14 Crops – LegumesGeorge Amponsah Annor,1 Zhen Ma,2 and Joyce Irene Boye2
1Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, Ghana
2Food Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,
Québec, Canada
14.1 Introduction production, respectively. Brazil was the leading producer
of dry beans in 2009. The leading producer of chickpeas in
Legumes belong to the family Leguminosae and consist of 2009 was India with 7,060,000MT. Cutting-edge research
oilseeds such as soybeans, peanuts, alfafa, clover, in plant breeding and agronomic practices in the last
mesquite, and pulses, including the dry grains of peas, several decades has allowed suitable varieties and cultivars
chickpeas, lentils, peas, beans, and lupins. Production for the North American climate to be identified, which
and use of legumes date back to ancient cultures in Asia, has resulted in marked increases in legume production
the Middle East, South America, and North Africa. They in the region. Although a large percentage of the legumes
are cultivated throughout the world for their seeds, produced in North America are exported, there is growing
harvested and marketed as primary products. Grain interest in expanding domestic consumption, due to
legumes are grouped into pulses and oilseeds. The pulses increased awareness of their health benefits.
are different from the leguminous oilseeds, which are Legumes have a special place in the diet of humans,
primarily utilized for oil (Schneider, 2002). There are about because they contain nearly 2–3 times more protein
1300 species of legumes, with only about 20 commonly than cereals (Reyes-Moreno & Paredes-Lopez, 1993).
consumed by humans (Reyes-Moreno & Paredes-Lopez, Cowpeas, for example, contain about 25% protein
1993). Notable amongst legume species are chickpeas (Annor et al., 2010). Legumes are also excellent sources
(Cicer arietinum), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), lentil (Lens of complex carbohydrates and have been reported as
culinaris), mung bean (Vigna radiata), soybean (Glycine beneficial for cardiovascular diseases and diabetes by
max), winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonoloba), cowpea some researchers (Hu, 2003; Jacobs & Gallaher, 2004),
(Vigna unguiculata), pea (Pisum sativum), groundnut probably due to the large amounts of water-soluble fiber
(Arachis hypogaea), and black gram (Vigna mungo), to and a large content of phenolics (Enujiugha, 2010).
mention but a few. Some of the most important legumes Legumes are also a good source of vitamins (thiamine,
in the world are peas, beans, peanuts, soybeans, and riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, and folic acid) and certain
chickpeas (Reyes-Moreno et al., 2000). minerals (Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn, P, K, and Mg), and are an
Canada is the leading producer of peas in the world, excellent source of polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic
with about 3,379,400 metric tonnes (MT) produced in and linolenic acids) (Augustin et al., 1989). Indeed,
2009 (FAO, 2009). In 2010, the US was the leading global several studies suggest that increased consumption of
producer of soybeans and the second and third top legumes may provide protection against diseases such
producer of peas and lentils, respectively (Table 14.1). as cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular
In the same year, the US was also the fourth leading diseases, among others (Hu, 2003; Pihlanto & Korhonen,
producer of dry beans and peanuts. Canada again tops 2003; Tharanathan & Mahadevamma, 2003). Legumes
the production of lentils and is the seventh and ninth further offer a practical avenue for diet diversification
leading producer of soybeans and chickpeas. Similarly, as consumers look for greater balance between plant
production of dry beans and chickpeas in Mexico is high and animal food sources. With growing concerns about
and the country ranks fifth and eighth in global the impact of agricultural practices on the environment,
Food Processing: Principles and Applications, Second Edition. Edited by Stephanie Clark, Stephanie Jung, and Buddhi Lamsal.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
305
306 Food Processing: Principles and Applications
Table 14.1 Production of legumes in North America and top 20 global production ranking
USA Canada Mexico
Legume Rank Production (MT) Rank Production (MT) Rank Production (MT)
Beans, dry 4 1442470 15 253700 5 1156250
Chickpea 15 87952 9 128300 8 131895
Groundnut, with shell 4 1885510
Lentil 3 392675 1 1947100
Pea, dry 2 645050 1 2862400
Soybean 1 90605500 7 4345300
MT, metric tonnes.
Source: http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx.
addition of legumes in crop rotation cycles can have ben- Ragab et al., 2010). Most of these antinutritional factors
eficial impacts as they have the capacity to fix nitrogen in can, however, be reduced or eliminated by various
soils, thereby reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. processing techniques. In this chapter, we discuss differ-
Peanuts are the most commonly consumed (by ent processing technologies applied to legumes, which
humans) and convenient of the legumes as they form part are grouped as traditional and modern processing
of the mainstream diet and can be easily obtained and technologies.
consumed as roasted seeds or in the form of peanut
butter. In the US, for example, peanuts and peanut butter
comprise over two-thirds of all nut consumption (www.
peanut-institute.org/peanut-facts/history-of-peanuts.asp, 14.2 Technologies involved in legume
accessed 18 November 2013). Soybeans and pulse processing
legumes, on the other hand, are more alien to the North
American diets. Factors that have limited their con- The processing of legumes can be conveniently grouped
sumption in North America include the longer time into traditional and modern, depending on the complex-
required for their preparation, the possible gastrointesti- ity of the processing steps involved and the types of
nal (GI) discomfort due to the presence of indigestible equipment used. Traditional methods include simple
carbohydrates which ferment in the GI tract causing technologies and simple equipment that can be used at
gas and bloating, and their typical beany flavor. Extensive household level, whereas modern processing includes
research in breeding, food quality, and processing has much more sophisticated processes and equipment at
helped to overcome some of these limitations, increasing industrial level.
the acceptability of legumes in the North American diet Legumes can be cooked and consumed as fresh beans
and facilitating their use in food formulation. or after drying, which is done to extend their shelf life.
Although legumes are rich in proteins, the quality of The term “pulse,” for example, specifically refers to the
their protein is not nutritionally adequate. This is because dried grains of pea, chickpea, bean, lentil, and lupin,
they lack sulfur-containing amino acids such as which distinguishes them from the fresh beans. Cooking
methionine and cysteine. These limiting amino acids of legumes inactivates antinutritional factors such as
are, however, complemented by the use of legume cereal trypsin and amylase inhibitors, thus improving their
blends in diets. Cereals, being rich in sulfur-containing nutritional quality. As is done in Asia and other parts
amino acids, complement the legume proteins, hence of the world, in North America, fresh soybeans in the
improving the quality of the protein. Other factors such pod, peas, green beans, sugar snap beans, and string beans
as low protein digestibility, presence of antinutritional can be cooked and eaten as a side dish or with salads.
factors such as trypsin inhibitors, lectins, phytates, Peanuts and soybeans are also roasted whole and con-
polyphenols, and flatulence factors make some legume sumed as is or used to prepare peanut butter and soybean
seeds underutilized (Enujiugha, 2005; Mubarak, 2005; butter. Increasingly, peas have been subjected to similar
14 Crops – Legumes 307
processing and are roasted for consumption as a snack or beans, chickpeas and lentils). Described benefits of
further processed to obtain pea butter. micronization include shorter cooking times, increased
The majority of soybean and pulses produced in North water and moisture absorption and retention, decreased
America are dried post harvest. For pulses, the seeds can microbial and enzymatic activity, increased shelf life,
be subsequently dehulled and split, which reduces softer texture and flavor enhancement due to the addition
cooking time. Details on the techniques used for primary of toasted notes to finished food products. Pulses can also
processing of legumes (e.g. harvesting, cleaning, sorting, be fully precooked in water and then dehydrated and sold
dehulling, splitting) are described elsewhere (Erskine as is or ground into flour, which will be discussed later in
et al., 2009; Snyder & Kwon, 1987; Subuola et al., 2012; this chapter.
Tiwari et al., 2011). A variety of food products can be processed directly
Dry legume seeds (e.g. soybeans, alfalfa, clover, pea, from dried legume seeds. In traditional markets, soybeans
beans, chickpeas, lentils) are sometimes allowed to are processed into soymilk, tofu, yuba, miso, natto, sufu,
germinate after soaking and sold in the sprouted form. and tempeh (Keshun, 1997). With the growing migrant
Sprouted legumes are of interest nutritionally, as the population and the increasing trend towards exotic foods,
germination process helps to increase protein digestibility these traditional products are now available in North
and mineral bioavailability, and in some instances can America. Similarly, whole pulses are typically used to
reduce the concentration of tannins, phytic acid, and prepare soups, sauces, fried and baked products in places
indigestible carbohydrates (Boye et al., 2012). Sprouting like India, Africa, and South America; these food products
will be discussed later in this chapter. are now being made from pulses in North America.
