Mercedes-AMG and Mercedes-Benz Range of Vehicles 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Although thought of as being the same, Mercedes-Benz and Mercedes-AMG are different. First of all, Mercedes-AMG (Aufrecht, Melcher and Großaspach) is the performance division of Mercedes concerned with providing extra sporty handling and stylish aesthetics (Mercedes, 2019). Mercedes hires special engineers who invest time and effort designing special engines that make Mercedes-AMG cars all the more exclusive, more than regular Mercedes-Benz vehicles (Mercedes, 2019). For every regular class of Mercedes Benz, there is an AMG model version (Bocaautohaus, 2017). This particular study focuses on the regular class of Mercedes Benz vehicles and in particular the C-class. Mercedes Benz Advertising and Engagement on Social Media Mercedes-Benz employs various social media platforms (LinkedIn, YouTube, Twitter, Instagram and Facebook) to advertise and engage with their actual and potential customers. In 2013, the brand was named among the most active automotive brands on Facebook, leading in fan growth (Vasquez, 2014). In 2016 it was awarded “best strategy” for the best social media strategy on Instagram (Daimler, 2019). 2.3 BACKGROUND TO THE GHANAIAN PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY Personal care products encapsulate all products that relate to hygiene and beauty and include toothpastes, deodorants, shampoos, makeup, perfumes and skin moisturisers (FDA, 2016). 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.1 Pepsodent Toothpaste Pepsodent toothpaste is originally an American brand of toothpaste. The brand is owned by Unilever. However, in the United States and Canada, it is owned by Church & Dwight (Revolvy, n.d.). Pepsodent Ghana Pepsodent Ghana is a brand of Unilever Ghana Limited. It is the leading oral care brand in Ghana (Myjoyonline, 2019a, b). In fact, the brand is so popular in Ghana that almost every toothpaste is referred to as Pepsodent, regardless of the brand (Myjoyonline.com, 2019c). Pepsodent Products The brand comprises two (2) products (1) toothbrushes and (2) toothpastes, according to its Ghana website. Pepsodent toothbrushes include (1) Pepsodent triple protection toothbrush (2) Pepsodent smart clean toothbrush and (3) Pepsodent deepclean toothbrush. For the toothpastes (1) Pepsodent Sensitive Expert- Whitening, (2) Pepsodent Sensitive Expert- Original (3) Pepsodent Sensitive Expert- Gumcare (4) Pepsodent Extra Gram Promo (5) Pepsodent 1-2-3 Triple Protection and (6) Pepsodent Expert protection. This study employs the Pepsodent Expert protection toothpaste. The decision to use Pepsodent toothpaste was influenced by the objective to determine the most effective message strategy for utilitarian (functional) products. Personal care products such as toothpaste are some of the most commonly purchased products consumers buy. In addition, Pepsodent toothpaste is the largest toothpaste brand in Ghana. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter took a look at the setting for the study, Ghana and narrowed down to Mercedes-Benz and Pepsodent toothpaste. Attention was given to Ghana’s history, demographics, and economy. The chapter revealed that the services sector has remained the highest contributor to overall GDP for many years. It currently accounts for approximately 45.50% of the overall GDP (Ghana Statistical Service, 2019b). The agricultural and industry sectors follow with 19.2% and 35.3%, respectively (Ghana Statistical Service, 2019b). After presenting background information on Ghana, there was a discussion about customer engagement among firms in Ghana. The chapter reported that developing countries such as Ghana have begun to take customer engagement seriously. Many firms across a wide range of industries such as banking/finance, hospitality, real estate, manufacturing, automobile, personal care, etc., are logged on to various social media platforms in order to engage with both actual and potential customers. Most of these, however, employ Facebook and Twitter and upload a variety of content ranging from products/services posts, to news/trending posts, promotions, competitions, infographics, videos, questions, quotes/memes and at times livestreams. Despite these efforts, many companies are till date struggling to find effective and lasting ways of navigating their way through social media. Thereafter, a brief background of the Ghanaian automobile industry was given. This was subsequently followed by discussions on the Mercedes-Benz brand. This particular study focuses on the regular class of Mercedes Benz vehicles and in particular the C-class. With regard to customer engagement activities of Mercedes-Benz, the chapter reported that Mercedes-Benz employs various social media platforms (Facebook, Instagram, 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Twitter, YouTube and LinkedIn) to advertise and engage with their actual and potential customers. In 2013, the brand was named among the most active automotive brands on Facebook, leading in fan growth. The chapter ended with a dive into the personal care industry in Ghana with a particular focus on Pepsodent toothpaste which is the largest toothpaste brand in Ghana. The decision to select the two brands is based on the popularity of the brands within the context of the nation of Ghana, as representations of the luxury and consumer goods (functional/utilitarian) markets respectively. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE A REVIEW OF THE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT LITERATURE 3.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW The concept of customer engagement has in recent years been gaining traction in the marketing literature. Scholars have studied the phenomenon from a number of angles, offering insights in an effort to develop scholarship in the area. Despite it being an area of an increasing number of scholarly work, compared to other areas in the marketing literature, it is fairly underdeveloped. Hence, there remains ample opportunity for further research into the area. In recent times studies have emerged investigating the effect of advertising on customer engagement (see Roberts & Alpert, 2010; Islam & Rahman, 2016b). These have been in response to calls for investigations into how marketing activities create customer engagement (MSI 2014; Hollebeek et al., 2016). Despite the presence of such research, it has been observed that research addressing message strategies as precursors to customer engagement is somewhat scant and what exists is inconsistent (Tafesse & Wien, 2018). Even with regard to the broader customer engagement literature, the number of studies from developing economy contexts is comparatively scant and there is the need for research to originate from less advanced parts of the world in order to enhance knowledge in this new research area (Barger et al., 2016; Islam & Rahman, 2017). 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This chapter, in that regard, is a review of literature pertaining to the customer engagement concept, the aim of which is to identify current knowledge gaps for possible contribution to knowledge in the chosen area of research. 3.1 CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT 3.1.1 The Concept of Engagement The term “engagement” surfaced in the English language around the 17th century (Brodie et al., 2011) from the French word “engager” and described numerous concepts denoting obligation such as a “pledge”, a “legal/moral obligation”, “formal promise”, “tie of duty”, “betrothal”, “employment” and/or “military conflict” (van Doorn et al., 2010; Brodie et al., 2011). Recently, however, more volitional and/or discretionary meanings (e.g. Frank, Finnegan, & Taylor, 2004; Jennings & Stoker, 2004;) have surfaced. These include, for instance, “connection” “attachment” “emotional involvement”’ and/or “participation” (e.g., London, Downey, & Mace, 2007). According to Axelson & Flick (2011), modern engagement research can be traced to the 1984 student involvement research of Alexander Astin (Axelson & Flick, 2011). Astin (1984, p. 528) argued that the greater a student's involvement (“the quantity and quality of physical and psychological energy that students invest in the college experience”) at the university, the higher the level of personal development and student learning. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As a concept, engagement has in the last two decades, been studied across diverse disciplines ranging from psychology, sociology, organisational behaviour/management, information systems, education and finally to practitioner literature (Hollebeek, 2011; Brodie et al., 2011; Vivek et al., 2012; Kumar & Pansari, 2016). However, each discipline possesses a unique perspective on the domain and definition of the concept, resulting in a variety of conceptual approaches (Ilic, 2008; Hollebeek, 2011). Engagement in Psychology Research on engagement within the field of psychology exists both in mainstream psychology and educational psychology. In the former, engagement is referred to as “social engagement” (Huo, Binning, & Molina, 2009; Achterberg et al., 2003), “occupational engagement” (Bejerholm & Eklund, 2006; Bejerholm & Eklund, 2007) and less commonly as “task engagement” (Matthews et al., 2010). Social engagement is a person’s participation and involvement in the activities of a social group (Prohaska, Anderson & Binstock, 2012). It is defined severally in literature as “a high sense of initiative, involvement and adequate response to social stimuli, participating in social activities, interacting with others” (Achterberg et al., 2003), “the extent to which an individual participates in a broad range of social roles and relationships” (Avison, McLeod, & Pescosolido, 2007, p. 333) or “the commitment of a member to stay in the group and interact with other members” (Zhang, Jiang, & Carroll, 2011). 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Occupational engagement has been defined in the literature as “a lifestyle characteristic that describes “the extent to which a person has a balanced rhythm of activity and rest, a variety and range of meaningful occupations/routines and the ability to move around society and interact socially” (Bejerholm & Eklund, 2007, p. 21). Task engagement, according to Matthews et al. (2010, p. 189), “reflects neural arousal systems linked to approach behaviour”, and corresponds to “vigilance performance on a particular task; attentional resource availability, sustained attention, and alertness”. With regard to educational psychology (Bryson & Hand, 2007a; Bryson & Hand, 2007b; Hu, 2010), engagement is referred to as “student engagement” and is defined as the degree to which a student is committed, motivated, academically invested in, psychologically connected to and feels a sense of belonging to an academic institution (London et al., 2007). It is also known as “school engagement” and comprises (a) cognitive, e.g. the desire to perfect particular skills; (b) emotional, e.g. positive/negative reactions to tutors, & (c) behavioural; (e.g. participating in academic/extracurricular activities). Engagement in Organisational Behaviour/Management Literature In the organisational behaviour/management literature, engagement is termed “employee engagement” (Schaufeli et al., 2002b; Catteeuw et al., 2007; Crawford, LePine & Rich, 2010) or occupational engagement (Bejerholm & Eklund, 2007); “stakeholder engagement” (Greenwood, 2007; Noland & Phillips, 2010). According to Schaufeli et al. (2002b), employee engagement is a positive, 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh satisfying state of mind related to work activities. Catteeuw et al. (2007) also define employee engagement as how much satisfaction employees derive from their work, and feel a sense of partnership, trust and appreciation. On the other hand, occupational engagement refers to a lifestyle characteristic which involves occupational performance and an interplay among personal, occupational & environmental factors (Bejerholm & Eklund, 2007). Table 3.1 contains a sample of various definitions of the concept across various disciplines. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.1 Engagement Conceptualisations across Disciplines Discipline Concept Author(s) Definition/Key Findings Themes/Dimensionality Sociology Civic Engagement Jennings and Behaviours and attitudes concerning (quasi-) Multidimensional: Zeitner (2003) political processes/institutions Media attentiveness Trust Political involvement Jennings and Engagement refers to participation in Multidimensional Stoker (2004) volunteer work and the fostering of social Cognitive networks Emotional Behavioural Mondak et al. The level of civic engagement is majorly Not disclosed (2010) determined by extraversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism. Political Science State Engagement Resnick (2001) Engagement is a repetitive process aimed at Unidimensional influencing the political behaviour of a Behavioural particular country via sustained interactions spanning a variety of issues Comprehensive Kane (2008) Comprehensive engagement is comprised of Multidimensional Engagement possible staff change, mechanism for change Cognitive and mind-set change, Behavioural 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Psychology Social Engagement Achterberg et al. Social engagement refers to an active Multidimensional (2003); participation in social activities and interaction Interaction with others with others Ability to carry out activities as planned Ability to carry out activities that are self-initiated Involvement Active participation in group activities Huo, Binning, Identification with a group and behaviour Multidimensional and Molina directed at group Emotional (2009) Behavioural Task Engagement Matthews et al. “Vigilance performance on a particular task; Multidimensional (2010, p. 189) attentional resource availability, sustained Cognitive attention, and alertness” Behavioural Occupational Bejerholm and “A lifestyle characteristic including the Multidimensional Engagement Eklund (2006) external/objective & internal/subjective Initiating performance aspects of occupational performance, which Routines involves both anticipation & comprehension Extent of meaningful thereof, and serves as the basis for an ongoing, occupations cyclical means of maintaining a sense of self Interpretation & well-being” Social interplay Social environment Place Occupational variety/range Daily rhythm 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bejerholm and “A lifestyle characteristic that describes the Multidimensional Eklund (2007) extent to which a person has a balanced Cognitive rhythm of activity and rest, a variety and range Behavioural of meaningful occupations/routines and the ability to move around society and interact socially” Levels tend to vary along a continuum Educational Student Fredricks et al. Engagement comprises cognitive, emotional Multidimensional Psychology Engagement (2004) and behavioural dimensions. Cognitive Emotional Behavioural Bryson and Hand Students showcase different levels of Multidimensional (2007a,b) engagement towards higher education, Cognitive modules and tasks Emotional Behavioural London, Downey The extent to which a student invests Multidimensional and Mace (2007) academically, is motivated, psychologically Sense of belonging to connected and committed to an institution to institution which they belong Comfort with institution Perceived psychological connection to institution Commitment to institution Academic Motivation Academic Investment 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hu (2010) The extent to which students work hard with Multidimensional school activities Cognitive Behavioural Organisational Employee Frank, Finnegan, How willing employees are to voluntarily Multidimensional Behaviour/Management Engagement and Taylor apply themselves in their places of work by Cognitive (2004) working overtime and actively thinking about their work Emotional Behavioural Luthans and Employee engagement comprises the Multidimensional Peterson (2002) employee is emotionally, cognitively and Cognitive behaviourally involved with their workplace. Emotional Behavioural Saks (2006) How much of an individual’s physical, Multidimensional affective and cognitive resources he/she is Cognitive willing to dedicate to their work. Emotional Behavioural Catteeuw et al. How much satisfaction employees derive from Multidimensional (2007) their work, and feel a sense of partnership, Cognitive trust and appreciation Emotional 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Macey and “A broad construct consisting of state, trait, Multidimensional Schneider (2008) and behavioural forms that connote a blend of Cognitive affective energy and discretionary effort directed to one’s work and organisation” Emotional Behavioural Crawford, How employees use cognition, emotions and Multidimensional LePine, and Rich behaviour to express themselves as they work. Cognitive (2010) Emotional Behavioural Information Systems Customer Wagner and The degree to which customers participate Unidimensional Engagement Majchrzak with employees and other customers to Behavioural (2007) exchange knowledge Erat et al. (2006) “Engagement with customers calls for Unidimensional exchanging information and knowledge with Behavioural customers and fostering exchanges between customers” (p. 511). 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.1.2 Emergence of Engagement Research in Marketing Scholarship In the last five to six years, engagement has been gaining grounds within marketing literature (Gambetti & Graffigna, 2010) and this is not surprising. First of all, it has been touted as a promising concept, providing superior explanatory and/or predictive power of focal consumer behavioural outcomes in comparison with other concepts similar to it (Hollebeek, 2012; Hollebeek et al., 2014). Secondly, authorities in the field of marketing have set the precedence of heightened interest in the concept by their calls for research on it (Kumar, 2015). For example, the Marketing Science Institute (MSI) on three occasions listed customer engagement among the top research priorities for the years 2010-2012, 2014-2016 and 2016- 2018 (MSI, 2010; 2014; 2016). The MSI publishes a biennial list of pertinent topics for research, garnered from the most pressing research needs and interests of their member companies, in addition to input from academic trustees, executive directors, and young scholars (MSI, 2016). Engagement is a relatively new concept in marketing. Scholars and marketing executives alike opine that it is a powerful force that drives consumers’ behaviour and the making of decisions (Gambetti & Graffigna, 2010). Engagement surfaced in marketing literature in 2005 when Sawhney et al. (2005) penned a paper on “collaborating to create: the internet as a platform for customer engagement in product innovation” (Brodie et al., 2011). In their seminal publication, they argue that the internet possesses unique qualities which help with interaction, increased reach as well as speed and flexibility for persistent dialogue as opposed to episodic, one-way customer interactions. They suggest that these capabilities can be used by firms to engage customers in collaborative product innovation. The concept has in 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the past five (5) to seven (7) years been steadily gaining traction in marketing research (Hollebeek et al., 2016). Within the field of marketing, the concept is referred to in diverse ways. For instance, whereas some scholars prefer to use “customer engagement” (Patterson, et al., 2006; Brodie et al., 2009), others employ “consumer engagement” (Vivek, 2009; Moreau, 2011; Bain & Fountain, 2010), “customer brand engagement” (Hollebeek, 2011a; 2011b; 2013), “social media engagement behaviour” (Dolan et al., 2016), “advertising engagement” (Phillips & McQuarrie, 2010), “media engagement” (Calder et al., 2009), “audience engagement” (Scott & Craig-Lees, 2010), “customer engagement behaviours” (Jaakkola & Alexander, 2014; Van Doorn et al., 2010), “brand engagement in self-concept” (Sprott, Czellar, & Spangenberg, 2009) and “engagement” more generically (Higgins & Scholer, 2009). Each term falls under either one of what extant literature (e.g. Wang, 2006; Ephron, 2006; Schultz, 2007; Neff, 2007; Kilger & Romer, 2007; Sprott et al., 2009; Heath, 2009; Bowden, 2009et al), essentially refers to as the “five contextual categories of engagement”: consumer, customer, brand, advertising and media (see Gambetti & Graffigna, 2010). In explaining the differences among the terms, Gambetti and Graffigna (2010) reveal that brand, advertising and media engagement focus on the brand and media contexts that have the ability to create engagement, whereas customer and consumer engagement are focused on the individual customer with whom a brand engages and is who can be engaged by a communication medium or advertisement. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.2 Summary of Engagement Terms in Marketing Engagement Term Definition Reference Audience Comprises cognitive effort and Scott and Craig-Lees Engagement affective response (2010) Brand Engagement The degree to which a consumer Sprott et al. (2009) in Self Concept includes key brands in their self- perception Consumer How intensely the consumer Vivek (2009); Engagement participates and connects with the Moreau (2011); Bain offerings and undertakings of a and Fountain (2010) brand Customer Brand A customer’s emotional, Hollebeek (2011a; Engagement behavioural and cognitive state in 2011b; 2013) brand interactions. Customer The extent to which a customer is Patterson, Yu, and Engagement emotionally, cognitively and De Ruyter (2006); physically present in their Brodie et al. (2009) interactions with organisations Customer A customer’s behaviour toward a Van Doorn et al. Engagement brand that goes further than (2010); Jaakkola and Behaviours purchase and is as a result of Alexander (2014) recommendations and word-of- mouth activities Engagement Being engrossed, involved, Higgins and Scholer completely absorbed or occupied (2009) with something Social Media A customer’s behaviour on social Dolan et al. (2016) Engagement media toward a brand that goes Behaviour further than purchase and is as a result of certain motivational drivers Media Engagement “Turning on a prospect to a brand Calder, Malthouse, idea enhanced by the surrounding and Schaedel (2009, context” p. 322) For the purposes of this current research, the term “customer engagement” is adopted the reason being that the main focus is on the likelihood of customers to be engaged by a brand advertisement. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.1.3 Marketing Constructs Related to Engagement Engagement is conceptually similar to (yet different from) other (relational) marketing constructs (Hollebeek, 2011a; Hollebeek, 2012; Kabadayi & Price, 2014). Table 3.3 below provides an exhibit of selected marketing concepts deemed similar to engagement. Definitions are provided for each concept and the relationship between each of them and engagement is discussed. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.3 Concepts Similar to Customer Engagement Concept Definition Relationship to Engagement Interactivity Customer interaction with a firm (Bolton & Saxena-Iyer, 2009). An antecedent of engagement. It is a requirement for the expression of a consumer’s relevant engagement level. Consumer The degree of interest in and perceived relevance of an object An antecedent of engagement. It is a Involvement founded on an individual’s interests, values and needs requirement for the expression of a (Zaichkowsky, 1985; Mittal, 1995). consumer’s relevant engagement level. Flow It is the condition of the most ideal experience which is evident by Flow can serve as a precursor to transient clear mind, effortless concentration, loss of self-consciousness, ultimate experiences that customer focused attention, complete control, intrinsic enjoyment and engagement has not captured directly distortion of time (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). (Patterson et al., 2006). Rapport It’s an apparent level of congruent, sympathetic or empathetic Rapport is created by consumer/brand bond to another (Brooks, 1989). It is a sense of real concern and interactions that are human-based (i.e., interpersonal sensitivity (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993). new consumers); Rapport may also lead to customer engagement by existing customers (e.g., of a focal brand). Value Co- It is the level of apparent value that is created in the mind of the Value co-creation is an engagement Creation customer that emanates from joint and/or personalised and consequence and is a result of human- based consumer/brand interactions. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh interactive activities for and or with stakeholders (Dall’Olmo- Riley & De Chernatony, 2000; Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004). Brand A biased inner consumer response (sensations, feelings, “Engagement consequence, and/or Experience cognitions) and behavioural responses induced by brand-related concurrent factor,” (Brakus et al., 2009: stimuli such as, packaging, design, identity, environment and p. 53). communications (Brakus et al., 2009). Perceived What a customer deems to be the overall excellence/superiority of A consequence of engagement. It is Quality a product or service (Zeithaml, 1988; Parasuraman et al., 1988). created by service/interactive and/or value co-creative contexts. Consumer A consumer’s total assessment of the performance of an offering Engagement consequence with a potential Satisfaction to-date (Johnson & Fornell, 1991; Gustafsson et al., 2005) positive relationship between satisfaction and engagement (cf. Saks, 2006). Consumer It is the degree of the perception of control that a customer has Engagement consequence with a Empowerment over his/her choices and/or an understanding of his/her potentially positive relationship between environment and efforts to wield control (Zimmerman & these concepts. Warschausky, 1998; Wathieu et al., 2002). Trust It is the degree to which the customer perceives a brand to be Strong bonds to a brand are created reliable in interactions with the brand and the belief that it puts the through consumer engagement. customer’s interests first (Delgado-Ballester et al., 2003; Rotter, Consequently, the consumer maintains 1967). his/her engagement with a brand (van Doorn et al., 2010; Brodie et al., 2011; Sashi, 2012). 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Relationship “An enduring desire to maintain a valued relationship” (Moorman Relationship commitment is evidenced by Commitment et al. 1992, p. 316). the willingness of consumers to expend more resources (time and money) on the brand. Consumer This is the total evaluation of the usefulness of a product/service Consumer perceived value enables the Perceived Value based on perceptions about what is given and received (Zeithaml, perception of a customer to be viewed 1988). quantitatively. The perception of value impacts customer engagement which in turn leads to good customer-brand relationship. Brand Attitude The psychological likelihood of assessing a brand with a certain This is an engagement consequence amount of favour and/or disfavour (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Self-Brand The degree to which individuals have integrated [a focal] brand(s) It leads to engagement. Connection into their self-concept (Escalas, 2004). Overall Brand It is the difference in the manner with which a consumer responds It leads to engagement. Equity to a focal brand and an unbranded product when both possess the same product attributes and degree of marketing stimuli (Yoo & Donthu, 2001). Brand Love It encompasses self-brand integration, positive emotional It may lead to engagement. connection, passion-driven behaviours, long-term relationship, anticipated separation distress, and positive overall attitude valence, attitude certainty and confidence (strength), (Batra et al., 2012). 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Brand/Customer It refers to the phenomenon where a consumer patronises a brand It leads to engagement (Bowden, 2009a; Loyalty repeatedly (i.e., behavioural loyalty) prompted by a strong Patterson et al., 2006). Whereas customer personal disposition (i.e., attitudinal loyalty) (Day, 1969) over a engagement to a large extent measures given period of time (Guest, 1944). multiple types of customer behaviour, brand/customer loyalty measures only recurrent purchases over time. Customer It is all-inclusive in nature and involves the customer’s affective, Customer experience is a cognitive Experience cognitive, emotional, social and physical responses to the entity, measure that is as a result of the actions product and service (Verhoef et al. 2009). of a firm and may not include the actions of the customer toward the brand. On the contrary, customer engagement measures the customers’ actions toward the brand. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the table above, it is evident that each of the concepts is theoretically distinct from customer engagement. Whereas concepts such as interactivity and involvement serve as precursors to engagement, others are seen as engagement outcomes (Schaufeli et al., 2002a/b; Schouten, McAlexander, & Koenig, 2007). While brand experience includes behaviour, Brakus et al. (2009: p. 53) clearly state that it “differs from motivational/affective concepts, including involvement [i.e., thus extending to engagement] in that it does not presume a motivational state” (Hollebeek, 2011a). On the contrary, involvement and engagement both focus on consumer needs/values that motivate the customer toward a specific object (e.g., a brand; Hollebeek et al., 2007). The motivational, activation-oriented aspect therefore differentiates engagement from brand experience. Further, the relatively enduring nature of brand attitude generates a conceptual distinction from engagement, which may exhibit greater variability of its focal levels across brand usage occasions. Whereas brand experiences are comprised of the consumer’s behavioural, emotional and cognitive responses to brand communications (Verhoef et al., 2009), customer engagement permits more proactive (as opposed to reactive) consumer behaviours and these may result in customer empowerment and/or value co-creation (Hollebeek, 2011). 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Furthermore, empathy and responsiveness, two of Parasuraman et al.’s (1988) proposed five dimensions of perceived service quality ( seem to be closest conceptually to customer engagement (Patterson et al., 2006). That said, though service quality is centred on the actions and performance of employees in contrast to engagement, which focuses on the interactively-induced responses and/or empathy of the consumer (Hollebeek, 2011). Further, in contrast to perceived service quality, the consumer is able to express their preferred contextual self (Patterson et al., 2006). 3.1.4 The Definition, Nature and Dimensionality of Engagement There is as yet no unanimity regarding the definition, nature and conceptualisation of engagement in extant marketing literature (Kunz et al., 2017). In fact, there seems to be a debate in the literature pertaining to the dimensionality of the concept. This has been attributed, in part, to the fact that there are inconsistencies regarding its nature and dimensionality (Dessart et al., 2015, 2016), which, some scholars argue, is dependent on the context within which engagement may be taking place and being analysed (Brodie et al., 2011; Gavalines et al., 2018). Some authors define the concept from a one-dimensional perspective. For instance, Sprott et al. (2009) define engagement in terms of an individual’s proclivity for including key brands in their self-perception. Others, on the other hand, subscribe to a multidimensional view of engagement (e.g. Bowden, 2009; Kumar et al., 2010; 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Mollen & Wilson, 2010; Hollebeek, 2011; Brodie et al., 2011; Vivek et al., 2014; Dwivedi, 2015; Kumar & Pansari, 2016; Pansari & Kumar, 2017). For example, Bowden (2009), maintains that engagement comprises calculative commitment, involvement, and affective commitment. Mollen and Wilson (2010, p. 12) opine that it is “a cognitive and affective commitment to an active relationship with the brand… characterised by sustained cognitive processing, instrumental value and experiential value”. In addition to the varied schools of thought on the dimensionality of the concept, it is clear from extant scholarship that marketing scholars define and study engagement from three main perspectives (Brodie et al., 2011; Kunz et al., 2017). Specifically, some academics have viewed customer engagement (1) as a psychological process (e.g. Bowden, 2009); (2) from a motivational psychology perspective (e.g. Mollen & Wilson, 2010; Brodie et al., 2011); and in more recent years (3) as a behavioural manifestation (van Doorn et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2010; Kumar & Pansari, 2016; Pansari & Kumar, 2017). These are discussed in subsequent paragraphs. Engagement as a Psychological Process Individuals are said to progress through a sequential psychological process that ultimately culminates in loyalty to a brand (Bowden, 2009). Within this perspective, engagement is defined, for instance, as “a psychological process that models the 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh underlying mechanisms by which customer loyalty forms for new customers of a service brand as well as the mechanisms by which loyalty may be maintained for repeat purchase customers of a service brand” (Bowden, 2009, p. 65). The psychological process, according to this perspective, begins with an initial formation of commitment, considered to be largely cognitive in nature, then progresses to an affective (emotional) state of commitment to a brand which then leads to an ultimately enduring state of brand loyalty (Bowden, 2009). As a process reflecting a series of combined states, engagement, according to this perspective, may be modelled over time (Hollebeek, 2013). Engagement from a Motivational Psychology Perspective Adherents to this perspective opine that engagement reflects an individual consumer’s psychological state brought about by their interactive experiences with a brand (Patterson et al., 2006; Brodie et al., 2011, 2013; Vivek et al., 2012; Dwiveldi, 2015). For instance, according to Patterson et al. (2006), engagement is a psychological state characterised “by a degree of vigour, dedication, absorption and interaction”. In a similar vein, Hollebeek (2011, p. 785) defines the concept as “the level of a customer’s motivational, brand-related and context-dependent state of mind characterised by specific levels of cognitive, emotional and behavioural activity in a brand.” As a psychological state, engagement may be observed at a focal level at a given point in time (Brodie et al., 2011). Conceptualisations that fall within this category usually comprise cognitive, emotive and observable behaviour components. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Engagement as a Behavioural Manifestation Adherents to this school of thought aver that engagement is essentially behaviour (e.g. Verhoef et al., 2010; van Doorn et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2015; Kumar & Pansari, 2017; Pansari & Kumar, 2017). Contrary to the other two perspectives outlined in the above paragraphs, engagement according to this school of thought, is neither a systematic process beginning with a cognitive commitment and ending in brand loyalty, nor a psychological state of mind. It is, however, behaviour towards an object of engagement, which more often than not is a brand (Libai, 2011). As such, conceptualisations of engagement within this perspective typically comprise various forms of behavioural manifestations (Libai, 2011). For instance, according to Van Doorn et al. (2010, p. 254), the concept is “a customer’s behavioural manifestations that have a brand or company focus, beyond purchase, resulting from motivational drivers” (emphasis mine). In a similar fashion and according to Verhoef et al. (2010, p. 247), engagement is “a behavioural manifestation toward the brand or firm that goes beyond transactions.” According to Kunz et al. (2017), this perspective of engagement acknowledges that due to advancements and the emergence of new media, customers currently exhibit company-related behaviours which were virtually non-existent years ago. Hence, this perspective of engagement includes the novel ways customers are able to communicate (be directly involved with) brands, which includes both non-purchase and purchase behaviour (Libai, 2011; Jahn & Kunz, 2012). Additionally, the argument by some scholars for the adoption of this perspective is that it shows that 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh currently, consumers play active roles, as against passively consuming brand communications, since the latter no longer reflects present day reality (Coulter et al., 2012; Javornik & Mandelli, 2012). With behavioural engagement, customers voluntarily make resource contributions to either a firm or brand (van Doorn et al., 2010; Jaakkola & Alexander, 2014). Such contributions include knowledge, experience, time, social influence and constructive feedback (Jaakkola & Alexander, 2014; Harmeling et al., 2016; Taffesse & Wien, 2017). Jaakkola and Alexander (2014) outline two main forms of behavioural engagement: “consumer involvement in word-of-mouth (WOM) behaviour” and “consumer involvement in innovation and product development”. Specifically, behaviourally-engaged customers provide feedback, ideas and information to help firms better their product offerings (Tafesse & Wien, 2018). In addition, they influence other actual and/or potential customers’ perceptions via word-of-mouth (WOM) activities like blogging and web posting (Tafesse & Wien, 2018). Behavioural engagement can occur either organically, because of consumers’ personal experience with the firm’s offerings or its marketing communication, or through the firm’s initiation, which involves using specific tactics that stimulate customer engagement (Vivek et al., 2012). In recent years (particularly the last four to five years), marketing scholars seem to have gravitated towards the perspective that engagement is essentially behavioural. 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This is evident in the increasing number of scholarly works that conceptualise engagement as behaviour. For instance, Pansari and Kumar (2017), conceptualised engagement as indirect behaviour (feedback, influence, referral) and direct behaviour (purchase) towards an object, in this case, a brand. Dolan et al. (2016) additionally conceptualised engagement as differing levels and intensities of behaviour ranging from co-creation, positive contribution, consumption, dormancy, detachment, negative contribution, and co-destruction. Taffesse and Wien (2017) conceptualise the concept in terms of likes, shares and commenting on brand posts on social media. Whilst the use of other perspectives of customer engagement is recognised, this study, however, perceives the concept to be majorly behavioural in nature, in agreement with prior conceptualisations of engagement in social media contexts (e.g. van Doorn et al., 2010; Gummerus et al., 2012). This research opines that ultimately, it is consumer behaviour, in whatever form, that affects firm performance. Hence, it is a key aspect worth focusing on. The current study, therefore, takes a principal interest in the behavioural perspective of customer engagement. 