International Journal of Law and Management
Time management: presenteeism versus management-by-objectives
Kwesi Amponsah-Tawiah, John Louis Opata, Samuel Doku Tetteh,
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IJLMA
60,6 Timemanagement: presenteeism
versus management-by-objectives
Kwesi Amponsah-Tawiah
Business School, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana, and
1470
John Louis Opata and Samuel Doku Tetteh
Received 18 January 2018 Department of Organization and Human Resource Management,
Accepted 6 April 2018 Business School, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
Abstract
Purpose – This study examined the actual productive hours of employees from the service sector in Ghana.
Design/methodology/approach – This study adopted an exploratory cross-sectional survey design.
The purposive and convenience sampling techniques were used to identify the service organizations and
recruited 520 employees in Accra for the study. Specifically, these respondents were workers from banks,
insurance companies, auditing firms and oil and gas companies. The data were analyzed using frequencies
and other descriptive statistics.
Findings – Results showed poor time management among the study organizations. It was reported that
although most workers report to work as early as 6:30 a.m., they wait until 8:30 a.m. to commence the day’s
work schedule. In addition, they start thinking of break at least 15 min before actual break time which
decreases productivity. In addition, employees reported spending at least 30 min on break. They also added
that, they start clearing the desks about 15 min before actual closing time and leave the office at exactly
5:00 p.m.
Practical Implications – This study shows that the physical presence of workers does not necessarily
mean they are working. The study proposes an alternative way to increase productivity rather than relying
on physical presence of the workers.
Originality/value – This study is among the few that empirically sought to explore the actual time that
workers use in a day at work. Thus, it measured actual productive hours at of service employees in Ghana.
Keywords Presenteeism, Service industry, Time management, Exploratory survey,
Management-by-objectives
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Time is the most essential resource for the optimal execution of all organizational activities
(Adu-Oppong et al., 2014). A delicate resource cannot be saved but only spent. Invariably,
once misused, it can never be regained. Indeed, the management of time is a valuable
resource to both organizations in search for business improvement and individuals looking
for ways to spend their time.
Nwaiwu (2000) defined time as the interval between the beginning and the end of an
operation. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary also defined time as a period either
long or short, during which an individual undertakes an activity or an activity occurs.
Hissom (2009) conceptualized management as the organizational process that comprises
International Journal of Law and
Management planning strategically, objectives setting, deploying the human and financial assets needed
Vol. 60 No. 6, 2018 to achieve objectives andmeasuring results.
pp. 1470-1484
© EmeraldPublishingLimited Time management is the act or skill of efficiently and effectively allocating, organizing
1754-243X
DOI 10.1108/IJLMA-01-2018-0010 and coordinating available periods to various activities for the attainment of set goals or
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objectives whether at the individual or organizational level (Adu-Oppong et al., 2014). The Time
management of time commences with the commitment to change. According to Reynolds management
(2008), time management can be achieved if goals are set and all future work is prioritized
based on the movement of both individuals and organization towards meeting them. The
value of time management lies in the fact that people have too many activities they need to
undertake but not enough time for the things that they want to do. Time management helps
identify needs and wants in terms of their importance, and matches them with other
resources. The process brings about orderliness, enabling one to be more productive and 1471
fulfilled (Adeojo, 2012).
In Ghana, many managers are facing the challenge of ensuring effective time
management. To resolve this challenge, many organizations have resorted to strict
enforcement of time schedules for reporting, lunch breaks and closing for employees without
recourse to employee productivity/output. Anecdotally, these strict time schedules have
resulted in the growing phenomenon of presenteeism. Presenteeism, according to Gilbreath
and Karimi (2012), occurs when employees are physically present at work but mentally
absent. In other words, employees are at work but their cognitive energies are not devoted to
their work. In some instances, they go through the motions of work with their attention
focused elsewhere.
There is a pervasive agreement that presenteeism leads to enormous aggregate loss
relative to absenteeism: “On the face of it, this suggests an iceberg effect in which the more
visible portion of work loss (absenteeism) is dwarfed by that portion beneath the surface
(presenteeism)” (Johns, 2010: 530). This implies that productive losses from presenteeism are
possibly higher than the obvious (absenteeism) but little is accounted for.