Another technique used to preserve and extend the Research is further exploring novel uses and promising
shelf life of legumes, particularly pulses, is canning, which application areas of legumes for the North American
will be discussed later in this chapter.Whole seeds are first market (Figure 14.1).
soaked, blanched, and cooked and then packaged in cans
with a variety of sauces, which eases their use in food
preparation. A wide variety of canned legumes can be 14.3 Traditional processing technologies
found in North American supermarkets, with the most
popular perhaps being canned baked beans. The traditional processing of legumes is labor intensive
Another growing market for both household use and in and is mostly done by women, especially in developing
the food service sector is the frozen precooked legumes countries in Asia and Africa. The major traditional
category. Frozen vegetables are perceived by some consu- techniques used in the processing of legumes are
mers to have higher nutritional value than canned foods. soaking, dehulling, milling, boiling/cooking, roasting,
Rickman et al. (2007) point out that this perception may pounding and grinding, frying, steaming, germination,
not always be true, as the effects of processing, storage and fermentation, and popping, among others. Irrespective
cooking are highly variable by commodity. Nevertheless, of the type of food that is prepared from legumes, they
there is a growing market for precooked frozen legumes, are taken through at least one of these processes. In this
which offer convenience when they can be quickly section, we discuss what some of these technologies are
warmed on stove-top or in the microwave prior to and the principles behind them.
consumption. The export market for frozen vegetables
in North America was valued at US$292M in 2011
14.3.1 Soaking
(www.icongrouponline.com, accessed 18 November
2013). Individually quick-frozen (IQF) vegetables may Legumes are primarily soaked in water and/or salt
be classified as ready-to-use, reheat-and-serve foods. They solutions (0.25–1%) to soften the cotyledon, which then
are first blanched/cooked prior to quick-freezing, which hastens cooking (Silva et al., 1981). Soakaing involves
helps to preserve physical and nutritional quality. adding water and/or salt solution to the legumes and dis-
Infrared heating is another technique applied to carding the water after a period of time or cooking with
whole pulse seeds to decrease the time required for the soak water. Sodium chloride, acetic acid, and sodium
cooking. The process is sometimes called micronization. bicarbonate solutions have been used in the soaking of
A company located in Canada, Infraready Products Ltd. legumes (Huma et al., 2008). Different soaking times have
(www.infrareadyproducts.com, accessed 18 November also been reported (Huma et al., 2008; Xu &Chang, 2008),
2013), uses this technique to precook pulses (i.e., peas, but in most cases, the soaking is done overnight. Soaking
308 Food Processing: Principles and Applications
Legumes
Legume protein Legume Legume
Legume starch
concentrates and isolates flours fiber
Cheese
Gels Pulse Soybean Peanut Inner Legume
Noodles
Ice cream flour* flour flour fiber hulls
Pasta
Low fat or fat-free
Milk pudding ice cream
Baby foods Ground meat Spaghetti & pasta Extruded products
Imitation milks Batters products Higher-fiber bread Meat products
Bean curd Breads Juice Bakery products Soups
Meat products Chapatti Functional Sausage
Baked goods Tortilla beverages Sponge cake
Extruded products Condiments Snack bars
Pasta and noodles Noodle and pasta
Puffed extruded Cake
products Cookies
Loafs
Biscotti
Yogurt
Extruded snacks
Fried snacks
Fried doughs
Germinated foods
Ground meat-buffalo
Ground meat-sausage
Figure 14.1 Potential and current food applications of legume flours and fractions. ∗Pulse flours include flours prepared from
yellow pea, green gram, cowpea, navy bean, faba bean, field pea, lupin, lentils, great northern bean, pinto bean, red bean, white
bean, black bean, winged bean, and pigeon pea.
of legumes can be done in either warm water or water Soaking further results in the reduction of the mineral
at ambient temperature. Beside its primary role of short- contents of legumes, due to the loss in the soaking water,
ening the cooking times of legumes, soaking has been especially when the water is discarded; however, their bio-
reported to significantly reduce the phytate and phytic availability is increased after soaking (Martín-Cabrejas
acid contents of legumes (Toledo & Canniatti-Brazaca, et al., 2009). The increase in the bioavailability of minerals
2008). This was observed when legumes were not cooked may be attributed to the reduction in antinutritional
with the soaking water. The flatulence factors in legumes factors during soaking. These antinutritional factors are
are also reduced by soaking, as a result of the leaching known to bind to the minerals in legumes, making them
out of stachyose and raffinose (Shimelis & Rakshit, unavailable to the human body. Generally, soaking and
2005). These oligosaccharides are used as substrates by cooking legumes without the soaking water reduces their
microorganisms in the large intestines, resulting in the carbohydrate contents (Martín-Cabrejas et al., 2009).
production of carbon dioxide, leading to flatulence and
intestinal discomfort. The addition of sodium bicarbonate
14.3.2 Cooking
to the soak water results in significant reduction in sta-
chyose and raffinose. Soaking also increases the protein The cooking of legumes has been practiced for years. It is
digestibility of legumes (Toledo & Canniatti-Brazaca, one of the most common processing techniques applied
2008), as confirmed in chickpeas, lentils, and different to legumes, and involves boiling the legume seeds in
types of legumes (Martín-Cabrejas et al., 2009). water till they are soft. Traditionally, determination of
14 Crops – Legumes 309
the required softness of cooked legumes is done by press- four volumes of acetic acid solution (pH 3.1). The seeds
ing the legumes with the thumb. Several changes occur were then drained and their seed coats removed. The
during the cooking of legumes apart from softening: gelat- cotyledons were then cooked for 30 min and then cooled
inization of starch, denaturation of proteins, and brown- to 25 C, packed in polyethylene bags and fermented with
ing of the seeds (Enujiugha, 2005: Onigbinde & Onobun, a suspension of R. oligosporus spores.
1993). Besides reducing the antinutritive factors in Soy sauce is a traditional Asian fermented soybean
legumes, cooking reduces the amounts of stachyose and product that has gained international acceptance as a
raffinose. The longer cooking times required have, how- condiment or seasoning sauce due to its distinctive flavor.
ever, been an obstacle to legumesuse. To reduce the leg- A combination of soybeans and wheat is normally used as
ume cooking times, potash has been used traditionally the raw material. The soybeans and wheat are first
to help soften the legume cotyledons. Sodium bicarbo- fermented withAspergillus oryza and then yeast and lactic
nate, trisodium phosphate, and ammonium carbonates acid bacteria are added later, after the addition of brine
have also been exploited to reduce the cooking times of solution (8%) (Zhao et al., 2013). Two types of fermenta-
legumes (Bueno et al., 1980). tion for soy sauce can be used: low-salt solid state and
high-salt liquid state. The fermentation times for these
two different types of fermentations differ significantly;
14.3.3 Fermentation
while the former takes about 1 month, the latter takes
Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is one of the alternative as long as 6 months. Different concentrations of brine
technologies for processing a great variety of legumes are also used for the different fermentation types. For
and/or cereals with the aim of improving their nutritional the low-salt solid state fermentation, about 8% is used,
quality and obtaining edible products with palatable while about 17% is used for the high-salt liquid state
sensory characteristics (Reyes-Moreno et al., 2004). The fermentation. The different fermentation types result in
advantages of fermentation include the development of different tastes and flavors, with the high-salt liquid
flavor, texture, taste, reduction in product volume and state fermented soy sauces having an edge over the taste
the increase in product stability and shelf life through and flavor of the low-salt solid state fermented product.
the preservation of the foods (Steinkraus, 2002). Legumes Soy sauce has been reported to have antihypertensive
have been fermented into a variety of products. Notable properties, due to the presence of angiotensin
among these products are tempeh and soy sauce, which I-converting enzyme, which was found to decrease blood
are particularly popular in Asian countries. pressure in hypertensive rats (Kinoshita et al., 1993).
Tempeh is a traditional fermented food produced The list of fermented legume foods is endless, with
with different strains of Rhizopus species (R. oligosporus, soybean arguably being themost fermented legume. Some
R. stolonifer, R. oryzae, R. arrhizus) fermenting boiled and of the products are dawadawa, from the African locust
dehulled soybeans (Annor et al., 2010: Keuth et al., 1993). bean (Parkia tilicoidea), natto from soybeans, tempe
It has a pleasant mushroom-like aroma and a nutty flavor, kedelee from soybeans, oncomhitam from peanuts, ketjap
making it an excellent option for meat, fish and poultry (soy sauce) from black soybeans and channakiwaries
products (Pride, 1984). During the fermentation process, prepared from bengal gram (Cicerarietinum L.) and black
stachyose and raffinose are broken down to digestible gram (Vignamungo) flour.
sugars. The fermentation process also improves the flavor,
nutritional and functional properties of the product 14.3.4 Dehulling
(Bavia et al., 2012). Even though soybeans are the main
legumes used for the preparation of tempeh, other Dehulling involves the removal of the hulls of grain seeds,
substrates have been used, e.g. cowpeas (Annor et al., in this case legume seeds. It is one of the basic processing
2010) and chickpeas (Reyes-Moreno et al., 1993). The steps in legume processing. Dehulling can be done tradi-
process variables for the production of tempeh from tionally with mortar and pestle, which makes the process
chickpeas were optimized by Reyes-Moreno and collea- laborious and time consuming (Ehiwe & Reichert, 1987).
gues (1993). According to their study, the optimum The dehulling of legumes results in reduction of fiber and
combination of process variables for production of tannin content, and, most importantly, affects the appear-
optimized chickpea tempeh flour through the SSF process ance, texture, cooking quality, digestibility, and palatabil-
was incubating at 34.9 C for 51.3 h. The chickpea tempeh ity of the grains (Deshpande et al., 1982). It has been
was prepared by soaking the chickpeas at 25 C for 16 h in demonstrated that there are marked differences in the
310 Food Processing: Principles and Applications
dehulling efficiency of legumes (Reichert, 1984). Soybeans 14.4 Modern processing technologies
(Glycine max), faba beans (Vicia faba equine L.) and field
peas (Pisum sativum L.) have better dehulling efficiencies
(about 70%) compared to the others. These dehulling Modern processing technologies for legumes involve the
efficiencies were attributed to the resistance of seed split- use of sophisticated equipment and result in the mass
ting during dehulling and also to fact that the seed coat production of products. Some of these technologies
of these legumes is loosely bound to their cotyledons include extrusion cooking, high-pressure cooking, air
(Ehiwe & Reichert, 1987). classification, agglomeration, and canning. In this section,
some of these technologies as applied to the processing of
legumes and their effects on the nutritional and physical
14.3.5 Germination/sprouting characteristics of legumes are discussed.
Germination is one of the most common and effective
legume processing methods, with the aim of improving 14.4.1 Extrusion cooking
nutritional quality. It can be defined as the transformation
Extrusion cooking is a high-temperature, short-time
of seeds (herein referred to as legumes) from their
process that can be applied to foods to modify and/or
dormant state to a metabolically active state, involving
improve their quality attributes. It consists of the
the mobilization of stored reserves of these seeds. As a
thermomechanical cooking of foods at high temperatures,
result, there is a rapid increase in respiration, synthesis
pressure and shear, generated inside a screw-barrel
of proteins and nucleic acids, and the elongation and
assembly (Battacharya & Prakash, 1994). Extrusion
division of cells (Kadlec et al., 2008). Germination is
has been applied to legumes for the production of
normally preceded by soaking. During germination,
ready-to-eat products. Attempts to use extrusion cooking
the degradation of stored carbohydrates in the seeds by
as a means to decontaminate aflatoxin in peanuts
enzymes takes place. This results in significant changes
(Grehaigne et al., 1983; Saalia & Phillips, 2011) and
in the physicochemical characteristics of the legumes,
canavanine in jack beans (Tepal et al., 1994) have been
including the modification of antioxidant activities
mentioned.
