ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF TRAINING OF BEEKEEPERS ON THE PRODUCTIVITY OF THE APICULTURE INDUSTRY IN THE VOLTA AND OTI REGIONS OF GHANA BY PRINCE DZORGBENYUI KWAMI NYIKPLORKPO (10806046) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL IN AGRIBUSINESS DEGREE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND AGRIBUSINESS SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON AUGUST, 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my late father Mr. Herit Adolph Kwasi Nyikplorkpo, my mother Mrs. Praise Saviour Adzo Nyikplorkpo, my wife Peace Afriyie Ama Nyikplorkpo and my children Priscilla, Phebe, Perfect and Paulina Nyikplorkpo. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My first gratitude goes to God Almighty and the Lord Jesus Christ for granting me life, good health, peace of mind to study and making me find favour in the sight of all that I came into contact with during the course of my studies at the University. My second thanks go to Rev Dr. Edward Ebo Onumah my Principal Supervisor for his patience, tolerance and immense pieces of direction, guidance and very useful corrections in completing this project. Dr Charles Yaw Okyere my Cosupervisor cannot be left out as he also exhibited patience, tolerance and provided some corrections to the work. I wish to acknowledge the late Dr Isaac Ankamah-Yeboah, my original Cosupervisor for his input into this work at the proposal stage. I wish to express my gratitude to all senior members of the department especially those who lectured me for their immense contribution to my successful completion of the programmeme. The Technical Education Development for Modernized Agriculture in Ghana (TEDMAG) project needs to be mentioned here for their sponsorship and financial support without which I could not have undertaken this programmeme. Dr Zachariah Langnel of the University of Education, Winneba has been so helpful, guiding me with the analysis and proofreading the work. Mr Emmanuel Drovou, Mawuli Servor, Bright Ketadzo, Paul Anartey and Eugene Afari-Djan, my colleagues, and Mr Prince Addey Owusu were available to perform peer reviews of the work. I am grateful for your time. I am also indebted to my other colleagues for their immense support in diverse ways in the course of my studies. Mention will also be made of Mr Gershon Tordey Amaglo and Mr Divine Odonkor of the Volta Region Association of Beekeepers who assisted me reached out and actually accompanied me to meet with beekeepers in the two regions where the project was carried out, without whom this work would not have been completed. To the various University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv beekeepers in the Volta and Oti regions who made time to meet me and patiently responded to my questionnaire, I say a big thanks to you. My final thanks go to my late father Mr. Herit Adolph Kwasi Nyikplorkpo for his encouragement at the start of this programmeme, my mother Mrs. Praise Saviour Adzo Nyikplorkpo, my wife Peace Afriyie Ama Nyikplorkpo and my children Priscilla, Phebe, Perfect and Paulina Nyikplorkpo. God bless all of you richly. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v ABSTRACT This study sought to assess the impact of training of beekeepers on the productivity of the apiculture industry in the Volta and Oti Regions of Ghana. Specifically, the study analyzed the factors that influence participation in beekeeping training programmemes, evaluated the impact of training programmemes on the productivity of beekeepers and examined the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of beekeeping. The study used descriptive statistics to measure factors that influence participation in beekeeping training while propensity score matching was used to determine the productivity of beekeepers in the study area. The study further employed the SWOT analytical tool to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of beekeeping. A structured questionnaire, interviews, field visits and focus group discussions were employed to gather data for the study. A multistage sampling technique was used to select two hundred and ten (210) respondents comprising ninety-eight (98) trained and one hundred and twelve (112) formally untrained beekeepers. The study was conducted in six districts/municipalities in the Volta region and two districts from Oti region. STATA Version 15 was used to analyse objectives one and two while a radar chart in excel was used to analyse objective three. It was observed that gender, educational level and number of members of household in beekeeping influenced participation in beekeeping trainings. Whereas males and those with high education were found to be less likely to participate in trainings, household members in beekeeping was found to increase participation in training. The result from the Nearness Neighbor Matching based on the ATT suggests that on average, participation in a beekeeping training programmeme increased productivity measured in gallons/beehives by 1471.96. However, by applying the same matching method (nearest matching method) on the ATE (i.e on the entire population comprising both trained and untrained groups), the productivity was University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi found to increase by only 0.421. This means that training programmemes in beekeeping drives an increase in productivity of beekeeping than other demographic characteristics such as age, gender, marital status, educational level and years of experience. The training programmemes afforded the beekeepers opportunity to enhance their knowledge, skills and attitudes towards the business. The study found that natural, human and economic resources that support beekeeping abound in the study area. Beekeeping is promoting the sustenance of biodiversity in the study area. Among the weaknesses of beekeeping is the absence of definite policy in place to guide and give direction to the beekeeping sector in the country in general and the study area in particular. Also, there are no well organized and strong beekeeping associations both at regional, district and local levels to help drive the beekeeping business. There is also a lack of institutional support for the beekeeping sector and this is a weakness to beekeeping. Among opportunities available for the development of beekeeping is the presence of some training institutions such as the Ohawu Agricultural College and the Adidome Farm Institute in the study area to offer training in beekeeping to interested people. Beekeepers have come out with improved borrasus hives fitted with topbars in place of the borrasus log hives. Threats identified included the continuous use of traditional honey extractors despite the benefits associated with improved beekeeping technology and the menace of bushfires that destroy beehives, bee habitat and fora. The study concludes generally that for the beekeeping sector to strategically function as a profitable venture, training programmemes in new methods of beekeeping should be made a topmost priority. More training programmemes for beekeepers is recommended for the enhancement of their skills, attitudes and competence. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iii ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................. vii LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................ xii CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 14 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 14 1.1 Background to the Study ..................................................................................................... 14 1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 16 1.3 Main objective of the study ................................................................................................. 19 1.4 Justification of the study ..................................................................................................... 20 CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 22 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 22 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 22 2.2 Beekeeping and Hive Products........................................................................................... 22 2.2.1 Hive Products ............................................................................................................... 23 2.3.2 Health Benefits of Bee Products................................................................................... 38 2.3.4 Local and International Trade in Hive Products ........................................................... 43 2.3.4.2 Trade in Beeswax .......................................................................................................... 47 2.3.5 Beekeeping and its Influence on Food Production ...................................................... 49 2.3.6 Beekeeping and Biodiversity ........................................................................................ 50 2.3.7 Honey Production and Livelihood............................................................................... 52 2.5 Training in Beekeeping ....................................................................................................... 55 2.6 Impact Analysis, and Productivity of Beekeeping .............................................................. 59 2.6.1 Impact Assessment Models .......................................................................................... 61 2.7 Review of Empirical Works ................................................................................................ 