3.1.5 Customer Engagement on Social Media The recent developments and increase in technological advancements, especially the introduction of web 2.0, have created many opportunities for firms which were 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh previously non-existent. Web 2.0 is “the current state of online technology as it compares to the early days of the web, characterised by greater user interactivity and collaboration, more pervasive network connectivity and enhanced communication channels” (Haughn, 2017). Along with the arrival of web 2.0 have come social media (Muntinga et al., 2011), defined as “forms of electronic communication for social networking and microblogging, through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content” (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2017). Among the various social media t are (1) social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace; (2) microblogging sites like Twitter; and (3) content communities example YouTube (Sashi, 2012; Tsai & Men, 2013). Businesses and individuals alike utilise social media to support and expand their already existing social or business networks and to create new ones (Lorenzo- Romero et al., 2011). Social media have revolutionised the way consumers interact with brands to such an extent that the former uses them as much as official websites when searching for brand information (Dei Worldwide, 2008). Additionally, the manner in which firm/brand-related content is consumed, distributed and produced has been transformed by social media and many opportunities for targeting stakeholders and the general public online have arisen in more precise ways than is possible with traditional media (Ofcom, 2008; Kelly et al., 2010). This consequently leads to strategic outcomes in the form of “stickiness” (Bowden et al., 2009; Guo et 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2017), purchase intentions (Baker et al., 2016; Blasco-Arcas et al., 2016) and brand image (Blasco-Arcas et al., 2016). Research indicates that business executives in both public and private sectors throughout the world are working towards increased levels of customer engagement and many are resorting to social media to do just that. In fact, it is documented (see Markman, 2012; Smith, 2017) that approximately 65 million and between 50%-70% of business to business (B2B) firms respectively, are present on two of the most popular social media platforms (Facebook and Twitter). This is not surprising, considering the overwhelming statistics that indicate the popularity of the two platforms among individuals. According to Aslam (2017), Twitter boasts of approximately 328 million active users per month, 500 million tweets on a daily basis and 100 million active users each day. Additionally, Facebook has 1.32 billion active users (Facebook, 2017; Oviedo-Garcia et al., 2014) who collectively spend nearly 10 billion minutes uploading 250 million pictures and creating 4 billion pieces of content (Tsotsis, 2011; Rusli, 2012). The interactive nature of social media also means it is possible for customer engagement to take place and for customers to be involved in content generation and value creation (Sashi, 2012; Cabbidu et al., 2014; Harrigan et al., 2017; Haughn, 2017). Engagement on social media therefore is in the form of likes, shares, comments and re-posts (Taffesse & Wien, 2018; Gavilanes et al., 2018; Moran et 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh al., 2019). The Facebook ‘like’ is currently one of the most common engagement metrics. The “like” helps consumers to indicate satisfaction or approval toward content on social media (Swani et al., 2013; Gavilanes et al., 2018). A post is considered popular and interesting when it receives an appreciable number of likes. This makes it easier for it to receive more likes (Sabate et al., 2014). Other Facebook engagement metrics, like shares and comments also increase the popularity and reach of a brand post (de Vries et al., 2012). Although the current study acknowledges the engagement metrics of likes, comments and shares, it is not focused on customer engagement behaviours limited to social media. 3.1.6 Pansari & Kumar’s (2017) Conceptualisation of Customer Engagement This study conceptualises customer engagement as behaviour and relies upon Pansari and Kumar’s (2017) conceptualisation of the concept. According to this conceptualisation, customer engagement is the direct and indirect contribution of the customer to the company, where customer purchases represent direct contribution and customer knowledge/feedback, customer influence and customer referrals. Direct Contribution Customer Purchases When customers purchase the products/services of a company, they make a direct contribution to its value (Gupta et al. 2004; Pansari & Kumar, 2017). They help firms allocate resources efficiently (Pansari & Kumar, 2017). As a result, firms have 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the ability to increase their revenue by reallocating their resources based on customer purchases (Kumar, 2008). Indirect Contribution Customer Referrals Customer referrals are defined as “the extent to which customers advise other customers (e.g., friends, family, colleagues) to do business with the focal supplier” (Verhoef et al., 2002, p. 203). Referrals have been found to be a powerful tool in influencing consumer decision-making. According to Kumar et al. (2010), consumers often rely on referrals when making product purchase decisions. In fact, it is argued that at times customers trust referrals more than the claims made by brands about their products (Miller, 2020). In addition, those who ordinarily would not gravitate towards a firm’s product offerings just from traditional marketing channels such as print, direct mail, broadcast and telephone, can be attracted via referrals (Kumar et al., 2010; Kumar, 2013; Pansari & Kumar, 2017). Referred customers are more likely to persist in making contributions, remaining loyal to the brand (Van den Bulte et al. (2018) and are more profitable than non-referred customers (Schmitt et al., 2011). As a result, referrals help contribute indirectly to firm performance. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Customer Influence Product-related information is increasingly being shared on social media platforms in business to business (B2B) (Chakravarty et al., 2014) business to consumer (B2C) and consumer to consumer (C2C) contexts (Kumar, 2013). Social media enable subscribers to use their posts and activities to influence the actions of others within their social network (Trusov et al., 2009). For instance, Facebook engagement metrics such as likes, shares and comments increase the popularity and reach of a brand post beyond close social networks to a wide group of customers (Hogan et al., 2003). In the end this indirectly impacts the firm’s profits (Lee & Grewal, 2004; Kumar, 2013; Kumar & Pansari, 2017). Customer Knowledge Companies are increasingly realising that knowledge is a key resource and differentiating factor in the current business space (Wu, 2019). In order to meet the demands of the changing business environment, and survive, it is essential for firms to be actively involved in the generation and application of customer knowledge (Kumar & Bhagwat, 2010). Customer knowledge or feedback arises as a result of a current customer being actively involved in enhancing the products of a company by giving feedback or making suggestions (Pansari & Kumar, 2017). A customer adds value when they (1) help a company appreciate customer preferences and (2) participate in knowledge development processes (Kumar & Bhagwat, 2010; Joshi & Sharma 2004). 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.1.7 Antecedents of Customer Engagement Given the importance of customer engagement there have been several attempts to understand the factors that trigger it (Taffesse & Wien, 2018). A scrutiny of extant literature on the customer engagement concept was carried out and it was identified that various constructs have been employed as antecedents of customer engagement. Following the classification of van Doorn et al. (2010) and Islam and Rahman (2016), all the constructs are categorised into customer-based, brand/firm based and context-based antecedent factors. Per the descriptions given by van Doorn et al. (2010) and Islam and Rahman (2016), customer-based factors refer to the specific variables that are dependent upon a customer’s traits, goals, resources and affective states (Van Doorn et al., 2010; Islam & Rahman, 2016). On the other hand, firm/brand-based factors are variables that are controlled by firms, for instance brand advertising, improved work-environments, product characteristics, and service quality). Finally, context-based factors are variables that are neither within the control of brands or customers, but they generally emerge from the external environment. They include technological political and economic events. Majority of research works have been focused on customer-based antecedents of customer engagement and fewer still on brand-based factors. In an effort to expand the scope of the customer engagement literature, scholars have therefore called for further research to focus on those factors that are within the brand/firm’s power (see 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Barger et al., 2016; Islam & Rahman, 2016). Notably and within the more recent years, scholars have called for research into the effects of advertising on customer engagement. For some time, advertising was seen as a resource-intensive venture that no longer had power (Graham & Havelena, 2007; Cummings, 2007; Laurie et al., 2019; Weigel, 2019). Hence, there was a need to justify its continued use by marketing executives (Graham & Havelena, 2007; Laurie et al., 2019). One research question that marketing scholars sought to find answers to was whether advertising drives customer engagement. This led to some research on same. Table 3.4 Summary of the Antecedents of Customer Engagement used in Extant Literature Antecedent Study Customer-focused Customer experience Bowden (2009a, b), Claffey and Brady (2014), Goldsmith et al. (2013) Satisfaction Bowden (2009a, b), Cambra-Fierro et al. (2013, 2014), So et al. (2014a), Cambra-Fierro et al. (2015), Cheung et al. (2015) Dessart et al. (2015) and Van Doorn et al. (2010), Identity Van Doorn et al. (2010), Verhagen et al. (2015) Wirtz et al. (2013) Commitment Banytė et al. (2014), Bowden (2009a, b), Hollebeek (2011a), So et al. (2014a) Van Doorn et al. (2010), 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Consumption goals Azar et al. (2016), Eisingerich et al. (2015) Rohm et al. (2013), Son et al. (2012), Shao and Ross (2015), Van Doorn et al. (2010), Trust Bowden (2009a), Gambetti and Graffigna (2010), Hollebeek (2011a), Kosiba et al. (2018), Roy et al. (2018) So et al. (2014a), Van Doorn et al. (2010), Perceived costs Van Doorn et al. (2010) Involvement Bowden (2009a, b), Brodie et al. (2011), Dwivedi (2015), Harrigan et al. (2018) Hollebeek (2011a), Hollebeek et al. (2014), So et al. (2014a, 2015), Vivek et al. (2012), Perceived benefits Azar et al., (2016) Dessart et al. (2015), Franzak et al. (2014), Rohm et al., (2013); Schultz & Peltier (2013); Van Doorn et al. (2010), Verhagen et al. (2015), Wirtz et al. (2013), Telepresence Mollen and Wilson (2010) Personality traits Kabadayi and Price (2014) Pagani et al. (2013) Customer knowledge Packard and Wooten (2013) Number of followers Barasch and Berger (2014) Participation Brodie et al. (2011), Oviedo-García et al. (2014) Vivek et al. (2012) 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Relationship quality Hollebeek (2011a) Uncertainty avoidance Wirtz et al. (2013) Social media dependency Tsai and Men (2013, 2014), VanMeter et al. (2015) Interaction Azar et al. (2016) Bitter et al. (2014) Cheung et al. (2015) Rohm et al. (2013); Schultz and Peltier (2013), So et al. (2014a), Tsai and Men (2013), Tsai and Men (2014), Community identification Dessart et al. (2015) Hammedi et al. (2015), Tsai and Men (2013, 2014), Perceived company actions Hollebeek and Chen (2014) Perceived brand Bernritter et al. (2016) quality/performance Hollebeek and Chen (2014) So et al. (2014a) Perceived brand warmth Bernritter et al. (2016) Perceived brand value Hollebeek and Chen (2014) Perceived brand Hollebeek and Chen innovativeness (2014) Perceived brand/company Hollebeek and Chen Responsiveness (2014) Perceived delivery of brand Hollebeek and Chen promise (2014) Customer brand Bitter et al. (2014) Relationship Jaakkola and Alexander (2014) Social value De Vries and Carlson (2014) Usage intensity De Vries and Carlson (2014) Dijkmans et al. (2015) Co-creation value De Vries and Carlson (2014) 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Brand love Sarkar and Sreejesh (2014) Brand jealousy Sarkar and Sreejesh (2014) Brand attachment So et al. (2014a), Hinson et al. (2019) Brand attitude Anderson and Simester (2014) Huang et al. (2013), Rapport So et al. (2014a) Brand usage duration Dwivedi (2015) Customization Cheung et al. (2015) Peer recommendations Nadeem et al. (2015) Brand identification Dessart et al. (2015) Firm-focused Brand advertising Gavilanes et al. (2018) Graham and Havlena (2007), Lopez and Sicilia (2013), Roberts and Alpert (2010) Swani et al. (2013) Value proposition Roberts and Alpert (2010) Company culture Roberts and Alpert (2010) Employee engagement Roberts and Alpert (2010) Customer experience Roberts and Alpert (2010) Brand characteristics Van Doorn et al. (2010) Firm reputation Van Doorn et al. (2010) Firm size Van Doorn et al. (2010) Firm diversification Van Doorn et al. (2010) Firm information usage Van Doorn et al. (2010) and processes Industry Van Doorn et al. (2010) Product/Service quality Chen et al. (2011) Islam et al. (2019) Kähr et al. (2016) Verhoef et al. (2010) Organisational support Verhoef et al. (2010) and Jaakkola and Alexander (2014) Organisational Verleye et al. (2013) Socialisation 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Brand identification Wirtz et al. (2013) Brand’s symbolic Wirtz et al. (2013) Function Information quality Dessart et al. (2015) Wirtz et al. (2013) Incentives Dessart et al. (2015) Wirtz et al. (2013) Brand strength De Vries and Carlson (2014) Firm communication Banytė et al. (2014) Borah and Tellis (2016) Jaakkola and Alexander (2014) Schulze et al. (2014) Employee attitude Cambra-Fierro et al. (2014) Complaint handling Cambra-Fierro et al. (2015) Website service quality So et al. (2015) Corporate social O’Brien et al. (2015) responsibility activities Others Competitive factors Van Doorn et al. (2010) Political factors Van Doorn et al. (2010) Economic factors Van Doorn et al. (2010) Environmental factors Van Doorn et al. (2010) Social factors Van Doorn et al. (2010) Technological factors Van Doorn et al. (2010) In recent times, scholars have made calls for the conduct of research into advertising as a precursor of customer engagement (Gavilanes et al., 2018). 3.1.8 Advertising as an Antecedent of Customer Engagement There exists some amount of scholarly work on online advertising as a precursor to customer engagement in the literature, though it is somewhat scant. Majority of the research in this area reveals that advertising is positively and significantly related to 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh customer engagement. Specifically, studies have shown that when exposed to online advertisements, actual and potential customers engage in online and offline word- of-mouth/brand advocacy behaviours, brand searches and website visits (Graham & Havlena, 2007; Lopez & Sicilia, 2013; Swani et al., 2013). For instance, in a study assessing the influence that advertising has on word-of-mouth behaviour, Graham and Havlena (2007) concluded that advertising builds brand advocacy and a combination of both on and offline brand communications leads to searches, website visits and word-of-mouth. Customer Engagement and Message Strategy Previous studies have shown that customer engagement also depends on the kind of message strategy that is used in advertisements. Table 3.5 provides a summary of some researches that link customer engagement and advertising message strategy. From the table, it is clear to see that message strategies have been conceptualised in numerous ways. For instance, whereas in earlier instances studies created an oversimplified content typology of message strategies comprising transactions, entertainment and information (Cvijikj & Michahelles, 2013; De Vries et al., 2012), other studies advanced more complex typologies which distinguish between brand- related, informational and emotional message themes (Araujo et al., 2015; Ashley & Tuten, 2015;). That said, though, these more complex typologies are lacking in consistent conceptual development. In addition, the irregularity of their nature means it is a challenge drawing clear conclusions with respect to the effect(s) of advertising message strategies on customer engagement. In addition, although some 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh studies ascertain certain message strategies as being key determinants of customer engagement, their findings seem not to be replicable elsewhere. For instance, as can be seen from the table below, there are inconsistencies regarding the effects/impact of entertainment, informational and emotional strategies on customer engagement (Table 3.5). Further, the proposed content typologies that have typically been used appear to lack consistent theoretical development and hence the resulting conclusions from such studies run the risk of being subjective and hence ambiguous. While typologies of message strategies have long been developed by scholars in the advertising literature, they have been surprisingly and to a large extent ignored by research on social media (Taffesse & Wien, 2018). These strategies were developed from content analyses of print as well as television (TV) commercials (Puto & Wells, 1984; Laskey et al., 1989). They serve as a solid basis from which to conduct a study of advertising message strategies on social media. Additionally, they have been confirmed across numerous online and offline environments and are assimilated into advertising practice and theory (Golan & Zaidner, 2008). Both online and traditional advertising possess the same fundamental creative principles (Golan & Zaidner, 2008; Ashley & Tuten, 2015; Taffesse & Wien, 2018). Findings from studies on customer engagement and message strategies indicate that emotional appeals increase the probability of engagement occurring. For instance, Swani et al. (2013), sampled the message strategies of over a thousand Facebook posts from 193 Fortune 500 companies to see which strategies garnered more likes. It was concluded that in the Business to Business (B2B) category, Facebook account 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh posts are more effective in garnering more likes when “hard sell” or overtly commercial statements are avoided and rather include corporate brand names. Koch and Benlian (2015) also established that consumers are more likely to share content with scarcity appeals that content that employs a scarcity appeal than those without such appeals. Additional researches have arrived at similar conclusions (see for example Liu-Thompkins & Rogerson, 2012; Berger & Iyengar, 2013; Blasco-Arcas, et al., 2016; Chen & Berger, 2016) Contrary to the aforementioned studies, other studies opine that the format and purpose of the content of an advertisement is a predictor of customer engagement. Here it is argued that advertisements that are multisensory and interactive (de Vries et al., 2012), contain pictures (Kim et al., 2015), communicate a sales promotion (Kim et al., 2015) and are entertaining (Cvijikj & Michahelles, 2013; Tafesse, 2015) generate customer engagement. Table 3.5 Summary of studies Message strategy Studies Customer Significant engagement findings Transactional De Vries et al. Number of Whereas Informational (2012) comments and transactional had Entertainment likes a positive relationship withboth comments and likes, entertainment had a negative relationship with likes and comments Informational affected neither comments nor likes 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Remuneration Cvijikj and Number of Of the three, Information Michahelles likes, entertainment Entertainment (2013) comments and was more potent shares in generating likes, comments and shares. Information was linked to comments and likes and finally remuneration was positively related to comments Informational Araujo et al. Number of Findings Brand Emotional (2015) retweets revealed that more retweets occurred as a result of informational content as compared with emotional content Exclusivityappeal, Ashley and Klout score Resonance, user-image appeal, Tuten (2015) and social causes, functional appeal, engagement experiential experiential appeal, score appeals, emotional appeal, animation, and social causes, incentives were animation, to a significant resonance, and incentives to share extent related content with Klout score. while incentives and experiential appeal each had positive relationships with Engagement Score Interaction- Kim et al. Number of As compared to oriented Task- (2015) likes, interaction- oriented comments and oriented and Self-oriented shares self-oriented 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh messages, task- oriented messages generated more comments, shares and likes Entertainment Tafesse (2015) Number of Content that was Informational shares and entertaining Transactional likes garnered more shares as well as likes than informational and transactional content. In addition, people were less likely to share transactional content than informational content Social currency Yuki (2015) Number of Consumers were Emotional shares more likely to Functional share content (practical that had an usefulness) Story emotional telling element and were functional Action-inducing Taecharungroj Number of Consumers were Emotion-evoking (2016) favourites and more likely to Information- retweets retweet and sharing favourite action- inducing tweets than emotion- evoking tweets. On the other hand, information- sharing tweets were less likely to be retweeted and favourited compared to emotion- evoking tweets 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Transformational Tafesse and Number of The strongest Informational Wien (2018) like and shares predictor of Interactional customer behavioural engagement was the transformational strategy. There was no significantly major difference between informational and interactional message strategies. Advertising Message Strategy Message strategy/creative strategy generally refers to what is said in an advertising or marketing communications campaign (Taylor, 1999). In times past, both terms were used interchangeably. However, in recent times, scholars seem to favour the former when narrowing their discussions to the “nature” of content (see for instance Huang et al., 2013; Leung et al., 2017; Tafesse & Wien, 2018). This is because “creative strategy” seems to possess a broader connotation than message strategy, encompassing both message content and execution, whereas the latter is limited to message content (Laskey, Day & Crask, 1989; Taylor, 1999; Ashley & Tuten, 2015). For the purposes of this study, “message strategy” is used as the study’s main focus is on message content. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to Puto and Wells (1984), message strategy is a guiding principle that defines the content domain of a branded content and aligns the latter with consumers’ precise needs (Taylor, 1999Laskey et al., 1989). To be more specific, it merges what the consumer needs to hear with what brands want to communicate or put across (Laskey et al., 1989; Taylor, 1999; Tafesse & Wien, 2018). Advertising message strategies require the crafting of marketing communications content in such a way that a company is able to achieve its desired effects in the target audience, where desired effects could mean purchase, creation of awareness, brand familiarity, brand preference, etcetera (Puto & Wells, 1984; Tafesse & Wien, 2018). As such, this research does not test for the link between both. It however departs from extant research in that it seeks to establish the most effective advertising message strategy for hedonic and utilitarian products. To be specific, it purports to show that not all advertising message strategies are the same in their ability to generate customer engagement. Some may have a higher propensity than others. Carey (1975) was among the first people to propound a dichotomous view of advertising message strategy (Taylor, 1999). He noted that most advertisements merely transmitted information, with the aim of controlling distance and people. In addition, he found that a second group of advertisements existed, whereby the aim of communication was not to send across or transmit information, but rather to create drama. These two he termed (1) the transmission view and (2) the ritual view, 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh respectively. These have also been referred to as informational and transformational in the literature (Wells, 1980; Laskey et al., 1989; Tsai & Lancaster, 2012; Ahn et al., 2013; Ashley & Tuten, 2015). According to Puto and Wells (1984) while transmission/informational messages appeal to one’s cognition, ritual/transformational messages appeal to senses or emotions (). 3.2 TAYLOR’S (1999) SIX SEGMENT MESSAGE STRATEGY In 1999, Ronald E. Taylor developed a six-segment message strategy model to remedy the shortfalls of previous conceptualisations of advertising message strategies. Specifically, previous conceptualisations had been criticised for the lack of inclusion of social factors that affect purchasing decisions. Taylor’s (1999) strategy has become widely accepted and employed not only in the extant advertising literature, but also in the broader management literature (see, for instance, Hwang et al., 2003; Golan & Zaidner, 2008; Lee et al., 2011; Tsai & Lancaster., 2012; Ahn, Wu & Taylor, 2013; Ju & Park, 2015). In order to aid advertising executives to create effective advertising messages, Taylor (1999) advanced a six-segment message strategy wheel. His model builds on previous theorisations of message “strategies”, in particular (1) Kotler’s (1965) buying models, (2) Carey’s (1975) “transmission and ritual” models, (3) Vaughn’s (1980, 1986) Foote, Cole and Belding (FCB) model, and (70) Laskey et al.’s (1989) “dichotomy of transformational and informational message strategies”. Taylor’s 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh model provides a more detailed, sophisticated analytical approach to message strategy than previous conceptualisations (Ahn et al., 2013). This is mainly due to the addition of six sub categories to the conventional binary conceptualisation of message strategies proposed in earlier studies (Tsai & Lancaster, 2012). Specifically, his model proposes three sub categories under each of the two transmission and ritual classifications. 3.2.1 The Transmission View Under this view, communication is largely focused on delivering information, knowledge and ideas to others. As such advertising based on this view, to a large extent, appeals to consumers’ intellect (Carey 1975; Puto & Wells, 1984). According to Taylor (1999), sub sections under this view comprise “routine”, “acute need” and “ration”. “Routine” is focused on the mundane part of human behaviour. As a result, adverts that fall within the ambit of this segment seek to remind consumers to persist in purchasing products so that they maintain consumption habits. Product satisfaction, ease of use and convenience are among the more popular appeals used. The “acute need” segment describes the circumstances where a product need suddenly arises. In such situations, consumers are likely faced with time restraints preventing them from seeking as much information as they would have desired prior to making the purchase. Hence, product choice is based on availability and familiarity. The aim of advertising in this case is to ensure that the consumer retains the product/brand in their subconscious, ready to emerge once the opportunity arises. This can be achieved via creating and maintaining consumer trust, brand recognition 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and brand familiarity. In the final segment (ration), consumers are more concerned with information about products. Hence they search for information on price, warranties and product quality and make purchase decisions from a rational perspective. Advertisements that are created from this are therefore informative in nature and employ positioning strategies, generic, pre-emptive, unique selling proposition (USP) and comparative appeals. This category is mainly used for utilitarian products (Ahn et al., 2013). 3.2.2 The Ritual View The second view, ritual, appeals to people’s perceptions, self-image, attitudes and beliefs. Hence, advertisements tend to be based on the senses or emotions (Puto & Wells, 1984). The belief here is that people make purchases based on their emotions. Sub sections under this view as per Taylor’s conceptualisation include “ego”, “social” and “sensory”. According to the first ritual segment, the “ego” segment, consumers make purchases and employ products that they feel are a reflection or an enhancement of how they perceive themselves. As a result, purchase decisions made based on ego and the consumer’s emotional bonding with the product. Advertisements are therefore developed with the intent of showing to the consumer how the product corresponds to or improves their self-image. Ego-based advertisements would typically include, but would not be limited to appeals to (1) personal feelings, (2) self-actualisation, (3) image, and (4) vanity. The second ritual sub segment, social, on the other hand, is focused on the consumer. In this particular segment, the consumer is said to seek affection from people, signify that they belong 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to a specific social crowd, respect, approval and attention from others. As a result, purchase decisions are made with others in mind. Resonance is usually used as an appeal. The final sub segment of the ritual view, sensory, includes appeals to sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. The aim of advertisements in this case is to show how consumers can enjoy “moments of pleasure” by using the products being advertised (Taylor, 1999, p. 13). Message Strategies Sensory Ration Social Routine Ego Acute Need Ration Routine Acute Need Ego Social Sensoty Figure 3.1: Six Segments Message Strategies Source: Taylor, R. E. (1999). A six segment message strategy wheel. Journal of Advertising Research, 39(6), 7-17. Under Taylor’s model, advertisers are at liberty to use a single advertising approach (e.g. social) or a combination of approaches (e.g. ration and routine). Taylor’s strategy is of value to this present study since in comparison to prior conceptualisations, it is more wide-ranging and sophisticated for analysing a wider array of brand communications. In addition, the strategy wheel is argued to be 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh successful at capturing various purchase decisions across varying advertising platforms (see Tsai & Lancaster, 2012). Morrison and White (2000) used Taylor’s model to conduct an analyses of television commercials during the Super Bowl advertisements of the year 2000. Super Bowl is an annual American football tournament between the winners of the National Football Conference and the American Football Conference each January or February (Carroll, 2019). Their study found that most of the commercials utilised ration and ego message strategies. Again in 2005, in a similar study, Kim, McMillan and Hwang looked at the creative, message as well as overall strategies, which were used in both television commercials and websites during the 2003 Super Bowl. Their findings reveal that out of fifty-five (55) television advertisements and 40 websites, the former were more likely to feature ritual strategies whereas the latter mostly employed transmission approaches. In their study on the use of company websites as a type of corporate advertising, Hwang et al. (2003) concluded that Taylor’s strategy wheel was beneficial in helping to identify the message strategies of websites. They found that high revenue firms mostly used social and ego strategies, whereas low revenue firms were more likely to use a routine strategy. In another instance, Golan and Zaidner (2008) similarly applied the strategy wheel to viral advertising. They established that an 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh overwhelming majority of viral videos utilised ego strategies whereas 24% employed ration-based strategies. In more recent studies, Ahn et al. (2013) applied the strategy wheel to websites that advertised cosmetic surgery and discovered that ration was the only strategy used by websites which adopted a transmission approach. They additionally found that websites that employed the ritual approach used all three strategies (sensory, social and ego). Finally, in a 2017 study on brand content on social media, Tafesse and Wien (2018) discovered that both approaches (transformational and informational) and all six message strategies were used in all 270 brand posts they studied. Each of these shows that Taylor’s strategy wheel is a flexible tool which may be applied across diverset media. This study adopts Taylor’s (1999) message strategies. 3.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter was a review of studies on customer engagement, the purpose of which was to assess the current state of engagement research and in particular uncover knowledge gaps which need to be addressed. It began by tracing the etymology of the term “engagement” from French and old English, and gave the various meanings the term has had ever since it surfaced in the English language in the 17th century. It then progressed to reveal when the concept first emerged in modern research, and 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh then showed how in psychology and organisational behaviour, engagement is generally treated and conceptualised. It was noted that engagement only emerged in the marketing literature approximately fifteen (15) years ago in 2005, and is referred to in various ways, such as consumer engagement, audience engagement, consumer behavioural engagement, and etcetera. A case was made for the adoption of the term “customer engagement” after which discussions turned to concepts in marketing that are similar to but are in actual fact different from the concept of customer engagement. It was shown that there are various schools of thought as it pertains to the nature and dimensionality of customer engagement. However, the argument that a behavioural perspective shows that currently consumers play active roles, as against passively consuming brand communications, since the latter no longer reflects present day reality (Javornik & Mandelli, 2012; Coulter et al., 2012) was made. The chapter then progressed to discuss customer engagement on social media. It revealed that many firms are resorting to social media in order to engage with their customers. Further, it was argued that despite likes, comments and shares being popular engagement metrics on social media, this study is focused on engagement behaviours that are not only limited to social media, such as purchase. As a result, Pansari and Kumar’s (2017) conceptualisation of customer engagement was adopted, as it captures engagement behaviours that can be exhibited both online (on social media) and offline. According to this conceptualisation, customer purchases, in addition to referrals, influencing and knowledge/feedback are engagement behaviours. Subsequently, and in an effort to elucidate the gaps in the literature that this thesis intends to fill, the chapter progressed to a discussion on the various 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh antecedents of customer engagement that have typically been employed in the customer engagement literature. Evidence provided in the review shows that to a large extent, brand/firm-based antecedent factors (for instance advertising), are scant. A review was then carried out on advertising as an antecedent factor, and discussions were further narrowed to advertising message strategies employed in advertisements. The review revealed that messages strategies have been conceptualised in numerous ways. However, those that have been utilised in previous works seem to lack consistent conceptual development. In addition, the irregularity of their nature means it is a challenge drawing clear conclusions regarding what effect(s) advertising message strategies have on customer engagement. As a result of this, it became apparent that in order to fix this, a conceptualisation that is conceptually consistent and is not lacking in consistent theoretical development was needed. Hence, discussions then progressed to the selected conceptualisation of message strategies, Taylor’s (1999) six segment message strategy. The decision to utilise Taylor’s (1999) conceptualisation was based on the fact that it was developed from content analyses of print and television commercials (Laskey et al., 1989; Puto & Wells, 1984). It also serves as a solid basis from which to conduct a study of advertising message strategies on social media. Additionally, it has been confirmed across numerous online and offline environments and is well assimilated into advertising practice and theory (Golan & Zaidner, 2008). It is also, in comparison to prior conceptualisations, more wide- ranging and sophisticated for analysing a wider array of brand communications. In addition, the strategy wheel is argued to be successful at capturing various purchase 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh decisions across varying advertising platforms (see Tsai & Lancaster, 2012). Discussions on Taylor’s (1999) six-segment message strategy showed that three strategies are classified as “ritual message strategies” which are mainly used for hedonic (luxury) products, and the other three, “transmission message strategies”, for utilitarian (functional) products. As a result, the study follows these two main groupings and seeks to find the most effective strategies of both classifications. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES 4.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW In the previous chapter a review of extant literature was carried out to help understand the current state of research work in the area of customer engagement. Following from the previous chapter, this chapter is dedicated to discussions on the popular theories that have traditionally underpinned customer engagement research and the stimulus-organism-response model, the theory selected for this study in particular. Additionally, how the theory applies to the current study is discussed. The chapter then proceeds to the development of testable research hypotheses where arguments based on extant research are made. Finally, the research framework is discussed. 4.1 THEORIES EMPLOYED IN THE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT LITERATURE Theory-based approaches to the study of customer engagement were largely non- existent prior to 2011. Publications on the concept underpinned by identifiable and testable theory began to emerge in 2011. Most of these, however, were based on relationship marketing (Bowden, 2009; Brodie et al., 2011, 2013; Hollebeek, 2011) and service dominant (S-D) logic theories (Hollebeek, 2011; Brodie et al., 2011, 2013). 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.1 Relationship Marketing Theory Relationship marketing, according to Gronroos (1996, p. 7), is “to identify and establish, maintain, and enhance relationships with customers and other stakeholders, at a profit, so that the objectives of all parties involved are met, and that this is done by a mutual exchange and fulfilment of promises”. According to the theory, as a company delivers value to customers, the strength of its relationship with them will improve, inevitably leading to increased customer retention (Juneja, 2020). The theory has been used in the customer engagement literature. Scholars have argued that the concept of customer engagement is an extension of the sphere of relationship marketing, since it is linked to establishing relationships with customers (Vivek et al., 2012; van Tonder & Petzer, 2018; So, King, Sparks, & Wang, 2016). However, scholars are split as to the nature of the connection that exists between the constructs of relationship marketing and customer engagement. For instance, there is one school of thought that opines that commitment, value, trust and satisfaction are consequences of customer engagement (Vivek et al., 2012; Islam & Rahman, 2016; Pansari & Kumar, 2016) whereas another is of the view that they are rather antecedents (Van Doorn et al., 2010; Hollebeek, Srivastava, & Chen, 2016; Islam & Rahman, 2016; Pansari & Kumar, 2016). 