(López-Amorós et al., 2006). The process of germinating
Extrusion has several effects on the nutritional proper-
legumes, as is traditionally practiced, involves soaking seeds
ties of the resulting extruded products. Improvements
in water for 24 h at room temperature, draining and then
in the protein and starch digestibility of extruded faba
spreading them on a damp cloth for about 48 h. In some
and kidney beans were reported by Alonso et al. (2000).
cases where traditional germination is done on a large scale,
According to Phillips (1989), the conditions used in
large wet baskets are used.
extrusion cooking result in physical and chemical trans-
formations such as protein cross-linking (Stanley,
14.3.6 Puffing 1989), isopeptide bonding (Burges & Stanley 1976), or
amino acid racemization, that directly influence the
Puffing is one of the traditional technologies used to nutritional composition of extruded products. Extrusion
process legumes. It is commonly applied to chickpeas cooking has also been effectively used in the production
and peas, resulting in a light and crispy product. Puffed of textured vegetable protein (TVP) and textured soy
legumes are commonly eaten as snack foods, though they protein (TSP), used extensively as food ingredients.
can also be milled into flour and used for other purposes. The extruder consists of a sturdy screw or screws
Traditionally, puffed legumes are prepared by soaking rotating inside a smooth or grooved cylindrical barrel.
the legumes in water for about 15–20 min, followed by The barrel can be heated externally for certain applica-
draining the water. The wet grains are then tempered in tions. For the production of extruded legume products,
a closed vessel for about 4 h, after which they are cooked legume flour, which is conditioned to a moisture content
in sand, heated to about 200 C for about a minute. of about 20–25% with live steam, is fed into the extruder.
This normally results in the expansion of the grains, As the flour-water mixture goes through the barrel, it
leading to the splitting of the husk of the legumes. Puffed is heated rapidly by friction and external heat; coupled
legumes are known to retain all the nutrients and also with high pressures, temperatures as high as 150–180 
result in improved protein and carbohydrate digestibility C are attained. The legume flour-water mixture then goes
(Baskaran et al., 1999). through a process called thermoplastic “melting,” also
14 Crops – Legumes 311
known as thermoplastic extrusion. The intense heat shelf life. Canning of legumes is mainly composed of two
and pressure conditions applied to the product result in processes: soaking/blanching and thermal processing/heat
the denaturation of the soy proteins and puffing of the sterilization. Soaking is done before canning to remove
mixture. The extrudate is then cut and dried. foreign material, facilitate cleaning, aid in can filling
through uniform expansion, ensure product tenderness,
and improve color. Soaking also results in the reduction
14.4.2 High-pressure cooking
of antinutritive factors in the legumes, due to their leaching
High-pressure cooking involves the application of hydro- out (Uebersax et al., 1987). Blanching inactivates enzymes,
static pressure of several hundred MPa to foods for the whichmight produce off-flavors, but also softens the prod-
purpose of sterilization, protein denaturation, and control uct and removes gases to reduce strain oncan seamsduring
of enzyme and chemical reactions, amongst others retorting (Beckett, 1996). Afoakwa et al. (2006) optimized
(Estrada-Giron et al., 2005). It basically involves the cook- the preprocessing conditions for the canning of Bambara
ing of food in a high-pressure cooker. High-pressure groundnuts. They concluded that soaking time of 12 h,
cooking, also commonly referred to as high hydrostatic blanching time of 5 min and sodium hexametaphosphate
pressure (HHP) cooking, is gaining worldwide interest, salt concentration of 0.5% gave the best quality canned
especially in Japan, the US and Europe, because of its product from Bambara groundnut with acceptable quality
advantages over most processing methods. In the US, characteristics.
consumers can purchase HHP-processed sauces, oysters, Conditions for heat sterilization of low-acid foods are
and guacamole (Estrada-Giron et al., 2005). HHP results defined to ensure that all spores of Clostridium botulinum
in significant inactivation of microorganisms (Knorr are destroyed and to prevent the spoilage of the product
1993), improved food quality and retention of ingredients by heat-resistant, non-pathogenic organisms. Sterilization
in the products (Cheftel, 1991). HHP can also be used in should normally be performed at 121 C for at least 3 min
the modification of texture, whipping, emulsification and (Beckett, 1996). In the case of legumes, additional sterili-
dough-forming properties of foods (Hoover, 1989). HHP zation would also provide adequate softening of the seeds
has been applied to the processing of legumes, especially (van Loggerenberg, 2004). Canning has significant effects
soybeans. HHP-produced tofu was found to have a much on the nutritional properties of legumes. Wang et al.
longer shelf life due to the significant reduction in its (1988) found that canning decreased the protein content
microbial population (Prestamo et al., 2000). The solubi- of drained beans, with the exception of one cultivar.
lization of protein from whole soybean grains, subjected Canning results in nitrogenous components, such as
to pressure of up to 700MPa, has also been reported amino acids and small chain polypeptides, leaching from
(Omi et al., 1996). The activity of lipoxygenase, an enzyme bean tissue into brine (Drumm et al., 1990); crude protein
which is responsible for the off-flavors produced in also leaches into the canning medium (Lu & Chang,
soybeans, has been found to be sensitive to high pressures 1996). Canning of legumes also causes mineral losses.
(Ludikhuyze et al., 1998). Iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, and zinc losses
occur during soaking, blanching and/or thermal proces-
sing, but phosphorus and copper levels remain the same
14.4.3 Canning
in canned beans. The sodium and chloride levels increase
Canning is a heat sterilization process applied to foods in canned beans, due to the sodium chloride (NaCl) added
to ensure they are commercially sterile (i.e. the products to the filling medium of cans (Lopez & Williams, 1988).
are free from microorganisms capable of growing in the
food at normal non-refrigerated temperatures). Properly 14.4.4 Air classification
sealed and heated canned foods should remain stable and
indefinitely unspoiled in the absence of refrigeration. Air classification is a technique for the dry separation of
The effectiveness of the canning process is determined particles from finely ground powders and flours, accord-
by the type of food, pH, container size and consistency ing to their size, shape, and density. Air classification is
or bulkiness of the food, but heating of food for longer typically applied to pulse products and is a relatively
than necessary is undesirable, as the nutritional and eating simple technique that allows expansion of product
quality of foods are affected negatively by prolonged offerings. It has been proven as an effective method for
heating (Brock et al., 1994). Canning, like many other the production of starch-rich and protein-rich fractions
food processes, is applied to legumes to improve their of meals (King & Dietz, 1987). Air classification has been
312 Food Processing: Principles and Applications
carried out on pea (P. sativum), faba bean (V. faba), mung accessed 18 November 2013). Even though Mexico and
bean (Vigna radiata), green lentil (Lens culinaris), navy Canada rank seventh and 15th in global production of
bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), baby lima bean (Phaseolus soybean oil, respectively, there is hardly any peanut oil
lunatus), and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) (Tyler et al., production in Canada.
1981). The first process of air classification involves Hydraulic pressing, expeller, solvent extraction and
milling. Tyler et al. (1981) used a pin mill when they stud- combinations of these techniques are the main processes
ied the air classification of legumes. In their study, used for vegetable oil extraction. With a few exceptions,
dehulled legume seeds were milled with a pin mill and the process for extracting oil from soybeans and peanuts
then fractioned into starch fraction and protein concen- is very similar (Figure 14.2). Typically, the oilseed is first
trate using an air classifier. These fractions were remilled cleaned to remove foreign materials, dried if needed to
several times and air classified again to increase the facilitate dehulling and cracking, which allows the seeds
quality and also the yield of the protein concentrates. Air to be broken into smaller pieces, followed by conditioning
classification, aside from separating the starch and protein and flaking. The flaking process involves passage of the
fractions, results in enrichment of the fractions. broken pieces between rolls, which ruptures the oil cells
and expands the surface area for solvent penetration
and subsequent oil extraction.
14.4.5 Agglomeration Hexane is themost common solvent used for oil extrac-
Agglomeration, in general, can be defined as a process tion. The miscella obtained after solvent extraction con-
during which primary particles are joined together so that tains a mixture of oil and solvent, which is passed
bigger porous secondary particles (conglomerates) are through a solvent recovery system to remove solvent.
formed (Palzer, 2005). According to this definition, The crude oil remaining is subjected to further refining
even caking of hygroscopic raw materials during storage to obtain edible oil and other derived products. The
can be regarded as a kind of undesired agglomeration. defatted flakes are passed through a desolventizer/toaster
Agglomeration is a physical phenomenon and can be to remove residual solvent. The meal obtained is rich
described as the sticking of particulate solids, which is in protein, and can be used as is or further processed
caused by short-range physical or chemical forces among downstream to extract protein. Lui (1997) provides
the particles themselves due to physical or chemical modi- further detail on soybean oil extraction processes.
fications of the surface of the solid. This phenomenon is Concerns about trace remnants of hexane in solvent-
triggered by specific processing conditions, or binders and extracted defatted oilseed meals have spurred research
substances, which adhere chemically or physically on the on alternative defatting techniques such as the use of
solid surfaces to form a bridge between particles (Pietsch, other solvents, mechanical extraction, enzyme-assisted
2003). The basic principle of the process of agglomeration aqueous extraction, and supercritical extraction (Russin
is that powdery flour is dispersed in a humid atmosphere et al., 2011).
to wet the surface of the flour particles, resulting in the
particles adhering to each other. This process has been 14.5.2 Flours
used in the preparation of cous-cous in North Africa.
Agglomeration enhances the swelling and dispersion Whole, dehulled and defatted legume seeds, flours, and
properties of legume flours. flakes can be milled to obtain a variety of flour products.