This present study sought to examine the time spent on productive work vis-à-vis idle
time spent at the work place, and to determine alternatives to presenteeism for managers in
their quest to manage time effectively. Specifically, the study brings to the fore actual
productive hours expended towards work by Ghanaian workers in the face of strict time
schedules as well as highlights the hours lost to unproductive activities during working
hours. Consequently, the study will help identify ways of reducing the productive time loss
that goes unnoticed bymanagers, but has negative effect on productivity.
1.1 Presenteeism
Presenteeism is the loss in productivity when workers are on the job, but not performing at
their best (Willingham, 2008). Johns (2010) maintains that presenteeism is a recent subject of
interest unlike absenteeism. Presenteeism has been defined in various ways by various
authors, attending work, as opposed to being absent (Smith, 1970). Working elevated hours,
thus putting in ‘face time’ even when unfit (Simpson, 1998): Exhibiting excellent attendance
(Canfield and Soash, 1955): and reduced productivity at work because of health problems or
other events that distract one from full productivity, for example, office politics (Hummer
et al., 2002). Johns (2010) adopts the definition of presenteeism as attending work while ill. He
further maintains that certain organizational policies and cultures foster presenteeism at the
workplace. Organizational policies concerning pay, sick pay, attendance control,
downsizing, and permanency of employment have all been suggested to foster presenteeism
(Johns, 2010: 524).
The definitions of presenteeism indicate an emphasis on employees’ physical presence at
the workplace and a decline in productivity or performance of employees because of ill
health and/or other problems. In a study by Aronsson and Gustafsson (2005) in Sweden,
they found that 37 per cent of respondents reported attending work while sick more than
once. In a later study by Aronsson and Gustafsson (2005) 53 per cent made the same
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IJLMA declaration, (38 per cent 2-5 times and 15 per cent more than five times). The response
60,6 format consisted of never, once, 2-5 times, or over 5 times; in the past 12 months (Johns,
2010). Presenteeism has serious implications for organizations. From an organizational
viewpoint, Hemp (2004 cited in Johns, 2010) opines that the relative invisibility of
presenteeism compared to absenteeism makes its management an important source of
competitive advantage. Ozminkowski et al. (2003) iterate that the consequences
1472 of presenteeism in measuring productivity losses are always challenging to assess. Hence,
the concept and effects of presenteeism in an organization cannot be overemphasized, and it
is imperative for organizations who want to remain successful and competitive to devise
mechanisms to counter the adverse effects of presenteeism, especially in this era of
increasing globalization and competition.
Literature is vexed with enormous evidence as to what necessitates presenteeism.
Caverley et al. (2007) and Hansen and Andersen (2008) have all indicated that job insecurity
has the tendency of driving employees to work even when sick. In addition, an argument has
been made for people working in jobs that require high physical, cognitive and social
context to always be present to help maintain their performance on the job (Demerouti et al.,
2009). Again, Bergström et al. (2009) posit that health care occupations require workers to
continue working when they are indisposed. Simpson (1998) maintains that individuals are
inclined to be always present and stay longer hours at work so that they can get promotions,
rewards and new job opportunities. In sum, organizational cultures that cherish,
acknowledge and reward long hours at work breeds the culture of presenteeism.
1.2 Advantages of management by objective
Thomson (1998) highlights three potential advantages of management by objectives (MBO).
First, MBO has the potential of allowing managers to gain the commitment of subordinates
since the goals and objectives are not imposed on them but rather they are set because of
consensus between managers and subordinates. Second, MBO allows managers to gain
better control and coordination toward goal accomplishment, by having a clearer picture of
who is doing what and how the parts all fit together. Finally, MBO has the potential of
allowing managers to gain an increased ability to help subordinates develop by being able
to see their strengths and weakness in operation on a specific objective as well as teaching
subordinates to anticipate change and be proactive.