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.2 Service Dominant Logic According to the service dominant (S-D) logic, every exchange, regardless, is inherently a trade-off of resources for the benefit of others (Vargo & Lusch, 2004). In the customer engagement literature, Brodie et al. (2011) posit the S-D logic represents a suitable theoretical perspective from which to view customer engagement. The authors (p. 253) suggest the theory presents “a transcending view of relationships,” in contrast to the goods-dominant (G-D) logic, a more traditional, transactional view of marketing relationships (Vargo, 2009; Karpen et al., 2012; Hollebeek, 2012). According to them, S-D logic is related to customer engagement based upon the premise that particular consumer behaviours are the result of individuals’ focal value co-creative and interactive encounters with firms and/or other stakeholders within service relationships, as expressed through focal value-in- use contexts (see also Hollebeek, 2012). In addition, Brodie et al. (2011) develop five key propositions addressing th customer engagement’s conceptual domain. To be specific, Brodie et al. (2011) posit four of Vargo and Lusch’s (2008) S-D logic foundational premises to be of particular relevance to the customer engagement concept in marketing research. First, according to the sixth premise, “the customer is always a co-creator of value”. This shows the co-creative and interactive nature of value creation which typically occurs in service relations among customers and/or other stakeholders. Second, according to the eighth premise, “A service-centred view is inherently customer-oriented and relational” (Vargo, 2009). Engagement thus “becomes the core of any service- 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh related outcome” (Subbiah & Ibrahim, 2011, p. 443). Third, the ninth premise divulges that “all social and economic actors are resource integrators,” implying that value creation occurs in an environment of co-creation and interaction. Finally, Premise 10 posits: “Value is uniquely and phenomenologically determined by the beneficiary,” which stresses the contextual, inherently subjective and highly experiential character of value co-creation; concurring with the conceptual underpinnings of engagement (Hollebeek, 2012). Under S-D logic and relationship marketing theories, the customer is perceived to make proactive contributions when interacting with the brand (Vargo & Lusch, 2008; Fournier, 1998; Islam & Rahman, 2016b) and not be a mere passive recipient of brand-related cues. Both theories in implicit and explicit terms assume customer engagement to be highly interactive (Hollebeek, 2011b). 4.1.3 Social Exchange Theory The social exchange theory is one of the most prominent theories for comprehending attitude and behaviour (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). It emerged in the 1920’s (Malinowski, 1922; Mauss, 1925) and bridged such disciplines as sociology (e.g., Blau, 1964), social psychology (e.g. Thibault & Kelley, 1959; Homans, 1958; Gouldner, 1960) and anthropology (e.g. Sahlins, 1972; Firth, 1967). Despite the fact that there are varying views regarding social exchange, theorists agree that it involves a series of interactions which produce obligations (Emerson, 1976). These 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh interactions within social exchange, are to a large extent perceived to be interdependent and reliant on the actions of others (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; Blau, 1964). The social exchange theory posits that a gesture of goodwill on the part of one party engenders an obligation on the recipient’s part to reciprocate (Aryee et al., 2002), and depending on the nature of the goodwill, the exchange could either be social or economic. In other words, the recipient of a goodwill gesture is obliged to return the acts of favour in a manner that ultimately benefits the initiator (Gouldner, 1960; Blau, 1964). Social exchanges happen when specific obligations in response to acts that benefit others are not required. On the other hand, an economic exchange involves precise obligations in response to tangible exchanges. In the literature, customer engagement is said to be a social exchange because (1) customers exchange cognitive, emotional, physical, social and economic resources with marketers and (2) for customer engagement to continue, both the customer and marketer must see the exchange to be profitable (Pervan, Bove, & Johnson, 2009; Brodie et al., 2011; Hollebeek, 2011; Verleye et al., 2013; Bitter et al., 2014; Hwang et al., 2015; Harrigan et al., 2018; Alvarez-Milána et al., 2018; Islam et al., 2019). Though this study acknowledges the importance of these theories, in the development of the customer literature, it is its contention that the concept of 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh engagement can be extended with the study and application of other behaviour theories. Moreover, in recent years, scholars have called for the application of personal behaviour theories to study customer engagement and in particular the stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) model (see Islam & Rahman, 2016). This is to broaden the understanding of the engagement concept. This study, therefore, is a response to the call for the stimulus-organism-response model. 4.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY- THE STIMULUS- ORGANISM-RESPONSE (S-O-R) MODEL The first time scholars started to study consumer reactions to different circumstances, there was no clear explanation for their behaviour (Belk, 1975). As a result of this, researchers began to believe that consumer behaviour was determined by the situation in which a consumer was (Wysong et al., 2012). The S-O-R model originated from the classical stimulus–response theory (Zhang & Benyoucef, 2016). This stimulus- response theory explained consumers’ individual behaviours as acquired responses to external stimuli (Woodworth, 1929). Despite its initial widespread use, the theory was later criticised for oversimplifying behaviour causes and for not considering mental states (Zhang & Benyoucef, 2016). In order to remedy its shortfalls, Mehrabian and Russell (1974) extended the model and added the concept of “organism” as a mediator between stimulus and response. This concept was adopted as a better reflection of an individual’s cognitive and affective 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh states prior to their response behaviours (Zhang & Benyoucef, 2016). Prior to the S- O-R model, environmental psychology researchers mostly focused on the emotional responses of an individual to stimuli and their effects on the individual’s behaviour, but had not considered the merging of the two scenarios into one (Meharabian & Russell, 1974). The S-O-R theory incorporated the most dominant variables used in previous research such as environmental stimuli, emotional responses and behaviour (Meharabian & Russell, 1974). While marketing science strongly relies on service-dominant logic, relationship marketing and the social exchange theory to understand and explain customer engagement, for this study, however, Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) stimulus- organism-response (S-O-R) model is used as the theoretical lens for explaining consumer engagement behaviour. The S-O-R deals with the understanding of the influence of environmental factors on consumer behavioural response (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). Thus, customer engagement behaviour is conceptualised as consumer response to marketing stimuli presented on social media platforms. This model is operationalised in a stimulus–organism–response (S-O-R) framework which proposes that antecedent stimuli affect the emotions and attitudes (organism) of consumers which the affect their behaviours (responses), for example, purchase intention (Thang & Tan, 2003). Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) S-O-R framework was one of the first, developed to research the effect of atmosphere on behaviour and it remains widely used to this day (Choi & Kandampullyy, 2019). 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The foundational core of S-O-R is that the environment contains stimuli (S) which cause a change in customers’ internal (organismic states, O), and this results in behavioural responses (R) (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). Thus, the S-O-R model argues that there are some environmental features that can provoke the emotions and cognitions of consumers and these result in certain behavioural outcomes (Donovan & Rositer, 1982). Previous studies have conceptualised these environmental features as advertising (Olney et al., 1991), online brand community (Islam & Rahman, 2017), and the store environment (Vieira, 2013). While the cognitive and emotional state have been conceptualised as pleasure and arousal (Koo & Ju, 2010). The behavioural responses have been conceptualised as customer engagement (Islam & Rahman, 2017), purchase intention (Kim & Lennon, 2013) and impulse buying (Huang, 2016). The S-O-R is therefore made up of three elements; namely: stimulus (S), organism (O), and response (R). Thus, S is external to the individual, O, on the other hand, is internal, and S and O together generate a third behavioural response(R). 4.2.1 The Stimulus Variable Stimulus has largely been conceptualised in the marketing literature as something that provokes action or increased action (see Sherman, Mathur & Smith, 1997). Thus, in the context of consumer behaviour, the stimulus is conceptualised as the external factors which affect future decisions. According to Bagozzi (1986), “when consumer behaviour is depicted as a stimulus–organism–response system, the stimuli are external to the person and consist of both marketing mix variables and 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh other environmental inputs” (p. 46). Thus, stimulus is an environmental element that causes changes in an organism (Vieira, 2013). Also, Eroglu, Machleit, and Davies (2003) refer to stimulus as the atmospheric cues that cause changes in customers’ reactions. In marketing, stimuli has been referred to as website quality, reputation in online marketing (Kim & Lennon, 2013), colour, temperature in store environment (Vieira, 2013); motivation to participate in social media (Kamboj, Sarmah, Gupta, & Dwevedi, 2018), ambience, design, and social in retail environment (Chang, Eckman, & Yan, 2011), rewards, virtual interactivity, system quality and information quality in online community (Islam & Rahman, 2017), vocals, visuals, celebrity in tourism marketing (Rajaguru, 2014), marketing mix elements in social commence (Wu & Li, 2018). These stimulus variables are treated as independent variables in consumer behaviour studies. In this current study, stimulus refers to the advertising message strategy employed by firms in their advertising efforts on social media platforms. 4.2.2 The Organismic Variable In a stimulus–organismic–response model of consumer behaviour, organism refers to “internal processes and structures intervening between stimuli external to the person and the final actions, reactions, or responses emitted (Choi & Kandampullyy, 2019). Notice that the intervening processes and structures consist of perceptual, physiological, feeling, and thinking activities” (Bagozzi, 1986, p. 46). From this conceptualisation, emotional responses explain the perception an individual has 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh regarding the environment. The dimensions of arousal, pleasure, and dominance are used to describe individual’s perception of the environment (Bakker, van der Voordt, Vint, & de Boon, 2014; Jang & Namkung, 2009). Russell and Mehrabian (1977) posit that in an attempt to adequately describe emotions, there is the need to identify dimensions that are capable of defining all emotional states. Mehrabian and Russell (1974) describe arousal as a mental activity describing feelings such as excitement, sleep, relaxed, calm etc. pleasure is explained as a state of extreme pain or unhappiness to extreme happiness. Dominance expresses the ability of an individual to express feeling of control or extent of restriction. The organism refers to the individual’s past experiences, predispositions, intentions, values, attitudes, motives, personality, feelings, expectations, images, and other factors (Jacoby, 2002). These factors are regarded as internal structures and processes serving as mediators between external stimuli and the actions of an individual (Chang, Eckman, & Yan, 2011). In marketing studies, organisms are described as emotional reactions such as pleasure, attitude, arousal in online store environment (Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis, 2003), experience, mood, and emotions in restaurants (Goi, Kalidas, & Zeeshan, 2014), tourist intentions in tourism marketing (Rajaguru, 2013), consumer value in social commerce (Wu & Li, 2018), utilitarian value, and hedonic value in theme park marketing (Chang, Shu, & King, 2013). In marketing, scholars use these emotional responses as mediators in research models. The purpose therefore is that, the organism (individual) must possess some emotional reactions towards external stimulus presented to them to enable a desired 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh response. Liu and Jang (2009) state that the model is applied in marketing research, by using emotions as a mediator between environmental stimuli, and customer responses. 4.2.3 The Response Variable Response (R) in the S-O-R model represents all behaviours that can be externally observed, and can take the form of verbal, and non-verbal actions (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; Jacoby, 2002). These responses are evident in behaviours such as product purchase, word-of-mouth, storage, usage, and disposal of products, eye fixation, smiles, and other responses (Jacoby, 2002). Chang, Echman, and Yan (2011) posit that responses are final outcomes of consumer behaviours, which could be positive or avoidance behaviour. In marketing literature, the response dimension has been looked at in many studies to examine consumer behaviour. These response variables are operationalised as customer responses to marketing stimuli. In the retail environment, customer impulse buying has been studied as a response variable to retail store environment, design, and customer positive emotions (Chang, Eckman, & Yan, 2011). 4.2.4 Customer Engagement Research Underpinned by the S-O-R Model Marketing scholars have adapted the stimulus-organism-response model, using it to explain consumer behaviour responses to certain stimuli (Carlson et al., 2018). Specifically, the framework has been adapted to studies on retail shopping 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh environments, where it has been shown that the stimuli of a retail environment affect consumers’ internal state of emotions which then influence behavioural responses towards the store (Baker et al., 1994). Other studies on online retail have also shown that website features influence customer emotions and cognitions and these in turn lead to purchase behaviour, exploration of the store and online communication (Hu et al., 2016; Eroglu et al., 2003). The S-O-R model has been applied to social media. Research thus far has probed the impact that social media environment cues have on emotions, cognition and intentions to participate in “social commerce” (see Zhang et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2014; Carlson et al., 2018). Additionally, through a literature review, Zhang and Benyoucef (2016) found that web-based “stimuli” include convenience, socialising, interactivity and information content. . In recent times, the S-O-R model has been applied to the study of customer engagement. To be specific, it has been used to show the effect of (1) online environmental characteristics and (2) firm strategies on customer engagement. The first stream of research borders on the effect of online environmental characteristics on customer engagement and seems to be the most popular so far. Studies under this category focus mainly on stimuli within online environments that have the potential to engender customer engagement and other behavioural responses. To be specific, researchers have examined (1) website characteristics (e.g. Demangeot & Broderick, 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2016; Sahoo & Pillai, 2017); and (2) online brand community characteristics (e.g. Islam & Rahman, 2017; Claffey & Brady, 2014). Findings that have emerged from this group of research reveal that the interface design of a website (Demangeot & Broderick, 2016; Sahoo & Pillai, 2017), and quality of the content (Demangeot & Broderick, 2016; Carlson et al., 2018) are positively related to customer engagement. In respect of online brand community characteristics, studies have shown that the level of brand page interactivity (Islam & Rahman, 2017; Carlson et al., 2018; Palmet & Ghasemi, 2019), brand page sociability (Blasco-Arcas et al., 2016; Carlson et al., 2018; Palmet & Ghasemi, 2019), information quality (Claffey & Brady, 2014; Islam & Rahman, 2017), system quality (Islam & Rahman, 2017), ease of use (Claffey & Brady, 2014), visual appeal (Claffey & Brady, 2014; Blasco-Arcas et al., 2016), rewards (Islam & Rahman, 2017) and user-generated content (Palmet & Ghasemi, 2019), are all positively-related to customer engagement. In addition to online brand characteristics, it is documented in prior research that firms’ strategies can also lead to customer engagement. For instance, Palmet and Ghasemi (2019) in examining the effect of social commerce marketing stimuli found that sales campaigns, targeted messages, offers and recommendations had significant effects on customers’ propensity to engage on Instagram and subsequently brand trust and intention to purchase. Choi and Kandampully (2019) 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh also concluded that store ambience, design and service providers’ positive delivery of services are positively related to customer engagement. Goor (2012) found that the likelihood of engagement occurring between customers and brands is increased by the brand’s use of contests and promotions and these can result in trust and better relationships (Erdoğmuş & Tatar, 2015). In addition, they argue that these “campaigns” have a positive effect on purchase intention. 4.2.5 Applying the S-O-R Model to the Current Research The S-O-R model is a fitting theory for this study for two reasons. First of all it has been utilised in an extensive manner in earlier studies pertaining to consumer behaviour (Liu et al., 2014; Grace et al., 2015; Zhang & Xu, 2016). For instance, Parboteeah et al. (2009) researched consumers’ cognitive and emotional responses to website mood and task-relevant nodes and the subsequent effect on online purchase behaviour. Wang et al. (2011) also studied the effects of the features of online stores on consumers’ emotions and cognition, and their behavioural responses. Whereas Koo and Ju (2010)’s research was a confirmation that online environmental features affect consumer intentions and emotions, Wang et al. (2010) recounted a significant relationship among satisfaction, perceived service quality, web athletics and online shopping based on the S-O-R model. Secondly, considering the key role of advertisements in influencing actual and potential customers’ behaviours, the stimulus-organism-response model provides a parsimonious and structured manner through which to research the effects of advertising message 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh strategies (as external stimuli) on customers’ emotional and attitudinal reactions and, subsequently customer engagement. As it pertains to this research, the stimulus refers to the advertising message strategies, organism refers to customer emotions and attitude and response, customer engagement. Customer Emotions As per the chosen S-O-R model, stimuli have the propensity to generate emotions within those exposed to them. Emotions is measured and defined differently in the literature (Izard, 1977; Russell, 1980; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988; Richins, 1997). For example, emotions are said to be “a reaction to stimuli that impact one's immediate sensory environment” (Kiehl et al., 2001; Petrides et al., 2007; Ramsøy et al., 2012). Scherer (1987, 2001, 2005) also defines it as “an episode of interrelated, synchronised changes in the states of all or most of the five organismic subsystems in response to the evaluation of an external or internal stimulus event as relevant to major concerns of the organism”. The presence of numerous definitions and measurements of the concept is indicative of the lack of consensus among marketing and management scholars on its definition and measurement (Larsen & Diener 1992; Russell & Feldman 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Barrett, 1999; Scherer, 2005; Reisenzein, 2007). In fact, this lack of consensus has existed for over one hundred and twenty years ever since James (1884) first introduced the emotions concept and scholars are doubtful if there ever will indeed be one (Reisenzein, 2007; Frijda, 2016). Approaches to Studying Emotions in Marketing Literature In the marketing literature, emotions have to a major extent been studied from three approaches, namely, (1) categories, (2) cognitive appraisals, and (3) dimensions (Watson & Spence, 2007). Regarding the categories approach, emotions are grouped depending on their similarities (Watson & Spence, 2007). For instance, in 1980, Plutchik suggested that emotions should be divided into eight groups, with one “basic” emotion (e.g. happiness) utilised as an archetype determining what other emotions should be added to that group. Plutchik’s (1980) suggestion has been adopted by some scholars such as Batra and Holbrook (1990) and Batra and Ray (1986).. In both instances, they adopted the approach and showed that emotions affect attitudes towards advertisements. The cognitive appraisals approach, on the other hand, explains the subtle nuances of emotions. It makes predictions about the emotions that will be manifested in a given context and how they will impact behaviour (Watson & Spence, 2007). The most popular approach, the dimensions approach, has typically included (i) intensity, (ii) potency, (iii) valence and (iv) activation (Smith & Ellsworth, 1985). 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Out of these, activation and valence are the most commonly-used dimensions (Russell, 1980; Mano, 1990; Larsen & Diener, 1992; Athiyaman, 1997), where valence refers to an affective reaction to perceptions of situations (Clore et al., 1987; Perez & del Bosque, 2015). In other words, emotions are either positive or negative (pleasant or unpleasant) reactions to individuals’ perceptions of situations. The activation dimension, on the other hand, refers to the customer’s sense of energy, referred to in literature as either sleepy or excited (Russell & Feldman Barrett, 1999). Mehrabian and Russel (1974) proposed the pleasure-arousal-dominance (PAD) scale of emotions, a measurement scale which falls under the dimension approach of studying emotions (Watson & Spence, 2007). This measurement scale was later refined by Mehrabian (1980). The scale evaluates individual pleasure and arousal states and is arguably the most commonly used emotions measurement system in consumer research to date. The PAD scale has been employed by researchers such as Christ and Biggers (1984), Donovan and Rossiter (1982), Holbrook et al. (1984), Christ (1985), Holbrook and Batra (1987) and more recently Alsaggaf (2017), Huang et al. (2017), Hall et al. (2017), Hsieh (2017). Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) Measurement Scale Mehrabian and Russell advanced pleasure, arousal and dominance as three distinct, independent dimensions of affect to describe people’s emotional states (Bakker et al., 2014). According to them, pleasure, arousal and dominance describe individual 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh emotional states and are key in explaining the way in which customers react in service environments (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; Alsaggaf, 2017). According to Mehrabian and Russell (1974), pleasure relates to feelings of happiness contentment, satisfaction, joy and goodness (Mehrabian, 1976; Menon & Khan, 2002). It is said to entail individuals’ responses to the surrounding environment (e.g., Baker et al., 1992; Sweeney & Wyber, 2002; Yalch & Spangenberg, 2000; Walsh et al., 2011). On the other hand, arousal is related to wakefulness, alertness and a readiness to respond to external stimuli (Mehrabian, 1976). It also expresses the excitement generated, the activity concluded and the degree of stimulation received (Menon & Kahn, 2002; Eroglu et al., 2003). As a result, arousal refers to the excitement the individual experiences in relation to a stimulus (Mehrabian, 1976). Dominance is said to be the degree to which an individual thinks he/she has command over a particular situation (Blackwell et al., 2006). Additionally, Russell and Mehrabian (1976) considered dominance to be a function of the perception an individual has of their power relative to their surroundings. Hence, an individual perceives him/herself to be dominant and empowered based on the degree to which they think they can control their surroundings. Though originally part of the measures of emotions, the relevance of dominance has been questioned in the literature with some scholars including Russell suggesting it be relegated altogether and the focus remaining solely on pleasure and arousal 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Russell, 1980; Russell & Pratt, 1980; Russell et al., 1981; Russell, Weiss, & Mendelsohn, 1989; Wu, Cheng & Yen, 2008; Ha & Lennon, 2010). Eroglu et al. (2001, p. 181) further argued that “pleasure and arousal can adequately represent the range of emotions exhibited in response to environmental stimuli”, in effect nullifying the need for the dominance dimension. This study does not intend measuring perceptions of control or empowerment. Additionally, in agreement with Rusell (1980), Eroglu et al. (2001) and the scholars mentioned above, the current research finds no need for the third (dominance) dimension. It therefore opines that pleasure and arousal are sufficient in capturing emotions. Attitude towards Advertising Attitude is a key concept in marketing research. According to Fishbein (1967, p. 53), an attitude is “a learned predisposition of human beings”. Kotler (2000) also explained that an attitude is “a person's enduring favourable or unfavourable evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies toward some object or idea”. With regard to advertising, consumer attitude is one of the major indicators of advertising effectiveness (Tsang et al., 2004). 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bauer and Greyser (1968) opine that attitude towards advertising is synonymous to audience behaviour towards advertising. Audience behaviour towards advertising is shown via consumers’ favourable or unfavourable responses towards an advertisement (MacKenzie & Lutz, 1989). Consumers’ attitude towards advertising is a major indicator of advertising effectiveness (Mehta, 2000). This is because consumer’s thoughts and feelings about an advertisement affect their attitude towards the particular advertisement (Mackenzie & Lutz, 1989). Customer Engagement as a Response/Outcome Most studies that employ the S-O-R model/paradigm treat customer engagement as a response outcome. Few studies employ it as the organism variable (e.g. Blasco- Arcas et al., 2016; Islam & Rahman, 2017; Mollen & Wilson, 2010; Palmet & Ghasemi, 2019). The treatment of customer engagement as the response outcome seems to be in line with the current perspective that engagement is behaviour. This study also treats the concept as a response outcome, in keeping with earlier discussions in the previous chapter of engagement being behavioural. Prior studies that have used customer engagement as the response variable have conceptualised it in diverse ways. For instance, Sahoo and Pillai (2017), conceptualised it in terms of word-of-mouth, following the brand on social media, and making use of the brand’s app. Choi and Kandampully (2019), on the other hand, in addition to word-of-mouth, also expressed engagement in terms of offering 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh product suggestions to the firm. Additionally, for Melton (2013), customer engagement encompasses sharing brand posts, recommending the brand to others and creating user-generated content. This study adds to this existing literature by adopting a conceptualisation of customer engagement that includes engagement behaviour tendencies that occur both online and offline. Hence, this study employs Pansari and Kumar’s (2017) conceptualisation of customer engagement, as discussed in the previous chapter. Adverting Customer message strategy Customers’ engagement employed on emotional state (direct and social media and attitude indirect) environment (O) (R) (S) Figure 4.1: Mehrabian and Russell's (1974) theoretical framework, as modified for this study. The S-O-R framework is a theoretically-justified, parsimonious theory through which to study consumers’ responses (Sheth & Sisodia, 2006; Jacoby, 2002; Eroglu et al., 2001) to advertising message stimuli. This is because consumer engagement is seen to be an experiential response to environmental stimuli (Mollen & Wilson, 2010). As Figure 4.1 illustrates, this study proposes that advertising message strategies as stimuli (S) influence customer engagement, a behavioural response (R). This response is mediated by emotions and attitude towards the advertisement that 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stimuli (S) relating to the advertising message strategies influence consumer engagement, a behavioural response (R) as per this study. However, this response is mediated by an organism state (O), which for this research encompasses emotions and attitude. 4.3 HYPOTHESES This study is underpinned by the S-O-R model. The basic underlying argument of the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) model, as discussed in the previous chapter, is that the individual is exposed to a stimulus (in this case a message strategy). This stimulus in turn generates initial emotional and cognitive responses in the individual, which then translate into behaviour. In this study, the attitudinal and emotional (pleasure/arousal) responses represent the organism variables as outlined in the stimulus-organism-response model. This study draws from the fundamental arguments of the SOR model, and extant empirical research to develop the following testable hypotheses. 4.3.1 Advertising Message Strategies, Emotions and Attitude towards Advertisements It is established in the literature that advertising message strategies have the ability to influence the emotional and attitudinal responses of individuals (Holbrook & Batra, 1987; Olney et al., 1991; Bagozzi & Moore, 1994; Pham et al., 2013). This influence, however, has been said to vary based on message strategy and product 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh type, where advertisements for hedonic products have been found to generate greater emotional and attitudinal responses than those for utilitarian products (Pham et al., 2013). This study, however, does not intend to compare strategies typically used for hedonic products with strategies typically used for utilitarian products. It is, however, the focus of this study, to ascertain the differences among the various strategies within the two main approaches in their effect on customer emotions and attitude towards the advertisement. The aim is to determine the strategies with the greatest impact on emotions and attitude. Though the literature has established that advertisements for hedonic products are more potent in generating emotional responses than those for utilitarian, it is interesting to note that there is a paucity of empirical work on the specific types of sub-strategies that are the most potent in the degree to which they influence emotions and attitude towards the advertisement for both types of products. This study opines that differences may exist among the various sub-strategies in their ability to generate emotional responses. Hence the ensuing hypotheses: H1a There is a significant difference among the three transmission strategies in their impact on emotions H1b There is a significant difference among the three transmission strategies in their impact on attitude towards the advertisement 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H2a There is a significant difference among the three ritual strategies in their impact on emotions H2b There is a significant difference among the three ritual strategies in their impact on attitude towards the advertisement 4.3.2 Emotions and Customer Engagement An array of research across disciplines documents the significant influence of emotions in the actions and behaviours of individuals. In health psychology, for instance, emotions have been linked to actual behaviour and behavioural intentions (O’Connor et al., 2016; Russell et al., 2017; Drouvelis & Grosskopf, 2016). Previous marketing literature also indicates a positive relationship between customers’ emotions and their actual and potential behaviour (e.g. Olney et al., 1991; Bagozzi et al., 1999; Bloemer & de Ruyter 1999; Fredrickson, 2011; Tronvoll, 2011; Wang et al., 2012; Perez & del Bosque, 2015; Alsaggaf, 2017; Zhao et al., 2018). According to Mehrabian and Russell (1974), customer emotions result in numerous behavioural responses like purchase intention (Kim & Lennon, 2013; Ha & Lennon, 2010; Hsu & Lin, 2015; Bues et al., 2017) and approach behaviours such as intention to refer, influence and give feedback (Wen, 2012; Hwang et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2008; Karson & Fisher, 2005; Bruner & Kumar, 2005; Eroglu et al., 2003; Shih, 2004; Menon & Kahn, 2002). Numerous studies have found that the process of decision-making, evaluation and purchase are to a large extent affected by emotions 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Ladhari et al., 2008). For instance, Donovan & Rossiter’s (1982) research revealed that pleasure is a major predictor of the probability of a customer returning to a store, the propensity to spend more money than intended and the the amount of time spent browsing a store. In a similar study, Baker et al. (1992) found that a customer’s willingness to purchase was affected by their emotions. Walsh et al. (2011) stated that pleasure resulted in positive behaviour. Studies by Ladhari (2007), Loureiro and Ribeiro (2014) and Miniero, Rurale, and Addis (2014) indicate that arousal and pleasure have a strong influence on consumer behaviour. In line with these studies and the evidence they provide, this study anticipates arousal and pleasure to positively influence customer engagement. This study therefore hypothesises as follows: H3a pleasure is significantly related to purchase intention H3b arousal is significantly related to purchase intention H3c pleasure is significantly related to intention to give feedback H3d arousal is significantly related to intention to give feedback H3e pleasure is significantly related to intention to influence H3f arousal is significantly related to intention to influence H3g pleasure is significantly related to intention to refer H3h arousal is significantly related to intention to refer 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.3 Attitude towards the Advert and Customer Engagement In this particular study, the “response” variable is represented by customer engagement, as conceptualised by Pansari and Kumar (2017). Prior studies indicate that consumer behaviour is affected by attitude towards advertising (Mitchell & Olson, 1981; Izquierdo-yusta et al., 2015; Boateng & Okoe, 2015a, b). For example, Lee et al. (2006) argue that favourable attitudes towards an advertisement lead to positive actions. Similar results were revealed by Li et al. (2002), Zeng et al. (2009), Sun and Wang (2010a, b), Chu et al. (2013). Izquerdo-yusta et al. (2015) reveal a direct relationship between consumer attitude towards advertising and behaviour. On the basis of these studies, it is expected that there is a positive and significant relationship between attitude towards the advert and customer engagement (conceptualised as intention to purchase, intention to refer, intention to influence and intention to give feedback). Hence it is this study’s contention that: H4a. Attitude towards the advert is positively related to intention to purchase H4b. Attitude towards the advert is positively related to intention to refer H4c. Attitude towards the advert is positively related to intention to influence H4d. Attitude towards the advert is positively related to intention to give feedback 4.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY According to scholars, for a framework to be classified as good, it should indicate the phenomenon under consideration, clearly explain the relationship(s) among the constructs and clearly describe the key assumptions underpinning the framework 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Crossan et al., 1999; Odoom, 2015). This study is an examination of the differences among advertising message strategies in their influence on customers’ emotions and attitude towards the message strategies and the subsequent effect that emotions and attitude have on customer engagement. To be more specific, this research aims at uncovering the most effective type of advertising message strategy for eliciting emotional, attitudinal responses and subsequently customer engagement. As it pertains to the relationships among the various constructs in the framework, this study opines that advertising message strategies lead to customer engagement via customer emotions and attitude. That advertising and message strategies affect emotions and attitude is not new. In the broader advertising literature, it is well established that customers respond attitudinally and emotionally to advertisements before they do behaviourally (Mitchel & Olson, 1981; Li et al., 2002; Tsang et al., 2004; Zeng et al., 2009; Sun & Wang, 2010; Chu et al., 2013). As a result, this study does not test if the advertising messages impact emotions and attitude. Regarding assumptions, the framework articulates that advertising message strategies comprise social, ego, sensory, acute need, ration and routine, following Taylor et al.’s (1999) conceptualisation. Three of these (social, ego and sensory) are ritual message strategies whereas the other three are transmission strategies (Taylor et al., 1999). It is pertinent to note that the three ritual strategies are largely employed when advertising hedonic/luxury products, while the transmission strategies are 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mainly used for advertising utilitarian/functional products. As it pertains to customer attitudes and emotions, the study draws on the works of Mehrabian and Russell (1974), Mazaheri et al. (2011) and Blasco-Arcas et al. (2016) to include pleasure and arousal as well as attitude towards the advert. Regarding customer engagement, Pansari and Kumar’s (2017) conceptualisation was relied upon. This includes intention to purchase, intention to refer, intention to give feedback and intention to influence. In light of the above, this study proposes a conceptual framework presented in figure 4.2. This framework theorises that there are differences among ritual and transmission message strategies in their effects on emotions and attitude which ultimately trigger a behavioural response in the form of customer engagement. Hence, the message strategies with the greatest effect on emotions and attitude, by logic, have the greatest effect on customer engagement. Based on the preceding discussions in this chapter, this study proposes the following conceptual framework as the basis for examining empirical data. It has been adapted from Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) stimulus-organism-response model: 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Customer Engagement Message Strategies Ritual Strategies Emotions Direct Ego Pleasure Purchase Social Sensory Indirect Arousal) Transmission Strategies Referral Acute Need Feedback Routine Attitude to Advert Influencing Ration Legend - Non-hypothesised Relationships - Hypothesised Relationships Source: Adapted from Merhabian and Russell’s (1974) S-O-R model Figure 4.2 The research model. 