66 2.8 SWOT Analysis ................................................................................................................... 70 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 75 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................. 75 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 3.2 Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................................... 75 3.3 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................................... 77 3.4 Theory of Production .......................................................................................................... 77 3.6 Research Design .................................................................................................................. 85 3.7 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 86 3.8 Estimating Techniques ........................................................................................................ 87 3.8.1 Binary Logistics Regression ......................................................................................... 87 3.8.2 Propensity Score Matching ........................................................................................... 89 3.8.3 SWOT Analysis ............................................................................................................ 94 3.9 Data Sources and Measurement of Variables...................................................................... 97 3.10 Study Area ......................................................................................................................... 97 3.11 Study Population ............................................................................................................... 99 3.11.1 Sampling Techniques and Sample Size .................................................................... 100 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 103 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................................... 103 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 103 4.2 Descriptive Statistics ......................................................................................................... 103 4.3 Comparison of Means of Productivity (t-test) ................................................................... 107 4.4 Factors Influencing Participation in the Beekeeping Training Programmes .................... 110 4.5 Impact of Beekeeping Training Programmes on Productivity .......................................... 113 4.5.1 The Matching Methods............................................................................................... 113 4.6. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) of Beekeeping ................. 116 4.6.1 Strengths of Beekeeping ............................................................................................. 116 4.6.2 Weaknesses of Beekeeping ........................................................................................ 120 4.6.4 Threats of Beekeeping ................................................................................................ 129 4.6.4 The Way Forward ....................................................................................................... 134 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 137 SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........ 137 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 137 5.2 Summary and Major Findings ........................................................................................... 137 5.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 139 5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 142 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 144 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 176 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix Appendix 1: ............................................................................................................................. 176 Appendix 2 .............................................................................................................................. 188 Appendix 3: ............................................................................................................................. 189 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 3.1: Explanatory Variables for Binary Logit Regression and a Priori Expectation................................ 89 Table 3.2: Sample Size Selection ......................................................................................................................... 102 Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................................ 103 Table 4.2: Comparison of means of Productivity (t-test) ................................................................................... 108 Table 4.3: Binary Logistic Regression Results ................................................................................................... 110 Table 4.4: Matching methods (Average Treatment Effect on the treated (ATT) ........................................... 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi LIST OF FIGURES Figures Page Figure 3.1: Conceptual framework of beekeeping training 76 Figure 3.2: Map showing the study area in the Volta and Oti regions 99 Figure 4.1: SWOT Analysis 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii ACRONYMS AdFI Adidome Farm Institute ATE Average Treatment Effect ATT Average Treatment Effect on the Treated ATU Average Treatment Effect on the Untreated BUSAC Fund The Business Sector Advocacy Challenge Fund COMDEKS Community Development and Knowledge Management for the Satoyama Initiative Programmeme EPA- Environmental Protection Agency EC European Commission EU European Union FAO Food and Agricultural Organization FC Forestry Commission FORUM Forest Protection and Resource Use Management GNA Ghana News Agency KSB Kenyan Topbar Hive MOFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture NBSSI National Board for Small Scale Industries NGOs Non Governmental Organizations OAC Ohawu Agricultural College PSM Propensity Score Matching SNV Netherland Development Organization SEM Structural Equation Modeling University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats UCC University of Cape Coast UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNDP United Nations Development Programmeme UNTRAINED - Those beekeepers who did not have any formal training in beekeeping. USA United States of America USD United States Dollar VORAB Volta Region Association of Beekeepers University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Beekeeping, also known as apiculture has been promoted by policymakers, non-government organizations (NGOs), and agriculturalists as an important tool for increasing incomes, reducing poverty and improving the livelihoods of many people across the globe (Tulu et al., 2020; Andaregie & Astatkie, 2021). Beekeeping has become a crucial agribusiness venture because its products including honey, beeswax, royal jelly, and propolis are in high demand internationally as well as in domestic economies (Tesfaye, Begna & Eshetu, 2017; Schouten & Caldeira, 2021). Aside the economic and social benefits, pollination by bees can stimulate food production, ensure food security, as well as contribute to the conservation of biodiversity in natural habitats (Olschewski et al., 2006; Schouten & Lloyd, 2019). Beekeeping also acts as a cultural heritage value for many communities (Schouten & Lloyd, 2019). In this regard, Hinton et al. (2020) specifically linked beekeeping to the three values of sustainable development: economic, social, and environmental concerns. Beekeeping is a predominant venture across Africa particularly in Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, Kenya, Zambia, Cameroon and South Africa (Dietemann, Pirk & Crewe, 2000; Lowore & Bradbear, 2015; Yusuf et al., 2018). For example, the leading producer of honey in Africa is Ethiopia and only placed nineth position in the world (Andaregie & Astatkie, 2021). Ethiopia produced 163,257.42 tons of honey between 2007 and 2011, out of which 99.2% was consumed locally and 0.8 percent was exported. Ethiopian export of honey totaled 1,297,716 kg in 2007–2011, with a total value of US$4,066,528 (Miklyaev, 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 According to a research by the Central Statistical Agency (CSA), Ethiopia has approximately 10 million bee colonies, with roughly 4.6 million in hives and the remainder in forests (Tulu et al., 2020). Nevertheless, Africa contributes the lowest to the world’s honey trade market despite its potential (Amulen et al., 2017). Indeed, there is a comparative advantage for African countries in the production of organic honey if critical attention is paid to the sector. Although data on beekeeping in Ghana is scarce, there are however some studies made in various parts of the country that could be refered to. For instance there were 5,748 beekeepers in Ghana's former Brong Ahafo area, consisting of 2, 212 females and 3,536 males (Subbey 2009). In 2010, the region's average yearly honey production was 74,088kg. According to Akagaamkum et al. (2010), beekeepers in the Volta region of Ghana are among the best performing in the country with an annual production of 34 kg per beehive compared to the national average yield of 14 kg per hive. Several beekeeping projects have been executed with the goal of providing disadvantaged people across the country with an alternative source of income. This is premised on the view that when beekeeping is made a profitable venture, new entrepreneurs will be attracted to the sector (Schouten et al., 2020). Within this context, skills training is seen as productive means to optimize the beekeeping industry (Schouten & Caldeira, 2021). Moreover, because of the aggressiveness of tropical bees, venturing into beekeeping demands training, education, and other extensive services (Okpokiri et al., 2015). According to Lynton and Pareek (1990), training is mostly made up of opportunities for participants to gain the requisite knowledge and abilities. The goal of farmer training is to increase their farming productivity. It has been demonstrated that training farmers has a number of benefits. According to the findings of Murshed-E-Jahan and Pemsl's (2011) in a study on Bangladeshi small farmers, training farmers can increase their University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 productivity and income levels more effectively than providing them with financial assistance. In a related study, Tripp and Hiroshimil (2005) validated the value of training that can help farmers improve their skills in farming tasks. Qaiser et al. (2013) and Serda et al.