Lindberg and Wilson (2011) conducted a longitudinal study of ten years interval to
determine how well MBO has been implemented in upper secondary schools in Sweden and
its impact on student performance and school effectiveness. It was found that the
implementation of MBO had declined comparatively overtime. In addition, they found that
the effects of MBO on student performance had reduced overtime, probably because of the
decline in its implementation. However, the implementation of MBO was found to have
reduced teachers’ stress.
1.3 Management by objectives
MBO, initially used by Peter Drucker in 1954, refers to:
A process or system designed for supervisory managers in which a manager and his or her
subordinate sit down and jointly set specific objectives to be accomplished within a set time frame
and for which the subordinate is then held directly responsible (Thomson, 1998: 1).
MBO is a process of agreeing upon objectives within an organization so that management
and employees agree to the objectives and understand what they are in the organization
(Drucker, 1954). Thomson (1998) further reiterates that theMBO approach brings some form
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of dialogue into the process of passing plans and objectives from one organizational level to Time
another. A superior brings specific goals and measures into a meeting with a subordinate. management
The subordinate also brings specific objectives and measures that he or she considers
contributory to better accomplishment of the job. Collectively, they come up with specific
goals, measures of achievement, and time frames in which the subordinate commits to the
accomplishment of those goals. The subordinate is then held responsible for the
accomplishment of the goals. 1473
MBOs in practice ranges from assessing the level of formalization and structures within
organizations to identifying the degree of autonomy given to workers in goal setting. Thus,
MBO in some organizations is a formal management system with precise review scheduling,
set evaluation techniques, and specific formats in which objectives and measures must be
presented for review and discussion. MBO in other organizations may be so informal as to
be described simply as “we get together and decide what we’ve done and what we’re going
to do” (Thomson, 1998: 2).
1.4 Theoretical framework – the goal-setting theory
Feather (1990, cited in Lindberg and Wilson, 2011) asserted that the goal-setting theory is
one of the dominant motivational theories in the study of organizational behavior. Locke
(1991a) maintains that goals influence action by affecting intensity, duration, and direction
of actions. However, Lindberg and Wilson (2011) iterates that, goals are needed to direct
attention and to energize actions, since it is not enough to ask people to do their best. The
Goal-setting theory argues that, motivation and performance are higher when individuals
set specific goals, when goals are difficult but accepted, and when there is a feedback on
performance (Locke and Latham, 2006). Erez and Zidon (1984, as cited in Armstrong, 2006)
stressed the need for acceptance of and commitment to goals, thus, as long as they are
agreed, demanding goals lead to better performance than easy ones.
To enhance the performance of individuals, specific goals must be set for specific
individuals and for specific contexts. These goals must be challenging and acceptable.
Armstrong (2006) posits that Goal theory is in line with the 1960s concept of MBOs. He
further maintains that MBOs, however, often failed because it was enforced bureaucratically
without gaining the real support of those involved. In addition, managers do not acquire the
skills in practicing it, and are unaware of the significance of the processes of agreement,
reinforcement and feedback. In inference, MBOs failed because of how it was approached
but not because it was an inefficient model in itself. Thus, with requisite knowledge and
skills on how to practice MBOs, individuals and organizations stand to benefit a great deal
from it.
2. Method
2.1 Research design
This study adopted an exploratory survey design; relied heavily on the quantitative
techniques in its data collection and extraction. This method was appropriate because being
an important study to provide empirical support for a particular style of management
(MBO) the researchers wanted, as much as possible, to attain objective responses from the
employees. Thus to provide some validity and clarity through an in-depth investigation of
objective indices of time management and behavioral measures of presenteeism, a more
quantitative approach was used to ascertain the average amount of time that was lost to
activities unrelated to work.
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IJLMA 2.2 Population/sample
60,6 The target group consisted of formal workers in selected private and public originations in
the central business district of Ghana’s capital city; Accra, who were also Executive Master
of Business Administration (EMBA) students at the University of Ghana Business School,
University of Ghana. The purposive sampling technique was first used to select all workers
in formal employment after which the convenience sampling technique was used to select
1474 employees who were willing to participate in the study. The sample was made up of 520
employees from different organizations and establishments (both public and private) located
in the central business district of the nation’s capital, Accra. These respondents worked in
various institutions in the service industry in the country. However, majority of them
worked in banks, insurance companies, auditing firms and oil and gas companies.