4.5 SUMMARY This chapter was dedicated to discussions on the popular theories that have traditionally underpinned customer engagement research, the theoretical framework and conceptual framework of the study. The chapter began by briefly highlighting 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh three (3) of the most popular theories in the literature (social exchange theory, service dominant logic and relationship marketing). Each theory, the assumptions underlying them and the manner in which each of them relates to customer engagement was discussed. The study then contended that the engagement concept can be extended with the study and application of other behaviour theories. Additionally, scholars have called for the application of personal behaviour theories to study customer engagement and in particular the stimulus-organism-response (S- O-R) model (see Islam & Rahman, 2016). This is to broaden the understanding of the engagement concept. This study, therefore, is a response to the call for the stimulus-organism-response model. The chapter then moved to discuss the main theory that has been adopted for this study: the stimulus-organism-response model. This theory explains that people’s behaviour towards certain things are as a result of learned responses to external stimuli (Woodworth, 1929). Thus, for the purposes of this research, customer engagement behaviour can be viewed as consumer responses to marketing stimuli presented on social media platforms. The foundational core of S-O-R is that environmental stimuli (S) cause changes to customers’ internal states (O), and this results in behavioural responses (R) (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). The chapter then progressed to examine some of the research on customer engagement where S-O-R model has been applied. The model has been used in researches that focus on retail shopping and social media environments to ascertain the effect of technological environment stimuli on emotions and cognition and plans to engage in social commerce. In addition, prior studies have shown that online environmental characteristics and firm strategies affect customer engagement. The chapter then 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh progressed to show how the S-O-R model applies to the current study. Extant research was cited, arguments were made and it was finally concluded that as it pertains to this study, the stimulus (S) refers to the advertising message strategies, organism (O) refers to customer emotions and attitude towards the advertisement and response (R) refers to customer engagement. The justification for using the S- O-R model for this study is that it has been extensively used in previous studies pertaining to consumer behaviours (Liu et al., 2014; Grace et al., 2015; Zhang & Xu, 2016). Also given the critical role of advertisements in influencing actual and potential customers’ behaviours, the stimulus-organism-response model is a theoretically-justified, parsimonious theory through which to study consumers’ responses (Sheth & Sisodia, 2006; Jacoby, 2002; Eroglu et al., 2001) to advertising message stimuli. The chapter concluded with the development of testable research hypotheses where arguments based on extent research were made. The research framework was also discussed. This framework theorises that there are differences among ritual and transmission message strategies in their effects on emotions and attitude which ultimately trigger a behavioural response in the form of customer engagement. Hence, the message strategies with the greatest effect on emotions and attitude, by logic, have the greatest effect on customer engagement. 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter reports on the research design and methodology employed in the study. Research paradigms and their respective philosophical assumptions underpinning them are first discussed. Discussions then proceed to the research purpose, research strategy, research approach and data collection methods employed. A detailed description of the analyses procedure ends the chapter. 5.1 RESEARCH PARADIGMS AND PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS All academic research is based on and influenced by a particular paradigm and the philosophical assumptions underlying it (Holden & Lynch, 2004; Proctor, 2005; Blaikie, 2010). 5.1.1 Research Paradigms A research paradigm (or worldview), is a “system of beliefs and practices that influence how researchers select both the questions they study and methods that they use to study them” (Morgan, 2007, p. 50). Researchers may view research paradigms as conceptual frameworks within which they may work (Healy & Perry, 2000) or “a set of linked assumptions about the world which is shared by a community of scientists investigating the world” (Deshpande, 1983, p. 101). Research paradigms 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh determine what a “valid” research is and the suitable method(s) to be used (Myers, 2013). They are not theories in themselves, but they are the foundation upon which theories are built (Arndt, 1985; Tronvoll et al., 2011). Filstead (1979 in Deshpande, 1983) summarises research paradigms and their objectives thus: A paradigm (1) serves as a guide to the professionals in a discipline for it indicates what are the important problems and issues confronting the discipline; (2) goes about developing an explanatory scheme (i.e., models and theories) which can place these issues and problems in a framework which will allow practitioners to try to solve them; (3) establishes the criteria for the appropriate "tools" (i.e., methodologies, instruments, and types and forms of data collection) to use in solving these disciplinary puzzles; and (4) provides an epistemology in which the preceding tasks can be viewed as organizing principles for carrying out the "normal work" of the discipline. Paradigms not only allow a discipline to "make sense" of different kinds of phenomena but provide a framework in which these phenomena can be identified as existing in the first place (Filstead, 1979, p. 34). 5.1.2 Common Paradigms in Management Research Several paradigms exist, each with their own philosophical assumptions regarding axiology (set of values), epistemology (what is regarded as knowledge), methodology (instruments, research design) and ontology (assumptions about the nature of social reality) (Brennan et al., 2011; Tadajewski, 2014; Creswell, 2014; Effah, 2015; Odoom, 2015). Saunders et al. (2009), however, have indicated that in 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh management research, pragmatism, positivism, realism and interpretivism are the most common paradigms. A. Positivism as a Research Paradigm Positivism, also known as logical positivism, emerged as a philosophy in the 1920s and thirties from philosophers Ludwig Wittgenstein and Rudolf Carnap (Hunt, 1991), though some aspects of it were derived from David Hume and Auguste Comte, Scottish and French philosophers, respectively (Arndt, 1985). Positivism dominates in science and scholars who adhere to this paradigm and its variants reject metaphysics, hold on to the notion that research ought to be conducted only on observable phenomenon, via deductive reasoning and the use of formal logic as an analytical tool (Hunt, 1991; Healy & Perry, 2000,). Positivists are of the view that researchers must detach themselves from the world they study (Healy & Perry, 2000; Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). They rely on formal propositions as well as quantifiable measures of variables. Furthermore, they employ hypotheses testing and draw conclusions about phenomena from a representative sample drawn from a population (Tronvoll et al., 2011; Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). Additionally, positivist researchers rely on theory and pre-defined apriori relationships in conducting their research. The primary mode of data collection in positivist research includes controlled experiments and sample surveys (Healy & Perry, 2000) and scholars usually employ quantitative methods of data analyses (Crossan, 2003). 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh B. Interpretivism as a Research Paradigm Interpretivism is also known as constructivism. Scholars belonging to this paradigm deny that one real world exists (Hudson & Ozanne, 1988). They believe, in contrast to the positivists, that multiple realities exist due to various individual perspectives which are constantly changing (Hudson & Ozanne, 1988; Harrison & Reilly, 2011), hence ignoring these multiple realities in the conduct of research violates the individual’s views (Krauss & Putra, 2005). The main goal of interpretive research is understanding behaviour via the process of seeking to determine other subjective experiences reasons, meanings and motives (Hudson & Ozanne, 1988; Gephart, 2004; Harrison & Reilly, 2011). As a result, interpretivists tend to favour qualitative research (Feilzer, 2010) often arriving at emergent themes (Chung & Alagaratman, 2001). C. Pragmatism as a Research Paradigm Pragmatism is an alternative worldview to the positivist and interpretivist paradigms and focuses on the problem to be researched and the consequences of the research (Fielzer, 2010). Rather than focusing on assumptions regarding the nature of reality, pragmatism is concerned with solving practical problems in the real world. (Brennan et al., 2011). Pragmatism is essentially a blend of both positivism and interpretivism. It accepts that there are singular and multiple realities Fielzer (2010) hence the researcher in a sense is not “imprisoned” by either positivism or interpretivism. Pragmatists also hold an ‘‘antirepresentational view of knowledge’’ and contend that 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh research ought not to make the accurate representation of reality its goal, but rather aim at being useful, aiming at utility (Rorty, 1999, p. xxvi in Fielzer, 2010). Pragmatists make use of mixed methods research, and induction, deduction and abduction for understanding results (Harrison & Reilly, 2011). D. Realism as a Research Paradigm Realism is an increasingly popular worldview among social science researchers (Healy & Perry, 2000). Academics who subscribe to the realism paradigm are of the view that an imperfectly apprehensible “real” world exists (Tsoukas, 1989; Merriam, 1988; Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Godfrey & Hill, 1995). This “real” world “consists of abstract things born of people’s minds which exist independently of any one person” (Healy & Perry, 2000, p. 120). Hence, there is an external reality (Harre & Madden, 1975; Bhaskar, 1978). Realists acknowledge that differences exist between their perception of the world and what it is in reality. They seek to create various views of this reality in terms of which ones are relative in time and place (Riege, 2003). “The desire of realism research is to develop a “family of answers” that covers several contingent contexts and different reflective participants” (Pawson & Tilley, 1997, p. 152). 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.1 Summary and comparison of four main research paradigms in management research. Source: Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2009), Research methods for business students, London, Prentice Hall. p. 119. 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This research adopts an objective ontology independent of social actors, focuses on causal relationships and law-like generalisations and subscribes to the axiology of the researcher being independent of the phenomenon being studied. As a result, the positivist paradigm underpins this work. 5.2 RESEARCH APPROACH Two (2) basic approaches to research exist, both of which are widely employed in marketing research: exploratory (qualitative) and conclusive (quantitative) (Boyd et al., 2002). Both approaches have their respective benefits and uses in respect of the fundamental objective(s) of any research and neither of them is better than the other (Cassell & Symon, 2006). For instance, the exploratory/qualitative approach is adopted when the objective is to discover new relationships (Boyd et al., 2002; Malhotra, 2007). On the other hand, when decision-making is the goal researchers adopt a conclusive/quantitative method (Boyd et al., 2002; Malhotra, 2007). A third approach, (mixed methods), is a hybrid of qualitative and quantitative approaches and is used by numerous scholars, especially those who subscribe to a pragmatic worldview (Bryman & Bell, 2015). 5.2.1 Research Approach used in this Study A conclusive/quantitative approach to research was adopted, specifically a causal approach. The decision to adopt such an approach was based on the study’s objectives and the paradigm of choice which requires such an approach. Causal 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh research, according to Malhotra (2007), is useful in the event that the researcher desires to obtain information on cause-and effect relationships. To explain further, he reveals that a causal approach is an appropriate method if the aim of the research is to: Determine which variables are the cause (independent variables) and which ones are the effect (dependent variables) of a phenomenon Determine the nature of the relationship between causal variables and the effect to be predicted (Malhotra, 2007) The conclusive approach was adopted since this study sought to test and examine the cause-and-effect relationship(s) among six (6) advertising message strategies (social, sensory, routine, acute need, ration and ego, emotions (pleasure and arousal), attitude and customer engagement conceptualised as behaviour. The research sought to determine the message strategy which elicits the greatest impact on customers’ emotions, attitude and consequently customer engagement. The main form of causal research is the experiment (Malhotra, 2007), which is a “process of manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effect on one or more dependent variables” (Malhotra, 2007 p. 224). A major requirement of the experiment is the complete control of all factors that might affect the phenomenon of interest (Neuman, 2007). However, in reality, it is neither possible nor is it practical to control for all factors. Therefore, scholars recommend the quasi-experimental design, which is similar to the classic experimental design, 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh but enables the researcher to test for causality without having to control for all factors (Neuman, 2007). This study employed the quasi-experimental design as it was not possible or practical to control for all factors. 5.3 QUASI-EXPERIMENT AS A RESEARCH DESIGN A quasi-experiment is an observational study with “an exogenous explanatory variable that the investigator does not control” (King et al., 1995). The prefix “quasi” means “resembling”, hence quasi-experimental research bears semblance to experimental research, although it is not (Chiang, 2015). The objective of quasi- experiments is to establish causality between a phenomenon and an outcome (Harris et al., 2006). As a design, quasi-experiments, though not as popularly used as the survey, are gradually being employed in the wider management literature as well as in marketing scholarship. They differ from classic experimental studies due to the fact that it is not required of the investigator to actively randomise participants to different treatments, though some types randomise respondents (Neuman, 2007; Geldsetzer & Fawzi, 2017). Treatments in experimental rese+arch refer to the independent variable or stimulus the researcher modifies/manipulates (Neuman, 2007). Regarding the manner in which experimenters construct the environment, there are two primary ways (Charness et al., 2012). First there is the between-subjects design in which each respondent is individually exposed to just one treatment/condition. 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh With this type of design, so long as individuals are randomly assigned to different groups, results are attained by comparing the behaviour of those in one experimental condition with those of others in other groups (Charness et al., 2012). The within- subject design is the second. With these designs, each respondent is exposed to all treatment conditions being tested (Shuttlesworth, 2009; Cherry, 2019). So long as each of the exposures is independent of the others, results can be attained by comparing the changes in behaviour of the individual in each circumstance (Charness et al., 2012). One major advantage of the within-subjects design over the between-subjects is errors associated with individual differences are reduced. In addition, with between-subjects where individuals are assigned to the independent variable or treatment, there remains the possibility that there may be fundamental differences between the groups which could impact the results (Cherry, 2019). For the purposes of this study and to mitigate against the errors of the between-subjects design, the within-subjects design was adopted for this particular study. 5.4 DATA COLLECTION Data can be classified as either primary or secondary in nature. Secondary data essentially includes such as is found within books, journal articles, websites and catalogues and which provides information which may have been collected for other purposes (Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2005). Primary data, on the other hand, is collected when there is no secondary data to answer a specific research problem. The subsequent subsections give a detailed account of the processes involved in data 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh collection, right from the crafting and design of advertising message strategies and questionnaire through to the actual procedure of collecting data. 5.4.1 Advertising Message Strategies Six different messages were created, following the six message strategies espoused by Taylor’s (1999) conceptualisation of message strategies. In keeping with discussions in the literature, three of the messages were crafted to follow the three strategies (ego, social and sensory) deemed suitable for hedonic (luxury) brands and the other three followed the message strategies (rational, acute need and routine) suited for utilitarian (functional) brands. The first three were developed for Mercedes Benz and the latter for Pepsodent toothpaste. Advertising Message Validation All six advertising messages were reviewed by six academics familiar with the advertising literature. Three of the academics from were from the Department of Marketing and Entrepreneurship, University of Ghana Business School and the other three from the Department of Marketing, University of Professional Studies, Accra. All six academics are doctorate degree holders and have been teaching and offering consultancy to firms for at least 10 years. One has been teaching close to five years. Each of the scholars has published in several peer-reviewed journals of international repute. Each person was given a sheet of paper on which was printed a table, on the left side of which were Taylor’s (1999) definitions and descriptions of each of the 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh six advertising message strategies. The right side of the table comprised the six advertising messages each developed according to the descriptions/definitions of the six message strategies advanced by Taylor (1999). Three were developed for Mercedes-Benz and the other for Pepsodent toothpaste. They were arranged in no particular order. Each person was required to match each description/definition with a message they felt best captured it. At the end of the exercise, where the matchings did not reflect what was intended, respondents were each given the opportunity to provide reason(s). Feedback was taken in that regard and the messages were refined with the help of a copywriter working for Origin8 Limited, one of the largest advertising agencies in Ghana and given to another set of academics for review. Once the messages were complete, the study progressed to the next stage where the advertisements were created. In keeping with the six message strategies, six advertisements were developed, three for Mercedes-Benz and three for Pepsodent toothpaste. All six adverts were created with the help and input of one graphic designer and an adman from Origin8 Limited. 5.4.2 Data Collection Instrument The data collection instrument, being a structured questionnaire, was developed based on the objectives set for the research. In order to accurately develop the questionnaire and realise the study’s objectives, a synthesis of the customer engagement literature was conducted, from which Taylor’s (1999) and Pansari and 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kumar’s (2017) conceptualisation of advertising message strategies and customer engagement respectively, in addition to Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) stimulus- organism-response (S-O-R) model were adopted. Per the study’s adaptation of the S-O-R model, the stimuli were the advertising message strategies. The organism comprised both the customer emotions and attitude and the response variable was customer engagement, conceptualised as intention to purchase, intention to refer, intention to give feedback and intention to influence. An initial draft of the questionnaire was developed with measurement scales adapted from existing literature and pre-tested on forty (40) executive masters in business administration (EMBA) students, who possess characteristics similar to the desired sample, following the recommendation of Malhotra (2007) and DeVellis (2003). Respondents were given the opportunity to request explanations regarding any part of the questionnaire which was unclear. The questionnaire was subsequently revised and reworded in order to ensure clarity of measurement items. The questionnaire was divided into three main parts. The first required the respondents to provide information pertaining to their gender, age and level of education. The second section comprised questions pertaining to customer emotions (captured by pleasure and arousal) and attitude, whilst the third pertained to customer engagement. The questionnaire for the most part relied on a 7-point Likert scale. 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Regarding the various contents in the questionnaire, pleasure and arousal were measured using multiple item scales via seven-point semantic differentials. These were adopted from Mehrabian and Russell (1974), Mazaheri et al. (2011) and Blasco-Arcas et al. (2016). Attitude was also measured using a multiple item seven- point semantic scale adopted from Muehling (1987) and Madden et al. (1988). 5.4.3 Sampling According to Ghauri and Grønhaug (2005), sampling is an important procedure in quantitative research providing at least two (2) benefits over utilising an entire population: (1) it would be expensive to include all units in a population, and (2) it would take too long a time to obtain such information. Determination of Sample Size The sample size utilised in this particular study was arrived at based on the minimum accepted sample size for structural equation modelling (SEM). According to scholars, a sample of at least 300-500 offers adequate statistical power for data analysis for SEM (Hoe, 2008; Tabachnick, & Fidell, 2013; Singh et al., 2016; DeVellis, 2017). The final sample size was four hundred and twenty-eight (428). 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sampling Method Employed in this Study Sampling techniques may be classified as either being probability or nonprobability (Neuman, 2007). Probability sampling is a sampling method whereby each member of a given population possesses an equal probabilistic chance of being chosen to be part of the sample (Malhotra, 2007). It includes such techniques as cluster sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling and simple random sampling. Nonprobability sampling techniques, on the other hand, are not based on chance, but on the researcher’s own judgement (Malhotra, 2007). Examples of these methods include snowball sampling, quota sampling, judgemental sampling and convenience sampling (Neuman, 2007; Malhotra, 2007). This study employed purposive sampling, a non-probability sampling procedure, to select respondents. Purposive sampling was utilised to select middle and top-level managers working mostly in service firms in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The services sector in the Greater Accra Region was used as the bulk of Ghanaian executives work in same (Sabutey, 2017; Plecher, 2019). In order to achieve results that are as close to reality as much as possible, purposive sampling was used to select middle to top tier level management. Purposive sampling allows for the researcher to obtain participants with specific characteristic traits needed for the study (Neuman, 2007; Hair et al., 2010). Middle and top-level management individuals were selected for this study because they fall within Mercedes-Benz’ target market of middle to top level income earners (Zafeer, 2014). It was important that the sample used in this particular study was a reflection of Mercedes-Benz’ actual target 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh so that the results reflect reality as much as possible. In addition, business executives were also used in the case of Pepsodent because it is the brand that is the most popular in Ghana as far as toothpaste brands are concerned. As the within-subject quasi-experimental design was selected for this study, there was no need to further divide the respondents into treatment groups via random sampling. Each respondent was exposed to all six treatment conditions. 5.4.4 Data Collection Procedure The researcher sought permission from the relevant quarters of firms within the Greater Accra Metropolis, specifically requesting for a 45minute meeting with business executives. Each executive was given a brief summary of the study by way of introduction, then shown the adverts on a tablet the researcher used. They were exposed to one advert for five (5) minutes subsequent to which they filled one questionnaire. This process was repeated for all the six types of advertisements until each respondent was exposed to all six advertisements and their respective questionnaires. It must be noted that the advertisements were not shown in immediate succession. Neither were all six advertisements shown in one day for any particular executive. Some spanned several days. In all, the entire duration of the data collection period spanned approximately six (6) months, from September 2019 to February 2020. 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.5 MODE OF ANALYSIS Quantitative data analysis techniques can be grouped into two (2) broad categories, namely univariate and multivariate techniques (Malhotra, 2007). Univariate techniques are useful for analysis when a single measurement exists for each element in the sample or several measurements on each element and each variable is analysed separately (Malhotra, 2007). On the other hand, multivariate techniques, are utilised when the variables are to be analysed simultaneously and there are two (2) or more measurements on each element (Malhotra, 2007). 5.5.1 Multivariate Analysis Techniques Multivariate techniques are classified as either dependence or interdependence techniques (Hair et al., 2006; Hair et al., 2010; Malhotra, 2007). Dependence techniques are those techniques which are employed in the event that one or more variables is the dependent variable to be predicted .by other variables termed independent variables (Hair et al., 2006). These techniques seem good for use with causal/experimental research. Examples of dependence techniques include multiple regression, structural equation modelling and multivariate analysis of variance (Hair et al., 2006). On the other hand, interdependence techniques include those in which variables are not classified as being either dependent or independent. However, all variables are analysed collectively at the same time (Hair et al., 2006). One major example of this type of analyses technique is factor analysis (Malhotra, 2007). 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Analytical Techniques Employed in this Study Structural equation modelling (SEM) and one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were the methods of data analysis used in this study. The decision to employ these techniques was informed by the objectives of this research. To be specific, MANOVA was selected to fulfil objectives one (1) and two (2). It was also chosen instead of its univariate form (ANOVA) because the study possessed more than one dependent variable, (Malhotra, 2007). The dependent variables, in this study, were pleasure, arousal and attitude. SEM was employed to examine the interrelationships among pleasure, arousal, attitude and the four (4) dimensions of customer engagement. To be specific, it was employed to fulfil objectives three (3) and four (4). It was selected instead of other dependence techniques such as multiple regression because it considers measurement errors in variables, hence generates more potent and precise results than other analytical techniques (Edwards & Bagozzi, 2000; Hair et al., 2016). a) Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) The decision to employ a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was informed by the objectives of the research, the measurement scales and number of both the independent (advertising message strategies) and dependent (pleasure, arousal and attitude) variables. As an extension of one-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA), MANOVA measures the differences between more than one 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh metric dependent variable on a set of nonmetric independent variables (Malhotra, 2007; Hair et al., 2014). It offers more insights than ANOVA into the effects that independent variables have on dependent variables Sharma, 1996; Kleinbaun et al., 1998). MANOVA can be used in non-experimental studies. However, it is especially useful when used with experimental designs (Maposa et al., 2010; Hair et al., 2014; Biswas et al., 2018; Hildebrand & Schlager, 2018). MANOVA makes it possible for judgements to be made regarding observed effects (i.e., whether a difference is due to variability in random sampling or a treatment effect) (Hair et al., 2014). What is unique about MANOVA is that “the variate optimally combines the multiple dependent measures into a single value that maximises the differences across the groups” (Maposa et al., 2010). Prior to running a MANOVA, three main assumptions are to be met. Normality is the first and most basic assumption. It refers to the degree to which each metric variable’s data distribution corresponds to the normal distribution (Maposa et al., 2010; Hair et al., 2014). A violation of the normality assumption leads to a compromising power of the test statistic (Johnson & Wichern, 1998). The second assumption requires the covariance matrices for all treatments be equal (Maposa et al., 2010; Hair et al., 2014). The final assumption is that observations must be independent (Maposa et al., 2010; Hair et al., 2014). This assumption of independence of observations has a considerable impact on the degree of significance and the power of a test (Maposa et al., 2010). 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh b) Structural Equation Modelling Structural equation modelling (SEM) is a group of statistical models that explain the relationships between multiple variables (Hair et al., 2014). Similar to multiple regression, SEM examines the structure of interrelationships expressed in a series of equations. However, unlike multiple regression, it considers measurement errors of latent variables (Jöreskog et al., 1979, Odoom, 2015). These equations show all of the relationships between dependent and independent variables (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). The difference between SEM and other multivariate techniques is that the former uses distinct relationships for each set of dependent variables. Simply put, SEM in a simultaneous manner estimates a series of distinct, but interdependent, multiple regression equations. SEM yields benefits not possible with other statistical methods. First of all, unlike is the case with other procedures, SEM takes into account types of errors that confound other procedures (Odoom, 2015). It is useful in institutional or cultural contexts, within or across groups, measurement or hypothesis testing, cross- sectional or longitudinal studies and experimental or survey research, (Odoom, 2015). The justification for employing SEM is its ability to answer additional multifaceted questions about data. It allows for the identification of structural relationships among the latent variables and considers measurement errors in the variables to generate 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh more precise representations (Hair et al., 2014). SEM is also said to be a more potent option to multiple regression and factor analysis. According to Hair et al., (2014), latent variables, also called constructs or factors, are not directly measurable, but measured indirectly by their respective indicators (observed variables). SEM considers simultaneous equations with dependent variables, and the simultaneous analysis of a series of structural equations. In addition, SEM’s ability to consider and assess both structural and predicative questions presents an exceptional strength deemed appropriate for the current investigation. SEM represents the appropriate technique where inherent errors reflecting the “imperfect nature” of the constructs are fully considered within the specification of the technique. In this study, structural equation modelling was applied in order to test the hypothesised relationships put forth in the previous chapter. Specifically, the study sought to examine the structural paths among the constructs (i.e. to test the various hypotheses proposed in this study). Prior to running the SEM model, a measurement model was run in order to (1) specify the indicators for each construct and (2) assess construct validity and reliability (Kline, 2005; Byrne, 2013; Hair et al., 2014). The measurement model for this study was tested through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). After the measurement model had been specified and all constructs were found to be in conformity with established measures, the structural model was then conducted. A structural model is a set of one or more dependence relationships that links the constructs of a hypothesised model (Hair et al., 2010; 2014). The structural 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh model is useful in representing the interrelationships of variables between constructs. 5.5.2 Analytical Instruments Employed The analytical instruments used for this study were the IBM Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 22.0 and IBM’s Analysis of Moments of Structures (AMOS) version 21 software package. Both these software have been extensively used by researchers in customer engagement as quantitative data analysis instruments (Gummerus et al., 2012; Poorrezaei, 2017; Harrigan et al., 2017; Martinez-Lopez et al., 2017; Kosiba et al., 2018; van Tonder & Petzer, 2018; Hinson et al., 2019). SPSS was used to code, screen and clean the data, and to conduct the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Afterwards, the data were transferred to Amos for the second part of the analysis which involved structural equation modelling (SEM). 5.5.3 Data Analysis Procedure a) Initial Data Screening/Examination After the data were entered into SPSS, they were cleaned and then examined for the assumptions underlying MANOVA and SEM. First of all, all of the variables were checked for univariate normality via kurtosis and skewness. Each variable was examined for univariate normality since no statistical tests as yet exist for testing multivariate normality (Hair et al., 2006; 2014). The results showed the variables followed a normal distribution. 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As pertains to the MANOVA analysis statistical technique, both multivariate Box’s M and univariate Levene’s tests for equality of covariance matrices and equality of error variances, respectively, were carried out to test for the assumption of homoscedasticity. Neither test was significant, indicating variances were equal across groups on the dependent variables for both ritual and transmission message strategies. The data conformed to all the statistical assumptions underlying a MANOVA and SEM. As such there was no need to transform either variable. Hence the analysis proceeded. (b) MANOVA In order to ascertain overall model fit and estimate the MANOVA, multivariate tests were carried out. Alpha was set to .05. As the study sought to determine the differences in the effect of ritual and transmission message strategies, the multivariate tests were run twice. The first for the ritual messages and the second for transmission strategies. A significant main effect of the independent variable (advertising message strategies) on the combined set of the dependent variables (pleasure, arousal and attitude) was uncovered. However, this was only true of the ritual advertising message strategies primarily used for hedonic (luxury) products. The initial multivariate tests showed a non-significant main effect for transmission 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh advertising message strategies for utilitarian (functional) products. As a result, no further tests were carried out for the three transmission strategies. However, additional univariate tests were conducted on the three ritual strategies. This was done in order to ascertain the likelihood of significant differences among the ritual advertising message strategies. Results of the tests pointed to significant differences among the three ritual strategies in their influence on pleasure, arousal and attitude towards the advertisement. Additionally, although the results of the MANOVA and univariate ANOVA tests revealed significant differences across the three ritual message strategies, there was no clear indication regarding the origin of the differences. Also, that there is a statistical main effect does not mean each group difference will be statistically significant (Hair et al., 2006; 2014). Therefore a Scheffé post hoc test was carried out with the aim of uncovering the nature of the differences among the three ritual strategies. Many post-hoc tests are available and at the disposal of scholars. Notable among the post-hoc tests are Duncan’s multiple-range test, Newman-Keuls test, Tukey’s least significant difference (LSD) and Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) and (Hair et al., 2006; 2014). Each of these tests for the presence of significant differences among all possible pairs of groups (Hair et al., 2006; 2014). The Scheffé test was selected as against the other post-hoc tests because it is less susceptible to a type one error (Hair et al., 2006; 2014). A type one error is “the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it should be accepted, that is, 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concluding that two means are significantly different when in fact they are the same” (Hair et al., 2006; 2014). The Scheffé test made comparisons between groups of the three ritual advertising message strategies. This was to ascertain the differences between the groups that were significant. As was made clear earlier, the initial tests revealed that there was no significant difference in the effects of the transmission strategies on the dependent variables. Hence there was no need to conduct a post-hoc test on them. Multiple combinations of the three ritual advertising message strategies were made. Each combination was assessed at a 95% confidence level for differences between the means. Each combination comprised two message different message strategies. Conclusions were then drawn from those results. (c) Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) Testing Model Fitness The process of testing the fitness of the model involves interpreting the extent to which the conceptualised model suits the research. It involves selecting among a number of fit indices that show if the data fit the theoretically-postulated model (Hair et al., 2014). Numerous fit indices have been proposed by scholars and these are divided along the lines of absolute fit and incremental fit indices, respectively (Hair et al., 2014). Absolute fit indices assess the extent to which a research’s theory suits the sample data (Hair et al., 2014). Incremental fit indices provide an assessment of 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh how well the estimated model matches some alternative baseline model (Hair et al., 2014). Regardless, the model fit criteria that are commonly used include, but are not limited to, the standardised root mean residual (SRMR), comparative fit index (CFI), Pclose and chi-square (χ²). The chi-square (χ²), p of Close fit (PClose), standardised root mean residual (SRMR) and comparative fit index (CFI ≥ 0.90) fit indices were used in this study to ascertain the extent to which the measurement model suited the data and assess how strong and acceptable the construct measurements were. Each index had conventionally- acceptable values. Reliability Reliability is “an assessment of the degree of consistency between multiple measurements of a variable” (Hair et al., 2014, p. 123). Internal consistency is one common measure of reliability. It is an assessment of the individual items or indicators of a scale to ensure they are all highly intercorrelated and measure the same construct (Nunnally, 1979; Churchill, 1979; Hair et al., 2014). For the purposes of testing the internal consistency, or reliability of the constructs, maximum shared value (MSV), composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE), following Hair et al. (2014), were assessed. Composite reliability measures the overall reliability of a collection of similar but heterogeneous items. The AVE, on 135 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the other hand, indicates the amount of variance that items purporting to measure a particular construct share with the construct (Odoom, 2015). Construct Validity To assess construct validity, convergent and discriminant validity were examined. Convergent validity was assessed using the standardised factor loadings provided by the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). According to scholars, convergent validity refers to the degree to which a high proportion of variance is shared in common with indicators of a specific construct (Hair et al., 2014). Discriminant validity was analysed using Fornell and Larcker’s (1981)’s recommended procedure. It is the degree to which a construct is dissimilar to other constructs in terms of the extent to which it correlates with other constructs and how unique variables represent only this single construct (Hair et al., 2006; Hair et al., 2014). The procedure recommended by Fornell and Larcker (1981) requires the square root of the AVE to be greater than all the corresponding correlations. Results for both reliability and validity measures are presented in Chapter 6. 