( 2015) maintained that specialized training in aspects such as the type of hives to use, when to set up the hives, management of pests and diseases of bee, repair and maintenance of beekeeping materials, bee season (period of nectar flow) as well as harvesting and quality control among others are required for optimizing gains in the sector. Thus, training in these areas will enhance the productivity of beekeepers and by extension ensure the production of quality honey for the local and international markets. Several projects have been rolled out with the overall aim of promoting the Apiculture enterprise in the country (Hussein, 2000). Thus, Apiculture Promotion and the 7th National Workshop on Beekeeping organized in 1984 (Hussein, 2000) exemplified such projects. Furthermore, some organizations and associations have been established to promote the beekeeping industry in Ghana. The Progressive Beekeepers Association in Berekum, the Royal Bees Society in the Volta Region, Volta Region Association of Beekeepers, Beekeeping Learning and Marketing Center (BLHMC) in Twifo Praso and many others are some of them.. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Ghana’s beekeeping sector can be traced back to the 1970s. Despite many years of operation and the potential benefits of beekeeping, the sector is saddled with many challenges, which limits its ability to act as an alternative livelihood strategy (Jeil et al., 2020a). One challenge has to do with the fact that many beekeepers in the country continue to use traditional beehives despite the benefits associated with improved beekeeping practices (Schouten 2020; Wakjira et al. 2021). It University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 should be noted that where beekeepers use only traditional methods of beekeeping, low yields of hive products are recorded. Also, many practitioners of beekeeping drop out of the business after a few years of practice. According to Flottum (2018), beekeeping has the greatest dropout rates (50–80%) out of all agricultural commodities, which is consistent with this viewpoint. For instance, Sharma and Dhaliwal (2014) found that just 23% of 120 initial beekeepers in India sustained their business. A similar trend in dropouts is observed in South Africa (Yusuf et al. 2018) and Kenya (Musinguzi et al., 2018). The District Director of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) and the District Officer of the Business Advisory Center (BAC) of the Akatsi South Municipality in a personal communication, stated that they trained fifty beekeepers between 2016 and 2017. However, by September, 2019, only thirty (30) were in operation. Scholars including Aksoy et al. (2018) and Schouten & Caldeira (2021) have attributed the low uptake of improved beekeeping technology and high attrition rate among beekeepers to lack of or inadequate training and other extensive services. Furthermore, most studies on beekeeping have focused on socioeconomic and environmental impacts (Abou-Shaara 2017; Aksoy et al. 2018; Schouten et al. 2020). In Ghana, however, the potential of beekeeping for livelihood security has also been examined (Jeil et al. 2020a; Jeil et al. 2020b). It is important that factors that influence beekeepers and other interested parties to participate in beekeeping training programmemes are documented to help stakeholders make informed decisions on future training programmemes. It is equally important for the positive impact of such trainings on productivity to be documented to inform potential investor in the sector. Unfortunately, such information on the factors that drivee participation in beekeeping training programmemes and how such training impacts on the productivity of beekeepers are lacking in Ghana as a whole and the Volta and Oti regions in particular. Nevertheless, some studies University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 on the training programmemes in beekeeping have found the impact on honey productivity and incomes (Gemeda 2014; Fikru et al. 2015). At the contrary, evidence from other studies revealed that training as well as other extensive services in beekeeping have no implications on productivity, incomes and livelihoods (Wagner et al. 2019; Schouten et al. 2020). Surprisingly, many organizations (AdFI, OAC, UCC, SNV, FORUM, BUSAC Fund) have implemented several training programmes at one time or the other for beekeepers in order to enhance output and revenue generation within Volta and Oti regions. Trainings were given in areas such as bee biology, bee seasons, deference between brood comb and honeycombs, how and when to set hives, how to get hives colonized, how to prevent “accordion beekeeping” and harvesting and extraction of honey and beeswax among other skills. These training programmes are expected to result in increased productivity of beekeepers. A review of the literature found that, despite such trainings, no research had been done to ascertain the characteristics that influence participation in beekeeping training programmes and how such training affects beekeeper output. Despite the above efforts, beekeeping could not be deemed to have reached a desirable level of practice in Ghana. There are several grey areas needing consideration to improve practice. As a promising sector, it is crucial to examine and recommend the programmes that would enable Ghana to build a rewarding Apiculture industry towards poverty reduction and livelihood empowerment. Another issue that has not been adequately explored is the potentials and challenges of beekeeping in the study area. Over the years, no study in terms of scanning the internal and external environments of beekeeping has been conducted to ascertain the potential strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that exist in order to take advantage of them for the development of the beekeeping sector. Sammut- Bonnici and Galea (2015) indicated that a SWOT analysis of beekeeping could reveal the internal University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 strengths and weaknesses, as well as the external opportunities and threats in the environment of a business or an organization. The internal scanning of beekeeping in the two regions could therefore be used to identify resources, capabilities, core competencies and competitive merits inherent to the sector. On the other hand, external analysis could assist in identifying risks and market opportunities for beekeepers by examining resources available to competitors in the sector, and the overall environment. It is evident from the above that the impact of beekeeping training programmes on beekeepers productivity is still not clear. Therefore, this study seeks to examine the implications of beekeeping programmes on the productivity of beekeepers in the Volta and Oti regions of Ghana and the factors that drove participation in such programmes, while also determining the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the sector in the study area. Against the background information, the study proceeded by asking the following questions. 1. What are the factors which influence participation in beekeeping training programmes? 2. What are the impact of the training programmes on the productivity of beekeepers? 3. What are the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of beekeeping? 1.3 Main objective of the study To assess the impact of training of beekeepers on the productivity in the apiculture industry in the Volta and Oti Regions of Ghana. Specifically, the study: 1. Analyzed the factors influencing participation in beekeeping training programmemes in the Volta and Oti regions of Ghana. 2. Evaluated the impact of the training programmemes on the productivity of beekeepers in the Volta and Oti regions of Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 3. Examined the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of beekeeping in the Volta and Oti regions of Ghana. 1.4 Justification of the study The study will enable government and other stakeholders know what motivates people to participate in beekeeping training and to determine which people to invite for future trainings to improve upon the beekeeping industry. The impact of past training programmemes if documented by this study, would help stakeholders determine the profitability of beekeeping and thus make informed decisions on future investments into the sector. The findings of the SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis of beekeeping in the study region will help stakeholders make well-informed decisions about which areas to explore and which to focus on in order to advance beekeeping. 