Furthermore, the context of the study is Ghana because the country is now dominated by the
service industry where concepts such as job autonomy, empowerment and job control are
common; thus, the issue of effective time management becomes key and essential in such an
industry since humans constitute the main labor force unlike the manufacturing companies.
Hence, the choice of Ghana as the context of study.
2.3 Procedure
Applying the quantitative method, self-designed questionnaires were administered to select
employees from different organizations to respond. The questions bothered on issues of time
utilization and management at the workplace. Three research assistants were employed and
trained to assist in the data collection. This was done by taking them through how to
approach and seek the consent of respondents before administering the questionnaire.
2.4 Analysis of data
Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, specifically frequencies and other measures
of central tendencies. This approach was adopted because of the nature of the data collected.
It allowed for the presentation of results empirically obtained from respondents without any
alteration or interference.
3. Results
In all, 520 respondents made up of 280 (53.8 per cent) males and 240 (46.2 per cent) females of
different positions from Ghana’s public and private organizations took part in the study. All
the respondents had been with their respective organizations for at least 1 year, with the
least number of years being 1 year, whereas the most was 28 years.
3.1 Official reporting time
Table AI Presents the official time respondents indicated they are expected by their
organizations to report to work. From the table, 272 (52.3per cent) of the respondents
indicated that they report to work at 8:00 a.m. Again, 176 (33.8 per cent) indicated that their
official time for reporting to work is before 8:00 a.m., 56 (10.8 per cent) respondents said they
are supposed to officially report at 8:30 a.m., whereas 16 (3.1 per cent) respondents said their
official reporting time is 9:00 a.m. It is clear from the times presented in Table AI that, most
of the respondents’ reporting times are within the officially recognized time to report to work
in Ghana, which is between the hours of 8:00 a.m. and 8:30 a.m.
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3.2 Time respondents report at work Time
The researchers further found out the time respondents report to work. Table AII shows the management
pattern of response from participants.
As shown in Table AII, respondents who reported to work between 6:30 a.m. and 7:00 a.
m. were 152 (29.2 per cent). Those who indicated that they report to work between 7:01 a.m.
and 7:30 a.m. were 160 (30.8 per cent), those who indicated 7:31 a.m. and 8:00 a.m. as their
reporting time were 112 (21.5 per cent), respondents who report to work between 8:31 a.m.
and 9:00 a.m. were 72 (13.9 per cent), while 24(4.6 per cent) indicated that they report to work 1475
after 9:00 a.m. The results from the table shows that, most respondents (424, representing
81.5 per cent) report to work earlier than the officially recognized time for reporting to work
in Ghana (8:30 a.m.).
3.3 Official time to start work
What happens when workers report to work this early? Are they supposed to start work or
supposed to wait? This was also investigated and the results shown below in Table AIII.
Results from Table AIII show that all respondents who reported before the start time
wait until 8:30 a.m. or beyond to start work. From the results, 464 respondents (representing
89.2 per cent of the respondents) said they start work at 8:30 a.m. The rest of the respondents
constituting 56 (10.8 per cent) indicated times between 8:45 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. as start times
for work. This means that, when workers report to work as early as 6:30 a.m., they wait till it
is 8:30 a.m. or beyond for their work to be recognized.
3.4 Time taken to settle down at work
When workers start work at 8:30 a.m., how long does it take them to settle down to “real”
work? Table AIV indicates how long it takes them to settle to work.
Most of the respondents indicated that they take some few minutes to settle down to
work when they report. From the Table AIV, 360 (69.2 per cent) respondents indicated it
takes them 5-10 min to settle down to work when they report, 128 (24.6 per cent) respondents
said it takes them 11-15 min to settle down to work, 8 (1.5 per cent) respondents said it takes
16-20 min, whereas 24 (4.7 per cent) stated it takes 21-30 min to settle down. Whatever the
number of minutes it takes respondent to settle down, it is an empirical fact that respondents
do not start work right away when they arrive at work, but take some time to settle. This
means that, the usual hours of work would be reduced by a number of minutes. This time
taken to settle down is spent on a number of activities respondents do outside official work.