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY In conclusion, this chapter outlined the processes through which data were gathered and analysed. It defined the research approach as quantitative and situated within the positivist research paradigm (Hunt, 1991; Healy & Perry, 2000; Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). The research employed a within-subjects quasi-experimental method, the justification for which is that in comparison to a between-subjects design, the errors as far as individual differences, which could impact the results, are reduced (Cherry, 2019). Six (6) advertisements all with different advertising message strategies were developed, three of which were for hedonic (luxury) products and three for utilitarian (functional) products. The development of the advertisements and their advertising message strategies was done in consultation with academics well versed in the advertising literature, a copywriter working for Origin8 Limited, one of the largest advertising agencies in Ghana and a graphic designer and an adman from Origin8 Limited. Over four hundred (400) respondents in middle to top tier management took part in the study. The processes through which the data were collected are captured in detail in the chapter. In order to analyse the data, two methods were utilised. First was the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), which was used to answer the first and second objectives of the study. Subsequent to that, the chapter documents the manner in which a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equations modelling (SEM) analysis was conducted in order to achieve the third and fourth objectives. Prior to conducting the analyses using both MANOVA and SEM, the data underwent several tests recommended by scholars (Maposa et al., 2010; Hair et al., 2014; 2016) to determine if they 137 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conformed to the fundamental assumptions underlying both analyses. The chapter lists the various indices that were used to test for model fit (the chi-square (χ²), standardised root mean residual (SRMR), comparative fit index (CFI) and Pclose). To test for the reliability of the constructs, it was documented that composite reliability, average variance extracted and maximum shared value were used, following Hair et al. (2014). The analysis techniques were deemed suitable for accomplishing the research objectives. 138 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX PRESENTATION OF EMPIRICAL DATA 6.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter is a presentation and discussion of the empirical results of the study. The results are presented first, in order of the research objectives proposed in the introductory chapter. It begins with the descriptive statistics of the scale variables, then proceeds to the profile of the respondents. The results of the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) are then presented, followed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) results. Additionally, the results of the various tests carried out to check for the reliability and validity of the scales employed in this research are presented. The chapter finally ends with the results of the structural model. 6.1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS According to Pallant (2011), before statistical analyses on data are carried out, descriptive analyses must be conducted on same particularly when human participants are involved (Odoom, 2015). Statistics such as range of scores, standard deviation, the mean, kurtosis and skewness all descriptively analyse the data (Odoom, 2015). The table below presents the descriptive statistics of the variables used in the questionnaire. They indicate how much the respondents disagreed or agreed with statements in the questionnaire and indicate how each statement performed from the respondents’ point of view. From the table the highest mean was 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.05 (angry - content) while the lowest was 3.32 (interesting – boring). The seven (7) variables shown in Table 6.1 below represent the constituents of the main constructs depicted in the conceptual framework; pleasure, arousal, attitude towards the advertisement, intention to purchase, intention to influence, intention to refer and intention to give feedback. 140 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.1 Descriptive Statistics Construct Mean Std. Kurtosis Skewness Details Deviation Pleasure Angry – Content 5.05 1.40 0.04 -0.48 Unhappy – Happy 4.98 1.46 -0.18 -0.42 Displeased – Pleased 5.01 1.49 -0.06 -0.55 Sad – Glad 4.98 1.43 0.26 -0.55 Disappointed – Delighted 4.96 1.52 0.02 -0.60 Uninterested – Enthusiastic 4.73 1.70 -0.28 -0.61 Arousal Indifferent – Surprised 4.10 1.71 -0.62 -0.18 Calm – Excited 4.32 1.88 -0.87 -0.27 Attitude towards the 3.32 1.69 -0.56 0.36 Interesting – Boring advertisement Favourable – Unfavourable 3.44 1.83 -0.83 0.36 Intention to purchase The probability that I would consider buying this 4.55 1.88 -0.89 -0.31 [product] is high My willingness to buy the [product] is high 4.47 1.90 -0.96 -0.30 The likelihood of purchasing this [product] is high 4.45 1.88 -0.99 -0.26 I intend to buy this [product] 4.28 2.04 -1.19 -0.18 Intention to influence I would actively comment about this [product] on any 4.22 1.87 -0.94 -0.14 media I would comment about this [product] in my 4.46 1.89 -0.90 -0.32 conversations Intention to refer I would promote this [product] 4.12 1.86 -0.98 -0.06 I would refer this [product] to my family and friends 4.26 1.87 -0.95 -0.17 Intention to give feedback I would provide feedback for the developing this 4.33 1.85 -0.90 -0.21 [product] 141 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.1.1 Profile of Respondents The profiles of the respondents are presented in Table 6.2 below. Respondents have been profiled according to gender, age and educational qualification. Table 6.2 Profile of Respondents Details Frequency (n = 428) Percent (%) Gender Male 243 56.8 Female 185 43.2 Age 30-39 256 59.8 40-49 110 25.7 50-59 62 14.5 Education Post Graduate 422 98.6 PhD 6 1.4 From the table above, there were 243 males and 185 females representing 56.8% and 43.2% of the sample, respectively. Regarding their ages, majority of respondents were aged between 30-39 years (59.8%, n = 256). Those aged 40-49 formed the second largest group, accounting for 25.7% (n = 110) of the entire sample. The rest were aged 50-59 (14.5%, n = 62). As regards the educational qualifications of the respondents, 98.6% (n=422) indicated they have a postgraduate degree, whereas, 1.4% (n=6) were doctorate holders. Each of the respondents were in middle to top management levels. The researcher did not skew any of the above profiles to suit a particular parameter. All respondents were contacted and only partook in the exercise as a result of their availability and willingness to participate. 142 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2 RESULTS OF THE ONE-WAY MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (MANOVA) 6.2.1 Homoscedasticity of the Dependent Variables Table 6.3 contains the results of the univariate test of homoscedasticity of the dependent variables. MANOVA assumes that the variance-covariance matrices among groups are equal. These assumptions must be met prior to running the MANOVA. As shown, the univariate Levene’s test of homogeneity of variances for both variables are non-significant, F (2, 404) = 1.747, p= .176 for emotions and F (2, 404) = .577, p= .562 for attitude towards the advert. This indicates that no significant difference exists in the variances of the message strategies with regard to emotions and attitude towards the advert. Table 6.3 Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances F df1 df2 Sig. Emotion 1.747 2 404 .176 Attitude .577 2 404 .562 6.2.2 Estimation of the MANOVA Model Statistical Testing and Power Analysis Transmission Message Strategies The Box’s M value of 17.925 was associated with a p value of .008. This figure, based on Huberty and Petoskey’s (2000) guideline (i.e., p < .005), was interpreted as being non-significant. As a result of this, the covariance matrices among the 143 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh groups were assumed to be equal for the MANOVA. Hence, the assumption of equality of groups is not violated and Wilk’s Lambda is an appropriate test to use. As is shown in table 6.4 below, a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed an insignificant main effect for the transmission message strategies, Wilk’s Lambda = 0.94, F (4, 248) = 1.87, p > .005, partial eta squared (η2p) = 0.029. This insignificant multivariate main effect indicates that among the three transmission advertising message strategies, there are no significant differences in their means as it pertains to the collective linear combination of emotions and attitude towards the advert. Therefore, the null hypothesis that all three message strategies are equal with regard to their means was supported. Table 6.4 MANOVA Results for Transmission Advertising Message Strategies Partial Hypothesis Eta Noncent. Observed Effect Value F df Error df Sig. Squared Parameter Powerd CaseNo Wilks' .942 1.873b 4.000 248.000 .116 .029 7.493 .563 Lambda There was no need to conduct a univariate test of between subject effects for the transmission message strategies. This was because no statistically-significant difference was found among the three transmission strategies in their effect on both emotions and attitude towards the advert. 144 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Testing of Hypotheses As a result of the non-significant test results of the MANOVA for the transmission advertising message strategies, hypothesis 1a and 1b were rejected. Ritual Message Strategies Similar, to the earlier analysis, the Box’s M test (18.259) for ritual message strategies was not significant, p (.006) > α (.005), indicating that no significant differences exist between the covariance matrices. Therefore, as per the results, the MANOVA can be carried out. Subsequently, the findings from the Wilk’s Lambda test shows a significant main effect for the ritual message strategies (Wilk’s Lambda = 0.96, F (4, 806) = 4.48, p < .005, partial eta squared (η2p) = 0.022. Power to detect the effect was 0.94. This significant multivariate main effect indicates that across the three ritual message strategies, there was a significant difference in the means as it pertains to the collective linear combination of emotions and attitude towards the advert. To be more specific, each of the ritual message strategies is different in a significant manner in their effect on emotions and attitude towards the advert. Hence, the null hypothesis that all three message strategies are equal with regard to their means was rejected. Table 6.5 MANOVA Results for Ritual Advertising Message Strategies Partial Hypothesis Eta Noncent. Observed Effect Value F df Error df Sig. Squared Parameter Powerd CaseNo Wilks' .957 4.475b 4.000 806.000 .001 .022 17.901 .940 Lambda 145 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Univariate main effects of the ritual message strategies were assessed, since the results of the overall multivariate test were significant. The results of the univariate ANOVAs as shown in table 6.6 revealed significant differences among the ritual message strategies as it pertains to their effect on emotions and attitude towards the advert (F (2, 404) = 3.849, p<0.05). Although the results of the multivariate and univariate tests resulted in the null hypothesis of equality of means being rejected, there was no indication of the origin(s) of the differences. In addition, a post-hoc test had to be carried out since there were more than two ritual message strategies (Hair et al., 2006; 2014). Table 6.6 Tests of Between-Subjects Effects Type III Dependent Mean Source Sum of Df F Sig. Variable Square Squares Corrected Model Emotion 7.698a 2 3.849 4.876 0.008 Attitude 10.047b 2 5.023 5.864 0.003 Intercept Emotion 3220.349 1 3220.349 4079.682 0 Attitude 2672.253 1 2672.253 3119.375 0 Customers’ emotional Emotion 7.698 2 3.849 4.876 0.008 state and attitude Attitude 10.047 2 5.023 5.864 0.003 Error Emotion 318.903 404 0.789 Attitude 346.092 404 0.857 Total Emotion 3543.293 407 Attitude 3020.075 407 Corrected Total Emotion 326.601 406 Attitude 356.138 406 Testing of Hypotheses Table 6.8 presents the results of the Scheffe post hoc comparisons among the ritual message strategies. Despite there being an overall significant main effect, the 146 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh differences among the message strategies are not constant. These differences are examined in light of the hypotheses that pertain to the ritual message strategies, specifically hypothesis 2a and 2b. Tests of Hypothesis 2a The study hypothesised that there would be a significant difference among the ritual message strategies in their impact on a) emotions. The results of the Scheffe post hoc test revealed that among the three ritual message strategies, social had the highest mean (M= 2.965), followed by ego (M= 2.844) and then sensory (M= 2.636), indicating a slightly higher effect of social message strategies on emotions, than ego and sensory. In addition, the results indicate a slightly higher mean for ego than sensory. However, the differences in the means was only significant between social and sensory strategies. Hence, the hypothesis 2a is only supported in respect of the comparison between social and sensory strategies. It is, however, rejected in respect of the comparisons between social and ego strategies and also ego and sensory strategies. Table 6.7 Descriptive Analysis Dependent Variable Advertising strategy Mean Std. Error Emotion Ego 2.844 0.078 Sensory 2.636 0.075 Social 2.965 0.076 Attitude Ego 2.597 0.08 Sensory 2.358 0.078 Social 2.737 0.081 147 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.8 Multiple Comparisons (Scheffe) Mean Difference Dependent Variable Std. Error Sig. (I-J) Emotion Ego Social -0.1209 0.10917 0.542 Sensory 0.2082 0.10785 0.156 Sensory Social -.3291* 0.1068 0.009 Ego -0.2082 0.10785 0.156 Social Sensory .3291* 0.1068 0.009 Ego 0.1209 0.10917 0.542 Attitude Ego Sensory 0.2394 0.11126 0.1 Social -0.1394 0.11373 0.473 Sensory Ego -0.2394 0.11126 0.1 Social -.3788* 0.11235 0.004 Social Ego 0.1394 0.11373 0.473 Sensory .3788* 0.11235 0.004 Tests of Hypothesis 2b The study hypothesised that there would be a significant difference among the ritual message strategies in their impact on b) attitude towards the advertisement. The results of the Scheffe post hoc test revealed that among the three ritual message strategies, social had the highest mean (M= 2.737), followed by ego (M= 2.597) and then sensory (M= 2.358), which indicates that social message strategies have a greater effect on attitude towards the advertisement, than ego and sensory strategies, respectively. In addition, the results indicate a slightly higher mean for ego than sensory. However, the differences in the means was only significant between social and sensory strategies. Hence, hypothesis 2b is only supported in respect of the comparison between social and sensory strategies. It is, however, rejected in respect of the comparisons between social and ego strategies and also ego and sensory strategies. 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.3 RESULTS OF THE STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING 6.3.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was not carried out because the study used pre-existing scales. Hence, the study proceeded and a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted instead. Structural equation modelling was employed with Analysis of Moments of Structures (AMOS). Measurement Model Validity Prior to testing a structural model, it is imperative that the measurement model is tested in order to ensure that it holds. This is because the structural model may be useless unless it is established that the measurement model holds (Odoom, 2015). According to Hair et al. (2014), a measurement model is a “specification of the measurement theory that shows how constructs are operationalised by sets of measured variables”. In other words, it is a test of the affiliation between latent variables and their measures. Research scholars have “suggested that testing of a structural model may be meaningless unless it is established that the measurement model holds” (see Odoom, 2015). In the event that the measurement model results show the chosen variables do not actually measure the constructs, it is imperative for the specified theory to be altered before the analysis can proceed (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996; Bagozzi & Yi, 2012; Hair et al., 2014; Odoom, 2015). In view of this, the measurement models of pleasure, arousal, attitude towards the advertising, intention to purchase, intention to give feedback and intention to influence were assessed via a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The CFA was conducted via the 149 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh twenty-second version of Analysis of Moments of Structures (AMOS) software. These results are displayed in the table below. Overall Fit From the table below, it can be seen that the model provides an acceptable fit (χ2 =251.381 (df = 120), CFI = 0.973, SRMR = 0.03, PClose = 0.351), with all values falling within Hu and Bentler’s (1999) recommended parameters. Table 6.9 Model Fit Measures Measure Estimate Threshold Interpretation CMIN 251.381 -- -- DF 120 -- -- CMIN/DF 2.095 Between 1 and 3 Excellent CFI 0.973 >0.95 Excellent SRMR 0.03 <0.08 Excellent PClose 0.351 >0.05 Excellent Construct Validity To assess construct validity, discriminant and convergent validity were examined. Convergent validity was assessed using the standardised factor loadings provided by the CFA. According to scholars, standardised factor loadings should be at least 0.5 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2014). From the table below, all the items possessed factor loadings greater than the 0.50 standard. They each also showed superior convergent validity, being statistically significant at the 5% level. 150 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.10 Standardised Factor Loadings C.R. (t- Details Estimate S.E. P Values) Pleasure Angry 0.838 0.062 20.523 *** Unhappy 0.834 0.061 20.372 *** Displeased 0.86 0.059 21.373 *** Sad 0.815 0.058 19.654 *** Disappointed 0.805 0.06 19.302 *** Uninterested 0.8 0.071 19.114 *** Arousal Indifferent 0.683 0.094 12.445 *** Calm 0.857 0.109 14.848 *** Attitude Interesting 0.862 0.092 17.189 *** Favourable 0.78 0.084 15.577 *** Intention to Purchase The probability that I would consider buying this [product] is high 0.859 0.077 21.211 *** My willingness to buy the [product] is high 0.888 0.074 22.371 *** The likelihood of purchasing this [product] is high 0.834 0.077 20.272 *** I intend to buy this [product] 0.85 0.083 20.867 *** Intention to Influence I would actively comment about this [product] on any media 0.835 0.08 19.295 *** I would comment about this [product] in my conversations 0.872 0.08 20.441 *** Intention to Refer I would promote this [product] 0.908 0.076 22.3 *** I would refer this [product] to my family and friends 0.853 0.079 20.374 *** In order to determine the internal consistency of the constructs, average variance extracted (AVE), composite reliability (CR) and maximum shared value (MSV) following Hair et al. (2014) were assessed. The CR and AVE scores ranged between 0.748 and 0.928 and 0.775 and 0.6, respectively. In addition, the MSV0.95 Excellent SRMR 0.061 <0.08 Excellent PClose 0.057 >0.05 Excellent In the study model, a chi-square of 13.842 (df = 3, p < .01) which indicates a normed chi-square fit value of 4.614. The comparative fit index (CFI) value is 0.994, SRMR 0.061 and PClose is 0.057. These results reveal that the model has an acceptable fit. 153 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The coefficients are significant and support the theory represented in the model. The R2 values for intention to give feedback, intention to purchase, intention to influence and intention to refer are 0.137, 0.296, 0.347 and 3.90, respectively. Table 6.13 below depicts the statistical results emerging from the structural equation modelling test of the hypothesised paths. Table 6.13 SEM Model – Hypotheses Testing C.R. (t- β Estimate S.E. P Values) Pleasure -----> Refer 0.273 0.062 4.421 *** Attitude -----> Refer 0.277 0.053 5.199 *** Arousal -----> Refer 0.232 0.054 4.312 *** Pleasure -----> Influence 0.368 0.063 5.895 *** Attitude -----> Influence 0.188 0.054 3.48 *** Arousal -----> Influence 0.127 0.054 2.339 0.019 Arousal -----> Purchase 0.083 0.058 1.43 0.153 Attitude -----> Purchase 0.294 0.057 5.109 *** Pleasure -----> Purchase 0.277 0.067 4.161 *** Pleasure -----> Give feedback 0.282 0.143 1.974 0.048 Attitude -----> Give feedback 0.308 0.123 2.502 0.012 Arousal -----> Give feedback 0.315 0.124 2.544 0.011 R2 Give Feedback 0.137 Purchase 0.296 Influence 0.347 Refer 0.390 On the individual relationships among the constructs, it was found that pleasure had a significantly positive relationship with intention to refer (β=0.273, t-value= 4.421, p<.001), intention to influence (β=0.368, t-value= 5.895, p<.001), intention to purchase (β=0.277, t-value= 4.161, p<.001) and intention to give feedback (β=0.282, t-value= 1.974, p<.005) providing support for H3a, c, e and g. In support of H3d, f and h, results indicate that arousal is positively related to intention to refer (β=0.232, t-value= 4.312, p<.001), influence (β=0.127, t-value= 2.339, p<.05), and 154 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh give feedback (β=0.315, t-value= 2.544, p<.05). On the contrary, the results did not show support for H3b (arousal is positively related to purchase intention) (β=0.083, t-value= 1.43, p>.05). Finally, results show that attitude towards the advertisement had a significantly positive relationship with intention to refer (β=0.277, t-value= 5.199, p<.001), intention to influence (β=0.188, t-value= 3.48, p<.001), intention to purchase (β=0.294, t-value= 5.109, p<.001) and intention to give feedback (β=0.308, t-value= 2.502, p<.05) providing support for H4a, b, c and d. 6.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter provided the results of the analyses that were carried out on the data gathered. The chapter began with a presentation of the descriptive statistics. To be specific, the mean, standard deviation, kurtosis and skewness of the main constructs (pleasure, arousal, attitude towards the advertisement, intention to purchase, intention to influence, intention to refer and intention to give feedback) depicted in the conceptual framework were presented. The profile of the respondents was presented next. In total, the sample size for the study was 428, comprising 243 males and 185 females representing 56.8% and 43.2% of the sample respectively. Subsequent to the descriptive statistics and profile of respondents, the results of the one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were brought to the fore. Prior to running the MANOVA, the results of a univariate Levene’s test for homogeneity of variances were presented and results showed that the variances of the message strategies are not significantly different across emotions and attitude towards the advertisement. This assumption of homogeneity needed to be met before finally progressing to the MANOVA (Hair et al., 2016). Results of the one- way multivariate analysis of variance showed that as far as ritual message strategies 155 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are concerned, social message strategies affect emotions and attitude towards the advertisement more than ego and sensory message strategies, respectively. In addition, the ego message strategy is more potent in impacting emotions and attitude towards the advertisement than the sensory message strategy. Pertaining to the transmission message strategies, the MANOVA results show that there are no differences between the three transmission message strategies. The chapter then progressed with a presentation of the results of the structural equation modelling analysis. The measurement model showed an acceptable overall fit (χ2 =251.381 (df = 120), CFI = 0.973, SRMR = 0.03, PClose = 0.351) as advised by Hu and Bentler (1999). Construct validity was measured using discriminant and convergent validity. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which was used to measure convergent validity, are greater than the standard of 0.50. They are also significant at the 5% level. Results also showed sufficient discriminant validity (the square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) [ranging from 0.881 to 0.775] is greater than all the corresponding correlations [ranging from 0.646 to -0.558]). Results of the validation test of the structural model also show that the structural model has an acceptable fit [chi-square of 13.842 (df = 3, p < .01) indicative of a normed chi-square fit value of 4.614. The comparative fit index (CFI) value is 0.994, SRMR 0.061 and PClose is 0.057]. On the individual relationships among the constructs, the study finds that pleasure has a significantly positive relationship with intention to refer (β=0.273, t-value= 4.421, p<.001), intention to influence (β=0.368, t-value= 5.895, p<.001), intention to purchase (β=0.277, t-value= 4.161, p<.001) and intention to give feedback (β=0.282, t-value= 1.974, p<.005). Arousal is positively related to intention to refer (β=0.232, t-value= 4.312, p<.001), influence (β=0.127, t-value= 2.339, p<.05), and give feedback (β=0.315, t-value= 156 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.544, p<.05). Arousal is not positively related to purchase intention (β=0.083, t- value= 1.43, p>.05). Finally, results show that attitude towards the advertisement has a significantly positive relationship with intention to refer (β=0.277, t-value= 5.199, p<.001), intention to influence (β=0.188, t-value= 3.48, p<.001), intention to purchase (β=0.294, t-value= 5.109, p<.001) and intention to give feedback (β=0.308, t-value= 2.502, p<.05). 157 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SEVEN DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS 7.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW The previous chapter presented the empirical results and analysis found in the study – model evaluation, estimation of results and testing of the conceptual framework. This chapter is a discussion of the empirical outcome of the hypotheses testing conducted in this investigation and their significance, particularly in relation to findings from other studies reported in the literature. It is essentially divided into two major parts. The first provides a brief background to the study while the second part discusses the study’s findings in light of the research questions and hypotheses posed in the introductory part of this research. A chapter summary is subsequently provided as a review of the key issues addressed in this chapter. 7.1 INTRODUCTION The key objective of this study was primarily to determine, among advertising message strategies for hedonic and utilitarian products, the most effective in generating customer engagement. The fundamental question underlying this study, therefore, is “what advertising message strategy is most effective in creating customer engagement for hedonic and utilitarian products, respectively?” The results found from the current research have been deliberated upon in a detailed manner in relation to the objectives as espoused in the first chapter of the study. 158 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Drawing on the stimulus organism response model, we argued that customer engagement is a behavioural response to stimuli in the form of advertising message strategies. This behavioural response occurs after an initial attitudinal and emotional response to the message strategies. We further argued that there are differences among the message strategies in their effect on emotions (pleasure and arousal), attitude towards the advert and consequently customer engagement. The findings of this research are discussed in the subsequent paragraphs in line with the objectives stated in the first chapter. Until recently, majority of the studies that examined the impact that advertising message strategies have on customer engagement employed diverse definitions and conceptualisations of message strategies. The result of this is that findings have been inconsistent and generally there is a lack of clarity regarding effective message strategies (Tafesse &Wien, 2017). Extant literature reveals that advertising message strategies in general trigger customer engagement. In addition, many studies conclude that between the two main forms of advertising message strategy, advertisements that are crafted with ritual message strategies are more likely to generate customer engagement than those with transmission strategies. The issue with this, however, is that previous studies do not take into account that different product categories require different message strategies. Not all products, for instance, can be advertised using ritual strategies. It has been argued that ritual strategies are better suited for products bought for pleasure, whereas transmission strategies are better suited for functional 159 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh products (Ahn et al., 2013). Previous studies, however, have so far not taken this into consideration and as such have grouped all strategies together regardless of their suitability. This study, therefore, sought to uncover the most effective messages strategies for each category of product, specifically hedonic and utilitarian. As the stimulus organism response (S-O-R) model was the theoretical framework underpinning the study, the first thing was to determine the advertising message strategies that are most effective in generating emotional and attitudinal responses. Afterwards, the study went on to investigate the relationship between attitude, emotions and customer engagement. Inferences were then made about the best message strategy based on the ones that impacted emotions and attitude the most. 7.2 ADVERTISING MESSAGE STRATEGIES, EMOTIONS AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE ADVERT 7.2.1 Ritual Message Strategies, Emotions and Attitude towards the Advert The initial test to determine if there are significant differences among the three ritual message strategies showed there were indeed significant differences among the three strategies. Further tests to ascertain where the differences lay showed that for hedonic products, the social message strategy has a stronger impact on emotions and attitude to the advert than either the sensory or the ego message strategies. This result supported the hypotheses put forth in the fourth chapter that there are differences among the three ritual messages in their impact on emotions and attitude towards the advert. Previous studies similar to, though not related to customer 160 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh engagement, also report differences among ritual message strategies in their impact on customer’s internal states (Faseur & Geuens, 2012). Unlike in this study, however, those studies report ego as having the most impact on customers’ internal states. One main reason for this difference could arguably be the fact that those studies have been conducted in cultures typically regarded as majorly individualistic in nature, whereas the Ghanaian context from which this study emerged is regarded as collectivist (Hofstede, 1980; 1991; Haj-Yahia & Sadan, 2008). According to psychology scholars, in a collectivist society individuals consider the wellbeing of the greater society as opposed to solely seeking their wellbeing (Triandis, 1998, 1989; Yamaguchi, 1994; Kongsompong et al., 2009; Han, 2017). They have strong ties to family, country and the social circles to which they belong (Kongsompong et al., 2009). As a result, their decisions are influenced by this orientation towards others (Kongsompong et al., 2009) and this also extends to their evaluation of advertisements (Polyorat & Alden, 2005; Zhang et al., 2011; Chang & Cheng, 2015). According to previous studies, collectivists tend to favour advertisements with a social message strategy because such a strategy conveys principles that resonate with their beliefs about community, family and the collective good (Polyorat & Alden, 2005; Zhang et al., 2011; Chang & Cheng, 2015). At the core of the social message strategy is a suggestion that one can have a greater active social life and win the attention of others by buying an advertised product (Tsai & Lancaster, 2012; Ahn et al., 2013). Consumers at times use products/services to gain affection, respect, attention and approval (Tsai & Lancaster, 2012). In addition, social strategies more often than not emphasise that 161 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh advertised products and consumers possess a family-like bond. Taylor (1999) revealed that advertisements that employ the social strategy are mostly focused on creating, sustaining, and celebrating relationships with others or caring for loved ones. The social strategy therefore bases an advert’s message on the collective, instead of the individual (Ahn et al., 2013). Aside the social message strategy being the most potent in influencing the emotional and attitudinal states of customers, results of the empirical study revealed ego to be a stronger influence on the three internal states than sensory message strategy. This result is in agreement with literature that shows that advertisements with ego-based messages to a large extent have a strong effect on consumer reactions. According to a phenomenon called “status consumption”, individuals convey their status via the conspicuous consumption of products and services that symbolise their status (Eastman & Liu, 2012). The aim is to boost one’s ego (Sharma & Chan, 2017). In other words, individuals in high positions tend to favour products and services that they believe reflect their positions in life. Judging that the respondents in this study held high positions, it is understandable that the ego strategy would be a greater impactor than the sensory. 7.2.2 Transmission Message Strategies, Emotions and Attitude The initial test to determine if there are differences in the effects that the three transmission message strategies have on emotions and attitude towards the advertisement yielded non-significant results. Wilk’s Lambda yielded a p-value greater than .05. As a result, no further tests with the MANOVA were conducted as 162 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh they were not needed. This finding therefore revealed that as it pertains to utilitarian products and services, all three of the transmission message strategies are similar in their impact on emotions and attitude. The hypotheses that there are differences among the transmission strategies in their impact on emotions and attitude towards the advertisement is therefore not supported. This finding does not mean that consumers do not experience emotions or do not have an attitude towards the advert. It is already established in the advertising literature that consumers process advertisements emotionally and cognitively regardless of the strategy employed (Mackenzie et al., 1986; MacInnis & Jaworski, 1989; Gavilanes et al., 2018). What the findings simply mean is that whatever cognitive and affective reactions actual and potential customers may have regarding the three message strategies is virtually or in effect the same across all three transmission strategies. The apparent lack of a difference among the three transmission strategies could be attributed to the underlying nature of transmission strategies. Unlike ritual message strategies which create a sense of identity, transmission message strategies impart product information from a sender to a receiver (Rodgers & Thorson, 2012, emphasis mine). Whereas with ritual message strategies some strategies impact emotions more than others probably because of the varying degrees of emotional appeals used, transmission message strategies are not significantly different from each other because they are generally low in their use of emotional appeals. 163 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.2.3 Effects of Pleasure, Arousal and Attitude towards the Advertisement on Customer Engagement As per the stimulus-organism-response model, internal organismic states influence external behavioural reactions. This research obtained interesting results pertaining to the effect of customers’ emotions and attitude towards the advertisement on customer engagement. Customer engagement was conceptualised as intention to purchase, intention to refer, intention to give feedback and intention to influence, following Pansari and Kumar (2016). Regarding the predictive capacity of pleasure, arousal and attitude to have positive relationships with customer engagement (measured by intention to purchase, intention to give feedback, intention to refer and intention to influence), results of the empirical survey revealed that pleasure and attitude are significantly positive predictors of customer engagement. To be specific, pleasure and attitude significantly predict intention to purchase, intention to give feedback, intention to refer and intention to influence. These results support earlier studies that report a positive relationship between pleasure and customer behaviour (Ha & Lennon, 2010; Eroglu et al., 2003; Koo & Ju, 2010; Blasco-Arcas et al., 2016; Das & Varshneya, 2017; Huang et al., 2017) and attitude and behaviour (Zeng, 2008). For instance, emotions such as pleasure have been found to cause customers to spread positive word of mouth (Loureiro & Ribeiro, 2014; Huang et al., 2017). Conversely, results of the empirical study revealed that despite being a significant predictor of intention to refer, intention to influence and intention to give feedback, 164 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh arousal does not possess significant relationship with purchase intention. In other words, though an advertising message strategy may arouse interest in actual and potential customers, this arousal is not potent enough to drive them to want to purchase, though they may intend to refer, influence and give feedback. This finding is interesting, for in previous literature, it is reported that arousal is positively related to purchase intention. However, it does confirm the findings of some studies such as Loureiro and Ribeiro (2014) and Huang et al. (2017) who all found insignificant relationships between arousal and behaviour. A possible reason accounting for the insignificant result between arousal and purchase intention could be that the respondents were highly aroused by the colours, messages, and images on the advertisement (Eroglu et al., 2003; Pappas et al., 2014). High levels of arousal have been found to be the cause of insignificant relationships between arousal and approach behaviours such as purchase intention (e.g. Sanbonmatsu & Kardes, 1988; Mano, 1992; Menon & Khan, 2002). For example, Mano (1992) found that when consumers are highly aroused, they spend less time thinking about subsequent decision tasks, examine less decision-related information and use simple decision strategies. Vieira (2013) also found arousal to be a weaker predictor of customer behaviour than pleasure. In testing the relationship between customer engagement and attitude towards the advertisement, the empirical results show that attitude towards the advertisement has positive relationship with customer engagement. This relationship is also significant across all measures of customer engagement used in this study. The results support earlier studies that report that attitude, specifically attitude towards advertising, determines consumer behaviour such as intention to purchase, search 165 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for information about the product, (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2010; Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2010; Sallam & Wahid, 2012; Boateng & Okoe, 2015). 7.