1.5 Outline of the Study This study was organized under five chapters namely chapter one involving the introduction which delt with overview of beekeeping, the problem that was investigated, the objectives of the study as well as the importance of the study Chapter two contains a review of various literature on the beekeeping and the methods of evaluation of the objectives. The third chapter sort to ouline the methodology used in executing the study whci included the use of structured questionnaire to take data and tools such as Propensity score Marching, Binary Logistics and SWOT analysis. The population, sample, sampling and sample size determination was also captured in this chapter. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 The results obtained from the study was analysed and discussed the fourth chapter while the fifth chapter, delt with the summary of results, conclusions and recommendations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter aims to analyze literature on a variety of beekeeping-related topics, such as the value of beekeeping, statistics on honey production, consumption, imports, and exports, as well as other hive products like beeswax. The influence of beekeeping on biodiversity, the productivity of beekeeping, the method of study, and the establishment of livelihoods were all reviewed. 2.2 Beekeeping and Hive Products Bees are insects of the class insecta. There are over 20,000 species of bees in the world (Partel, et al 2021). Majority of the bee species are solitary in nature, living individually and raising their young, while others are social and semi-social in nature (Gentry, 1982, Adjare, 1984). The solitary bees are of two kinds, those that drill holes in dead wood and make their nest, referred to as carpenter bees, examples Xylocopa spp and leave cutter bee (Megachile spp). Mason bees, example Osmia spp, build their nests in the soil. The semi-social bees may drill holes close to each other in the ground. Social bees however live together in colonies. They develop nests in cavities, logs or outside on tree branches, roofs or ceilings (Partel, et al 2021). Honey bees belong to a sub- family Apinae which comprises five (5) species. These are Apis mellifera, Apis dorsata, or Giant or rock honeybee, Apis florae, the little honeybee, Apis cerana and Apis laboriosa. Apis dorsata and Apis florea build single combed and exposed nest while the other three build multi-comb nests in enclosed cavities, (Gentry, 1982, Bradbear, 2009). Of the five species, Apis mellifera is used by beekeepers for commercial honey production throughout the world. There are races of the Apis mellifera located throughout the world some of which are: Apis mellifera adansonii, found in West Africa, Apis mellifera Sahariensis found in North Africa, Apis mellifera capensis(cape bee), found University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 in South Africa, Apis mellifera monticola, found in East Africa (around Mountain Kilimanjaro), Apis mellifera mellifera, found in Europe. The race found and kept by beekeepers in Ghana is the Apis mellifera adansonii (Gentry, 1982 & Bradbear, 2009). According to Gentry (1982) and Bradbear (2009), beekeeping or apiculture is the management of an honeybee colony and this is reliant on some knowledge of the bee. Three distinguished basic stages in the historical development of the bee-human interaction, according to him, can be identified. Bee-killing (hunting), bee-having and beekeeping are the three types of beekeeping. The stage which is more developed is modern beekeeping. Bee-killing is the practice whereby fire is used to kill the honeybees in a colony in their cavity so that the combs containing honey and brood (larval and pupal stages) can be taken. Bee-having however involves keeping bees in hollowed sections of tree trunks, gourds or straw and mud containers as well as clay pots,. In this system, combs are fixed to the containers which does not permit easy inspection and management of the colony (Bradbear, 2009). Beekeeping however is the housing of bees in modern moveable comb hives which lends itself to easy inspection and management of the colony. 2.2.1 Hive Products Honey is the most popular hive product, and it is used for both food and medicine. Beeswax is another important commodity, though its applications and value are not as well known as that of honey. In any beekeeping endeavor, these two are the most important hive products. Apart from honey and beeswax, other products that require unique expertise to obtain include pollen, propolis, royal jelly, and venom, as well as bee brood and bees (queen rearing), (Bradbear, 2009, & Akagaamkum et al. 2010). Harnessing these products according to these researchers will help rural folks to improve upon their livelihood. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 2.2.1.1 Honey Production The primary hive product is honey. It is made of nectar taken from trees out of which bees extract most of the water contained in it by evaporation. Nectar has about 80% water and 20% sugars. Bees use their long tongue to reach the nectaries, suck the nectar and fill the crop or honey stomach- a special structure on them- and fly it home. In the hive, nectar is put into the cells and enzymes are added, which work on it to transform it into honey. When the moisture content is right, the honey is caped or sealed. The final product is composed of 20% water, 75% glucose and fructose and 5% sucrose (Aksoy et al. 2018). Aksoy et al. (2018) stated that honey is classified according to the source from which the bees gathered the nectar, with the flavor, colour and viscosity (thickness) of the honey being influenced by the source of the nectar. He further stated that honey collected between October and December for example may have an orange flavour, showing that most of the nectar were collected from citrus trees. When bees collect nectar from citrus (orange) plants, the viscousity of the honey is high with the colour been light or yellowish. Nectar from neem trees give light and umber coloured honey with very low viscousity (runs like water) while nectar from coconut gives a dark coloured honey with moderate viscousity (Aksoy et al. 2018). However, according to Gomes et al. (2010) and Kebede et al. (2012), the nectar types that honeybees employed, climate, soil type, and postharvest management procedures all have a significant impact on the physicochemical qualities of honey. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 2.2.1.1.1 Uses of Honey to Bees and Man Bees store honey in the cells of the combs they produce for their own use in times of dearth. It is the food that they feed on in the nest supplying energy and other nutrients. Honey is used by man for various purposes including food sweetener, food, medicine (both human and veterinary) -wound dressing, ulcers, antibiotics, promotes hair growth, for cooking, seasoning meat, baking, drinks, and Vinegar ( Stanley, 2019). 2.2.1.1.2 How Honey is Harvested Harvesting usually takes place between November and February. However, not every bee colony is ready for harvesting at this time. Harvesting should be done after 5.30 pm or early in the morning. The bees will be more docile at that time. The following is the procedure in harvesting. (personal experience). SON, (2001) and Nyikplorkpo (2008) states that to go into harvesting of honey, the beekeeper must first put on protective clothing carefully made up of overall suit, bee veil and a pair of hand gloves, not forgetting to protect the feet with a pair of wellington boots. Get your smoker, bee brush and knife (or hive tool) and rust – proof containers (preferably made of plastic) in which to place the honey combs when cut FAO (2020a). The smoker must be loaded with appropriate fuel (male inflorescence of the oil palm or cracked corn cob) and set it on fire to produce smoke. Using the smoker, some smoke must be puffed around the hive gently for a few minutes after which the beekeeper waits for a few more minutes, then puff smoke at the entrance hole. According to FAO (2020a), if there is sufficient honey in the hive, the worker bees will instinctively feed heavily on the honey and become docile. (If the bees start to attack you, it means there is not much honey in the hive so it is not yet time to harvest and the hive should be left alone). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 Open the lid after puffing the smoke, knock on the topbars with your knife or hive tool to determine which of them have combs, (the bars without combs will make more noise than those with combs). The first bar is removed from one end of the hive using your knife or hive tool and placed aside. If it has a comb, rest it across your container so that the comb is hanging down and will not be damaged. If you are unable to remove a topbar easily, it may be because it has become fixed by propolis or one comb has stuck to another or to the hive body. Use the knife/hive tool to separate them and take the topbar out. Gently puff smoke into the gap after removing the first topbar to cause the bees to move to the other side of the hive. Remove the topbars one after the other and cut the honey-filled combs into a container - replacing each empty bar and sliding it towards the end of the hive. Puff more smoke if the bees are coming out between the bars. Carry on until you find a topbar that has a brood comb attached to it (Nyikplorkpo, 2008). You will find the first comb to be white and new. This may either be empty or contain some unripe honey. Put the new comb back into the hive for the bees to develop FAO (2020b). You should only remove the capped combs or those that are partly capped as these contain the ripe honey. Sweep the bees on the comb into the hive with the brush or feather. Cut the comb from the topbar, leaving about 2 centimeters length on the topbar for the bees to start building the next honeycomb. Put comb in the container and replace the topbar. Continue to harvest until you come across a brood comb, which will be dark in colour. You should stop here to ensure you have left enough honey for the bees to eat during the lean season. Go to the other end of the hive and repeat the process until you reach the brood comb again. Now you have finished harvesting, close the hive carefully, making sure the lid is fitting properly. All the above procedure must be carried out swiftly, but quietly (Akukumah & Jezard, 1989 & Nyikplorkpo, 2008). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 2.2.1.1.3 How Honey is Processed When honey is harvested it must be graded, processed and packaged for sale or for home consumption. There is a number of processing equipment such as the manual or electric centrifugal honey extractor of different volumes of capacity and solar honey extractor. There is however a local extraction system described as follows: Local honey processing equipment is made up of the following: Rubber bucket, Nylon mosquito net, rubber bowl, Cassava dough sieve (made from palm frond) and Containers into which to pour honey ( Nyikplorkpo, 2008). Extraction of honey is done as follows. Wash your hands thoroughly and wear clean surgical gloves. Select combs which are light in colour and which have mostly sealed honey (first grade) into one container and very dark combs containing plenty of pollen cells or unsealed honey (second grade) into a separate container (while harvesting). (Clauss & Clauss, 1991 & Nyikplorkpo, 2008). Pick off any bees and dirt while putting the combs into the separate containers. Honey from the second grade combs must be consumed immediately at home or sold at the local market as it cannot be stored for a longer period. The first grade combs are crushed with a spatula (akplẽ cooking stick) till you have a “honey–wax soup”. The cassava dough sieve is then placed over the rubber bowl and the nylon net spread over the sieve. Pour the mashed combs onto the net, hold the ends of the net together and tie the crushed combs into a ball. Place weight over it and leave it over night. By the next day, the honey will drain out of the crushed combs into the bowl. You can now pour the honey into clean containers- gallons and/or bottles. Seal and place labels on containers and the product is ready for the market. The second grade honey should be processed the same way as the first grade one (Nyikplorkpo, 2008). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 2.2.1.2 Beeswax Production Beeswax, according to FAO (2021), is another hive product which is usually not recognized at all in some areas as having value, while it is valued in other areas more than honey. These are produced by the wax gland situated at the lower abdomen of the bees. 2.2.1.2.1 Uses of Beeswax to Bees and Man The bees use the wax to build their combs while man uses it in the industrial production of cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, polishes, candles and many other products (FAO, 2021). 2.2.1.2.2 How Beeswax is Processed Empty combs from which honey have been extracted are placed in a clean sack and the sack placed in a pot containing water. The pot is then placed over fire with a weight placed on the sack to hold it down under the water. As the water begins to heat up, the wax will begin to melt and float on the water. Either scoop it with a ladle into a clean container with water and leave to solidify or after all the wax melts, remove the pot and leave to cool. Scoop the solidified wax and mould it later into a solid mass (FAO 2021). As men are mostly engaged in beekeeping, women, who according to Jeil et al. (2019) are active in honey trade could also be involved in the processing of beeswax along the value chain. 2.2.1.3 Propolis and how it is Produced by Bees Propolis is another valuable beekeeping product. It is used in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis, problematic ulcers and wounds, pharyngitis, bronchitis, chemical and temperature burns, , angina, tonsillitis, , pulmonary inflammation and digestive tract diseases. Because of this, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 special interest is shown in propolis by a lot of health institutions all over the world. It was found out by some scientists from the USA, propolis contained 10% of a unique antioxidant known as pinocembrin, antibacterial, antiviral anti-inflametory and anti-tumoral substances (Sloan, 2000; Sforcin, 2007). It serves as pesticides against parasites such as the verroa mite (Drescher et al. 2021; Pusceddu et al. 2021). Research has determined that while bees use wax or wax mixed with propolis to fill gaps of up to 3.5 to 10mm in their nests, only propolis are used to close gaps of 0.1 to 3.5 mm. (Simone-Finstrom et al. 2017). The bees are much more active in closing up smaller cracks of between 0.1 to 3 mm than the bigger ones of between 3 and 5 mm. Bees use more propolis in sealing upper parts of their nests than below the nest. Bees use propolis to reduce ventilation in order to conserve temperature (Conrad, 2016). The depth of closing cracks grows proportionally from below upwards as they could use 1 – 2 mm of propolis below the nest, 1 – 3mm in the nest, and 1 – 4mm above the nest. This behaviour can be explained by the fact that it is at the upper part of the hive that a lot of heat or temperature is lost for which reason bees fill the gaps there faster and most completely. Temperature loss is generally, a great motivation or stimulus for the collection and storage of propolis. The product also helps the bee’s immune system by protecting against pathogens and parasites (Conrad, 2016 ; Simone-Finstrom et al. 2017; Hodges, Delaplane & Brosi 2018) The majority of instruments used in propolis collection in the world are based on the instinct of bees to close gaps and openings in the hive which are smaller than 4mm. The quantity of this propolis in a hive varies and is dependent on many factors which include the breed of the bee, geographical and climatic conditions, type of hive, presence of sources of propolis in nature and bee colony strength in terms of population. Large amounts of propolis are collected by the Gray mountain bees from Caucasus. While the dark forest bees collect a lot of the propolis, Italian bees University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 collect less, while very little is collected by bees from Ukraine and the far east. Different species of bees collect different amounts of this product and store it in different places in the hive under the same climatic conditions. Propolis is most often found in three places in the hive: on cover boards (or other types of covers) above the nest, on the sidebars of the frames in the nest, and at the hive entrances (FAO, 2021). The quantity of propolis that can be collected from one hive varies. It ranges between 50 and 100g and 150 and 200g. Some beekeepers believe that a colony of bees could produce 400g of propolis and that this quantity could be increased to 2 kg and more using special procedures. (FAO, 2021), FAO (2021) indicated that when the factors that incite bees to collect propolis are taken into consideration, it is possible for the amount to be increased with success. Increased ventilation in the hive, irregular surfaces of cover boards and walls of hives, special types of hive entrance bars, and some kind of teasers for bees are favourable conditions to effect such increased production 2.2.1.3.1 How Propolis is Harvested Propolis collection using wooden or plastic bar frameworks is often the practice. These bars are used to create temporary gaps of 3 to 4 mm apart, which makes it possible to harvest 250 to 400g of pure propolis within a season (Andrich et al. 1987). The bars are placed on the hive frames while cover boards and isolating materials are removed. The bees will fill the gaps between the bars with propolis within 6 to 7 days, after which new bars are used to replaced them. These bars with the propolis on them are placed in a rough cloth and wrapped in so that the bars are inside. They are then placed in a deep freezer for several hours. (Tsagkarakis et al., 2017). The bars are taken out of the freezer after some time and unrolled with bars turned down so that the propolis fall down on the table or bowl (Drescher, et al. 2017). For topbar hives, the topbars University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 are spaced on the hive 3 to 4 mm apart with the hive cover removed. Bees will fill the gaps between bars with propolis in an attempt to close up the space. The topbars are replaced with new ones, wrapped in a cloth and placed in the refrigerator for several hours and then the propolis fall off the bars and are collected (Krell (1996); Tsagkarakis et al. 2017) According to Tsagkarakis et al. (2017), 1kg of propolis may be obtained by placing bars of various heights on a mesh that is attached to each other. Instead of cover board and isolating materials, the mesh can be used to cover hive frames. A perforated grid should be placed in the hive to assist bees to make propolis in manageable sizes. This is similar to a queen excluder, except the slots are smaller, measuring no more than 6 mm. Propolis will be used by the bees to fill in the gaps. Remove the grid and store it in the freezer. When the sheet is cool enough, flexing it causes the propolis bits to fall out. It's feasible to get 50 g of propolis per hive per season this way (Tsagkarakis et al,(2017). Some beekeepers, according to the Bees for Development Journal (2016), employ cover boards with apertures that are screened with a network. They then apply 50 drops of mint and dill oil on a piece of gauze-coated cotton placed on the boards. Another teaser that can be used is formic acid. The sharp and strange smell produced will irritate the bees and cause them to close the openings of the network with pure propolis, which are occasionally taken off using a hive tool. Tsagkarakis et al. (2017) stated that in Brazil, an innovative propolis harvesting technology was developed, allowing beekeepers to harvest 800g of the finest propolis from a single colony. On the side wall of the hive, a “window” is made and closed with bars. Specific ventilation is maintained by the bees in their nest and so when the beekeeper creates gaps (about 8mm) by removing a number of bars, they are filled with propolis. As Japan's demand for propolis grew, Brazil became its leading supplier of the substance. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 Some beekeepers at times place special cassettes on hive entrances in place of entrance boards. Thus the cassette is used to close the large opening which is created. The bees would then put propolis on the cassette network in order to reduce the level of ventilation in the nest so as to optimize microclimatic conditions. The cassettes are removed from the hive after being filled with propolis and kept at a low temperature (-10 to 20°C). With light tapping, the frozen propolis may now be readily removed from the network, Tsagkarakis et al. (2017) Propolis is also gathered from the walls of hives, around hive entrances, frame bars, isolating materials and cracks on the hive using a hive tool for scratching it. However, this method is not productive. When a special two layer covers made of Capron network with 4 x 4 mm openings are used, it will result in 3-4 times increment in propolis production which requires automated gathering. During spring time, the network are placed on the frame of the topbars above the nest and below the isolating material. The covers are turned 90 degrees in the direction of the hive entrance during hive inspection . During winter, they are not left in the hive. This is to avoid their being contaminated with bee excreta and wax Tsagkarakis et al. (2017). 2.2.1.3.2 Processing of Propolis In autumn when the bees are preparing to winter, the covers with the propolis are taken out of the hives. The propolis are either extracted or removed mechanically. SIP-II which is an electrical device is used to modify propolis after the first step of freezing the covers. The hardened propolis are grounded with a revolving shaft with cogs while a smooth shaft using a string pushes the cover towards the working shaft. Propolis is cleansed roughly and finely by this process (Tsagkarakis et al. 2017). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 A centrifugal extracting machine CLK-1 is used to grind propolis pieces into powder and cleanse it of impurities which cannot be more than 20% of the propolis and at the same time make it ready for use. The powdered propolis is measured in quantities of 25 to 100g in retail trade and pressed in briquettes using a pressing machine (OKS-030 or P-6324) having 25000kg force. The powder is first kept under room temperature for about 4 hours before being pressed (Tsagkarakis et al. 2017). Propolis will lose some of its characteristics if it is warmed, washed or melted. It should be kept in polyethylene bags and placed in a dark place. Propolis has a long shelf life and so could be safely used 10 years after it is harvested because it is a very stable matter. 2.2.1.4 Pollen The pollen is the most significant component of blooming plants with unique structure and function (Stephen, 2014). Cone-bearing and blooming plants both produce it as a part of the reproductive process. Gymnosperm (cone-bearing) plants generate pollen in pollen cones. Pollen is made by flowering plants (angiosperms) in the anthers of the flower. Pollen grains are made up of one to several cells and have an outer and an inner wall. To aid in the identification of the pollen grains and to assist them stick to insects that visit the flowers, the outside wall may be smooth or covered in spines, warts, granules, or furrows. This knowledge is helpful in pollen research and studies on plant taxonomy. A pollen tube that delivers the sperm to the ovule (or female gamatetophyte) emerges when the pollen that fell on an appropriate pistil or female cone germinates after pollination has occurred (Stephen, 2014). Bees consume pollen which they convert into bee bread (a mixture of honey and pollen) it is the main source of protein as well as fats/lipids, minerals and vitamins (Ellis et al., 2010). Pollen, the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 honey bee's most nutrient-variable food source, is made up of water (7%–16%), crude protein (6%–30%), ether extract (19–14%), carbohydrates, comprising sugars (19%–41%), non-reducing sugars (0%–9%), and starch (0%–11%), lipids (5%), ash (1%–6%), and unknown (22%–36%). According to studies, not all pollen is equally nourishing to bees because it has various amounts of each component in it from different sources (Ellis et al., 2010). A bee colony is thought to need between 15 and 55 kg of pollen per year. Pollen is necessary for the bees' growth and development. Bees that are still developing are fed a combination of royal jelly and bee bread. Bee bread is consumed by newly emerging bees to finish their development. For one worker larva to grow, 124–154 mg of pollen are thought to be needed. There are roughly 30 mg of protein in this amount. In forensics, climate change research, and other fields, pollen can be used to identify insect movement patterns, insect feeding sources, and varieties of honey. The use of pollen in these research is justified for a number of reasons. First, pollen grains stand out, are easily recognized, and may be classified according to family, genus, and frequently species rank. As a result, very precise information can be acquired. Secondly, sporopollenin, the component of pollen, is resilient and resistant to decomposition. Thirdly, the location of the plant from which the pollen originated can be identified based on the identification of the pollen. (Jones & Jones 2001). 2.2.1.5 Royal Jelly Royal jelly is a yellowish-white, creamy, acidic secretion produced by the mandibular and hypophrangeal glands of juvenile worker bees, according to Kunugi and Ali (2019) and Collazo et al. (2021). This chemical is provided to all bee larvae for the first three days, including workers, drones, and queens. After three days, worker and drone larvae are fed worker jelly, which is composed of honey and pollen, while queen larvae are fed royal jelly continuously until they reach University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 adulthood. The most important component of honeybee diet, royal jelly, is crucial for caste differentiation. (Pavel et al. 2011). Fresh royal jelly contains water of between 60-70%, pH of 3.6-4.2. Royal jelly has pharmacological qualities as a result of its distinctive and rich composition, which includes proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, minerals, flavonoids, and polyphenols in addition to various biologically active compounds (Kunugi & Ali, 2019). According to Kocot, et al. (2018), since royal jelly improves the general wellbeing and fertility of queen bees, who can lay up to 3000 eggs per day and live up to five years as opposed to infertile workers who live up to just 45 days, it is noted that royal jelly is a highly effective promoter of healthy ageing and longevity. Royal jelly, has been known historically to enhance memory, prevent senility, promote energy, lower anxiety, and calm hyperactive people, according to Pavel et al. (2011) quoting Mateescu (2005). Royal jelly is used in Chinese and Japanese medicine to treat diabetes and maintain normal blood sugar levels. Royal jelly stimulates and energizes the body by acting on the cardiovascular system and blood as a blood pressure regulator. Pavel et al. (2011). 2.2.1.6 Bee Venom Bees frequently use bee venom (BV), an odorless, transparent liquid with an acidic pH of 4.5 to 5.5 that is a hydrolytic combination of proteins to defend themselves against predators (Lee et al., 2014). Only 0.1 g of dry venom makes up one drop of BV, which is made up of 88% water. The bee venom contains a highly complex mixture of peptides, including melittin, adolapin, apamin, and MCD-peptide, as well as enzymes, with PLA2 being the most important, and other compounds, such as low molecular weight bioactive amines such as histamine and adrenaline, as well as minerals. In order to treat rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatic disorders, patients University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 undergoing bee venom therapy (BVT) are given an injection of honeybee venom. Lee et al. (2014). According to Ali (2012), BV administration stimulates the immune system's operation and influences the release of cortisol, which is known to act as a natural anti-inflammatory agent. Melittin, the main component of BV, was discovered to reduce inflammation by enzymatically blocking the activity of the enzyme phospholipase (PLA) (Ali, 2012). 