For instance, workers would check their mails, use the social media they have subscribed to,
relax, pray, read the newspapers, among other things, when they report to work before
officially starting the day’s work.
3.5 Time spent on counter-productive work in between official breaks
Aside these activities before settling to work, workers on several occasions spend some
extra time in-between official breaks; these breaks include lunch break, meetings and so on.
Table AV presents some information to this effect.
According to the results from Table AV, 232 (44.6 per cent) respondents indicated that
they spend about 5min in-between official breaks. In total, 128 (24.6 per cent) respondents
said they spend about 10 min, 64 (12.3 per cent) said they spend about 15 minutes in-
between official breaks and 40 (7.7 per cent) spend 20 and 30 min between breaks, with only
16 (3.1 per cent), indicating that they spend about 25 min. Again, in this case, whichever
number of minutes is spent, whether little or large still reduces productive time, which could
affect productivity.
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IJLMA 3.6 Time spent thinking about break before the actual break time
60,6 Meanwhile respondents start thinking of break at least 5 min to the actual or official break
time at work. Table AVI provides evidence.
The response in Table AVI shows that some workers start thinking of break 1 hour to the
actual break time. All the respondents start thinking of break at least 15 min to usual break
time. For instance, 312 (60.0 per cent) respondents indicated that they start thinking of break
1476 15 min to time, 144 (27.7 per cent) respondents indicated that they have break thoughts 30
min to time, 24 (4.6 per cent) said 45min to time and finally, 40 (7.7 per cent) said 1 h to time.
3.7 Time taken to return from break outside actual break duration
Table AVII shows the time respondents take to return from official breaks after the actual
duration of break has elapsed.
Respondents indicated that it takes them at least 30 min to return from break. From the
results, 272 (52.3 per cent) respondents said they take 30 min to return from break, 88 (17.0
per cent) indicated that it takes them 45 min to return from break, 152 (29.2 per cent) said it
takes them 1 h to return from break, whereas only 8 (1.5 per cent) said it takes them 1 h 30
min to return from break.
3.8 Time taken to settle to work after break
Results from Table AVIII show that, 400 (76.9 per cent) respondents take 10 min to settle to
work after lunch break, 96 (18.5 per cent) respondents take 15 min to settle to work after
lunch break, whereas 24 (4.6 per cent) respondents take 45 min to settle down to work after
lunch break. They usually engage in activities like chatting with friends, relaxing for a while
and checkingmails.
3.9 Time for closing
Respondents indicated the time they officially close fromwork. This is shown in Table AIX.
Table AIX represents the official time for closing as well as the time respondents’ close
from work. According to the results, workers start closing from 3:30 p.m. as indicated in the
table. Most of the respondents (432, representing 83.0 per cent) indicated that they close from
work at 5:00 p.m. However, workers do not wait until it is closing before they start clearing
their tables. Table AX below represents the time that respondents start clearing their tables,
before the official closing time
3.10 Time respondents start clearing table
Although most respondents indicated they closed at 5:00 p.m., there was no justification to
the effect that they logged off at exactly 5:00 p.m. Respondents took different times to start
clearing their tables so that at exactly 5:00 p.m. they leave the premises. For instance, 424
(81.5 per cent) respondents indicated that they start clearing their tables 15 min to closing,
whereas 64 (12.3 per cent) said they start clearing their table 30 min to closing; 16 (3.1
per cent) of the respondents said they start clearing their tables 45 min. Likewise, 16 (3.1
per cent) of the respondents said they start clearing their tables 1 h to time.
4. Discussion
It is glaring from the data analyzed above that, there are many activities that go on during the
day’s working hours, which reduce productive hours. The results from the analysis of data
indicates that time is spent on counter-productive things at work during productive hours. This
leaves the number of productive hours short of what is desired in the day. For instance,
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Table AIII presents the official time workers are supposed to start work – this depends on the Time
organization since different times have been indicated as the official time to start work. management
However, as presented in Table IV, it takes workers at least between 5-10 min and at most 30
min to settle down for the day’s job. In reality, it should take at least 10 min for one to settle for
the day’s job to begin. So, if it is assumed that everyday aworker takes 10min out of the official
8 hours for work to settle down, then it means that, in a week, each employee takes 50 min to
only settle down to work. However, as indicated in Table IV, some take more than 10 min in a 1477
day to settle to work after reporting. If on average, it takes 30 min to settle down to work in a
day, that alone takes 150 (2 h 30min) min in aweek out of the 40 h of work.