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter discussed the results of the quasi experiment relating it to existing research as well as the study’s conceptual framework. It began with a brief background to the study and then progressed to discuss the results in light of previous studies. Discussions were made based on the objectives outlined in the first chapter of the study and in comparison with previous studies. The findings of the empirical study revealed that among the three ritual message strategies, the social message strategy has the most impact on customers’ emotions and attitude compared to ego and sensory strategies. It was argued that although previous studies also report differences among ritual message strategies, they report the ego as having the most impact on customers’ attitude and emotions (Faseur & Geuens, 2012). One main reason for this difference could arguably be the fact that those studies have been conducted in cultures typically regarded as majorly individualistic in nature, whereas the Ghanaian context from which this study emerged is regarded as collectivist (Hofstede, 1980; 1991; Haj-Yahia & Sadan, 2008). To further explain the reason for the disparity in the findings with extant literature, it was argued that in collectivist societies, like Ghana, consumer decision- making is linked to consumer orientation towards others (Kongsompong et al., 2009). In other words, consumers in collectivist cultures are influenced by their strong ties to family, country and the social circles to which they belong. Additionally, previous studies have shown that collectivists tend to favour advertisements with a social message strategy because such a strategy conveys 166 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh principles that resonate with their beliefs about community, family and the collective good (Polyorat & Alden, 2005; Zhang et al., 2011; Chang & Cheng, 2015). At the core of the social message strategy is a suggestion that one can have a greater active social life and win the attention of others by buying an advertised product (Tsai & Lancaster, 2012; Ahn et al., 2013). Secondly, the results of the study showed that between the ego and sensory ritual message strategies, ego is a stronger influencer. As a way of explaining the reason for this finding, the chapter argued based on a phenomenon called “status consumption”, whereby individuals convey their status via the conspicuous consumption of products and services that symbolise their status (Eastman & Liu, 2012). The aim is to boost one’s ego (Sharma & Chan, 2017). In other words, individuals in high positions tend to favour products and services that they believe reflect their positions in life. Judging that the respondents in this study held high positions, it is understandable that the ego strategy would be a greater impactor than the sensory. Subsequently, discussions turned to the MANOVA results on the three transmission strategies. It was asserted that the reason for the lack of disparity among the three transmission message strategies can be attributed to the underlying nature of transmission strategies. Unlike ritual message strategies which create a sense of identity, transmission message strategies impart product information from a sender to a receiver (Rodgers & Thorson, 2012, emphasis mine). Whereas with ritual message strategies some strategies impact emotions more than others probably because of the varying degrees of emotional appeals used, transmission message strategies are not significantly different from each other because they are generally low in their use of emotional appeals. It was also explained that the lack of differences does not mean that consumers do not experience emotions or do not have an attitude towards 167 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the advert. It is already established in the advertising literature that consumers process advertisements emotionally and cognitively regardless of the strategy employed (Mackenzie et al., 1986; MacInnis & Jaworski, 1989; Gavilanes et al., 2018). What the findings simply mean is that whatever cognitive and affective reactions actual and potential customers may have regarding the three transmission message strategies is virtually or in effect the same across all three transmission strategies. The chapter then concluded by tackling results pertaining to the effects of pleasure, arousal and attitude towards the advertisement on customer engagement. Regarding the predictive capacity of pleasure, arousal and attitude to have a positive relationship to customer engagement (measured by intention to purchase, intention to give feedback, intention to refer and intention to influence), results of the empirical survey revealed that pleasure and attitude are significantly positive predictors of customer engagement. To be specific, pleasure and attitude significantly predict intention to purchase, intention to give feedback, intention to refer and intention to influence. These results support earlier studies that report a positive relationship between pleasure and customer behaviour (Ha & Lennon, 2010; Eroglu et al., 2003; Koo & Ju, 2010; Blasco-Arcas et al., 2016; Das & Varshneya, 2017; Huang et al., 2017) and attitude and behaviour (Zeng, 2008). Conversely, results of the empirical study revealed that despite being a significant predictor of intention to refer, intention to influence and intention to give feedback, arousal is not significantly related to purchase intention. It was revealed that though this finding does not confirm previous studies, it is in agreement with others such as Loureiro and Ribeiro (2014) and Huang et al. (2017) who all found insignificant 168 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh relationships between arousal and behaviour. One possible reason given for the insignificant result between arousal and purchase intention was that the respondents were highly aroused by the colours, messages, and images on the advertisement (Eroglu et al., 2003; Pappas et al., 2014). High levels of arousal have been found to be the cause of insignificant relationships between arousal and approach behaviours such as purchase intention (e.g. Sanbonmatsu & Kardes, 1988; Mano, 1992; Menon & Khan, 2002). For example, Mano (1992) found that when consumers are highly aroused, they spend less time thinking about subsequent decision tasks, examine less decision-related information and use simple decision strategies. Vieira (2013) also found arousal to be a weaker predictor of customer behaviour than pleasure. 169 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER EIGHT SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 8.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter provides a summary of the empirical research, the conclusions, implications and directions for future studies. Broadly, it provides an evaluation of some critical lessons drawn from the study and deliberates the contribution this research makes to theory and practice. The chapter has been further segmented into four key parts. First, the chapter briefly summarises the research problem, objectives, and then presents the major outcomes of each objective. Following this, the chapter discusses the potential contributions and implications for theory and management/practice. The third part discusses the study’s limitations. Lastly, directions for future research are provided and relevant research avenues for consideration are pointed out. 8.1 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH AND MAJOR FINDINGS This research began with the aim of uncovering the advertising message strategies with the greatest impact on customer emotions and attitude and subsequently customer engagement for hedonic and utilitarian products. In order to achieve this goal, four (4) research objectives were identified. The first objective was to determine which transmission message strategy has the greatest impact on customer emotions and attitude. The second was to highlight the specific ritual message strategy that has the greatest impact on customer emotions and attitude. The third was to ascertain if the emotions of pleasure and arousal, derived from an advertising 170 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh message strategy stimulus leads to customer engagement. The final objective was to uncover if attitude towards advertising message strategy is a determinant of customer engagement. In order to achieve these four objectives, literature on advertising, advertising message strategies and customer engagement was reviewed. Definitions of advertising message strategy, customer engagement were given. The nature of advertising message strategies, in particular, Taylor’s (1999) widely-used six segment message strategy was discussed and shown how it fits with the selected stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) theoretical model. An enquiry into the literature on advertising message strategies was carried out with the primary goal to understand the key issues and find answers to the study’s objectives. One key observation was the fact that there were numerous ways in which advertising messages had been conceptualised in the literature and this led to inconsistencies in results (Tafesse & Wien, 2018). In addition, it was observed that previous studies had clumped up all types of message strategies in analysing the most effective strategies, which this study argued in the first chapter, could potentially lead to misleading results. This is because, as it was established from extant literature, different message strategies are tailored for different products and services, depending on the product/service type (Rodgers & Thorson, 2012; Ahn et al., 2013). Hence concluding that a particular message strategy is the most effective, regardless of product type, in a sense contradicts even reality where certain classes of products/services, by their nature, require certain types of message strategies (Ahn et al., 2013). As previous studies had not taken the types of products into consideration, this study was poised to contribute to literature by taking main advertising message strategies traditionally used for hedonic and those for 171 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh utilitarian products and seeing which of them is a greater generator of customer engagement. Drawing on the theory of choice, as well as extant literature, the current research developed a set of testable hypotheses. After the initial segment of this study, which comprised a literature review on issues pertinent to the conduct of this study, a second stage encompassing an empirical enquiry was carried out. Using business executives from a range of service firms in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana as the sample, a quasi-experimental approach was adopted for testing the hypotheses subsequent to which the data gathered were analysed. The analyses of the empirical results were conducted in two separate stages, based on the study’s objectives. In order to fulfil the first two objectives, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) analysis was conducted. Subsequently and for the third and fourth objectives, the study employed structural equation modelling (SEM). The analyses of the empirical data generated certain results which were then discussed in light of extant research. In addition, possible explanations were given for departures from both previous works and the hypotheses put forth. The following table briefly summarises the outcomes/findings of the study as it pertains to the research objectives. 172 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 8.1 – Summary of Major Results/Findings Research Objective Major Results/Findings The study provides evidence that there are no differences among all three Research Objective 1: transmission message strategies in their To determine which transmission effect on pleasure, arousal and attitude. message strategy has the greatest Therefore, there is no particular impact on pleasure, arousal and transmission strategy that has the attitude greatest impact. All are equal. It is evident from the findings that among the three ritual message Research Objective 2: strategies, the social strategy is the To highlight the specific ritual most influential in respect of pleasure, message strategy that has the arousal and attitude. This finding is in greatest impact on pleasure, arousal contrast with previous studies. It is the and attitude contention of this research that the reason for this finding could be the collectivist culture from which the sample came. In addition, the ego strategy was found to be a stronger determinant of the three internal states of pleasure, arousal and attitude than the sensory strategy. 173 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The empirical results revealed that the internal states of pleasure and attitude Research Objective 3: were positively-related to customer To ascertain if the emotions of engagement (intention to purchase, pleasure and arousal, derived from intention to refer, intention to give an advertising message strategy feedback and intention to influence). stimulus, lead to customer However, when it came to arousal, it engagement. was found that it was not significantly related to purchase. Research Objective 4: The empirical results show that attitude towards the advertisement has a To uncover if attitude towards positive relationship with customer advertising message strategy is a engagement. This relationship is also determinant of customer significant across all measures of engagement. customer engagement used in this study. 8.2 REFLECTIONS It is appropriate at this juncture to reflect on the processes and approaches employed in the course of the conduct of this study which provided solutions to the research problem and led to the realisation of the research objectives. The rationale for this reflection is to provide solid arguments for the designs chosen for the current research and to show their suitableness as it pertains to the research contributions. As a result, the following areas of this study (theory, research framework and 174 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh methodology) have been selected. These represent the main crust of this particular research. 8.2.1 Reflection on Theory (Stimulus-Organism-Response Model) To be able to address the research problem and objectives outlined in the first chapter of this study, it became imperative to conduct a review into the existing literature on advertising and customer engagement. One key issue that was identified from the review was the focus on social exchange service-dominant logic and relationship marketing theories. It was further identified that a number of scholars had called for the introduction of other theories, in particular personal behaviour theories, such as the stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) model to enhance the study of customer engagement (Islam & Rahman, 2016; Barger et al., 2016). As a result, this research employed the S-O-R model. Not only was this to answer the call for the application of other theories in the customer engagement literature, it was also selected to underpin the study because it suited the study’s objectives best and in addition provided a parsimonious, structured theoretically- justified way with which to study the effects of advertising message strategies (as external environmental stimuli) on customers’ emotional and attitudinal reaction and, in turn customer engagement (Sheth & Sisodia, 2006; Jacoby, 2002; Eroglu et al., 2001). The more popular theories of Relationship Marketing, Social Exchange Theory and Service Dominant Logic could have helped unearth some perspectives. However, considering the fact that the underlying assumptions of the aforementioned theories are not in sync with what this study sought to achieve, this research found it wise to employ the S-O-R model. Previous studies had revealed that customer engagement is an outcome of numerous motivational drivers 175 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh including advertisements (see Islam & Rahman, 2016; Barger et al., 2016). In addition, evidence from the advertising literature points to the fact that prior to behaviourally reacting to an advertising stimulus, customers react cognitively and emotionally (Olney et al., 1991). 8.2.2 Reflection on Research Framework A research framework was developed which was an adaptation of Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) stimulus-organismresponse (S-O-R) model. The framework incorporated the underlying assumptions of the theory in question, that stimuli create internal cognitive and affective reactions which ultimately result in behavioural responses. In adapting the theory, the framework included advertising message strategies as antecedents, though this was not tested at the empirical stage and customer engagement (intention to purchase, intention to refer, intention to give feedback and intention to influence). The two internal states of emotions and attitude remained mostly unchanged save for the fact that the emotion “dominance” was left out. This was because the relevance of dominance has been questioned in the literature with some scholars suggesting it be relegated altogether and the focus remaining solely on pleasure and arousal (Russell, 1980; Russell & Pratt, 1980; Russell et al., 1981; Russell, Weiss, & Mendelsohn, 1989; Wu, Cheng & Yen, 2008; Ha & Lennon, 2010). Eroglu et al. (2001, p. 181) further argued that “pleasure and arousal can adequately represent the range of emotions exhibited in response to environmental stimuli”, in effect nullifying the need for the dominance dimension. In addition, the current study found no need for it as it was not intent on measuring perceptions of control or empowerment which define dominance (Rusell, 1980; Eroglu et al., 2001). 176 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The empirical results supported twelve of the fourteen hypotheses. In all, all constructs of the proposed framework provided answers to the research question and ultimately the research problem. The relevance of the carefully chosen constructs of the framework is seen in their ability to provide empirical support for the current study. 8.2.3 Reflection on Methodology As it pertains to the suitability of the methodology adopted, this study used a quantitative technique, specifically a quasi-experimental approach. Structured questionnaires were distributed among the respondents from which information pertaining to the research objectives was gleaned. The rationale for employing the quasi-experimental approach as against the more popular survey approach was to have clarity on causal relations, which research scholars aver the former provides the researcher (Malhotra, 2007; Neuman, 2007). In addition, this study endeavoured to uncover the differences, if any, in the effect of the various forms of advertising message strategy on pleasure, arousal and attitude and to find out which of them has the strongest effect. In order to make generalisable conclusions from the results, it was necessary to employ a significant sample size. As a result, a relatively large sample size of 428 was utilised in order to achieve exactly that. 177 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A qualitative or mixed methods approach could have provided some additional insights from respondents. However, this would have been cumbersome, judging from the size of the sample employed. In addition, a qualitative approach could have increased the probability of response bias from respondents. As a result, this current study followed a quantitative approach to data collection and analysis as espoused by the positivist school of thought in order for the researcher to obtain results from an objective a stance as is possible. In addition, this study considers the quantitative processes employed in questionnaire design, administration and data analysis sufficient and providing a water-tight solution to the research problem. 8.3 CONTRIBUTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH 8.3.1 Theoretical Implications As per the contribution to knowledge within the field of marketing, this study attempts to make three major contributions to knowledge in the area of customer engagement. Generally, it was observed that though research pertaining to customer engagement was increasing, with respect to advertising and customer engagement, it was a bit unclear as to how advertising affects customer engagement, particularly with regard to effective message strategies for hedonic and utilitarian products. This study brought together a collection of studies on customer engagement, synthesising them into a comprehensive review of literature. The review culminated into a research framework which describes how advertising message strategies affect customers’ emotions and attitude ultimately lead to customer engagement. In other words, the framework provides an explanation of 178 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the advertising message strategies which firms can use to drive customer engagement for its benefit. The framework is grounded in and based on the stimulus-organism-response model. A further contribution of this study comes from the empirical evidence from a developing country context in sub-Saharan Africa. The distribution of literature in the current research strongly reveals that most of the extant works are concentrated in North America, Australasia, Europe, and fewer still in Asia. Africa, the Middle East and South America are less represented regions. Within these regions, there are differences with respect to the number of articles per country. Studies from North America, for example, emanate from the United States of America (USA) and Canada; those from Europe come from countries such as The Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany, Lithuania, United Kingdom, Austria, Spain, France, Finland, Russia, Norway and Italy. Those from Asia stem from China, India, Hong Kong, Korea and Singapore. In the last year (2018-2019), a few studies from Africa (particularly Ghana and South Africa) and the Middle East (United Arab Emirates) surfaced. South America seems to not be represented as yet in the research pool. A critical look at the distribution of both conceptual and empirical studies on customer engagement suggests a major focus on developed economies (Europe, North America and Australia). As a result, there is relatively scarce evidence from developing economy contexts (Barger et al., 2016; Islam & Rahman, 2016b). According to Islam and Rahman (2016b), the apparent lack of research emanating from Africa, the Middle East and South America is not surprising, considering that more often than not developing countries tend to lag behind their more advanced counterparts in respect of scholarly publications. Further, combining both 179 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conceptual and empirical papers, the USA tops the list with the highest number of peer-reviewed publications on the concept till date. In fact from 2005 when the concept first emerged in marketing literature until 2009, the United States was the only country churning out research on engagement. As a result, this current study provides evidence from a developing country context, filling a contextual gap in the literature and for which reason several calls were made (Islam & Rahman, 2016b; Barger et al., 2016). In addition, the study adds to the limited literature on message strategy and customer engagement. Whereas prior studies in the area took a broad approach and compared transmission to ritual message strategies, this current study employed a narrow approach, not comparing transmission and ritual strategies with each other, but rather comparing among transmission strategies and ritual strategies. The aim of this was to determine which transmission strategy and ritual strategy has the strongest effect on customer emotions, attitudes and subsequently customer engagement. In addition to making comparisons among the various transmission strategies and also ritual strategies, the study adds to marketing knowledge by providing evidence of effective strategies for hedonic and utilitarian products which prior research did not provide. Finally, the study contributes to the customer engagement literature by its use of the stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) model as the theory of choice. The review of literature revealed that as it pertains to theories, research in customer engagement is majorly driven by the social exchange, service-dominant (S-D) logic and 180 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh relationship marketing theories (Islam & Rahman, 2016; Barger et al., 2016). Additionally, by using Taylor’s (1999) typology of advertising message strategies, this study resolves the inconsistencies of prior research by utilising a typology long developed by advertising scholars. This typology has to a large extent been ignored by scholars studying message strategies and customer engagement (Taffesse & Wien, 2018). It is the contention of this study that the findings will spawn further discussions on advertising message strategy and customer engagement. 8.3.2 Implications for Management/Practice The findings from this study have important implications as far as management/practice is concerned. A number of practical managerial implications as far as advertising message strategies and customer engagement are concerned are provided. First of all, the study found that for hedonic products, the social message strategy is superior to both ego and sensory strategies in stimulating the emotions and attitude of customers. In addition, the study’s results showed that emotions (specifically pleasure) and attitude towards the advertisement have a positive and significant relationship with customer engagement, measured in terms of intention to purchase, intention to refer, intention to give feedback and intention to influence. It goes without saying, therefore, that the strategies with the greatest impact on emotions and attitude are the most potent in driving customer engagement. Accordingly, marketers should craft advertisements for hedonic products using the social message strategy in order to stimulate the emotions and 181 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh attitude of customers. By so doing, they will be able to generate customer engagement. The results of the study also revealed that when it comes to utilitarian products, all of the transmission message strategies had virtually the same degree of effect on emotions and attitude. There was no difference among the strategies. As a result, when advertising utilitarian products, marketers are at liberty to choose among the transmission strategies. 8.4 CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH LIMITATIONS This research concludes that there are differences in the degree to which ritual message strategies affect consumer emotions and attitudes. Specifically, the empirical findings of the research showed that among the three ritual strategies, the social strategy had the most effect on emotions and attitude towards the advertisement, followed by the ego and then finally the sensory. However, the Scheffe post hoc test in chapter 7 showed that the differences among them were only significant with respect to the social strategy. This finding was explained in light of the majorly collectivist culture from which the sample was taken. There was no significant difference in the effect of ego and sensory strategies on emotions and attitude. Transmission message strategies, on the other hand, were found to have virtually the same effect on attitudes and emotions. Finally, regarding the relationship between emotions, attitude towards the advertisement and customer engagement, the study found that pleasure and attitude towards the advertisement have a significantly positive effect on customer engagement. Hence the degree to which 182 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh customers feel pleasure and have a positive attitude towards an advertisement determines whether or not they will intend to engage with the brand. Arousal, however, was not significantly related to purchase intention. It was, however, significantly related to intention to refer, intention to influence and intention to give feedback. With these findings, it is safe to say that the social message strategy being the ritual message with the greatest effect on emotions and attitude is also has the greatest effect on customer engagement. Using the same logic, all transmission message strategies are therefore equal in their influence on customer engagement. This study was not carried out without limitations and they ought to be mentioned. According to researchers, acknowledging the limitations of a study provides key information which might be of use to future researchers (Woloshin & Schwartz, 2002; Odoom, 2015). First, the study adopted a single industry approach each, for both hedonic and utilitarian products. Hence it can be argued that findings from this study may only be applicable to the automobile and personal care industries. Secondly, the study created the six advertisements using one message strategy per advertisement, which means the research findings may not be applicable to other advertisements which employ more than one message strategy. 8.5 DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH The findings emanating from this research as well as the limitations outlined above suggest that there is the need for additional research in the area under study. In order 183 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to legitimately propose some directions as research implications, there is the need to reflect on the literature review presented in the third chapter of this study. First of all, it is apparent that studies on advertising message strategies and customer engagement are few. In addition, the previous chapters established that the few ones that exist in the literature compare the effectiveness of the broad categories of message strategy, specifically ritual and transmission strategies. They are for the most part silent with regard to the individual effectiveness of the several message strategies within the broad categories. As such, it has remained unclear the individual differences in the effects of these as it were “sub” message strategies. Further, the typologies of message strategies used in prior research have been criticised as not having a theoretical base and being fragmented. Though this study was a response to the call for more work on advertising message strategies and customer engagement, it contends that there still remains room for further research in the area. In particular, as the study designed the six adverts using only one message strategy per advert, further research can be done using several combinations of message strategies. It is the case that in some instances, more than one message strategy may be employed in an advertisement. As such it would not only be interesting but beneficial to explore the varying degrees of effectiveness of different combinations of advertising message strategy on emotions and attitude and subsequently customer engagement. In addition, further research could be conducted by expanding this study to other industries, such as the hospitality, finance, etcetera. 184 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Achterberg, W., Pot., A., Kerkstra, A., Ooms, M., Muller, M., & Ribbe, M. (2003). The effect of depression on social engagement in newly admitted Dutch nursing home residents. The Gerontologist, 43(2), 213-218. Ahn, A-Y. Wu, L., & Taylor, R. E. (2013). Communication strategies in cosmetic surgery websites: An application of Taylor’s six-segment message strategy wheel. Health Marketing Quarterly, 30, 97–113. Alsaggaf, M. A. (2017). Investigating customer intentions influenced by service quality: Using the mediation of emotional and cognitive responses in Saudi Arabia. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Brunel University, London. Amponsah-Twumasi, Y. 2016. Adoption and use of social media in manufacturing firms – some evidence from Kasapreko Company Limited and Guinness Ghana breweries limited. Unpublished Masters thesis. University of Ghana Anderson, E. T., & Simester, D. I. (2014). Reviews without a purchase: Low ratings, loyal customers, and deception. Journal of Marketing Research, 51(3), 249-269. Andonova, Y. (2016). Customer engagement: Perceived benefits and effect of individual and brand personality on engagement behaviours. Unpublished Doctoral thesis. Isenberg School of Management, University of Massachusetts Amherst Ansah, D. O. (2014). Why Ghanaian businesses need social media guidelines. Retrieved September 4, 2019, from https://mobile.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/Why-Ghanaian- Businesses-need-Social-media-Guidelines-334146. 185 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Araujo, T. Neijens, P., & Vliegenthart, R. (2015). What motivates consumers to re- tweet brand content?: The impact of information, emotion, and traceability on pass-along behaviour. Journal of Advertising Research, 55(3), 284 – 295. Arndt, J., 1985. On Making Marketing Science More Scientific : Role of Orientations, Paradigms, Metaphors, and Puzzle Solving. Journal of Marketing, 49(3), pp.11–23. Ashforth, B. E., & Humphrey, R. H. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: The influence of identity. Academy of management review, 18(1), 88-115. Ashley, C., & Tuten, T. (2015). Creative strategies in social media marketing: An exploratory study of branded social content and consumer engagement. Psychology and Marketing, 32(1), 15–27. Aslam, S. (2017). Twitter by the numbers: Stats, demographics & fun facts. Retrieved Oct 16, 2017 from https://www.omnicoreagency.com/twitter- statistics/ Assael, H. (1992). Consumer behaviour and marketing action. Boston, MA: PWS- Kent. Astin, A. W. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of college student personnel, 25(4), 297-308. Athiyaman, A. (1997). Linking student satisfaction and service quality perceptions: The case of university education. European Journal of Marketing, 31(7), 528- 540. Avison, W. R., McLeod, J. D., & Pescosolido, B. A. (Eds.). (2007). Mental health, social mirror. Springer Science & Business Media. 186 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Awang, Z. (2014). Is it compulsory to do EFA (Exploratory Factor Analysis) before applying the CFA (Confirmatory Factor Analysis)? Retrieved January 24, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/post/Is_it_compulsory_to_do_EFA_Explorat ory_Factor_Analysis_before_applying_the_CFA_Confirmatory_Factor_An alysis Axelson, R. D, & Flick, A. (2010). Defining student engagement. Change: The Magazine of higher learning, 43(1), 38-43. Bagozzi, R. P., Gopinath, M., & Nyer, P. U. (1999). The role of emotions in marketing. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 27, 184-206. Bagozzi, R., & Moore, D. J. (1994). Public Service Advertisements: Emotions and empathy guide prosocial behaviour. Journal of Marketing, 58(January), 56- 70. Bagozzi, R.P. 1986. Principles of marketing management. Chicago, United States of America: Science Research Associates. Bain, C. A., & Fountain, C. (2010). Engaging consumers in healthcare system design and reform: Moving beyond the rhetoric. International Journal of Behavioural and Healthcare Research, 2(2), 192-204. Baker, A. M., Donthu, N., & Kumar, V. (2016). Investigating how word-of-mouth conversations about brands influence purchase and retransmission intentions. Journal of Marketing Research, 53(2), 225-239. 187 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Baker, A. M., Donthu, N., & Kumar, V. (2016). Investigating how word-of-mouth conversations about brands influence purchase and retransmission intentions. Journal of Marketing Research, 53(2), 225-239. Baker, J., Grewal, D., & Parasuraman, A. (1994). The influence of store environment on quality inferences and store image. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 22(4), 328-339. Baker, J., Levy, M., & Grewal, D. (1992). An experimental approach to making retail store environmental decisions. Journal of Retailing, 68(4), 445-460. Bakker, I., van der Voordt, T., Vink, P., & de Boon, J. (2014). Pleasure, arousal, dominance: Mehrabian and Russell revisited. Current Psychology, 33(3), 405-421. Barasch, A. & Berger, J. (2014). Broadcasting and narrowcasting: How audience size affects what people share. Journal of Marketing Research, 51(3), 286- 299. Barger, V., Peltier, J. W., & Schultz, D. E. (2016). Social media and consumer engagement: A review and research agenda. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 10(4), 268-287. Batra, R., & Holbrook, M. B. (1990). Developing a typology of affective responses to advertising: A test of reliability and validity. Psychology and Marketing, 7(1), 11-25. Batra, R., & Ray, M. L. (1986). Affective responses mediating acceptance of advertising. Journal of consumer research, 13(2), 234-249 188 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Batra, R., Ahuvia, A., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2012). Brand love. Journal of Marketing, 76(2), 1-16. Bauer, R. A., & Greyser, S. A. (1968). Advertising in America, the consumer view Behboudi, M., Vazifehdoust, H., Najafi, K., & Najafi, M. (2014). Using rational and emotional appeals in online advertisements for Muslim customers. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 5(1), 97-124. Bejerholm, U., & Eklund, M. (2006). Engagement in occupations among men and women with schizophrenia. Occupational Therapy International, 13(2), 100- 121. Bejerholm, U., & Eklund, M. (2007). Occupational engagement in persons with schizophrenia: Relationships to self-related variables, psychopathology, and quality of life. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 61(1), 21-32. Belk, R. (1975). Situational variables and consumer behaviour. Journal of Consumer Research, 2, 157 – 162. Bitner, M. J. (1992). Servicescapes: The impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees. Journal of marketing, 56(2), 57-71. Bitter, S., & Grabner-Kräuter, S. (2016). Consequences of customer engagement behaviour: When negative Facebook posts have positive effects. Electron Markets, 26, 219–231. Bitter, S., Grabner-Kräuter, S., & Breitenecker, R. J. (2014). Customer engagement behaviour in online social networks – the Facebook perspective. International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations, 14(1-2), 197-220. 189 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2006). Consumer Behaviour, 10th ed., New York, NY: Dryden Press Blaikie, N. W. H. (2010) Designing Social Research (2nd edn). Campbridge, UK: SAGE Blasco-Arcas, L. Hernandez-Ortega, B. I., & Jimenez-Martinez, J. (2016). Engagement platforms: The role of emotions in fostering customer engagement and brand image in interactive media. Journal of Service Theory and Practice, 26(5), 559-589. Blazevic, V., Wiertz, C., Cotte, J., de Ruyter, K., & Keeling, D. I. (2014). GOSIP in cyberspace: Conceptualization and scale development for general online social interaction propensity. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 28(2), 87- 100. Bloemer, J., & De Ruyter, K. (1999). Customer loyalty in high and low involvement service settings: the moderating impact of positive emotions. Journal of marketing management, 15(4), 315-330. Boateng, H., & Okoe, A. F. (2015a). Determinants of consumers’ attitude towards social media advertising. Journal of Creative Communications, 10(3), 248- 258. Boateng, H., & Okoe, A. F. (2015b). Consumers’ attitude towards social media advertising and their behavioural response: The moderating role of corporate reputation. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 9(4), 299-312. 190 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bokpe, S. J. (2016). From Bedford to sleek cars: The story of Ghana’s auto industry. Retrieved July 21 2019 from https://www.graphic.com.gh/features/from- bedford-to-sleek-cars-the-story-of-ghana-s-auto-industry.html m industry. Bolton, R., & Saxena-Iyer, S. (2009). Interactive services: a framework, synthesis and research directions. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 23(1), 91-104. Borah, A. & Tellis, G. J. (2016). Halo (spillover) effects in social media: Do product recalls of one brand hurt or help rival brands? Journal of Marketing Research, 53(2), 143-160. Bowden, J. L. H. (2009). The process of customer engagement: A conceptual framework. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 17(1), 63-74. Bowden, J. L. H., Bowden, J. L. H., Conduit, J., Conduit, J., Hollebeek, L. D., Hollebeek, L. D., & Solem, B. A. (2017). Engagement valence duality and spillover effects in online brand communities. Journal of Service Theory and Practice, 27(4), 877-897. Bowden, J. L. H., Gabbott, M., & Naumann, K. (2015). Service relationships and the customer disengagement–engagement conundrum. Journal of Marketing Management, 31(7-8), 774-806. Boyd, H. W., Westfall, R., & Stasch, S. F. (2002). Marketing research: Text and cases. (7th ed.). Delhi, India: A. I. T. B. S. Brakus, J. J., Schmitt, B. H., & Zarantonello, L. (2009). Brand experience: what is it? How is it measured? Does it affect loyalty? Journal of marketing, 73(3), 52-68. 