2.3 Economic Importance of Beekeeping According to Klein et al. (2007); Kluser & Peduzzi (2007); Gupta et al. (2014); and Schouten, Lloyd & Lloyd (2019) beekeeping does not need large areas of land to start, while it improves crop yields, and is complimentary to most farming systems and also able to provide quick returns on investment. In Ghana, the importance of beekeeping can be stated as: 1. Producing honey and beeswax at anytime of the year without spending time and energy to hunt for them. 2. Increasing crop yields through efficient pollination by the bees, 3. Discouraging people from wild hunting which mostly lead to bushfires, leading to destruction of bees, vegetation, life and property, and 4. It is a source of employment for many people. 5. Source of raw materials for industry and many others. Beekeeping provides food, income, and employment to landless poor people in subsistence economies and therefore is a valuable self-help activity (Panda & Padhi, 1995). The food, medicine, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries have many uses for products from the bee such as honey, beeswax, pollen, propolis and royal jelly. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 2.3.1. Pollination It is commonly recognized that pollination, not honey, wax, or other bee products, accounts for 95% of the commercial value of beekeeping (Lindström et al. 2016). In other words, it would be worthwhile to keep and produce honeybees only for agricultural pollination even if we did not harvest bee products. Bees play a very significant role in the pollination of agricultural and horticultural crops such as mango, citrus, oil palm, cashew, coffee and pawpaw just to mention a few. Bees help in biodiversity conservation through pollination, thus helping to maintain the ecosystem of the world. According to Gratzer, Susilo, Purnomo & Fiedler (2019), Kremen, Williams & Thorp (2002) and Partap (2011), it has been estimated that various species of bees, including solitary bees, bumble bees and honey bees pollinate about 66% of the world's crop species. According to Gross (2020), the California almond industry employs approximately 1.5 million honey bee colonies. Due to the almond industry’s reliance on honey bees for pollination, there has been lots of research on its impacts on honey bee health and the increasing demand for pollination services. Despite the fact that beekeeping does not only positively contribute to income gain but also plays a role in increasing food security, its potential receives only subordinate attention within Ghana. Beekeeping is hardly mentioned in Ghana when agricultural enterprises are been named. Bees play a great role in food production in Ghana in particular and other countries in general. They are consistent in foraging thus remaining on the same plant for long. This makes them very effective as pollinators. In the United States, plantation farmers pay beekeepers to place their hives on their farms during flowering to pollinate their crops for them. In Ghana, the role of bees in pollinating agricultural and horticultural crops are not appreciated by farmers, thus they do not University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=6tTWr_wAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra 38 make efforts to protect them. According to Morse and Calderone (2000), pollination of crops by honeybees during the year 2000 in the USA resulted in increased yield and quality of crops. This pollination services achieved an estimated value of US$14.6 billion. Morse and Calderone (2000), added that information on the advantages of honeybees pollinating coffee was made public in June 2002, and that Panama saw a 50% rise in coffee bean production at the same time. (Roubik, 2002). The beneficial effects of honeybees pollination of many tropical crops is not evidently documented. It is therefore impossible to put a monetary value on pollination of indigenous plants by honeybee and its crucial contribution to biodiversity preservation. Although the other apiculture products, such as beeswax and honey, are significantly more tangible, their value- in comparison to the wealth generated by optimal plant pollination- must be less (Morse & Calderone, 2000). 2.3.2 Health Benefits of Bee Products Honey bees, also known as the “Golden insects” produce honey and other vital hive products such as royal jelly, pollen, bee venom, propolis, queen bees and their larvae. These are marketable primary bee products. However, the best known primary products of honeybees are honey and beeswax (FAO, 2021). The use of natural honey and other honeybee products as food and medicine by mankind has been in existence so many years. In fact, records have shown that raw honey is the oldest used sweetener and it was known to have been in use throughout the world for several years (FAO, 2021). Honey primarily is the food for the bees in the nest supplying energy and other nutrients. Honey is used by man for various purposes including as food sweetener, food, for cooking, seasoning meat, baking, drinks, and vinegar. It is also used as medicine (both human and veterinary) -wound dressing, ulcers, antibiotics and promotes hair growth. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 According to Pasupuleti et al.(2017), raw honey contains 82.4 grams(%) of carbohydrates, 38.5g of fructose, glucose 31g, sucrose 1g, other sugars 11.7g, dietary fiber 0.2g, 22 amino acids, 27 minerals and 5,000 enzymes. Minerals include phosphorous, magnesium, zinc, iron, potassium, calcium and selenium. Vitamins that have been found in honey include riboflavin (Vit. B2), pantothenic acid, (Vit. B5), vitamin B6, thiamin, 0.038 mg, 0.068 mg and niacin. It contains 80 percent of natural sugars, 18 percent water and minerals, vitamins, pollen and protein 2 percent. It is not a surprise that honey is referred to as “the perfect running fuel.” It provides a supply of liver glycogen which is an easily absorbed energy, making it ideal as a pre- and post-exercise energy source and for energetic morning starts. (Kumar, 2018). Pasupuleti, et al. (2017), asserts that propolis contains vitamins B1, B2, B6, C, and E, magnesium,(Mg), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), sodium (Na), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn) and iron (Fe). It also has a few enzymes such as succinis dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphatase, adenosine triphosphatase and acid phosphatase present in it (Lofty, 2006, Pasupuleti, et al. 2017) . Aside pollination, bees are important for the production of hive products. These hive products are honey and beeswax (Pasupuleti, et al. 2017). Pasupuleti, et al. (2017) stated that in the developed countries where hi-tech beekeeping is practiced, pollen, propolis, bee venom, royal jelly as well as starter bees (queens, workers) are produced in addition for sale. Bradbear (2006) also adds apitherapy which is medicine using bees’ products. The name "apitherapy" is derived from the Latin terms "apis" for bee and "therapy" for treatment, according to FAO, IZSLT, Apimondia, and CAAS (2021). Apitherapy is a type of complementary medicine that uses bee products like raw honey, bee pollen and its natural derivatives, bee bread, and propolis, as well as bee secretions like royal jelly, beeswax, and bee venom, bee larva, and other products like the hive air and the sounds of the hive to promote health and prevent or treat a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 variety of medical conditions. FAO, IZSLT, Apimondia, and CAAS (2021) continued by stating that nearly all bee products can be used in medical care and that the cost of bee venom was USD 138 for a dosage of 25 mg compared to USD 748.38 for a milligram of pure bee venom peptide. Honey is very good for healing wounds (Stanley, 2019). Apitherapy is so developed in China to the extend that the Fugian Agricultural and Forestry University in the year 2001 produced the first apitherapy university graduates. Veterinary apitherapy is also reported in many countries. Honey is used in the treatment of bovine mastitis, otitis exerna, pyoderma, dermatitis, mouth ulcers and stomatitis among other animal diseases. Propolis is reported by Sung et al. (2017) to be efficacious against diseases such as tinea capitis and tinea versicolour. 2.3.3 Beekeeping as an Income Generator Additionally, beekeeping has been found to provide rural communities with significant, reliable, and stable sources of income (Amulen et al., 2019; Bradbear, 2009; Schouten et al., 2019; Schouten & Lloyd, 2019). According to Duah et al. (2017), beekeepers in the Berekum Municipality made an average total net income of one million, two hundred and ninety thousand, one hundred and fifty three Ghana cedis (Ghc1, 290,153) from honey sales of twelve thousand, seven hundred and twenty three (12,723) gallons per year between 2011 and 2015. Apiculture, or beekeeping, is now one of the most widely practiced agricultural activity in the world. There are over 56 million bee hives on the planet, producing 1.2 billion tons of honey (Kizilaslan & Kizilaslan, 2007). About one quarter of all honey produced is traded, with about 20 countries accounting for 90% of all honey exports. With 65 million beehives and 306.000 tons of honey produced, China is the country with the most beehives. The EU produces approximately 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 to 13% of the global honey output (more than 204 to 220 tonnes) in the period 2010 to 2013, while China accounts for 27% of world production. The countries in the EU that are the leading honey- producers in 2013 included Romania, 26.6 Tonnes, Spain with 30.6 Tonnes, Germany 15.7 Tonnes, Hungary 18.5 Tonnes, and Poland 15.4 Tonnes, (Borowska, 2016). The world produces 20 kilograms of honey per hive on average, with