Subuola et al. (2012) and Tiwari et al. (2011) provide an
overview of the methods used to obtain flours from
14.5 Ingredients from legumes soybean, pulses, and peanuts. The major component
found in legume flours is carbohydrate, which can range
from 25% to 68%. Depending on whether flours are
14.5.1 Oil
defatted or not, protein content can range from 17% to
Due to their high oil content, soybeans and peanuts have 56%. Table 14.2 presents the composition of legume flours
served as important raw materials for oil production. prepared using a variety of processing techniques.
Soybean oil production in the US in 2011 was 8.4 million Legume flours are of interest in food processing due
MT (www.soystats.com, accessed 18 November 2013), to both their nutritional and functional properties.
whereas peanut oil production is more limited and was Functional properties that aid in food formulation and
89 thousand MT in 2012 (www.indexmundi.com, processing include protein solubility, water holding
Figure 14.2 Soybean foods and ingredients. Reprinted from L’Hocine & Boye (2007), with permission from Taylor & Francis.
Table 14.2 Chemical composition of legume flours and legume protein concentrates/isolates
Fat Carbohydrates Moisture Ash Starch Crude
Processing techniques Protein (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) fiber (%) References
Legume flours
Full-fat Desi Centrifugal mill 22.3 5.16 39.19 db 3.37 (Mondor et al.,
chickpea flour (5-mesh sieve with 2010)
1.5 mm pore size)
Full-fat Kabuli Centrifugal mill 18.9 6.70 71.24 db 3.16 (Mondor et al.,
chickpea flour (5-mesh sieve with 2010)
1.5 mm pore size)
Kabuli chickpea Centrifugal grinding 16.71 7.34 61.14 12.06 2.76 (Boye et al.,
flour mill and dehulling 2010a)
Desi chickpea Centrifugal grinding 20.52 5.23 61.94 9.26 3.04 (Boye et al.,
flour mill and dehulling 2010a)
Defatted Grinding and sieving 17.2 0.3 2.8 1.1 (Paredes-López
chickpea flour (80-mesh sieve), et al., 2006)
defatted (10% w/v
hexane) and air
dried
Chickpea flour Grinding with a 21.37 7.17 58.92 7.40 2.98 2.16 (Bencini, 2006)
coffee mil, sieving
through a 60- mesh
sieve
Chickpea flour NR 22.9 6.4 10.4 2.83 40.4 (Marconi et al.,
2000)
Bengal gram Dehulling, grinding 21.2 5.6 66.1 3.2 2.6 1.8 (Nagmani &
flour (Cicer and sieving (40- or Prakash, 1997)
arietinum) 60-mesh)
Whole pea flour Grinding and passing 23.7 13.9 3.28 52.7 5.5 (Maaroufi et al.,
through a 4 mm 2000)
screen
Pigeon pea flour Boiling, dehulling and 22.4 2.63 59.4 5.24 5.76 3.82 (Oshodi &
dry milling Ekperigin,
1989)
Pea flour NR 23.93 3.12 59.39 2.58 8.77
(Fernández-Quintela
et al., 1997)
Yellow pea flour Centrifugal grinding 21.09 2.01 60.29 14.19 2.42 (Boye et al.,
mill and dehulling 2010a)
Field pea flour Commercial 25.0 1.1 db 2.7 55.7 1.9 (Sosulski &
McCurdy,
1987)
Green lentil flour Centrifugal grinding 23.03 0.82 63.08 10.68 2.39 (Boye et al.,
mill and dehulling 2010a)
Red lentil flour Centrifugal grinding 25.88 0.53 63.10 9.27 2.34 (Boye et al.,
mill and dehulling 2010a)
Lentil flour Grinding of whole 20.6 2.15 56.1 11.2 2.80 6.83 (de Almeida
flours Costa et al.,
2006)
Lentil flour Dehulling and 32.38–33.39 1.95–2.10 47.04–51.49 7.98–10.37 2.70–3.78 2.43–4.13 (Suliman et al.,
grinding into 2006)
powder by passing
through a 0.4 mm
screen
Lentil flour Dehulling, grinding 26.0 0.8 65.2 5.0 2.3 0.7 (Nagmani &
and sieving Prakash, 1997)
(40- or 60-mesh)
Common bean Grounding the whole 20.9 2.49 54.3 9.93 3.80 8.55 (de Almeida
flour flours Costa et al.,
2006)
Black gram flour Dehulling, grinding 23.2 1.4 67.9 3.3 3.3 0.8 (Nagmani and
(Phaseolus and sieving Prakash, 1997)
mungo) (40- or 60-mesh)
Green gram flour Dehulling, grinding 25.6 1.3 67.7 1.3 3.3 0.8 (Nagmani &
(Phaseolus and sieving Prakash, 1997)
aureus) (40- or 60-mesh)
Common bean NR 20.8 2.6 10.4 3.68 37.9 (Marconi et al.,
flour 2000)
Defatted peanut Dehulling, flaking 55.88 1.50 25.14 8.12 4.85 (Wu et al., 2009)
flour and defatting
(using butane
and propane)
Defatted soybean Grinding flakes to 50.5 1.5 34.2 5.8 3.2 (Wolf, 1970)
flour pass through
100-mesh or finer,
and defatting
Soybean flour Commercial 48.2 0.9 db 5.8 2.4 4.2 (Sosulski &
McCurdy,
1987)
Ranges 16.71–55.88 0.3–7.34 25.14–67.9 1.3–14.19 2.34–5.76 2.4–55.7 0.8–8.77
Legume protein
concentrates
Soybean protein Aqueous alcohol 66.2 0.3 6.7 (Wolf, 1970)
concentrate washing, IEP and
leaching
(Continued)
Table 14.2 (Continued)
Fat Carbohydrates Moisture Ash Starch Crude
Processing techniques Protein (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) fiber (%) References
Full-fat Desi Alkaline extraction/ 78.6 11.37 6.88 db 3.18 (Mondor et al.,
chickpea IEP 2010)
protein
concentrate
(IEP)
Full-fat Kabuli Alkaline extraction/ 69.9 21.55 5.39 db 3.16 (Mondor et al.,
chickpea IEP 2010)
protein
concentrate
(IEP)
Defatted Desi Alkaline extraction/ 86.9 3.71 5.92 db 3.47 (Mondor et al.,
chickpea IEP 2010)
protein
concentrate
(IEF)
Defatted Kabuli Alkaline extraction/ 85.6 10.44 0.59 db 3.37 (Mondor et al.,
chickpea IEP 2010)
protein
concentrate
(IEF)
Peanut protein Acid extraction/IEP 72.35 1.13 17.97 1.48 3.05 (Wu et al., 2009)
concentrate
(IPPPC)
Peanut protein Aqueous alcohol 69.54 0.70 16.06 1.51 2.06 (Wu et al., 2009)
concentrate precipitation
(AAPPC)
Peanut protein IEP and alcohol 71.49 0.84 16.46 1.49 2.03 (Wu et al., 2009)
concentrate precipitation
(IAPPC)
Ranges 66.2–86.9 0.3–21.55 0.59–17.97 1.48–6.7 2.03–3.47
Legume protein
isolates
Micelle chickpea Micellization (NaCl 87.8 1.8 2.3 0.2 (Paredes-López
protein isolate extraction and et al., 2006)
ultrafiltration)
from defatted flour
Isoelectric IEP (alkaline 84.8 1.9 2.7 0.2 (Paredes-López
chickpea extraction) from et al., 2006)
protein isolate defatted flour
Peanut protein IEP (pH 4.5) and 96.65 0.20 0.36 1.61 2.22 (Wu et al., 2009)
isolate alcohol
precipitation
Soybean protein Alkaline extraction 92.8 <0.1 4.7 (Wolf, 1970)
isolate from defatted flour
or flask, IEP,
centrifugation/
filtration
Soybean protein Commercial 82.3 0.4 db 4.0 1.8 0.6 (Sosulski &
isolate McCurdy,
1987)
Field pea protein Alkaline extraction 80.3 1.7 db 4.4 2.7 1.3 (Sosulski &
isolate and IEP McCurdy,
1987)
Faba bean Acid extraction and 86.3 2.0 db 3.9 1.8 0.6 (Sosulski &
protein isolate IEP McCurdy,
1987)
Pea protein Dehulling, alkaline 84.09 3.32 6.57 7.88 5.01 (Fernández-
isolate extraction, Quintela et al.,
centrifugation and 1997)
lyophylizing
Faba bean Dehulling, alkaline 81.24 3.83 8.47 7.89 6.90 (Fernández-
protein isolate extraction, Quintela et al.,
centrifugation and 1997)
lyophylizing
Soybean protein Dehulling, defatting, 82.16 1.46 5.64 7.73 3.17 (Fernández-
isolate alkaline extraction, Quintela et al.,
centrifugation and 1997)
lyophylizing
Ranges 80.3–96.65 0.1–3.83 0.36–8.47 1.61–4.7 2.22–7.89 1.8–2.7 0.2–6.90
db, dry basis; IEP, isoelectric precipitation; NR, not reported.