191 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Breidbach, C., Brodie, R., & Hollebeek, L. (2014). Beyond virtuality: From engagement platforms to engagement ecosystems. Managing Service Quality, 24(6), 592-611. Brennan, L., Voros, J. & Brady, E., 2011. Paradigms at play and implications for validity in social marketing research. Journal of Social Marketing, 1(2), pp.100–119. Brettel, M., Reich, J. C., Gavilanes, J. M., & Flatten, T. (2015). What drives advertising success on Facebook? An advertising effectiveness model measuring the effects on sales of ‘likes’ and other social network stimuli. Journal of Advertising Research, 55(2), 162-175. Brodie, R. J., Hollebeek, L. D., Jurić, B., & Ilić, A. (2011). Customer engagement: Conceptual domain, fundamental propositions, and implications for research. Journal of Service Research, 14(3), 252-271. Brodie, R. J., Ilic, A., Juric, B., & Hollebeek, L. (2013). Consumer engagement in a virtual brand community: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Business Research, 66(1), 105-114. Brooks, M. (1989). Instant Rapport: The NLP Program That Creates Intimacy, Persuasiveness. Power. Brunner-Sperdin, A., Scholl-Grissemann, U. S., & Stokburger-Sauer, N. E. (2014). The relevance of holistic website perception. How sense-making and exploration cues guide consumers' emotions and behaviours. Journal of Business Research, 67(12), 2515-2522. Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2015). Business research methods. Oxford university press 192 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bryson, C., & Hand, L. (2007a, July 8-11). Promoting student engagement. Paper presented at the Higher Education Research & Development Society of Australia Conference, Adelaide, Australia. Bryson, C., & Hand, L. (2007b). The role of engagement in inspiring teaching and learning. Innovations in education and teaching international, 44(4), 349- 362. Bunge, M. (1967). Scientific research 1: The search for system. New York: Springer-Verlag. Business Dictionary (2019). Theory. Retrieved August 3, 2019 from http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/theory.html Calder, B. J., Malthouse, E. C., & Schaedel, U. (2009). An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 23, 321 – 331. Cambra-Fierro, J. J., Melero-Polo, I., & Vázquez-Carrasco, R. (2013). Customer engagement: Innovation in non-technical marketing processes. Innovation, 15(3), 326-336. Cambra-Fierro, J. J., Melero-Polo, I., & Vázquez-Carrasco, R. (2013). Customer engagement: Innovation in non-technical marketing processes. Innovation, 15(3), 326-336. Cambra-Fierro, J., Melero, I., & Sese, F. J. (2015). Managing complaints to improve customer profitability. Journal of Retailing, 91(1), 109-124. 193 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Cambra-Fierro, J., Melero-Polo, I., & Vázquez-Carrasco, R. (2014). The role of frontline employees in customer engagement. Revista Española de Investigación de Marketing ESIC, 18(2), 67-77. Cambra-Fierro, J., Melero-Polo, I., Sese, F. J. (2015). Can complaint handling efforts promote customer engagement? Service Business, 9(3), 1 – 20. Car Ghana (2018). Most popular cars in Accra, Ghana. Retrieved July 20 2019 from https://www.carghana.com/en/posts/most-popular-cars-in-accra-ghana Carey, J. W. (1975). A cultural approach to communication. Communication, 2(December), 1-22. Carlson, J., Rahman, M., Voola, R., & De Vries, N. (2018). Customer engagement behaviours in social media: Capturing innovation opportunities. Journal of Services Marketing, 32(1), 83-94. Carroll, B. (2019). Super bowl: American football. Retrieved July 19, 2019 from https://www.britannica.com/sports/Super-Bowl Carvalho, M. A. M. (2016). Drivers of customer brand engagement: An application to virtual brand communities on Facebook. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal. Cassell, C., & Symon, G. (2006). Taking qualitative methods in organization and management research seriously. Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal, 1(1), 4-12 Catteeuw, F., Flynn, E., & Vonderhorst, J. (2007). Employee engagement: Boosting productivity in turbulent times. Organization Development Journal, 25(2) 151-157. 194 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CFAO Automotive (2019). CFAO motors Ghana: Presentation. Retrieved July 25, 2019 from http://www.cfao-automotive.com/en/subsidiaries/cfao-motors- ghana Chaffey, D. (2007). Customer engagement interview with Richard Sedley of cScape. Smart Insights. Retrieved July 20, 2018, from www.smartinsights.com/blog/customer-engagement/customer-engagement- interviewwith-richard-sedley-of-cscape/ Chakravarty, A., Kumar, A., & Grewal, R. (2014). Customer orientation structure for internet-based business-to-business platform firms. Journal of Marketing, 78(5), 1–23 Chakravarty, A., Liu, Y., & Mazumdar, T. (2010). The differential effects of online word-of-mouth and critics’ reviews on pre-release movie evaluation. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 24(3), 85-197. Chandler, J. D., & Robert F. Lusch (2015). Service systems: A broadened framework and research agenda on value propositions, engagement, and service experience. Journal of Service Research, 18(1) 6-22. Chang, H. J., Eckman, M., & Yan, R. N. (2011). Application of the stimulus- organism-response model to the retail environment: The role of hedonic motivation in impulse buying behaviour. The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, 21(3), 233-249. Chathoth, P. K., Ungson, G. R., Altinay, L., Chan, E. S., Harrington, R., & Okumus, F. (2014). Barriers affecting organisational adoption of higher order customer engagement in tourism service interactions. Tourism Management, 42(2), 181-193. 195 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chathoth, P. K., Ungson, G. R., Altinay, L., Chan, E. S., Harrington, R., & Okumus, F. (2014). Barriers affecting organisational adoption of higher order customer engagement in tourism service interactions. Tourism Management, 42, 181- 193. Chen, H. C., Chiu, H. C., & Wang, J. (2009). Exploring the elements of a story- form advertising and its effectiveness. Retrieved June 7, 2019 from http://www.myacme.org/ACMEProceedings09/p17.pdf Chen, Z., & Lurie, N. H. (2013). Temporal contiguity and negativity bias in the impact of online word of mouth. Journal of Marketing Research, 50(4), 463- 476. Cherry, K. (2019). Within-subject design experiments. Retrieved Mar 9, 2020 from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-within-subjects-design-27960141 Choi, H., & Kandampully, H. (2019). The effect of atmosphere on customer engagement in upscale hotels: An application of S-O-R paradigm. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 77, 40-50. Christ, W. G. (1985). Voter preference and emotion: Using emotional response to classify decided and undecided voters 1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15(3), 237-254. Christ, W. G., & Biggers, T. (1984). An exploratory investigation into the relationship between television programme preference and emotion-eliciting qualities – A new theoretical perspective. Western Journal of Communication, 48(3), 293-307. 196 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chu, S. C., Kamal, S., & Kim, Y. (2013). Understanding consumers' responses toward social media advertising and purchase intention toward luxury products. Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, 4(3), 158-174. Chu, S.C., Kamal, S. and Kim, Y. (2013), “Understanding consumers’ responses toward social media advertising and purchase intention toward luxury products”, Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 158-174. Chung, E. & Alagaratnam, S., 2001. “Teach ten thousand stars how not to dance”: a survey of alternative ontologies in marketing research. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 4(4), pp.224–234. Churchill, G. A. 1979. A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs. Journal of MarketingResearch16 (February): 64–73. Chwialkowska, A. (2017). Motivational drivers of engagement with company social media content: Cross-cultural perspective. Unpublished Doctoral thesis from University of Vaasa Faculty of Business Studies, Finland. Claffey, E., & Brady, M. (2014). A model of consumer engagement in a virtual customer environment. Journal of Customer Behaviour, 13(4), 325-346. Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(4), 751. Corley, K. G., & Gioia, D. A. (2011). Building theory about theory building: what constitutes a theoretical contribution? Academy of management review, 36(1), 12-32. 197 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Coulter, K. S., Gummerus, J., Liljander, V., Weman, E., & Pihlström, M. (2012). Customer engagement in a Facebook brand community. Management Research Review. Countrymeters (2019). Ghana Population. Retrieved July 19, 2019 from https://countrymeters.info/en/Ghana Crano, W. D., & Prislin, R. (2006). Attitudes and persuasion. Annual Review Psychology, 57, 345-374. Crawford, E. R., LePine, J. A., & Rich, B. L. (2010). Linking job demands and resources to employee engagement and burnout: a theoretical extension and meta-analytic test. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(5), 834. Crossan, F. (2003). Research philosophy: towards an understanding. Nurse researcher, 11(1), 46-55. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Design Issues, 8(1), 75-77. Cuillierier, A. (2016). Customer engagement through social media. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Helsinki Metropolia University of Applied Sciences, Helsinki, Finland. Cultures of West Africa (2018). History of the Ashanti: Empire and Colonization. Retrieved 20 July 2019 from https://www.culturesofwestafrica.com/history- ashanti-empire-colonization/ Cvijikj, I. P., & Michahelles, F. (2013). Online Engagement Factors on Facebook Brand Pages. Social Network Analysis and Mining, 3(4), 843-861. 198 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Dall’Olmo Riley, F., & De Chernatony, L. (2000). The service brand as relationships builder. British Journal of Management, 11(2), 137-150. Day, G. (1969). A two-dimensional concept of brand loyalty. Journal of Advertising Research, 9, 29-35. de Vries, N., & Carlson, J. (2014). Examining the drivers and brand performance implications of customer engagement with brands in the social media environment. Journal of Brand Management, 21(6), 495-515. Dei Worldwide (2008). Engaging consumers online: The impact of social media on purchasing behaviour. Dei worldwide, New York, NY. Delgado-Ballester, E., Munuera-Aleman, J. L., & Yague-Guillen, M. J. (2003). Development and validation of a brand trust scale. International Journal of Market Research, 45(1), 35-54. Demangeot, C., & Broderick, A. J. (2016). Engaging customers during a website visit: A model of website customer engagement. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 44(8), 814-839. Deshpande, R., 1983. Paradigms lost: on theory and method in research in marketing. Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp.101–110. Dessart, L. Veloutsou, C., & Morgan-Thomas, A. (2015). Consumer engagement in online brand communities: A social media perspective. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 24(1), 28-42. Dessart, L., Veloutsou, C., & Morgan-Thomas, A. (2016). Capturing consumer engagement: Duality, dimensionality and measurement. Journal of Marketing Management, 32(5-6), 399-426. 199 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DeVellis, R. F. (2017). Scale Development: Theory and Applications (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Devellis, R.F., 2003, Scale Development, Theory and Applications, 2nd Edition, (Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA). Dolan, R., Conduit, J., Fahy, J., & Goodman, S. (2016). Social media engagement behaviour: A uses and gratifications perspective. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 24(3-4), 261-277. Dolbec, P. Y., & Fischer, E. (2015). Refashioning afield? Connected consumers and institutional dynamics in markets. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(6), 1447-1468. Donovan, R. J., & Rositer, J. R. (1982). Store atmosphere: An environmental psychology approach. Journal of Retailing, 58(1), 34 – 57. Drossos, D. A., Giaglis, G. M., Vlachos, P. A., Zamani, E. D., & Lekakos, G. (2013). Consumer responses to SMS advertising: Antecedents and consequences. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 18(1), 105- 136. Drouvelis, M., & Grosskopf, B. (2016). The effects of induced emotions on pro- social behaviour. Journal of Public Economics, 134, 1-8 DVLA (2019). About us. Retrieved 21 July 2019 from http://www.dvla.gov.gh/about.php Dwiveldi, A. (2015). A higher-order model of consumer brand engagement and its impact on loyalty intentions. Journal of retailing and Consumer Services, 24, 100-109. 200 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College. Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt Brace: Jovanovich College Publishers Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., & Jackson, P. R. (2012). Management research. Sage. Effah, J. (2015, September 28). Philosophical assumptions in management research. Unpublished lecture notes, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana. Effah, K. (2015). Ghana's first automobile manufacturing company inaugurated. Retrieved July 25, 2019 from https://yen.com.gh/29529-ghanas-first- automobile-manufacturing-company-inaugrated.html#29529 Eisingerich, A. B., Chun, H. H., Liu, Y., Jia, H. M., & Bell, S. J. (2015). Why recommend a brand face-to-face but not on Facebook? How word-of-mouth on online social sites differs from traditional word-of-mouth. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(1), 120-128. Eisingerich, A. B., Chun, H. H., Liu, Y., Jia, H. M., & Bell, S. J. (2015). Why recommend a brand face-to-face but not on Facebook? How word-of-mouth on online social sites differs from traditional word-of-mouth. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(1), 120-128. Eisingerich, A. B., Chun, H. H., Liu, Y., Jia, H. M., & Bell, S. J. (2015). Why recommend a brand face-to-face but not on Facebook? How word-of-mouth on online social sites differs from traditional word-of-mouth. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(1), 120 – 128. 201 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Embassy of Ghana The Hague (2019a). History. Retrieved July 19, 2019 from https://www.ghanaembassy.nl/about-ghana/history/ Embassy of Ghana The Hague (2019b). F.A.Q. Retrieved July 19, 2019 from https://www.ghanaembassy.nl/faq/ Encyclopaedia Britannica (2019). Akan. Retrieved July 19, 2019 from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Akan Engage Customer (2008). Customer engagement summit 2018. Retrieved July 13, 2018, from https://engagecustomer.com/summits/2018-customer- engagement-summit-2-2/ Ephron, E. (2006). Want engagement? Media Week, 16(3), 12. Erat, P., Desouza, K. C., Schäfer-Jugel, A., & Kurzawa, M. (2006). Business customer communities and knowledge sharing: exploratory study of critical issues. European Journal of Information Systems, 15(5), 511-524. Eroglu, S. A., Machleit, K. A., & Davis, L. M. (2001). Atmospheric qualities of online retailing: A conceptual model and implications. Journal of Business Research, 54(2), 177–184. Eroglu, S. A., Machleit, K. A., & Davis, L. M. (2003). Empirical testing of a model of online store atmospherics and shopper responses. Psychology & marketing, 20(2), 139-150. Ertimur,B., & Gilly, M. C. (2012). So whaddya think? Consumers create ads and other consumers critique them. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 26(3), 115- 130. 202 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Escalas, J. E. (2004). Narrative processing: Building consumer connections to brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(1-2), 168-180. Facebook. (2017). Retrieved September 30, 2017, from http://newsroom.fb.com/Key-Facts Feilzer, Y., 2010. Doing Mixed Methods Research Pragmatically: Implications for the Rediscovery of Pragmatism as a Research Paradigm. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 4(1), pp.6–16. Fishbein, A. (1967). Readings in attitude theory and measurement. New York: Wiley Fournier, S. (1998). Consumers and their brands: Developing relationship theory in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 24(4), 343-353. Frank, F. D., Finnegan, R. P., & Taylor, C. R. (2004). The race for talent: Retaining and engaging workers in the 21st century. Human Resource Planning, 27(3), 12-25. Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59-109. Fredrickson, B. L. (2011). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press, Frijda, N. H. (2016). The evolutionary emergence of what we call “emotions”. Cognition and Emotion, 30(4), 609-620. 203 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Gambetti, R. C. & Graffigna, G. (2010). The concept of engagement: A systematic analysis of the ongoing marketing debate. International Journal of Market Research, 52(6), 801-826. Gautam, V. (2014). Is it compulsory to do EFA (Exploratory Factor Analysis) before applying the CFA (Confirmatory Factor Analysis)? Retrieved January 24, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/post/Is_it_compulsory_to_do_EFA_Explorat ory_Factor_Analysis_before_applying_the_CFA_Confirmatory_Factor_An alysis Gavilanes, J. M., Flatten, T. C., & Brettel, M. (2018). Content strategies for digital consumer engagement in social networks: Why advertising is an antecedent of engagement. Journal of Advertising, 47(1), 4-23. Gephart, R.P., 2004. Qualitative Research and the Academy of Management Journal. Academy of Management Journal, 47(4), pp.454–462. Ghana Country Commercial Guide. (2019). Ghana-oil and gas. Retrieved Sep 22, 2019, from https://www.export.gov/article?id=Ghana-Oil-and-Gas. Ghana Export Promotion Authority (2019). Suzuki, Toyota & CFAO join hands to produce vehicles in Ghana. Retrieved July 17, 2019 from https://www.gepaghana.org/suzuki-toyota-cfao-join-hands-to-produce- vehicles-in-ghana/ Ghana Guardian (2018). Vacancy: AirtelTigo job vacancy: Customer engagement manager. Retrieved September 4, 2019 from https://jobs.ghanaguardian.com/2261/airteltigo-job-vacancy-customer- engagement-manager 204 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana Statistical Service (2019). Quick Overview. Retrieved Jul 19, 2019 from http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/ GhanaWeb (2018). New policy for automotive industry as Ghana gets 3 vehicle assembling plants in 2019. Retrieved July 17, 2019 from https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/business/New-policy-for- automotive-industry-as-Ghana-gets-3-vehicle-assembling-plants-in-2019- 707289. Ghauri, P., & Grønhaug, K. (2005). Research methods in business studies: A practical guide. (3rd ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited. Gioia, D. A., & Pitre, E. (1990). Multiparadigm perspectives on theory building. Academy of management review, 15(4), 584-602. GNA (2018). Over 1 million vehicles imported into Ghana in 10 years. Retrieved 20 July 2019 from https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/over-1- million-vehicles-imported-into-ghana-in-10-years.html Goi, M. T., Kalidas, V., & Zeeshan, M. (2014). Comparison of stimulus-organism- response framework between international and local retailer. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 130, 461-468. Golan, G. J., & Zaidner, L. (2008). Creative strategies in viral advertising: An application of Taylor’s six-segment message strategy wheel. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(4), 959 – 972. Goldsmith, R. E., Pagani, M., & Lu, X. (2013). Social network activity and contributing to an online review site. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 7(2), 100-118. 205 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Goulding, C., 1999. Consumer research, interpretive paradigms and methodological ambiguities. European Journal of Marketing, 33(9/10), pp.859–873. Graham, J., & Havlena, W. (2007). Finding the “missing link”: Advertising's impact on word of mouth, web searches, and site visits. Journal of Advertising Research, 47(4), 427-435. Greenwood, M. (2007). Stakeholder engagement: Beyond the myth of corporate responsibility. Journal of Business ethics, 74(4), 315-327. Groeger, L., Moroko, L & Hollebeek, L. D. (2016). Capturing value from non- paying consumers’ engagement behaviours: Field evidence and development of a theoretical model. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 24(3-4), 190-209. Gronroos, C. (1997). Keynote paper: From marketing mix to relationship marketing – towards a paradigm shift in marketing. Management Decision, 35(4), 322– 339. Guest, L. P. (1944). A study of brand loyalty. Journal of Applied Psychology, 28, 16-27. Guo, L. Zhang, M., & Wang, Y. (2016). Effects of customers’ psychological characteristics on their engagement behavior in company social networks. Social Behavior and Personality, 44(10), 1661-1670. Gupta, S., Lehmann, D. R., & Stuart, J. A. (2004). Valuing customers. Journal of Marketing Research, 41(1), 7–18. 206 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Gustafsson, A., Johnson, M. D., & Roos, I. (2005). The effects of customer satisfaction, relationship commitment dimensions, and triggers on customer retention. Journal of marketing, 69(4), 210-218. Ha, Y., & Lennon, S. J. (2010). Online visual merchandising (VMD) cues and consumer pleasure and arousal: Purchasing versus browsing situation. Psychology and Marketing, 27(2), 141–165. Hair Jr., J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. (7th ed.). Upper saddle river, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Hair Jr., J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis. (6th ed.). Upper saddle river, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Hair Jr., J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis. (6th ed.). Upper saddle river, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., and Anderson, R. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.): Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA. Halaszovich, T., & Nel, J. (2017). Customer–brand engagement and Facebook fan- page “like”-intention. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 26(2), 120- 134. Hall, M., Elliot, K., & Meng, J. G. (2017). Using the PAD (pleasure, arousal, and dominance) model to explain Facebook attitudes and use intentions. The Journal of Social Media in Society, 6(1), 144-169. 207 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hambrick, D. C. (2007). The field of management's devotion to theory: Too much of a good thing? Academy of Management Journal, 50(6), 1346-1352. Hamilton, R., Vohs, K. D., & McGill, A. L. (2014). We’ll be honest, this won’t be the best article you’ll ever read: The use of dispreferred markers in word-of- mouth communication. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(1), 197-212. Hammedi, W., Kamdampully, J., Zhang, T. T., & Bouquiaux, L. (2015). Online customer engagement: Creating social environments through brand community constellations. Journal of Service Management, 26(5), 777 – 806. Harrigan, P., Evers, U., Miles, M., & Daly, T. (2017). Customer engagement with tourism social media brands. Tourism Management, 59, 597-609. Harrigan, P., Evers, U., Miles, M., & Daly, T. (2017). Customer engagement with tourism social media brands. Tourism Management, 59, 597-609. Harris, A. D., McGregor, J. C., Perencevich, E. N., Furuno, J. P., Zhu, J., Peterson, D. E., & Finkelstein, J. (2006). The use and interpretation of quasi- experimental studies in medical informatics. Journal of American Medical Informatics Association, 13(1), 16-23. Harrison, R.L. & Reilly, T.M., 2011. Mixed methods designs in marketing research. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 14(1), pp.7–26. Harrison, R.L. & Reilly, T.M., 2011. Mixed methods designs in marketing research. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 14(1), pp.7–26. Haughn, M. (2017). Web 2.0. Retrieved September 20, 2017 from: http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/Web-20-or-Web-2 208 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh He, S. X., & Bond, S. D. (2013). Word-of-mouth and the forecasting of consumption enjoyment. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 23(4), 464-482. Healy, M. & Perry, C., 2000. Comprehensive criteria to judge validity and reliability of qualitative research within the realism paradigm. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 3(3), pp.118–126 Heath, R. (2009). Emotional engagement: How television builds big brands at low attention. Journal of Advertising Research, 49(1), 62–73 Heinonen, K. (2017). Positive and negative valence influencing consumer engagement. Journal of Service Theory and Practice, 2055-6225. Higgins, E. T., & Scholer, A. A. (2009). Engaging the consumer: the science and art of the value creation process. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(2), 100-114. Hinson, R., Boateng, H., Renner, A., & Kosiba, J. P. B. (2019). Antecedents and consequences of customer engagement on Facebook: An attachment theory perspective. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 13(2), 204-226. Hoe, S. L. (2008). Issues and Procedures in Adopting Structural Equation Modeling Technique. Journal of Applied Quantitative Methods, 3, 76-83. Hogan, J. E., Lemon, K. N., & Libai, B. (2003). What is the true value of a lost customer? Journal of Service Research, 5(3), 196–208. Holbert, R. L., & Stephenson, M. T. (2003). The importance of indirect effects in media effects research: Testing for mediation in structural equation modelling. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47(4), 556-572. 209 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Holbrook, M. B., & Batra, R. (1987). Assessing the role of emotions as mediators of consumer responses to advertising, Journal of Consumer Research, 14(December), 404-420. Holbrook, M. B., & O'Shaughnessy, J. (1984). The role of emotion in advertising. Psychology & Marketing, 1(2), 45-64. Holbrook, M. B., Chestnut, R. W., Olivia, T. A., & Greenleaf, E. A. (1984). Play as a consumption experience: The roles of emotions, performance, and personality in the enjoyment of games. Journal of Consumer Research, 11(2), 728-739. Holden, T. M. and Lynch, P. (2004): Choosing the Appropriate Methodology: Understanding Research Philosophy. The Marketing Review. 4(4). 397-409. Hollebeek, L. (2011). Exploring customer brand engagement: Definition and themes. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 19(7), 555-573. Hollebeek, L. D. (2012). Demystifying ‘brand usage engagement’ in social networking contexts: conceptualisation, scale development & validation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. Hollebeek, L. D., & Rajendra K. Srivastava & Tom Chen. (2016c). S-D logic– informed customer engagement: integrative framework, revised fundamental propositions, and application to CRM. Journal of the Academy Marketing Science, 210 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hollebeek, L. D., Glynn, M. S., & Brodie, R. J. (2014). Consumer brand engagement in social media: Conceptualization, scale development and validation. Journal of interactive marketing, 28(2), 149-165. Hsieh, J. K. (2017). The role of customers in co-creating m-services in the 020 model. Journal of Service Management, 28(5), 866-883. Hu, S. P. (2010). Scholarship awards, college choice, and student engagement in college activities: A study of high-performing low-income students of colour. Journal of College Student Development, 51(2), 150-161. Huang, J., Su, S., Zhou, L., & Liu, X. (2013). Attitude toward the viral ad: Expanding traditional advertising models to interactive advertising. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 27(1), 36-46. Huang, L. T. (2016). Flow and social capital theory in online impulse buying. Journal of Business Research, 69(6), 2277-2283. Huang, M., Ali, R., & Liao, J. (2017). The effect of user experience in online games on word of mouth: A pleasure-arousal-dominance (PAD) model perspective, Computers in Human Behaviour, Hunt, S. D. (1991). Modern marketing theory: Critical issues in the philosophy of marketing science. Cincinnati, OH: Southwestern Publishing. Hunt, S.D., 1991. Modern Marketing Theory: Critical Issues in the Philosophy of Marketing Science. Southwestern Publishing, Cincinnati, OH Hunt, S.D., 1991. Positivism and Paradigm Dominance in Consumer Research: Toward Critical Pluralism and Rapprochement. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), pp.32–44. 211 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Huo, Y. J., Binning, K. R., & Molina, L. E. (2009). Testing an integrative model of respect: implications for social engagement and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(10), 1-13. Hwang, J. S., McMillan, S. J., & Lee, G. (2003). Corporate websites as advertising: An analysis of function, audience, and message strategy. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 3(2), 10 – 23. Hwang, J., Han, H., & Kim, S. (2015). How can employees engage customers? Application of social penetration theory to the full-service restaurant industry by gender. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(6), 1117-1134. Ilic, A. (2008). Towards a conceptualisation of consumer engagement in online communities: A netnographic study of vibration training online community. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Auckland (Department of Marketing), Auckland, New Zealand. Islam, J. U., & Rahman, Z. (2016a). Linking customer engagement to trust and word-of-mouth on Facebook brand communities: An empirical study. Journal of Internet Commerce, 15(1), 40-58. Islam, J. U., & Rahman, Z. (2016b). The transpiring journey of customer engagement research in marketing: A systematic review of the past decade. Management Decision, 54(8), 2008-2034. Islam, J. U., & Rahman, Z. (2017). The impact of online brand community characteristics on customer engagement: An application of stimulus- organism-response paradigm. Telematics and Informatics, 34(4), 96-109. 212 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Izard, Carroll E. (1977), Human Emotions, New York: Plenum. Izquierdo-Yusta, A., Olarte-Pascual, C., & Reinares-Lara, E. (2015). Attitudes toward mobile advertising among users versus non-users of the mobile Internet. Telematics and Informatics, 32(2), 355-366. Jacoby, J. (2002). Stimulus-organism-response considered: An evolutionary step in modelling (consumer) behaviour. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 12(1), 51 – 57. Jahn, B., & Kunz, W. (2012). Online brand fandom on social networking sites: the impact of fan page usage and engagement on customer relationships. In Marketing Theory and Applications Proceedings of 2012 AMA Winter Educators’ Conference (Vol. 23, pp. 188-189). Jang, S. S., & Namkung, Y. (2009). Perceived quality, emotions, and behavioral intentions: Application of an extended Mehrabian–Russell model to restaurants. Journal of Business Research, 62(4), 451-460. Javornik, A., & Mandelli, A. (2012). Behavioral perspectives of customer engagement: An exploratory study of customer engagement with three Swiss FMCG brands. Journal of Database Marketing & Customer Strategy Management, 19(4), 300-310. Jennings, M. K., & Stoker, L. (2004). Social trust and civic engagement across time and generations. Acta Politica, 39(4), 342-379. Jennings, M. K., & Zeitner, V. (2003). Internet use and civic engagement: A longitudinal analysis. Public Opinion Quarterly, 67 (3), 311-334. 213 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Jiménez, F. R., & Mendoza, N. A. (2013). Too popular to ignore: The influence of online reviews on purchase intentions of search and experience products. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 27(3), 226-235. Johar, J. S., & Sirgy, M. J. (1991). Value-expressive versus utilitarian advertising appeals: When and why to use which appeal. Journal of advertising, 20(3), 23-33. Johnson RA, Wichern DW (1998). “Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis, 4th ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc Johnson, M. D., & Fornell, C. (1991). A framework for comparing customer satisfaction across individuals and product categories. Journal of economic psychology, 12(2), 267-286. Joshi, A. W., & Sharma, S. (2004). Customer knowledge development: antecedents and impact on new product performance. Journal of Marketing, 68(4), 47– 59. Ju, I., & Park, J. S. (2015). Communication strategies in direct-to-consumer prescription drug advertising (DCTA): Application of the six segment message strategy wheel. Journal of Health Communication, 20(5) 546 – 554. Juneja, P. (2020). Relationship Marketing – Background and Theory. Retrieved Mar 23, 2020, from https://www.managementstudyguide.com/relationship- marketing-background-and-theory.htm Jurca, M. A., & Madlberger, M. (2015). Ambient advertising characteristics and schema incongruity as drivers of advertising effectiveness. Journal of Marketing Communications, 21(1), 48-64. 214 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kabadayi, S., & Price, K. (2014). Consumer – brand engagement on Facebook: Liking and commenting behaviours. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 8(3), 203-223. Kamboj, S., Sarmah, B., Gupta, S., & Dwivedi, Y. (2018). Examining branding co- creation in brand communities on social media: Applying the paradigm of Stimulus-Organism-Response. International Journal of Information Management, 39, 169-185. Kane, B. H. (Major) (2008). Comprehensive engagement: A winning strategy. Future war paper, May 2007-08, United States Marine Corps. Retrieved September 17, 2019 from http://www.dtic.mil/cgi- bin/GetTRDoc?AD¼ADA504901&Location¼U2&doc¼GetTRDoc. pdf Kelly, L., Kerr, G., & Drennan, J. (2010). Avoidance of advertising in social networking sites: The teenage perspective. Journal of interactive advertising, 10(2), 16-27. Kemp, S. (2020). Digital 2020: Ghana. Retrieved April 28, 2020 from https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2020-ghana Khang, H., Ki, E-J., & Ye (2012). Social media research in advertising, communication, marketing and public relations, 1997-2010. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 89(2), 279 – 298. Kiehl, K. A., Smith, A. M., Hare, R. D., Mendrek, A., Foster, B. B., Brink, J., & Liddle, P. F. (2001). Limbic abnormalities in affective processing by criminal psychopaths as revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Biological Psychiatry, 50(9), 677-684. 215 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kilger, M., & Romer, E. (2007). Do measures of media engagement correlate with product purchase likelihood? Journal of Advertising Research, 47(3), 313– 325. Kim, D. H., Spiller, L., & Hettche, M. (2015). Analysing media types and content orientations in Facebook for global brands. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 9(1), 4-30. Kim, J., & Lennon, S. J. (2013). Effects of reputation and website quality on online consumers' emotion, perceived risk and purchase intention: Based on the stimulus-organism-response model. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 7(1), 33-56. Kim, J., Ahn, S. J., Kwon, E. S., & Reid, L. N. (2017). TV advertising engagement as a state of immersion and presence. Journal of Business Research, 76, 67 – 76. Kim, J., McMillan, S. J., & Hwang, J. S. (2005). Strategies for the super bowl of advertising: An analysis of how the web is integrated into campaigns. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 6(1), 46-60. King, G., R.O. Keohane, and S. Verba, The Importance of Research Design in Political Science. American Political Science Review, 1995. 89(02): p. 475- 481 Klein, K., & Melnyk, V. (2016). Speaking to the mind or the heart: effects of matching hedonic versus utilitarian arguments and products. Marketing Letters, 27(1), 131-142. 216 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kleinbaun DG, Kupper LL, Muller KE (1998). “Applied Regression Analysis and other Multivariate Methods”: Duxbury Press. Koo, D. M., & Ju, S. H. (2010). The interactional effects of atmospherics and perceptual curiosity on emotions and online shopping intention. Computers in Human Behaviour, 26(3), 377-388. Kosiba, J. P., Boateng, H., Okoe, A. F., & Hinson, R. (2018). Trust and customer engagement in the banking sector in Ghana, The Service Industries Journal, 1-14. Kotler, P. (1965). Behavioural models for analysing buyers. Journal of Marketing 29(4), 37-45. Kotler, P. (2000). Consumer market and consumer behaviour. In Principles of marketing (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Krauss, S.E. & Putra, U., 2005. Research Paradigms and Meaning Making : A Primer. The Qualitative Report, 10(4), pp.758–770. Kronrod, A., & Danziger, S. (2013). ‘Wii will rock you!’ The use and effect of figurative language in consumer reviews of hedonic and utilitarian consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(4), 726-739. Kumar, V. (2013). Profitable customer engagement: Concept, metrics and strategies. India: SAGE Publications. Kumar, V. (2015). Evolution of marketing as a discipline: What has happened and what to look out for. Journal of Marketing, 79(1), 1-9. Kumar, V., & Bhagwat, Y. (2010). Listen to the customer. Marketing Research, 22(2), 14–19. 217 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kumar, V., & Pansari, A. (2016). Competitive advantage through engagement. Journal of Marketing Research, LIII(August), 497–514. Kumar, V., Aksoy, L., Donkers, B., Venkatesan, R., Wiesel, T., & Tillmanns, S. (2010). Undervalued or overvalued customers: Capturing total customer engagement value. Journal of Service Research, 13(3), 297-310. Kumar, V., Venkatesan, R., & Reinartz, W. (2008). Performance implications of adopting a customer-focused sales campaign. Journal of Marketing, 72(5), 50–68. Labrecque, L. I., Vordem E. J., Mathwick, C., Novak, T. P., & Hofacker, C. F. (2013). Consumer power: Evolution in the digital age. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 27(4), 257-269. Ladhari, R. (2007). The effect of consumption emotions on satisfaction and word‐ of‐mouth communications. Psychology & Marketing, 24(12), 1085-1108. Lamberton, C., & Stephen, A. T. (2016). A thematic exploration of digital, social media and mobile marketing: Research evolution from 2000 to 2015 and an agenda for future inquiry. Journal of Marketing, 80(6), 146-172. Langley, D. J., Hoeve, M. C., Ortt, J. R., Pals, N., & vander Vecht, B. (2014). Patterns of herding and their occurrence in an online setting. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 28(1), 16-25. Larsen, R. J., & Diener, E. (1992). Promises and problems with the circumplex method of emotion. In M. S. Clark (Ed.), Review of Personality and Social Psychology, (13th ed., pp. 25-59). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publication. 218 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Laskey, H. A., Ellen, D., & Melvin, R. C-Sk. (1989). Typology of main message strategies for television commercials. Journal of Advertising 18(1), 36-41. Laurie, S., Mortimer, K., & Beard, F. (2019). Has advertising lost its meaning? Views of UK and US millennials. Journal of Promotion Management, 25(6), 765-782. Lee, R. P., & Grewal, R. (2004). Strategic responses to new technologies and their impact on firm performance. Journal of Marketing, 68(4), 157–171. Lee, S. F., & Tsai, Y. C. (2006). An empirical examination of customer perceptions of mobile advertising. Information Resources Management Journal, 19(4), 39-55. Lee, T., Taylor, R. E., & Chung, W. (2011). Changes in advertising strategies during an economic crisis: An application of Taylor’s six-segment message strategy wheel. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 39(1), 75 – 91. Lepkowska-White, E. (2013). Are they listening? Designing online recommendations for today’s consumers. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 7(3), 182-200. Leung, X. Y., Sun, J., & Bai, B. (2017). Biometrics of social media research: A co- citation and co-word analysis. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 66, 35-45. Li, H., Daugherty, T., & Biocca, F. (2002). Impact of 3-D advertising on product knowledge, brand attitude, and purchase intention: The mediating role of presence. Journal of advertising, 31(3), 43-57. 219 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Li, H., Edwards, S.M. and Lee, J.H. (2002), “Forced exposure and psychological reactance: antecedents and consequences of the perceived intrusiveness of pop-up ads”, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp. 83-95. Lin, T. M., Lu, K. Y., & Wu, J. J. (2012). The effects of visual information in eWOM communication. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 6(1), 7-26. Liu, Y., & Jang, S. S. (2009). Perceptions of Chinese restaurants in the US: what affects customer satisfaction and behavioural intentions? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(3), 338-348. London, B., Downey, G., & Mace, S. (2007). Psychological theories of educational engagement: A multi-method approach to studying individual engagement and institutional change. Vanderbilt Law Review, 60(2), 455-481. Lorenzo-Romero, C., Constantinides, E. & Alarcón-del-Amo, M. C. (2011). Consumer adoption of social networking sites: Implications for theory and practice. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 5(2/3), 170-188. Loureiro, S. M. C., & Ribeiro, L. (2014). Virtual atmosphere: The effect of pleasure, arousal, and delight on word-of-mouth. Journal of Promotion Management, 20(4), 452-469. Ludwig, S., de Ruyter, K., Friedman, M., Brüggen, E. C., Wetzels, M., & Pfann, G. (2013). More than words: The influence of affective content and linguistic style matches in online reviews on conversion rates. Journal of Marketing, 77(1), 87-103. 220 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Luthans, F., & Peterson, S. J. (2002). Employee engagement and manager self- efficacy: Implications for managerial effectiveness and development. Journal of Management Development, 21(5/6), 376-387. Lwin, M., & Phau, I. (2013). Effective advertising appeals for websites of small boutique hotels. Journal of Research in interactive Marketing, 7(1), 18-32. Macey, W. H., & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1(1), 3-30. MacKenzie, S. B., & Lutz, R. J. (1989). An empirical examination of the structural antecedents of attitude toward the ad in an advertising pretesting context. Journal of Marketing, 53(April), 48-65. Madden, T. J., Allen, C. T., & Twible, J. L. (1988). Attitude toward the Ad: An assessment of diverse measurement indices under different processing "sets". Journal of Marketing Research, 25(3), 242-252. Malhotra N. K., Dash S. (2011). Marketing Research an Applied Orientation. London: Pearson Publishing. Malhotra, N. K. (2007). Marketing research: An applied orientation. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Mano, H. (1990). Emotional states and decision making. ACR North American Advances. Maposa, Daniel & Mudimu, Edinah & Ngwenya, Olina. (2010). A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) of the performance of sorghum lines in different agro- ecological regions of Zimbabwe. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 5. 196-203. 221 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Marchegiani, C., & Phau, I. (2010). Effects of personal nostalgic response intensity on cognitions, attitudes, and intentions. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 4(3), 241-256. Markman, J. (2012). How many businesses are using Twitter? Retrieved November 7, 2017 from: https://www.quora.com/How-many-businesses-are-using- Twitter Matthews, G., Warm, J. S., Reinerman-Jones, L. E., Langheim, L. K., David A. Washburn, D. A., & Trippe, L. (2010). Task engagement, cerebral blood flow velocity, and diagnostic monitoring for sustained attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 16(2), 187-203. McDonald, L. M. and Lai, C. H. (2011). Impact of corporate social responsibility initiatives on Taiwanese banking customers. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 29(1), 50-63. Mehrabian, A. (1976). Questionnaire measures of affiliative tendency and sensitivity to rejection. Psychological Reports, 38(1), 199-209. Mehrabian, A. (1980). Basic dimensions for a general psychological theory: Implications for personality, social environmental, and developmental studies. Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain. Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J. (1974). An approach to environmental psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J. A. (1973). A measure of arousal seeking tendency. Environment and Behavior, 5(3), 315. 222 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Mehta, A. (2000). Advertising attitudes and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising Research, 1, 67-72. Melton, R. (2013). Exploring the impacts of fashion blog type and message type on female consumer response towards the brand. Unpublished Masters thesis, University of North Texas. Menon, S., & Khan, B. (2002). Cross-category effects of induced arousal and pleasure on the internet shopping experience. Journal of Retailing, 78(1), 31- 40. Merriam Webster Dictionary (2017). Definition of social media. Retreived September 20, 2017 from: https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/social%20media Miniero, G., Rurale, A., & Addis, M. (2014). Effects of arousal, dominance, and their interaction on pleasure in a cultural environment. Psychology & Marketing, 31(8), 628-634. Ministry of Finance (2019). Ghana is number one Fastest Growing Economy in Africa in 2019 – IMF. Retrieved July 19, 2019 from https://www.mofep.gov.gh/news-and-events/2019-04-10/ghana-is-number- one-fastest-growing-economy-in-africa-in-2019-imf Mitchell, A. A., & Olson, J. C. (1981). Are product attribute beliefs the only mediator of advertising effects on brand attitude? Journal of marketing research, 18(3), 318-332. 223 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Mitchell, A.A. and Olson, J.C. (1981), “Are product attributes the only mediator of advertising effects on brand attitude?”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 318-332. Mittal, B. (1995). A comparative analysis of four scales of consumer involvement. Psychology & marketing, 12(7), 663-682. Mollen, A., & Wilson, H. (2010). Engagement, telepresence and interactivity in online consumer experience: Reconciling scholastic and managerial perspectives. Journal of business research, 63(9), 919-925. Mondak, J. J., Hibbing, M. V., Canache, D., Seligson, M. A., & Anderson, M. R. (2010). Personality and civic engagement: An integrative framework for the study of trait effects on political behaviour. American Political Science Review, February, 1-26. Moore, S. G. (2015). Attitude predictability and helpfulness in online reviews: The role of explained actions and reactions. Journal of Consumer Research, 42(1), 30-44. Moorman, C., Deshpande, R., & Zaltman, G. (1993). Factors affecting trust in market research relationships. Journal of Marketing, 57(1), 81-101. Moorman, C., Zaltman, G., & Deshpande, R. (1992). Relationships between providers and users of market research: The dynamics of trust within and between organisations. Journal of Marketing Research, 29(3), 314-328. Moreau, C. P. (2011). Inviting the amateurs into the studio: Understanding how consumer engagement in product design creates value. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 28(3), 409-410. 224 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Morgan, D.L., 2007. Paradigms Lost and Pragmatism Regained: Methodological Implications of Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), pp.48–76. Morgan, R. M., & Hunt, S. D. (1994). The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing. Journal of Marketing, 58(3), 20-38. Morrison, M., & White, C. (2000, August). Super.Com: An analysis of message strategies utilized in super bowl ads for dot.com companies. Paper presented at the National Conference of the Association for Education in Journalism & Mass Communication, Phoenix, AZ. Mortazavi, M., Esfidani, M. R., & Barzoki, A. S. (2014). Influencing VSN users’ purchase intentions. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 8(2), 102- 123. MSI (2010). 2010-2012 Research Priorities, Marketing Science Institute, Boston, MA. MSI (2014). 2014-2016 Research Priorities, Marketing Science Institute, Boston, MA. MSI (2016). 2016-2018 Research priorities, Marketing Science Institute, Boston, MA. Muehling, D. D. (1987). An Investigation of Factors Underlying Attitude-Toward- Advertising-in-General. Journal of Advertising, 16(1), 32–40. Muntinga, D. G., Moorman, M., & Smit, E. G. (2011). Introducing COBRAs: Exploring motivations for brand-related social media use. International Journal of Advertising, 30, 13-46. 225 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Myers, M. D. (2013). Qualitative research in business and management. Sage. Neff, J. (2007). OMD proves the power of engagement. Advertising Age, 78(27), 3–4. Nunnally, J. L. 1979. Psychometric Theory.New York:McGraw-Hill O’Connor, S. Ferguson, E., Carney, T., House, E., & O’Connor, R. C. (2016). The development and evaluation of the paediatric index of emotional distress (PI- ##ED). Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric epidemiology, 51(1), 15-26. Odoom, R. (2015). Small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) branding and outcomes in Ghana – The role of resources and capabilities. Unpublished doctoral theses, University of Ghana. Odoom, R., & Tweneboah-Koduah, E. Y. (2018). Service Brand Orientation and Firm Performance: The Moderating Effects of Relationship Marketing Orientation and Customer Orientation. In Academy of Marketing Science World Marketing Congress (pp. 233-250). Springer, Cham. OEC (2019). Ghana. Retrieved Jul 17 from https://oec.world/en/profile/country/gha/ Ofcom (2008). Social networking: A quantitative and qualitative research report into attitudes, behaviors and use. Retrieved October 31 from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/02_04_08_ofcom.pdf. Okazaki, S., & Taylor, C. R. (2013). Social media and international advertising: Theoretical challenges and future directions. International Marketing Review, 30(1) 56 – 71. 226 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Olney, T. J., Holbrook, M. B., & Batra, R. (1991). Consumer responses to advertising: The effects of ad content, emotions and attitude toward the ad on viewing time. Journal of Consumer Research, 17(4), 440-453 Online etymology dictionary (n.d.). Engagement. Retrieved December 12, 2017 from https://www.etymonline.com/word/engagement Osei-Frimpong, K., & McLean, G. (2018). Examining online social brand engagement: A social presence theory perspective. Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 128, 10-21. Oviedo-García, M. A., Muñoz-Expósito, M., Castellanos-Verdugo, M., & Sancho- Mejías, M. (2014). Metric proposal for customer engagement in Facebook. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 8(4), 327-344. Packard, G., & Wooten, D. B. (2013). Compensatory knowledge signalling in consumer word-of-mouth. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 23(4), 434-450. Pagani, M., Goldsmith, R. E., & Hofacker, C. F. (2013). Extraversion as a stimulus for user-generated content. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 7(4), 242-256. Palmet, M., Ghasemi, S. Z. (2019). Driving online brand engagement, trust, and purchase intention on Instagram: The effect of social commerce marketing stimuli. Unpublished thesis. School of Business, Society and Engineering, Mälardalen University. Pansari, A., & Kumar, V. (2017). Customer engagement: The construct, antecedents, and consequences. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 45, 294–311. 227 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L. (1988), “SERVQUAL: a multiple item scale for measuring consumer perception of service quality”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 64 No. 1, pp. 12-37. Park, J. K., & John, D. R. (2012). Capitalizing on brand personalities in advertising: The influence of implicit self-theories on ad appeal effectiveness. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(3), 424-432. Patterson, P., Yu, T., & de Ruyter, K. (2006, December 4-6). Understanding customer engagement in services. Advancing Theory, Maintaining Relevance. Paper presented at the ANZMAC Conference, Brisbane, Australia. Peace FM (2015). Toyota dominates car sale in Ghana, online survey reveals. Retrieved July 19, 2019 from https://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/business/news/201509/255110.php Perez, A., & Del Bosque, I. R. (2015). An integrative framework to understand how CSR affects customer loyalty through identification. Journal of Business Ethics, 129(3), 571-584. Pérez, A., & Del Bosque, I. R. (2015). An integrative framework to understand how CSR affects customer loyalty through identification, emotions and satisfaction. Journal of Business Ethics, 129(3), 571-584. Petrides, K. V., Pita, R., & Kokkinaki, F. (2007). The location of emotional intelligence in personality factor space. British Journal of Psychology, 98(2), 273-289. 228 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likely model of persuasion. In Communication and persuasion (pp. 1-24). New York, NY: Springer Petty, R. E., DeSteno, D., & Rucker, D. D. (2001). The role of affect in attitude change. In J. Forgas (Ed.), Handbook of affect and social cognition (pp. 212– 233). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Pham, M. T., Geuens, M. De Pelsmacker, P. (2013). The influence of ad-evoked feelings on brand evaluations: Empirical generalisations from consumer responses to more than 1,000 TV commercials. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 30(4), 383-394. Phillips, B. J., & McQuarrie, E. F. (2010). Narrative and persuasion in fashion advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(3), 368-392. Pinho, J. C. M. R., & Soares, A. M. (2013). Examining the technology acceptance model in the adoption of social networks. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 5(2/3), 116-129. Plutchik, R. (1980). Emotion: A psychoevolutionary synthesis. New York: Harper & Row. Poorrezaei, M. (2016). Customer engagement: Conceptualisation, measurement and validation. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, University of Salford, Manchester, United Kingdom. Porat, T., & Tractinsky, N. (2012). It's a pleasure buying here: The effects of web- store design on consumers' emotions and attitudes. Human–Computer Interaction, 27(3), 235-276. 229 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Prahalad, C. K., & Ramaswamy, V. (2004). Co-creation experiences: The next practice in value creation. Journal of interactive marketing, 18(3), 5-14. Proctor, T. (2005): Essentials of Marketing Research. 4th ed. USA: Pearson Educational Limited Prohaska, T. R., Anderson, L. A., & Binstock, R. H. (Eds.). (2012). Public health for an aging society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Purnawirawan, N., De Pelsmacker, P., & Dens, N. (2012). Balance and sequence in online reviews: How perceived usefulness affects attitudes and intentions. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 26(4), 244-255. Puto, C. P., & Wells, W. D. (1984). Informational and transformational advertising: The differential effects of time. ACR North American Advances. From http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/6323/volumes/v11/NA-11 PWC Ghana (2019). Industrial Manufacturing. Retrieved July 17, 2019 from https://www.pwc.com/gh/en/industries/industrial-manufacturing.html Rajaguru, R. (2014). Motion picture-induced visual, vocal and celebrity effects on tourism motivation: Stimulus organism response model. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19(4), 375-388. Ramsøy, T. Z., Liprot, M. G., Skimminge, A., Lund, T. E., Sidaros, K., Christensen, M. S., Baare, W., Paulson, O. B., Jernigan, T. L., & Siebner, H. R. (2012). Healthy aging attenuates task-related specialisation in the human medial temporal lobe. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(9), 1874-1889 Reisenzein, R. (2007). What is a definition of emotion? And are emotions mental- behavioural processes? Social Science Information, 46(3), 424-428 230 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Resnick, E. (2001). Defining engagement. Journal of International Affairs, 54(2), 551-566. Revolvy (n.d.). Pepsodent. Retrieved July 22, 2019 from https://www.revolvy.com/page/Pepsodent?cr=1 Reynolds, P. D. (1971). A primer in theory construction, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill Educational Publishing. Richins, M. L. (1997). Measuring emotions in the consumption experience. Journal of Consumer Research 24(2), 127-146. Roberts, C., & Alpert, F. (2010). Total customer engagement: Designing and aligning key strategic elements to achieve growth. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 19(3), 198-209. Rodgers, S., & Thorson, E. (2018). Special issue introduction: Digital engagement with advertising. Journal of Advertising, 47(1), 1 – 3. Rodgers, S., & Thorson, E. (2018). Special issue introduction: Digital engagement with advertising. Journal of Advertising, 47(1), 1-3. Rossiter, J. R., & Percy, L. (1978). Visual imaging ability as a mediator of advertising response. ACR North American Advances. Rotter, J. B. (1967). A new scale for the measurement of interpersonal trust. Journal of Personality, 35, 651-665. Ruane, L., & Wallace, E. (2013). Generation Y females online: Insights from brand narratives. Qualitative Market Research, 16(3), 315 – 335. 231 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Rusli, E. (2012). Facebook files for an I.P.O. The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2017 from: https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2012/02/01/facebook- files-for-an-i-p-o/ Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161-1178. Russell, J. A., & Feldman, B. L. (1999). Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 805–819. Russell, J. A., & Mehrabian, A. (1977). Evidence for a three-factor theory of emotions. Journal of research in Personality, 11(3), 273-294. Russell, J. A., & Pratt, G. (1980). A description of the affective quality attributed to environments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2), 311– 322. Russell, J. A., Ward, L. M., & Pratt, G. (1981). Affective quality attributed to environments. A factor analytic study. Environment and Behaviour, 13(3), 259–288. Russell, J. A., Weiss, A., & Mendelsohn, G. A. (1989). Affect grid: A single-item scale of pleasure and arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(3), 493–502. Russell, S. V., Young, C. W., Unsworth, K. L., & Robinson, C. (2017). Bringing habits and emotions into food waste behaviour. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 125, 107-114. 232 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sahoo, D., & Pillai, S. S. (2017). Role of mobile banking servicescape on customer attitude and engagement: An empirical investigation in India. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 35(7), 1113-1130. Saks, A. M. (2006). Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21(7), 600-619. Sama, R. (2018). Consumer engagement with various media & its effects on consumer behaviour in Gujarat. Doctoral thesis. Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad. Sashi, C. M. (2012). Customer engagement, buyer‐seller relationships, and social media. Management Decision, 50(2), 253-272. Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A., 2009. Research methods for business students, London, Prentice Hall. Sawhney, M., Verona, G., & Prandelli, E. (2005). Collaborating to create: The internet as a platform for customer engagement in product innovation. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 19(4), 4-17. Schaufeli, W. B., Martínez, I M., Pinto, A. M., Salanova, M., & Bakker, A. B. (2002b). Burnout and engagement in university students: A cross-national study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33(5), 464-481. Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002a). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71-92. 233 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Scherer, K. R. (1987). Toward a dynamic theory of emotion: The component process model of affective states. Geneva Studies in Emotion and Communication, 1, 1–98. Scherer, K. R. (2001). Appraisal considered as a process of multi-level sequential checking. In K.R. Scherer, A. Schorr & T. Johnstone (Eds.), Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research (pp. 92–120). New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695-729. Schivinski, B., & Dabrowski, D. (2015). The impact of brand communication on brand equity through Facebook. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 9(1), 31-53. Schmitt, P., Skiera, B., & Vanden Bulte, C. (2011). Referral programs and customer value. Journal of Marketing, 75(1), 46–59. Schultz, D. E. (2007). Focus on brand changes rules of engagement. Marketing News, 15(August), 7–8. Scott, J., & Craig-Lees, M. (2010). Audience engagement and its effects on product placement recognition. Journal of Promotion Management, 16(1/2), 39-58. Sedley, R. (2008). Six theses on digital customer engagement in a troubled economy. Retrieved May 22, 2018, from http://richard- sedley.iuplog.com/default.asp?item=298747 234 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Seraj, M. (2012). We create, we connect, we respect, therefore we are: Intellectual, social, and cultural value in online communities. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 26 (4), 209-222. Sharma S (1996). “Applied Multivariate Techniques”. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York. Shavitt, S. (1990). The role of attitude objects in attitude functions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26(2), 124-148. Shavitt, S. (1992). Evidence for predicting the effectiveness of value-expressive versus utilitarian appeals: A reply to Johar and Sirgy. Journal of Advertising, 21(2), 47-51. Sherman, E., Mathur, A., & Smith, R. B. (1997). Store environment and consumer purchase behaviour: Mediating role of consumer emotions. Psychology & Marketing, 14(4), 361-378. Shuttlesworth, M. (2009). Within subject design. Retrieved Mar 9, 2020, from https:explorable.com/within-subject-design Singh, K., Junnarkar, M., & Kaur, J. (2016). Measures of Positive Psychology, Development and Validation. Berlin: Springer Smith, A. N., Fischer, E., & Yongjian, C. (2012). How does brand-related user- generated content differ across YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter? Journal of Interactive Marketing, 26(2), 102-113. Smith, C. (2017). 90 Amazing Facebook page statistics and facts (July 2017). Retrieved November 6, 2017 from: https://expandedramblings.com/index.php/facebook-page-statistics/ 235 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Smith, C. A., & Ellsworth, P. C. (1985). Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(4), 813. Song, P., Xu, H., Techatassanasoontorn, A., & Zhang, C. (2011). The influence of product integration on online advertising effectiveness. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 10(3), 288-303. Sorensen, A., Andrews, L., & Drennan, J. (2017). Using social media posts as resources for engaging in value co-creation: The case for social media-based cause brand communities. Journal of Service Theory and Practice, 27(4), 898-922. Sprott, D., Czellar, S., & Spangenberg, E. (2009). The importance of a general measure of brand engagement on market behaviour: Development and validation of a scale. Journal of Marketing Research, 46(1), 92-104. Sun, S. and Wang, Y. (2010), “Examining the role of beliefs and attitudes in online advertising: a comparison between the USA and Romania”, International Marketing Review, Vol. 27 No. 1, pp. 87-107. Swani, K., Brown, B. P., & Milne, G. R. (2016). Should tweets differ from B2B and B2C? An analysis of Fortune 500 companies’ twitter communications. Industrial Marketing Management, 43(5), 873-881. Swani, K., Milne, G., & P. Brown, B. (2013). Spreading the word through likes on Facebook: Evaluating the message strategy effectiveness of Fortune 500 companies. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 7(4), 269-294. 236 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sweeney, J. C., & Wyber, F. (2002). The role of cognitions and emotions in the music-approach-avoidance behaviour relationship. Journal of Services Marketing 16(1), 51-69. Tabachnick, B., & Fidell, L. (2013). Using Multivariate Statistics. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc. Tadajewski, M., 2014. Paradigm debates and marketing theory, thought and practice: From the 1900s to the present day. Journal of Historical Research in Marketing, 6(3), pp.303–330. Tafesse, W. (2015). Content strategies and audience response on Facebook brand pages. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 33(6), 927-943. Tafesse, W., & Wien, A. (2018). Using message strategy to drive consumer behavioural engagement on social media. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 35(3), 241-253. Tang, J., Zhang, P., & Wu, P. F. (2015). Categorizing consumer behavioural responses and artefact design features: The case of online advertising. Information Systems Frontiers, 17(3), 513-532. Tang, T. Y., Fang, E. E., & Wang, F. (2014). Is neutral really neutral? The effects of neutral user-generated content on product sales. Journal of Marketing, 78(4), 41-58. Taylor, E., Tajitsu, N., Hummel, T., & Frost, L. (2019). Volkswagen delivered 10.8 million vehicles in 2018, eyes world No.1 spot Retrieved 20 July 2019 from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-volkswagen-sales/volkswagen-delivered- 10-8-million-vehicles-in-2018-eyes-world-no-1-spot-idUSKCN1P5111?il=0 237 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Taylor, R. E. (1999). A six segment message strategy wheel. Journal of Advertising Research, 39(6), 7-17. Thang, D. C. L., & Tang, B. L. B. (2003). Linking consumer perception to preference of retail stores: An empirical assessment of the multi-attributes of store image. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 10(4), 193-200. Thomas, J. D. (2011). Customer engagement leads to lower costs. Transmission & Distribution World, 63(3), 65-69. Trading Economics (2019). Ghana GDP. Retrieved July 19, 2019 from https://tradingeconomics.com/ghana/gdp Travel to Discover Ghana (2012). The history of Ghana in a snap. Retrieved July 17, 2019 from http://www.travel-to-discover-ghana.com/history-of- ghana.html Tronvoll, B. (2011). Negative emotions and their effect on customer complaint behaviour. Journal of Service Management, 22(1), 111-134. Tronvoll, B. et al., 2011. Paradigms in service research. Journal of Service Management, 22(5), pp.560–585. Trusov, M., Bucklin, R. E., & Pauwels, K. (2009). Effects of word-of-mouth versus traditional marketing: Findings from an internet social networking site. Journal of Marketing, 73(5), 90–102. Tsai, W. H. S., & Men, L. R. (2013). Motivations and antecedents of consumer engagement with brand pages on social networking sites. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 13(2), 76-87. 238 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tsai, W. H., & Lancaster, A. R. (2012). Message strategies in direct-to-consumer pharmaceutical advertising: A content analysis using Taylor’s six segment message strategy wheel. Health Marketing Quarterly, 29(3), 239 – 255. Tsai, Wan-Hsiu Sunny & Linjuan Rita Men (2017) Consumer engagement with brands on social network sites: A cross-cultural comparison of China and the USA, Journal of Marketing Communications, 23:1, 2-21 Tsang, M. M., Ho, S. C., & Liang, T. P. (2004). Consumer attitudes towards mobile advertising: An empirical study. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 8(3), 65-78. Tsotsis, A. (2011). Mark Zuckerberg explains his law of social sharing. Tech Crunch. Retrieved from https://techcrunch.com/2011/07/06/mark- zuckerberg-explains-his-law-of-social-sharing-video/ van der Pligt, J., van Schie, E., & Hoevenagel, R. (1998). Understanding and valuing environmental issues. The effects of availability and anchoring on judgment. Zeitschrift für experimentelle Psychologie. Van Doorn, J., Lemon, K. N., Mittal, V., Nass, S., Pick, D., Pirner, P., & Verhoef, P. C. (2010). Customer engagement behavior: Theoretical foundations and research directions. Journal of service research, 13(3), 253-266. Van Eijk, C. J., & Steen, T. P. (2014). Why people co-produce: Analysing citizens’ perceptions on co-planning engagement in health care services. Public Management Review, 16(3), 358-382. 239 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh van Tonder, E., & Daniël Johannes Petzer (2018): The interrelationships between relationship marketing constructs and customer engagement dimensions, The Service Industries Journal, 38(13-14), 1-26 VanMeter, R. A., Grisaffe, D. B., & Chonko, L. B. (2015). Of ‘likes’ and ‘pins’: The effects of consumers’ attachment to social media. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 32, 70-88. VanMeter, R. A., Grisaffe, D. B., & Chonko, L. B. (2015). Of ‘likes’ and ‘pins’: the effects of consumers’ attachment to social media. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 32, 70 – 88. Vargo, L., & Lusch, R. (2008). Service-dominant logic: Continuing the evolution. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36(1), 1-10. Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2016). Institutions and axioms: An extension and update of service-dominant logic. Journal of the Academy of marketing Science, 44(1), 5-23. Vaughn, R. (1980). How advertising works: A planning model. Journal of Advertising Research 20(5), 27-33. Vaughn, R. (1986). How advertising works: A planning model revisited.' Journal of Advertising Research 26, 1 57-66. Verhagen, T., Swen, E., Feldberg, F., & Merikivi, J. (2015). Benefitting from virtual customer environments: An empirical study of customer engagement. Computers in Human Behaviour, 48, 340-357. 240 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Verhoef, P. C., Lemon, K. N., Parasuraman, A., Roggeveen, A., Tsiros, M., & Schlesinger, L. A. (2009). Customer experience creation: Determinants, dynamics and management strategies. Journal of Retailing, 85(1). 31-41. Verhoef, P. C., Reinartz, W., & Krafft. (2010). Customer engagement as a new perspective in customer management. Journal of Service Research, 13(3), 247-252. Verleye, K., Gemmel, P., & Rangarajan, D. (2013). Managing engagement behaviours in a network of customers and stakeholders: Evidence from the nursing home sector. Journal of Service Research, 17(1), 68-84. Vieira, V. A. (2013). Stimuli–organism-response framework: A meta-analytic review in the store environment. Journal of Business Research, 66(9), 1420- 1426. Vieira, V. A. (2013). Stimuli–organism-response framework: A meta-analytic review in the store environment. Journal of Business Research, 66(9), 1420- 1426. Vivek, S. D. (2009). A scale of consumer engagement. Unpublished doctoral thesis, The University of Alabama, Alabama. Vivek, S. D., Beatty, S. E., & Morgan, R. M. (2012). Customer engagement: Exploring customer relationships beyond purchase. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 20(2), 122-146. Vivek, S. D., Beatty, S. E., Dalela, V., & Morgan, R. M. (2014). A generalised multidimensional scale for measuring customer engagement. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 22(4), 401-420. 241 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Voyles, B. (2007). Beyond loyalty: Meeting the challenge of customer engagement. Economist Intelligence Unit. Retrieved July 20, 2018, from http://www.adobe.com/engagement/pdfs/partI.pdf Wacker, J. G. (1998). A definition of theory: Research guidelines for different theory-building research methods in operations management. Journal of operations management, 16(4), 361-385. Wagner, C., & Majchrzak, A. (2007). Enabling customer-centricity using wiki the wiki way. Journal of Management Information Systems, 23(3), 17–43. Walsh, G., Shiu, E., Hassan, L. M., Michaelidou, N., & Beatty, S. E. (2011). Emotions, store-environmental cues, store-choice criteria, and marketing outcomes. Journal of Business Research, 64(7), 737-744. Wang, A. (2006). Advertising engagement: A driver of message involvement on message effects. Journal of Advertising Research, 46(4), 355-368. Wang, W., Chen, L., Thirunarayan, K., & Sheth, A. P. (2012, September 3-5). Harnessing twitter “big data” for automatic emotion identification. Paper presented at the International Conference on Privacy, Security, Risk and Trust and International Conference on Social Computing, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Wang, X. (2010). Effect of consumption experience on brand and loyalty: Research in repurchase of popular entertainment products. International Journal of Innovative Management, Information & Production, 1(1), 119-131. 242 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Wang, Y., & Sun, S. (2010a). Examining the role of beliefs and attitudes in online advertising: A comparison between the USA and Romania. International Marketing Review, 27(1), 87-107. Wang, Y., & Sun, S. (2010b). Assessing beliefs, attitudes, and behavioural responses toward online advertising in three countries. International Business Review, 19(4), 333-344. Wathieu, L., Brenner, L., Carmon, Z., Chattopadhyay, A., Wertenbroch, K., Drolet, A., & Wu, G. (2002). Consumer control and empowerment: a primer. Marketing Letters, 13(3), 297-305. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personal Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. Watson, L., & Spence, M. T. (2007). Causes and consequences of emotions on consumer behaviour: A review and integrative cognitive appraisal theory. European Journal of Marketing, 41(5/6), 487-511. Weigel, M. (2019). Has advertising lost its personality? Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.martinweigel.org/blog/has-advertising-lost-its-personality Wells, W, D. (1980). How advertising works. Chicago: Needham Harper Worldwide. Wirtz, J., den Ambtman, A., Bloemer, J., Horváth, C., Ramaseshan, B., van de Klundert, J., Canli, Z. G., & Kandampully, J. (2013). Managing brands and customer engagement in online brand communities. Journal of Service Management, 24(3), 223-244. 243 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Woodworth, R. S. (1929). Psychology. New York: Henry Holt. Wu, C. S., Cheng, F. F., & Yen, D. C. (2008). The atmospheric factors of online storefront environment design: An empirical experiment in Taiwan. Information and Management, 45(7), 493–498. Wu, K., Vassileva, J., Zhao, Y., Noorian, Z., Waldner, W., & Adaji, I. (2016). Complexity or simplicity? Designing product pictures for advertising in online marketplaces. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 28, 17-27. Wu, W. Y., Lee, C. L., Fu, C. S., & Wang, H. C. (2014). How can online store layout design and atmosphere influence consumer shopping intention on a website? International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 42(1), 4-24 Wu, Y. L., & Li, E. Y. (2018). Marketing mix, customer value, and customer loyalty in social commerce: A stimulus-organism-response perspective. Internet Research, 28(1), 74-104. Wyson, S., Beldona, S., & Kleiser, S. (2012). The influence of situational variables on brand personality choice. International Journal of Marketing Studies, 4(6), 103 – 115. Yalch, R. F., & Spangenberg, E. R. (2000). The effects of music in a retail setting on real and perceived shopping times. Journal of Business Research, 49(2), 139-147. Yoo, B., & Donthu, N. (2001). Developing and validating a multidimensional consumer-based brand equity scale. Journal of Business Research, 52(1), 1- 14. 244 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Zafeer, A. (2014). Mercedes-Benz S-class. Retrieved January 7, 2020 from https://www.slideshare.net/unique_presents/mercedes-benz-30566604 Zaichkowsky, J. L. (1985). Measuring the involvement construct. Journal of Consumer Research, 12(3), 341–352. Zeithaml, V. A. (1988). Consumer perceptions of price, quality and value: A means- end model and synthesis of evidence. Journal of Marketing, 52(3), 2-22. Zeng, F., Huang, L., & Dou, W. (2009). Social factors in user perceptions and responses to advertising in online social networking communities. Journal of interactive advertising, 10(1), 1-13. Zhang, H., Lu, Y., Gupta, S., & Zhao, L. (2014). What motivates customers to participate in social commerce? The impact of technological environments and virtual customer experiences. Information & Management, 51(8), 1017- 1030. Zhang, H., Lu, Y., Wang, B., & Wu, S. (2015). The impacts of technological environments and co-creation experiences on customer participation. Information & Management, 52(4), 468-482. Zhang, K., & Benyoucef, M. (2016). Consumer behaviour in social commerce: A literature review. Decision Support Systems, 86, 95-108. Zhang, S., Jiang, H., & Carroll, J. M. (2011, May 23-27). Integrating online and offline community through Facebook. Paper presented at the International Conference on Collaboration Technologies and Systems (CTS) IEEE, Philadelphia, PA. 245 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Zhao, Y., Yan, L., & Keh, H. T. (2018). The effects of employee behaviours on customer participation in the service encounter: The mediating role of customer emotions. European Journal of Marketing, 52(5/6), 1203-1222. Zimmerman, J. B. S. (2012). Using the S-O-R model to understand the impact of website attributes on the online shopping experience. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of North Texas, TX. Zimmerman, M. A., & Warschausky, S. (1998). Empowerment theory for rehabilitation research: Conceptual and methodological issues. Rehabilitation psychology, 43(1), 3. Zurek, K. (2018). Over 10 million Ghanaians use the internet – Report. Retrieved April 19, 2020, from https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/over- 10-million-ghanaians-using-the-internet-report.html 246 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES APPENDIX A – QUESTIONNAIRE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT AND ADVERTISING MESSAGE STRATEGY: AN APPLICATION OF THE STIMULUS ORGANISM RESPONSE MODEL Dear Sir/Madam, This is a survey instrument created by Anne Renner, a PhD student at the University of Ghana Business School, Legon. The purpose of this instrument is to explore advertising’s impact on customer engagement. The questionnaire is anonymous and there are no right or wrong answers. Information provided for the purposes of this research will be treated confidentially and used for academic purposes only. Kindly take a few minutes to fill out this questionnaire based on your objective opinion. Thank you for your cooperation. Please indicate the code for the ad you are responding to ……………………………………. Section A: General Information about respondent 1. Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ] 2. Age: 20-29 [ ] 30-39 [ ] 40-49 [ ] 50-59 [ ] over 59 [ ] 3. Educational Status: Professional [ ] Diploma [ ] Undergraduate [ ] Masters [ ] PhD [ ] Other, please specify…………………………………………………………………. Carefully study the advertisement. This section measures how you feel about the advertisement. Kindly select between each of the extreme emotions outlined below by ticking the number closest to the emotion you feel. 7 is the highest for the emotions on the right and 1 the highest for the emotions on the left. 4 is neutral. Emotions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Pleasure Angry Content Unhappy Happy Displeased Pleased Sad Glad Disappointed Delighted Uninterested Enthusiastic Arousal Indifferent Surprised Calm Excited Carefully study the advertisement. This section measures your attitude towards the advertisement. Kindly select between each of the extreme attitudes outlined below by 247 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ticking the number closest to the description of your attitude. 7 is the highest for the attitudes on the right and 1 the highest for the attitudes on the left. 4 is neutral Attitude 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Favourable Unfavourable Interesting Boring On a scale of 1-5, please indicate by ticking [√] the degree to which you agree or disagree with the following statements, 1= Strongly Disagree, 7= Strongly Agree Strongly Strongly Intention to Purchase Disagree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The likelihood of purchasing this [product] is high The probability that I would consider buying this [product] is high My willingness to buy the [product] is high I intend to buy this [product] Strongly Strongly Intention to Refer Disagree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I would promote this [product] I would refer this [product] to my family and friends Strongly Strongly Intention to Influence Disagree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I would actively comment about this [product] on any media I would comment about this [product] in my conversations Strongly Strongly Intention to give Feedback Disagree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I would provide feedback for developing this [product] 248 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B – ADVERTISEMENT AD 01 249 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX C – ADVERTISEMENT AD 02 250 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX D – ADVERTISEMENT AD 03 251 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX E – ADVERTISEMENT AD 04 252 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX F – ADVERTISEMENT AD 05 253 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX G – ADVERTISEMENT AD 06 254