In addition to the time spent beyond the official break hours, workers most of the time,
spend some more time in-between breaks (Table V). For instance, times spent using the
washroom, receiving calls, chatting and so on. If it is assumed that 10 min is spent, it will
amount to 50 min a week.
Further, before break, most of the respondents indicated that, they start having break
thoughts 15 min to time (Table VI). Although some indicated 30 min, 45 min and even an
hour. Assuming on the average 15 min was spent on break thoughts; it also amounts to 75
min per week of five working days. Meanwhile once break thought comes up, effective work
is disrupted. Again, it takes respondents at least 30 min (Table VII) to return from break –
this is even the earliest time respondents’ return from break, since some take more than an
hour. The 30 min multiplied by the 5 working days is 150 min and when this is added to the
75 min spent in- between breaks, it amounts to 225 min. Again, when respondents return
from break, it takes at least 10 min (Table VIII) to settle down to work, and that is even the
least time. 10 min multiplied by the 5 working days will amount to 50 min and if this is
added to the time for break thoughts and time spent in returning from break, it amounts to
275 min out of the 40 h of work in a week.
Most of the respondents indicated that the official time for closing is 5:00 p.m. However,
they usually start clearing their tables at least 15 min to closing time. If this is also
multiplied by the 5 working days, a time of 75 min is lost to clearing of table every week. Not
to talk of those who have other activities or duties to carry out outside normal work schedule
like going for their wards from school before the close of work, doing food/household
shopping among others. Now, if we combine the time taken to settle to work after reporting
(150 min); time spent in-between breaks (50 min); time spent on break thoughts, return from
break and settle down to work after break (275 min); and time spent on clearing the table
before closing (75 min) in a week, a total of 550 min (9 h, 10 min) of time out of the 40 h of
productive work in a week is lost.
Further analysis indicates that, in a day, almost 2 h of productive time is lost without
work. This analysis comes without other possible issues that might give rise to waste of
productive time at the work place. The question is that, if in a week, more than 9 h of
productive time is lost, what is the fate of productivity?
Management and managers need to adopt a management system that can ensure
increased productivity without recourse to loss of these productive hours. This therefore
calls for effective time management strategies. As opined by Adeojo (2012), time is an
essential resource; it is irrecoverable, limited and dynamic. Irrecoverable because every
minute spent is gone forever, limited because only 24 h exist in a day and dynamic because
it is never static (Adeojo, 2012). Time management is the organization of tasks or events by
first estimating howmuch time a task will take to be completed, when it must be completed,
and then adjusting events that would interfere with its completion (North, 2004). It means
therefore that, as revealed by this study, managers need to sit and estimate the real time that
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IJLMA is spent on productive work in order for an adjustment to be made concerning achieving the
60,6 best productive time.
For instance, MBO could be one of the most effective ways to manage time effectively for
higher productivity in the organization. MBOs is in line with the goal-setting theory
(Armstrong, 2006), where performance is seen to be enhanced when managers and workers
set clear, agreed, specific, measurable, challenging goals. Furthermore, the goal-setting
1478 theory holds that the individuals must be committed to achieving those goals, and this has
the potential of enhancing the individual productivity and performance of individuals.