Table 14.3 Functional properties of legume flours, protein concentrates, and isolates
Protein
content (%) PS (%) WHC FAC LGC BD (g/mL) FE FC FS EC EA (%) ES References
Legume flours
Red kidney bean flour 23.32 2.25 (g/g) 1.52 (g/g) 10 (%) 0.556 45.7 (mL/100 mL) 41.2 (mL/100 mL) 55.0 (mL/100 mL) 52.4 (mL/ (Siddiq et al.,
100 mL) 2010)
Small red kidney flour 20.93 2.65 (g/g) 1.23 (g/g) 10 (%) 0.526 38.2 (mL/100 mL) 43.3 (mL/100 mL) 60.5 (mL/100 mL) 62.3 (mL/ (Siddiq et al.,
100 mL) 2010)
Cranberry flour 23.62 2.41 (g/g) 1.48 (g/g) 12 (%) 0.539 49.6 (mL/100 mL) 54.9 (mL/100 mL) 53.4 (mL/100 mL) 52.4 (mL/ (Siddiq et al.,
100 mL) 2010)
Black bean flour 23.24 2.23 (g/g) 1.34 (g/g) 12 (%) 0.515 37.4 (mL/100 mL) 39.4 (mL/100 mL) 45.6 (mL/100 mL) 48.2 (mL/ (Siddiq et al.,
100 mL) 2010)
Yam bean flour 20.43 131.9 (%) 0.6 (mL/g) 14.3 (%) 40.2 (%) 50.7 (%) (Obatolu et al.,
2007)
Green gram flour NR 1226 (g/kg) 900 (g/kg) 0.69 16 (%) 48 (mL oil/g of 54.0 51.8 (%) (Ghavidel &
sample) Prakash, 2006)
Bengal gram flour NR 1362 (g/kg) 788 (g/kg) 0.73 12 (%) 185 (mL oil/g 51.6 49.4 (%) (Ghavidel &
of sample) Prakash, 2006)
Pigeon pea flour 22.4 138 (%) 89.7 (%) 12% (w/v) 68 (%) 20 (%) 49.4 (%) (Oshodi &
Ekperigin,
1989)
Cowpea flour NR 1285 (g/kg) 993 (g/kg) 0.65 40 (%) 69 (mL oil/g of 51.9 50.1 (%) (Ghavidel &
sample) Prakash, 2006)
Field pea flour 25.0 80.3 (%) 0.78 (g /g) 0.41 (g oil/g 34.6 (mL oil/0/1 g (Sosulski &
sample) sample) McCurdy,
2006)
Lentil flour NR 974 (g/kg) 857 (g/kg) 0.85 22 (%) 58 (mL oil/g 50.5 48.1 (%) (Ghavidel &
of sample) Prakash, 2006)
Lentil flour NR 3.20 (mL/g) 0.95 (mL/g) 8.0 (%) 0.91 40.0 (%) 47.4 (Aguilera et al.,
2009)
Desi chickpea flour 20.6–24.3 1.34–1.39 1.05–1.17 10–14 (%) 59.6–68.8 76.6–81.3 (Kaur and Singh,
(g/g) (g/g) (%) 2005)
Kabuli chickpea flour 26.7 1.33 (g/g) 1.24 (g/g) 10 (%) 58.2 82.1 (%) (Kaur & Singh,
2005)
Chickpea flour NR 2.10 (mL/g) 1.10 (mL/g) 8.0 (%) 0.71 24.0 (%) 22.9 (Aguilera et al.,
2009)
Faba bean flour 29.2 85.9 (%) 0.72 (g /g) 0.47 (g oil/g 34.6 (mL oil/0.1 g (Sosulski &
sample) sample) McCurdy,
2006)
Peanut flour 52.73 1.67 (mL/g) 2.67 (mL/g) 0.06 (mL/g) 87.08 (mL/g) (Yu et al., 2007)
Soybean flour 48.2 20.6 (%) 1.75 (g/g) 0.56 (g oil/g 37.2 (mL oil/0.1 g (Sosulski &
sample) sample) McCurdy,
2006)
Legume protein
isolates
Field pea protein 80.3 38.1 (%) 2.52 (g /g) 0.98 (g oil/g 36.6 (mL oil/0.1 g (Sosulski &
isolate sample) sample) McCurdy,
2006)
Faba bean protein 86.3 40.0 (%) 2.16 (g /g) 1.78 (g oil/g 38.6 (mL oil/0.1 g (Sosulski &
isolate sample) sample) McCurdy,
2006)
Micelle chickpea 87.8 72.5 (%) 4.9 (mL/g) 2.0 (mL/g 43.3 (%) 59.2(%) 63.7 94.3 (%) (Paredes-
protein isolate protein) López
et al., 2006)
Isoelectric chickpea 84.8 60.4 (%) 2.4 (mL/g) 1.7 (mL/g 47.5 (%) 66.6(%) 72.9 85.0 (%) (Paredes-López
protein isolate protein) et al., 2006)
Soybean protein 82.3 30.6 (%) 2.65 (g /g) 1.03 (g oil/g 45.1 (mL oil/0.1 g (Sosulski &
isolate sample) sample) McCurdy,
2006)
Soybean protein NR 21.2 (%) 5.7 (mL/g) 1.9 (mL/g 41.8 (%) 53.2(%) 50.8 99.7 (%) (Paredes-López
isolate protein) et al., 2006)
Soybean protein 90.2 22.2 (%) 584 (%) 144 (%) 75.1 (Naczk et al.,
isolate 1986)
Cowpea protein 95.7 2.20 (mL/g) 1.10 (mL/g) 6 (%) 0.82 50 (Ragab et al.,
isolate 2004)
Legume protein
concentrates
Soybean protein 69.6 31.5 (%) 445 (%) 157 (%) 59.4 (Naczk et al.,
concentrate 1986)
Peanut protein 77.82 1.11 (mL/g) 0.90 (mL/g) 0.02 (mL/g) 87.50 (mL/g) (Yu et al., 2007)
concentrate
P. angularis 79.6 5.05 (g/g) 4.38 (g/g) 80.4–140.1 54.7–57.0 93.2–96.7 (Chau et al., 1997)
(%, pH 2–10) (pH (%, pH
2–10) 2–10)
P. calcaratus 78.0 5.28 (g/g) 4.71 (g/g) 80.2–130.0 54.5–57.7 94.5–97.3 (Chau et al., 1997)
(%, pH 2–10) (pH (%, pH
2–10) 2–10)
D. lablab 85.0 5.08 (g/g) 4.77 (g/g) 60.5–140.2 53.0–57.9 94.9–97.1 (Chau et al., 1997)
(%, pH 2–10) (pH (%, pH
2–10) 2–10)
Soybean protein 78.7 3.46 (g/g) 3.06 (g/g) 50.8–100.2 54.5–58.1 94.6–97.8 (Chau et al., 1997)
concentrate (%, pH 2–10) (pH (%, pH
2–10) 2–10)
Pea protein 55.5 153.0 113.0 0.45 22.4 (Conc & Blend,
concentrate (%, V/W) (%, V/W) 1981)
BD, bulk density; EA, emulsifying activity; EC, emulsifying capacity; ES, emulsifying stability; FAC, fat absorption capacity; FC, foaming capacity; FE, foaming expansion; FS, foaming stability; LGC,
least gelation concentration; NR, not reported; PS, protein solubility; WHC, water-holding capacity.
320 Food Processing: Principles and Applications
and fat absorption capacity and gelling, foaming, and much lower than for wet extracted ingredients. Protein
emulsifying. A comparison of the functional properties contents reported for enriched flour fractions obtained
of different legume flours is provided in Table 14.3. using air classification range from 40% to 62%
Depending on the final particle size, ground flakes and (Aguilera et al., 1984; Elkowicz & Sosulski, 1982; Gujska
seeds of oilseeds and pulses can be classified as medium, & Khan, 1991).
fine or coarse. Final particle size distribution of the flour Wet processing (see Figure 14.5) provides flours with
can have an impact on ingredient functionality and thus higher protein contents than dry processing. The process
should be kept in mind during processing. typically involves pretreatment of the oilseed or pulse to
Table 14.4 presents a list of some commercially remove fiber and fat and decrease the particle size of
available legume flour products in North America. the seed for efficient extraction. The next step is an
One of the interesting products on the list is a fermented alkaline extraction to solubilize protein, followed by filtra-
soybean powder prepared with non-genetically tion to remove insoluble carbohydrate material. Protein
modified soybean, which is fermented with L. acidophilus, extraction can also be done with water or under acidic
Bifidobacterium spp., L. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus conditions (Boye et al., 2010a, 2010b). After filtration,
prior to drying. Due to the reported health benefits of the liquid extract is subjected to isoelectric precipitation
probiotic bacteria (e.g. reducing risks of gastrointestinal or membrane filtration. At the isoelectric point, there is
tract disease, colorectal cancer and constipation, as well no net charge on the proteins, which allows them to pre-
as boosting the immune system) (Ouwehand et al., cipitate out of solution. Membrane separation takes
2002), there is growing interest in North America in advantage of the differences in the molecular weight of
formulating foods containing probiotics. As shown in the proteins to separate them from other soluble compo-
Table 14.4, the legume flour products presented are nents in the extract. During isoelectric precipitation,
touted as being gluten free, and their high-protein and the precipitate obtained is removed by centrifugation
high-fiber characteristics are highlighted. Suggested appli- or filtration, washed and dried to obtain the concentrate
cation areas include bakery products, cereals, nutritional or isolate, depending on protein purity. For membrane
bars, pastas, soups, sauces, processed meat products, separation, the retentate, which contains the desired
batters and breadings, confections, frostings, and fillings. protein material, may be subjected to further diafiltra-
tion to remove salts, followed by drying (Boye et al.,
2010a, b).
14.5.3 Protein concentrates and isolates
Washing of flours with alcohol can alternatively be
Proteins are essential components of food. The quality of used to obtain protein concentrates. In this instance,
many cereal proteins is improved by complementation aqueous alcohol is used to remove alcohol-soluble
with legume proteins due to the high concentration of carbohydrates and other alcohol-soluble compounds
the amino acid lysine in legumes, which is often limited (e.g. flavors) from the defatted materials, leaving behind
in cereals. Among legumes, soybeans have a Protein a higher protein-containing meal (protein concentrate)
Digestibility Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) of 100%, that is subsequently desolventized and dried.
making them equivalent to dairy and meat in their ability Protein concentrates generally contain lower amounts
to meet the essential amino acid requirements of of protein (65%, dry weight basis, dwb) than protein
humans. Pulses have lower PDCAAS scores but when isolates, which typically have >85% protein dwb (Boye
used in mixed diets, they help to improve the protein et al., 2010b). This classification is loosely interpreted
quality score of food (Table 14.5) (Boye et al., 2012). by scientists as can be seen from Table 14.3 which pre-
Attempts to balance animal and plant sources of protein sents the composition and functional properties of a vari-
in the diet have created a market for plant-based ety of legume protein isolates and concentrates.
proteins. Functional characteristics exhibited by legume protein
Several processes have been developed to extract pro- concentrate and isolates are similar to those of the flours
teins from legume flours and flakes (Figures 14.3–14.5). and include water- and fat-holding capacity, gelling,
The process for protein extraction is typically the same emulsifying, and thickening. As shown in Table 14.3,
for all legumes and can be done either through dry specific properties vary depending on the type of legume
processing or wet processing. Dry processing involves and product. Table 14.6 further lists some protein
air classification after milling of the flours as described products prepared from various legumes that are com-
above. However, protein content of the flours is mercially available in North America.