According to Medibank Research Series (2011), by investing in strategies and programs that
support the health and wellbeing of employees, businesses can work towards minimizing
the impact of presenteeism and improving productivity in the workplace. The absence of
MBO is the result of people recognizing the feeling that one must show up for work even
when sick or too stressed to be productive. What happens then is that, the individual shows
up for work, but does not work. High job demands will evoke pressure on employees to
attend work while employees actually feel sick, stressed or psychologically unstable, which
can be viewed, from the self-regulation perspective, as an attempt to avoid performance
decrements. It will therefore be of no use signing a register which indicates the time an
employee shows up for work but there is nothing to show what work that worker does for
the day. However, the sign-in register should be complemented greatly by adopting MBOs;
managers should set daily goals with each employee, specifying the required results of the
tasks as well as the expected time of completion of daily tasks. Furthermore, these daily
tasks should be integrated into overall organizational goals since the purpose of every
organization is to meet its objectives and attain its goals. Consequently, productive hours
will be utilized in attaining organizational goals instead of focusing on the workers just
being at work. This MBOs could also be a good measure of work and productivity of each
employee as they will be assessed based on tasks that they have adequately completed in
relation to specified period. Furthermore, managers who practice MBOs may gain the
benefits of subordinates’ commitment to meeting objectives, gaining better control and
coordination toward goal accomplishment. In addition, it serves as a form for increased
ability to help subordinates develop by being able to see their strengths and weakness in
operation on a specific objective as well as teaching subordinates to anticipate change and
be proactive (Thomson, 1998), which can increase the productivity.
4.1 Conclusion
Findings showed poor time management amongst the study organizations. Although most
workers reports to work as early as 6:30 a.m., they have to wait until 8:30 a.m. to commence
the day’s work schedule. In most organizations, 8:30 a.m. is purported to be the official
“ritualistic” time for work to begin. Meanwhile, workers report to work so early in lieu of
escaping the morning’s rush traffic. Furthermore, the worker who reported as early as 6:30
a.m. waits until 5:00 p.m. before closing. This implies that, employees’ presence at work is
paramount and not necessarily, his or her productivity. The challenge of reporting early to
work and getting home late as experienced by respondents is a glaringly recipe for stress
and its accompanying health implications.
The effective management of time through MBOs will improve staff productivity, make
scheduling of jobs easier, enable staff to perform tasks at their highest skill level, help staff
to prioritize and accomplish important task and record and guide the organization toward
achieving its set goals.
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4.2 Recommendations Time
The result of the study indicated that, many productive hours are lost in the week, which management
has implications for overall organizational performance. The following recommendations
were made; As much as it will be a good practice for workers to show up to work at a
particular time every day, it would be prudent that managers lay emphasis on MBO. With
MBO, formal objective setting and appraisal meetings should be held on a regular basis to
ensure the attainment of organizational goals.
Management is not about getting more things done in a day, but getting the most 1479
important things done in a day (Adeojo, 2012). It is therefore recommended that,
management in the various organizations should set their priorities for the day and make
sure that it is achieved. This is possible through a transparent goal setting process with
employees and resourcing them to deliver on the agreed outcomes.
Considering that some employees report to work very early (as early as 6:30 a.m.) and
still have to leave at the official closing time (5:00 p.m.), it is important that the flexi-time
system of work, which is also goal/objective driven is considered among employees who do
not play customer facing roles to allow for the achievement of goals. Thus, with the flexible
scheduling of work, the nature of operation becomes goal driven other than the shear
presence of employees (presenteeism). Emphasis with this approach is placed on goal
attainment. For instance, if an individual gets to work at 6:30 a.m., he or she needs not wait
until 8:30 a.m. to start work. Once there is an agreed goal that will be measured at an agreed
time, he or she will be guided on how to use the time.
Management should also consider telecommuting. By telecommuting, workers whose
work could be done without necessarily being present in the office all the time could be
provided with the necessary materials they would need for work and be allowed to work
from locations of their choice without necessarily being present at work all the time. Again,
goal-oriented management is the basic premise here. These workers may come to the office
from time to time to give reports on progress of work.
Organizations cannot control time, but can control what they do with time. Emphasis
should therefore be laid on the importance of good time management; thus, objective
management is an appropriate strategy to adopt if effective timemanagement is to be achieved.