14 Crops – Legumes 321
Table 14.4 Examples of commercial legume flour products in North America
Composition
Company Products (source of products) Characteristics indicated Suggested applications
Best Cooking Pea flour 100% flours are obtained Gluten free, low in fat, Baked goods, cereals,
Pulses, Inc.1 Chickpea flour by milling whole pulse high in protein, fiber extruded snacks,
(Canada) Lentil flour seeds and micronutrients, nutrition bars, pasta,
Beans flour and can improve the soups and sauces, and
nutritional quality of processed meat products
cooked and baked
goods
Diefenbaker Seed Chickpea flour Chickpea flour is made Gluten-free products that Chickpea flour can be
Processor Ltd.2 Yellow pea flour from 100% pure can be used in many used to prepare onion
(Canada) Canadian chana dahl vegetarian and ethnic bhajias, traditional
(yellow gram); yellow homes potato and vegetable
pea flour is derived pakoras, desserts and
from 100% Canadian battered dishes; yellow
yellow split peas which pea flour is traditionally
are ground to a used to thicken soups
superfine powder and stews
Parrheim Foods Fiesta flour Fiesta flour is a finely Gluten-free products that Extruded snacks, batters (as
Inc.3 (Canada) ground flour from can be used in a wide a water-binding agent),
yellow field pea variety of applications and breading (either in
(contains 67% starch the breading or di mix);
and a minimum of baked goods and sauces
22% protein) (as a water control agent)
Golden Peanut Peanut flour Natural roasted partially Gluten free, GMO free, Confections, nutritional
Company4 defatted flour made peanut flour can be bars, baked goods,
(USA) from high oleic US used to add texture, seasoning blends,
grade peanuts peanut flavor, aroma frosting and fillings,
(available in either 12% or protein to different sauces and dressings,
or 28% fat levels in food products baking mixes, and
various roasted colors) peanut spreads
Thebes Trade Textured soy flour Flours are obtained by The flours can be used as Can be used in a broad range
International5 milling the whole raw materials for of instant snacks, ready
(Canada) soybean seeds frozen, fast and and convenience meals
vegetable foods (meat and non-meat),
and functional health
foods, meat substitute,
vegetarian foods
Now Foods Inc.6 NOW™ fermented Prepared with non-GMO This product combines Can be consumed as a
(USA) soy powder soybeans, and cultured the nutritive value dietary supplement by
with L. acidophilus, of soybeans with mixing 2 tablespoons
Bifidobacterium spp., the benefits of (32 g) daily with water
L. bulgaricus & S. fermentation; it offers or beverage
thermophilus a broader nutrient
profile than traditional
soybean products with
higher content of
isoflavones
1Website for Best cooking Pulses Inc.: www.bestcookingpulses.com/
2Website for Diefenbaker seed processor Ltd.: www.dspdirect.ca/
3Website for Parrheim Foods Inc.: www.parrheimfoods.com/
4Website for Golden Peanut Company: www.goldenpeanut.com/
5Website for Thebes trade international: http://nova2000.en.gongchang.com/
6Website for Now Foods Inc.: www.nowfoods.com/
Table 14.5 Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) for some legumes
PDCAAS (%) recalculated PDCAAS (%) recalculated
PDCAAS (%) using reference pattern for using reference pattern for
Food Food processing reported 1–2 yr child, and LAA1 3–10 yr child, and LAA2 References
Black beans Raw, ground 72 69, Met + Cys 75, Met + Cys (Sarwar, 1997)
Chickpea Defatted flour from seeds soaked, 44 59, Met + Cys 64, Met + Cys (Tavano et al.
decorticated, and dried 2008)3
Cowpea, var. Whole grain flour, raw 80 (not given) 80 (not given) 87 (Lys) (Anyango et al.,
Bechuana white 2011)
Kidney bean, red, Raw 28 37 Met + Cys 40 Met + Cys (Khattab et al.,
Canadian 2009)
Lentil (Lens culinaris, Soaked 18 h; drained; autoclaved 52 (AA data not given) (Sarwar & Peace,
cv. Medik) 10 min at 121 ºC; cooled and 1986)
freeze dried. Finely ground
Pea (organic Cooked (and freeze-dried) 75 82 Met + Cys (Jørgensen et al.,
cultivation, 2002) 2008)
Peanut Roasted in electric oven for 30 min 70 65, Lys 70, Lys (Fernandes et al.,
at 140 ºC and then ground 2010)
Soybean Meal, raw 80 88, Met + Cys 96, Met + Cys (Sarwar, 1997)
Cowpea, var. Whole grain flour, raw 80 (not given) 80 (not given) 87 (Lys) (Anyango et al.,
Bechuana white 2011)
Source: Boye et al. (2012).
PDCAAS recalculated using LAA and reference pattern for 1–2 yr child. Neither the AAS nor PDCAAS was truncated. A few studies had digestibility values for individual amino acids as
well as for protein. In such cases, the protein digestibility value was used. Trp and His were not determined in some studies. In all the in vivo digestibility studies, the diet fed to animals was
not the individual food item but included corn starch, sucrose, oil, vitamins, minerals, cellulose, etc.
1 PDCAAS recalculated using LAA and reference pattern for 1–2 yr child (WHO, 2007).
2 Diets included sucrose, fat, vitamins and minerals, fiber, choline bitartrate, and corn starch.
3 LAA, L-aspartic acid; Lys, lysine; Met, methionine.
Pulses
Grinding Whole pulse flour
seeds
Dehulling Air classification
Grinding
High starch High protein
Defatting fraction fraction
Alkaline extraction
Centrifugation/filtration
Alkaline extraction Ultrafiltration
Isoelectric precipitation Diafiltration
Centrifugation
Freeze/spray drying 
Figure 14.3 Schematic diagram of wet and dry extraction
Protein isolates processing of pulse proteins and other pulse fractions.
- Solvent extractor/desolventizer
- Mechanical extractor
- Super critical fluid extraction
Oilseed - Aqueous extraction/centrifugation
Dehull/crack Flake
Clean Fat extraction Fat Solvent removal
(dehuller) (rolls)
Defatted meal/
Defatted extract
Protein extraction
Whey (alkaline pH)
- Centrifuge
- Filter press
Protein isolate - Decanter
Filtration Fiber
Isoelectric
Protein
Filtration precipitation
precipitate (pH~4.5)
Protein
extract
Membrane
Drying Retentate filtration
UF, MF, ED
- Spray dryer
- Drum dryer
- Freeze dryer
Figure 14.4 Schematic flow diagram for the extraction of fat, fiber, and protein from oilseed legumes. ED, electrodialysis;
MF, microfiltration; UF, ultrafiltration.
324 Food Processing: Principles and Applications
Legume
Dehulling Hulls
seeds
Dehulled
seeds
Soak in water
a) Homogenization
b) Filter under vacuum and allow to
stand for 2h
Sediment Supernatant
Adjust pH to 9.0 with 1.0 M NaOH
and then leave for settling (12h)
Sediment Supernatant
Add distilled water filter through a 70μm
Polypropylene filter cloth under a vacuum
Filtration
(stand for 2h)
Sediment Supernatant
Adjust pH to 7.0 
Filter
with 0.1 M HCl Filter cake
Oven Dried 
dry starch
Starch 80μm Pulverized sieve starch Pulverize
Figure 14.5 Schematic flow diagram for starch preparation by wet milling of pulse seeds. Adapted from Hoover et al. (2010).
14.5.4 Starch flours and concentrates
major component of pulse legumes (38–56%)
The composition of starch in various legume flours and (Maaroufi et al., 2000; Marconi et al., 2000; Sosulski &
fractions is provided in Table 14.2. Whereas very little McCurdy, 1987). Hoover et al. (2010) provide a compre-
starch is found in soybeans (trace) (Keshun, 1997) and hensive review on the composition, molecular structure,
peanut (3–6%) (Isleib et al., 2004), starch represents a processing, and properties of pulse starches.