4.3 Limitations of the study
This study, like any other, is not devoid of limitations. As a study conducted in Ghana, the
findings cannot be generalized to cover other countries since conditions in other countries
may differ from that of Ghana. In addition, the findings of the study can only be applicable
to the service sector where most of the respondents were coming from. Indeed, in the service
sector, where many idealistic concepts like job autonomy, empowerment and job control
applies; setting objectives with employees is not just plausible but also possible. However, in
a manufacturing set up where machines are automated requiring employees to work to the
speed of machines, employees cannot have the laxity of time to decide when and how to
work but to go according to the regimental schedules of organizations. Thus, the application
of the MBO system of management is limited to some sector of operation. Being an
exploratory study, an initial qualitative approach to understand the phenomenon before a
much more objective quantitative approach would have been an ideal approach and would
have further enhanced the robustness of the findings.
4.4 Recommendations for future studies
Being an exploratory and thus the first of its kind in Ghana, this study paves the way for
further studies. Future studies are recommended into finding out the extent to which MBOs
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IJLMA will help curb counter-productive work during working hours. In addition, studies could
60,6 delve into other measures apart fromMBOs that could help reduce the effect of presenteeism
in organizations in Ghana and the world at large. Moreover, similar studies that employ the
mixed method design, as well as the use of more sophisticated statistical analytical tools are
recommended. Further similar studies are also recommended to be undertaken in other
sectors of the Ghanaian economy other than the service sector. Finally, similar studies could
1480 look at comparing findings in the public sector with that of the public sector in the country.
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IJLMA Appendix
60,6
Time (hrs.) Frequency (%)
1482 6:00 a.m. 24 4.66:30 a.m. 16 3.1
7:00 a.m. 64 12.3
7:30 a.m. 64 12.3
7:45 a.m. 8 1.5
8:00 a.m. 272 52.3
Table AI. 8:30 a.m. 56 10.8
Official reporting 9:00 a.m. 16 3.1
time Total 520 100.0
Time (hrs.) Frequency (%)
6:30-7:00 a.m. 152 29.2
7:01-7:30 a.m. 160 30.8
7:31-8:00 a.m. 112 21.5
Table AII. 8:30-9:00 a.m. 72 13.9
Time respondent After 9:00 a.m. 24 4.6
reports at work Total 520 100.0
Time (in hrs.) Frequency (%)
8:30 a.m. 464 89.2
8:45 a.m. 16 3.1
9:00 a.m. 24 4.6
Table AIII. 9:30 a.m. 8 1.5
Official time to start 100 a.m. 8 1.5
work Total 520 100.0
Time (in minutes) Frequency (%)
5-10 min 360 69.2
11-15 min 128 24.6
Table AIV. 16-20 min 8 1.5
Time taken to settle 21-30 min 24 4.7
down at work Total 520 100.0
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Time
management
1483
Time (in minutes) Frequency (%)
5 min 232 44.6
10 min 128 24.6
15 min 64 12.3 Table AV.
20 min 40 7.7 Time spent on
25 min 16 3.1 counter-productive
30 min 40 7.7 work in between
Total 520 100.0 official breaks
Time (in hours and minutes) Frequency (%)
1 h to time 40 7.7
45 min to time 24 4.6 Table AVI.
30 min to time 144 27.7 Time spent thinking
15 min to time 312 60.0 about break before
Total 520 100.0 the actual break time
Time (in hours) Frequency (%)
30 min 272 52.3
45 min 88 17.0
1 h 152 29.2 Table AVII.
1 h 30 min 8 1.5 Time taken to return
Total 520 100.0 from break
Time (in minutes) Frequency (%)
10 min 400 76.9 Table AVIII.
15 min 96 18.5 Time taken to settle
45 min 24 4.6 at work after lunch
Total 520 100.0 break
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IJLMA
60,6
1484
Time (in hours) Frequency (%)
3:30 p.m. 24 4.6
4:00 p.m. 32 6.2
Table AIX. 4:30 p.m. 32 6.2
Time respondent 5:00 p.m. 432 83.0
closes from work Total 520 100.0
Time (in hours) Frequency (%)
1 h to time 16 3.1
45 min to time 16 3.1
Table AX. 30 min to time 64 12.3
Time respondent 15 min to time 424 81.5
starts clearing table Total 520 100.0
Corresponding author
Kwesi Amponsah-Tawiah can be contacted at: kwesi.amponsaht@gmail.com
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