Table 14.6 Examples of commercial legume protein products produced in North America
Composition Suggested
Company Products (source of products) Characteristics indicated applications
Nutri-Pea PropulseTM A natural food-grade pea Offers a high level of Beverage dry mix,
Limited1 Propulse NTM protein isolate (with functionality and nutrition nutritional bars,
(Canada) protein content of 82%) (with an excellent amino meal replacement
acid profile, absent in beverages, baby
gluten, lactose, cholesterol food formulations,
and antinutrients), can be vegetarian
used for protein applications, pasta,
enrichment meat and seafood
products, breads,
dressings
Herbal Extracts Soy capsule 100% soybean standardized Each capsule contains Take one to two pea
Plus2 (USA) extract (10% isoflavones) 600 mg of the extracted fiber capsules, two
materials, and provides to three times each
protein-rich soybean in day at mealtimes
the diet which may aid in
lowering the risk of heart
disease
Norben Company Pea protein Protein extracts from pea Could be used as Pasta, beverage,
Inc.3 (USA) Soy protein and soybeans supplements in various breads, dressings
concentrates food products; offers both
Soy protein nutritional and functional
isolates characteristics
Parrheim Foods Prestige protein Prestige protein is pea Excellent emulsification Specialty feeds,
Inc.4 (Canada) protein concentrate capacity, oil and water aquaculture feeds,
derived from field pea absorption and foaming pet food and food
which contains 50% capacity; excellent amino recipes
protein acid profile; gluten free
and has a low allergenicity
Parrheim Foods Propel protein Propel protein is GMO free with very low Aquaculture, poultry
Inc.4 (Canada) concentrated from the allergenicity and young swine
yellow field pea and diets due to its
contains 44% protein lysine content
Parrheim Foods Fababean protein Fababean protein is Non-GMO, low allergenic, Different food recipes
Inc.4 (Canada) Progress protein prepared from faba gluten free, functional
Great Northern beans; Progress protein and natural; excellent and
bean protein is produced from the valuable ingredients in
yellow or green field pea; various food applications
Great Northern bean
protein is produced from
great northern beans
Now Foods Inc.5 NOWTM Sports 100% pure non-GMO pea Dietary supplement which Mixe one scoop (33 g)
(USA) Pea protein protein isolates is high in branched chain of pea protein with
amino acids (each scoop 8 oz. of cold water,
contains over 4800 mg juice, or beverage
branched chain amino and blend
acids and over 2000 mg
of L-arginine); has high
solubility and is easy
to digest
1Website for Nutri-pea Ltd.: www.nutripea.com/index.htm
2Website for Herbal Extracts Plus: www.herbalextractsplus.com/
3Website for Norben Company Inc.: www.norbencompany.com/
4Website for Parrheim Foods Inc.: www.parrheimfoods.com/
5Website for Now Foods Inc.: www.nowfoods.com/
326 Food Processing: Principles and Applications
As with proteins, pulse starches can be processed in fiber and which can be used as an ingredient by food
using either dry (air classification) or wet processing processors. As particle size of the final fiber product
techniques. Figure 14.5 presents the process for wet can influence its physicochemical properties (e.g. disper-
milling of starch. Similar to the protein extraction proc- sibility, water absorption) and nutritional quality (e.g. role
ess, starch purity is higher when processed by wet in colonic function, transit time, etc.) (Tosh & Yada,
milling. The properties of legume starch vary depending 2010), the technique used for milling needs to be carefully
on the ratios of amylose and amylopectin, the two major considered. The particle size of the hull fiber can be con-
components of starch that determine starch functionality trolled by judicious selection of milling procedures and
in food applications. Starches are of interest in food screens (Ngoddy et al., 1986). Additionally the composi-
formulation as they provide texture through their tion of protein, fat, minerals, and carbohydrates in the
rheological and swelling properties. High-amylose final product will also affect functionality.
starches retrograde to a greater extent than high- During wet extraction of proteins and starch, the fiber
amylopectin starches, resulting in increased degrees of fraction is separated, and this by-product can be dried
crystallinity, syneresis, and gel firmness. and milled for use as a value-added product (see
Table 14.7 provides a list of some of the important Figures 14.1, 14.2). Perhaps the best known legume fiber
properties of legume starches. Although commercial product is okara, the by-product obtained during
applications have been limited due to the poor swelling soymilk production. To prepare soymilk, soybeans are
power and dispersibility and high gelatinization temper- soaked in water, cooked, ground and filtered to obtain
ature and water exudation of pulse starches (Hoover the smooth-textured soymilk. This leaves behind a
et al., 2010), there is technological and nutritional residue, the okara, which contains the bulk of the soy-
interest in pulse starches as they provide unique func- bean fiber. In addition to fiber, soy okara contains pro-
tional characteristics. From the nutritional perspective, tein (32%), oil (15%), and ash (3%) (Espinosa-Martos &
there is interest in the high resistant starch (RS) content Rupérez, 2009), which makes it a promising nutritive
of some pulse flours, as RS has been linked with health ingredient that could be incorporated in functional
benefits such as reduced risk of colon cancer and diabe- high-fiber foods.
tes, and providing a substrate for growth of probioctic Legume fibers as prebiotics for the growing probiotic
organisms (Boye & Ma, 2012; Hoover et al., 2010). food market are particularly promising. Prebiotics are
A list of some of the commercial legume starch products carbohydrate sources of food for probiotics. In addition
available in North America, their characteristics and to the indigestible oligosaccharides found in legumes, leg-
suggested applications is provided in Table 14.8 and ume starches with high amounts of amylose, which resists
Figure 14.1. enzymatic hydrolysis (also classified as resistant starch),
can serve as prebiotics (Conway, 2001; Niba, 2002;
Wollowski et al., 2001). Various researchers are studying
14.5.5 Fiber products
the resistant starch characteristics of different legume
Legumes are a good source of dietary fiber (both soluble fibers in order to identify market applications (Bravo
and insoluble). Insoluble fibers found in legumes include et al., 1998; Cairns et al., 1996; Tovar & Melito, 1996).
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, whereas soluble fibers Table 14.9 provides a list of some of the commercial
comprise oligosaccharides such as stachyose, raffinose, legume fiber products available, their characteristics,
verbascose, and pectin. Increased fiber consumption and suggested applications.
can reduce the risk of many diseases including heart dis-
ease, diabetes, obesity, and some forms of cancer 14.5.6 Nutraceutical products
(Marlett et al., 2002). Fibers also provide physicochemi-
cal functionality to foods through their ability to bind In addition to the major components, legumes contain
and hold liquids such as water and fat, their swelling minor components that may have health benefits.
properties, and their impact on product viscosity. In Isoflavones from soybeans have been of particular interest
the recent past, there has been growing interest in the due to their reported beneficial effects on menopausal
use of fibers in food formulation due to their beneficial symptoms. Isoflavones are naturally occurring polyphe-
properties. nolic compounds belonging to the phytoestrogen class.
Legume hulls are removed as one of the first steps in Twelve different types have been found, which include
processing, and this provides a by-product that is rich daidzin, genistin, glycitin, acetyldaidzin, acetylgenistin,
Table 14.7 Properties of legume starches
Total Pasting
Legumes Processing techniques Yield (%) amylose (%) SP or SF1 temp. (C) T (C)2o Tp (C)
2 Tc (C)
2 Crystallinity (%) ΔH References
Kabuli Soaking with H2O 37.94 31.8 11.61 SP (g/g) 73.4 59.4 68.6 77.8 13.12 1.198 (J/g) (Miao et al.,
chickpea containing 0.2% 2009)
sodium hydrogen
sulfite, dehulling,
grinding, filtering
with 100-mesh sieve
and centrifuging,
then washing
sediment repeatedly
with water
Desi chickpea Same as the above 29.65 35.24 13.3 SP (g/g) 70.7 62.2 67.0 72.0 12.0 1.87 (J/g) (Miao et al.,
2009)
Black bean Steeping in water 16.37–21.80 37.17–39.32 8.2–17.7 SF (v/v) 61.0–65.7 70.9–74.9 81.2–86.7 32.1–32.7 17.8–20.1 (Zhou et al.,
containing ΔH /AP3 2004)
0.01% sodium (mJ/mg)
metabisulfite,
homogenizing and
passing through a
202 screen, residue
was homogenized
and passed through a
70 μm screen, filtrate
was left standing for
sedimentation.
Sediment was
suspended in 0.2
NaOH and left
standing and the
final sediment was
suspended in water
and passed through
a 70 μm screen,
neutralized and then
dried
Pinto bean Same as above 25.01–28.25 31.34–31.93 9.9–10.4 SF (v/v) 63.3–64.5 70.9–76.5 85.1–88.8 33.0–33.4 17.9–18.8 (Zhou et al.,
ΔH /AP3 2004)
(mJ/mg)
Lentil Same as above 27.44–34.07 30.51–32.29 16.0–18.4 SF (v/v) 60.0–60.1 66.0–66.6 76.4–77.5 31.7–32.3 15.5–16.6 (Zhou et al.,
ΔH /AP3 2004)
(mJ/mg)
(Continued)
Table 14.7 (Continued)
Total Pasting
Legumes Processing techniques Yield (%) amylose (%) SP or SF1 temp. (C) To (C)
2 Tp (C)
2 Tc (C)
2 Crystallinity (%) ΔH References
Smooth pea Same as above 19.40–28.90 34.73–35.09 16.2–16.6 SF (v/v) 61.1–63.9 67.7–70.6 77.3–80.1 30.0–30.3 14.6–16.3 (Zhou et al.,
ΔH /AP3 2004)
(mJ/mg)
Wrinkled pea Same as above 21.60 78.42 3.4 SF (v/v) NR NR NR NR 17.7 NR (Zhou et al.,
2004)
Chickpea Steeping in water 29.0–35.2 28.6–34.3 11.4–13.6 SP (g/g) 75.4–76.7 61.5–64.8 66.7–69.0 71.3–73.8 NR 7.6–8.7 (Singh et al.,
containing 0.16% (J/g) 2005)
sodium hydrogen
sulfite, grinding and
screening through
100-mesh,
centrifuging the
filtrating slurry
after removing
supernatant, drying
Soybean Blending in 0.3% NR 11.8–16.2 NR 71.6–83.8 52.0–53.5 56.5–57.9 NR NR 12.3–12.9 (Stevenson
sodium (J/g) et al.,
metabisulfite, 2006)
filtering through a
screen of 106 μm
mesh and
centrifuging, the
sediment was
washed with 10%
toluene in NaCl
and left standing;
sediment was then
washed with water
and filtered
Soybean Same as above NR 16.5–19.8 NR 68.9–82.4 51.2–51.8 55.2–55.8 NR NR 10.7–12.7 (Stevenson
(J/g) et al.,
2007)
Range 16.37–37.94 11.8–78.42 8.2–16.6 68.9–83.8 51.2–65.7 55.2–76.5 71.3–88.8 12.0–33.4
1 SP represents swelling power which is the ratio of the wet weight of the sedimented gel to its dry weight; SF represents swelling factor which is the ratio of the volume of sedimented gel to the
volume of the dry starch granules with a density of 1.4 g/mL.
2 To, Tp, Tc indicate the onset, peak and end temperature of gelatinization, respectively.
3 Gelatinization enthalpy (mJ/mg)/amylopectin content.
NR, not reported.
14 Crops – Legumes 329
Table 14.8 Examples of commercial legume starch products in North America
Composition
Company Products (source of products) Characteristics indicated Suggested applications
Nutri-Pea Accu-GelTM A food-grade, native Its superior gelling Oriental noodles, french
Limited1 pulse starch properties allow it to be fry batters and coatings,
(Canada) used at a 20–30% lower surimi, extrusion
usage level. It offers good applications, low-cost
body and mouthfeel meat formulations,
without altering flavor fat-free sour cream,
vegetarian applications,
canned products, fruit
fillings, and sauces
Parrheim Foods StarliteTM A pea starch Starlite expands well during Snack foods and breakfast
Inc.3 (Canada) concentrate derived extrusion cereals, noodle, pasta
from yellow field pea, The use of Starlite in and baking recipes,
which contains 85% various food applications making of bean-thread
starch (db) with a can increase resistant vermicelli
blend of 6% protein starch and slowly
digestible starch content
of the finished product;
it can also improve
moistness and water
retention
Parrheim Foods Probond Starch A blend of pea starch Can be used as a binding Uses range from
Inc.2 (Canada) and pea protein agent; produces a solid nutritional petfood
pellet and improves recipes to the most
pelleting and extruding rugged industrial
functions binding application
Now Foods Inc.3 NOWTM PHASE A natural white kidney Product shown in non- Could be consumed as a
(USA) 2TM starch bean starch extract, clinical studies to help dietary supplement by
neutralizer also contains reduce the breakdown taking before any meal
cellulose, cellulose and absorption of containing complex
powder and gum complex carbohydrates, carbohydrates or
acacia by limiting the action of starches
α-amylase
1Website for Nutri-pea Ltd. : http://www.nutripea.com/index.htm;
2Website for Parrheim Foods Inc.: http://www.parrheimfoods.com/
3Website for Now Foods Inc.: http://www.nowfoods.com/
acetylglycitin, malonyldaidzin, malonylgenistin, and
malonylglycitin. Some companies have developed pro- 14.6 Novel applications
cesses to extract soybean isoflavones for nutraceutical
and functional food applications, as shown in The use of legumes in food product formulations in North
Table 14.10. Other microcomponents in legumes of America has been made easier with the advent of technol-
growing interest are saponins, lectins, amylase, and ogies that have allowed novel convenient ingredients to be
protease inhibitors due to their reported benefits in developed. Soybeans led this growth, with the expansion
decreasing risks of a variety of diseases including of novel product formulation in the last two decades.
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, and cancer Figure 14.2 lists some of the soybean foods and products
(Campos-Vega et al., 2010). available today. A similar growth is occurring with pulse
330 Food Processing: Principles and Applications
Table 14.9 Examples of commercial fiber products prepared from legume
Composition
Company Products (source of products) Characteristics indicated Suggested applications
Herbal Extracts Pea fiber capsule 100% pea fiber Each capsule contains One to two pea fiber capsules,
Plus1 (USA) botanical powder approximately 600 mg of two to three times each day
powdered pea fiber at mealtimes
material; the bulking
action of pea fiber may
help to provide many
healthful benefits
Euringus Organic pea fiber Contains insoluble Bringing many health Bread products (8–12%
Ingredients2 dietary fiber from benefits (such as reducing substitution); fiber
(France) pea risk of colon cancer and additive (substitute for
coronary heart disease and wheat, oat); meat products
cholesterol-lowering (sausage, beefburgers);
effects) as well as meat products filler (by
functionality (such as replacing starch); cookies
texture improver, fat and muffins (up to 25%
replacer, and texture substitution for flours);
modifier) when energy, health and
supplementing organic wellness bars; noodles
pea fiber products into (3–5% substitution for
various food applications wheat flours)
Best Cooking Pea fiber 100% pea fiber Product is approved by Health drinks, baked goods,
Pulses Inc.3 Health Canada’s Bureau of cereals, extruded snacks,
(Canada) Nutritional Science, the nutrition bars
FDA and the USDA
Parrheim Foods Exlite fiber Concentrated from A functional fiber (soluble Breads, rolls, muffins,
Inc.4 (Canada) yellow field pea and insoluble), high in cookies, breakfast cereals,
fiber and mineral content pasta products, snack
(Fe and Ca); product made foods, and specialty health
without any chemical foods and beverages; Exlite
extraction or modification; can also be used to
finely ground and tasty substitute (up to 25%) for
wheat flour in cookies,
cakes, and muffins
Nutri-Pea Uptake 80TM A food-grade Offering both nutrition (fiber Low-fat and fat-free
Limited5 vegetable fiber enrichment) and applications, hamburgers,
(Canada) functionality (bulking veggie burgers and
agent and texture wieners, sauces and
modifier) due to its high fillings, nutritional bars,
level of soluble and cookies and brownies,
insoluble fiber, with high processed fish products
water-binding capacity
Nutri-Pea Centu-TexTM A food-grade Offering similar benefits as Low-fat and fat-free
Limited5 vegetable fiber for Uptake 80TM with applications, hamburgers,
(Canada) added benefit of a higher veggie burgers and
water- and fat-binding wieners, sauces and
capacity fillings, nutritional bars,
cookies and brownies,
processed fish products
(Continued)
14 Crops – Legumes 331
Table 14.9 (Continued)
Composition
Company Products (source of products) Characteristics indicated Suggested applications
Nutri-Pea Centara IIITM A natural food- Offering an excellent means Nutritional bars, white
Limited5 Centara IVTM grade vegetable of insoluble fiber breads, bagels, tortillas,
(Canada) Centara 5TM fiber fortification without pasta, vegetarian
manufactured significant alteration in applications, cookies and
from the hulls of color, flavor or odor. crackers
Canadian yellow Centara IV and 5 are
peas progressively whiter in
color and are particularly
suited for color-sensitive
applications
Golden Peanut AgForm 100 Made from peanut An excellent source of Peanut hull and fiber
Company6 AgForm ES hull and fiber cellulose and crude fiber, products are primarily
(USA) AG Granules peanut hulls are high in used in animal feed, as
Granules ES liquid absorbency, and pesticide and fertilizer
have chemical inertness carriers, and as industrial
and biodegradability absorbents; other uses
include
fiber ingredient, cellulosic
products, fiber filler
products, extender
products, composite
products, and inert carrier
products
1Website for Herbal extracts plus: www.herbalextractsplus.com/
2Website for Euringus Ingredients: www.euringus.com/
3Website for Best cooking Pulses Inc.: www.bestcookingpulses.com/
4Website for Parrheim Foods Inc.: www.parrheimfoods.com/
5Website for Nutri-pea Limited: www.nutripea.com/index.htm
6Website for Golden Peanut Company: www.goldenpeanut.com
legumes as pulse flours, protein, starch and fiber fractions minimize losses during harvest and post harvest; and (c)
become increasingly available. A list of some of the poten- effective techniques for their secondary and tertiary proces-
tial and current applications of legume flours and sing to expand convenience and ease of use. Currently,
fractions including pulses is presented in Figure 14.1. legumes are used as whole foods and as ingredients in food
formulation. Growth in the sector has resulted from robust
researchovermany years.Whereasmuchprogress has been
14.7 Conclusion made with soybeans, there remains room for innovation,
especiallywith regard topulse legumes. For oilseed legumes,
Socio-economic, environmental and population challenges specifically soybeans and peanuts, research on ways to
will likely continue to exert pressures on food prices and reduce allergenicity in order to expand their consumption
food supply in the coming decades, whichwill have impacts will be useful. Legume processing is one of themost impor-
on global food security and the environment. Legumes are tant activities in the food industry and results in a large vari-
important sources of protein, carbohydrate and oil and ety of products with unique properties. The processing of
other critical micronutrients. Maximizing their benefits as legumes makes them acceptable to consumers. Both tradi-
integral components of the global food supply requires tional and modern methods of processing legumes result
the following: (a) agricultural technologies to enhance their in products that are suited for different purposes so both
production; (b) primary processing technologies to avenues should be exploited.
332 Food Processing: Principles and Applications
Table 14.10 Examples of commercial products prepared from micronutrients in soybean
Composition Suggested
Company Products (source of products) Characteristics applications
Now Foods Inc.1 NOWTM Extra Soybean extracts and other Product extracted through a Could be used
(USA) Strength Soy ingredients including rice proprietary process that as a dietary
Isoflavones flour, cellulose, silica and results in the highest supplement by
VcapsTM magnesium stearate natural levels of genistein taking one Vcaps
one to three times
daily
SISU2 Soy Isoflavones Soybean extract, Does not have estrogenic Suitable for vegans
(Canada) standardized to contain effect; product can and contains no
20% total isoflavones alleviate menopause ingredients that
(genistein, daidzein and symptoms such as hot are a source of
glycitein), also contains flashes; contains gluten
microcrystalline cellulose, antioxidant that reduces
magnesium stearate free radicals that cause
tissue damage
Webber Webber Each capsule contains 50 mg Contains isoflavones as Could be consumed
Naturals®3 Naturals® Soy soybean (Glycine max) phytoestrogens (plant by taking one
(Canada) Isoflavone (bean extract) and 20 mg source estrogens) that capsule two to
Complex isoflavones (40%), as well help to reduce or three times daily,
as non-medicinal eliminate menopausal hot or as directed by a
ingredients such as gelatin flashes physician
capsule (gelatin, purified
water), microcrystalline
cellulose, vegetable-grade
magnesium stearate
(lubricant)
Natural Factors®4 Soy Isoflavones Each capsule contains Product contains naturally Recommended to
(Canada) Complex 50 mg soybean isoflavone balanced isoflavones, consume six
Capsules extract, total isoflavones genistein and daidzein. capsules daily
of 13.8 mg AIE (aglycone These well-known
isoflavone equivalents), flavonoids are
and genistein compounds complemented by other
of 2.2 mg AIE healthful natural
compounds found in
soybeans and soy foods.
Provides support for
menopausal symptoms
and may slow bone
density and inhibit bone
reabsorption
1Website for Now Foods Inc.: www.nowfoods.com
2Website for Sisu: www.sisu.com/sisu
3Website for Webber Naturals: http://webbernaturals.com/caen
4Website for Natural Factors: http://naturalfactors.com/caen
bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties grown in Ethiopia.
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