Mexico producing 27 kilograms. China produced 33 kg, Argentina 40 kg, Australia 55 kg, Canada 64 kg, Hungary 40 kg, and Turkey 16 kg. These nations also have the world's highest honey export rates. Austria, England, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Switzerland, the United States, and other European countries are the top honey importers. Germany imports more honey than Turkey produces in its whole crop. Bee products such as beeswax, propolis, royal jelly and pollens, in addition to honey, play important roles in global trade. Bees, on the other hand, pollinate crops for farmers in nations with established agriculture, in addition to producing hive products. Crop growers in the United States, in 2017 for example, paid beekeepers a bee-rent of 320 million dollars to ensure the pollination of the plants they produce (USDA-NASS, 2017). In 2019, fees for pollination services were estimated to be $309 before falling to an estimated $254 million in 2020 with almond pollination fees accounting for the bulk of fees (USDA-NASS, 2020). In order to determine the profitability of beekeeping in Ghana as a whole and for that matter, the Volta and Oti regions, it is important that records on production and finance are used. It is rather unfortunate that most beekeepers, like those engaged in other agricultural enterprises hardly keep records. Without good records of individual colonies and apiaries, in terms of numbers and amount of honey and other hive products harvested there is no way production can be analyzed accurately neither can profitability. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 In a study conducted by Noah and Peter (2013) in Ghana's former Brong Ahafo region, they discovered that honey production is increasing in all municipalities and districts in the region. There are a total of 5,748 beekeepers in the region, with 2,212 being females and 3,536 being males (Subbey, 2009). Honey output averaged 74,088kg per year in 2010. Honey production accounts for a considerable portion of beekeepers' earnings (48.9%), followed by crop production. Duah et al. (2017) conducted a study on income sustainability and poverty reduction among value chain beekeeping industry actors in the Berekum Municipality in the former Brong Ahafo region of Ghana. It covered the period 2011 and 2015, and established the profitability of beekeeping. According to the findings, beekeeping might be a significant economic activity capable of supporting rural life and increasing the incomes of households. The study found that beekeeping has the ability to reduce economic stress and is a very sustainable value chain activity for participants. This is due to the fact that the income generated from beekeeping is far higher than the initial investment. Three thousand, two hundred and forty three (3,243) liters of honey were generated by an average of 1,195 colonized colonies, according to the researchers. The average selling price per six-litre gallon was one hundred twenty Ghana cedis (GH120), resulting in an average total net revenue of three hundred eighty three thousand, one hundred and forty two Ghana cedis (GH383,142). Comparing this revenue from beekeeping to the then-current national minimum wage of GH 216, which equals GH 2,592 annually in 2015, according to Duah et al. (2017), beekeepers' lives can be improved as a result of the significant contribution that honey sales provide to the fight against poverty. Beekeeping does not benefit only beekeepers economically but also other actors in the value chain. Duah et al. (2017), found out that carpenters gained a total net income of thirteen thousand, nine University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 hundred and sixty Ghana cedis (GHȻ13,960) in 2015 having produced one hundred and seventy- five (175) hives with an average expenditure of three thousand five hundred and forty Ghana cedis (3,540). According to research by Duah et al. (2017), honey sellers sold an average of 2,247 liters of honey in 2015. The traders made a total net profit of five thousand, eight hundred and eighty nine Ghana cedis (GH 5, 889) at an average selling price of 140 Ghana cedis per gallon. The above research by Duah et al. (2017) and Noah and Peter (2013) established the economic benefits of beekeeping beyond any doubts without even looking at income from the extraction of the other hive products- beeswax, pollen, royal jelly, propolis, as well as revenue from sale of bee queens, apitherapy (use of bee venom to treat diseases such as rheumatism) and pollination services as found in America and Europe. 2.3.4 Local and International Trade in Hive Products 2.3.4.1 Trade in Honey In the EU, great importance is attached to the quality, purity, and safety of beehive products. Producers do their best to meet the requirements of the Good Production Practices and Good Hygien (FAO, 2021). Imports are used to complement native output when it is low (Semkiw, 2007). Exporting honey from less developed nations to more developed nations is part of international trade since these items can be sold for substantially more money than on domestic markets (Borowska, 2011). The European market (mainly EU countries) received over 53% of honey mainly in international trade, (European Commission, 2013a). The USA and Japan are the two countries that import the most honey globally today. The countries with the biggest volume of imported honey worldwide include sixteen (16) members of the European Community. Of this University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 number, Germany imports approximately 100,000 tonnes, the United Kingdom and France approximately 30,000 tonnes, while Belgium, Spain and Italy import over 16,000 tonnes, (Borowska, 2016). Borowska, (2016) went on to state that, in the years 2004-2009, Poland exported several hundred tonnes of honey on average every year whereas the export level exceeded 15,200 tonnes in 2014. China was the main trade partner of Poland in honey with a volume of over 10,100 tonnes. Nevertheless, its export share fell from 51% in 2010 to about 45% in 2014. With approximately 3,600 tonnes, the EU countries formerly held joint second place in the honey trade; but, in 2012 and 2013, the Ukraine overtook them with approximately 7,900 tonnes, which accounted for 30 to 39% of imported honey (Borowska, 2016). Romania, with 262-430 tonnes, Germany, 500 tonnes, Spain, 130 tonnes, and France were significant trading partners for imports from the EU between 2011 and 2016, while Bulgaria traded more than 1,000 tonnes in 2014. Italy having over 328 tonnes and the UK also with approximately 400 tonnes traded with the EU as well (Borowska, 2016). The primary and most well-known hive product and a valuable source of both food and medicine is honey, which is produced by beekeeping. Another important hive output is beeswax. Any beekeeping project revolves around these two major items. Honey, the main product of the hive, is essentially nectar from flowers from which bees have mostly drained the water content. Honey provides energy and other nutrients to the bees in the nest. According to Stanley (2019) and FAO (2021), honey is used by man for various purposes including: Food sweetening, Food, Medicine (both human and veterinary) -wound dressing, ulcers, Antibiotics, Promotes hair growth, for cooking, Seasoning meat, Baking, Drinks, and Vinegar. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 Beeswax and honey are traded widely both domestically and internationally. Many international corporations use honey in the pharmaceutical sector and to create goods like lip balms, soaps, and lotions for the skin. Since many individuals are concerned about their health, they substitute honey for sugar in their tea and other foods. Scanning through various documents such as Investment Guide for the Agriculture Sector in Ghana, 2018, Agricultural Sector Progress Report, 2016 and the Planting for Food and Jobs and other policy documents of the government of Ghana prepared by Ministry of Food and Agriculture, (MOFA) and other bodies, it was observed that beekeeping and trade in its products are not valued and for that matter, not mentioned by governmental organizations in these documents in Ghana. Data on production and trade in agricultural products in Ghana does not include those from beekeeping. In a Ghana News Agency (2009) article titled “SNV to facilitate honey making business in the Volta Region,” published on 14th Aug 2009, Ms Cassandra Okudzeto of SNV, was reported as saying that Ghana currently consumed 340 metric tonnes of honey annually, 300 metric tonnes of which was produced locally while the 40 metric tonnes shortfall was imported.- published by GhanaWeb News on 28th July, 2017. In Ghana, honey is sold in jerry cans, discarded plastic bottles of all sizes, gallons, and used beverage bottles (including bottled water, whiskey, and other types). In 2016, the global honey market was worth US$2.2 billion. When compared to 2012, when shipments of natural honey were valued at US$1.8 billion, this climbed by 27.1 percent on average for all exporting countries (Borowska, 2011). In terms of exports of natural honey, Europe led all other continents in 2016, with shipments totaling US$825.3 million, or 36.8% of all honey sales worldwide. In comparison, Asian exporters received 23.5 percent, 14.5 percent for Latin America and the Caribbean (excluding Mexico), 10.6 percent for Oceania (mainly New Zealand, followed by Australia), and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 7.8 percent for North America. African countries contributed a respectable 6.8% of all natural honey exports. China topped the list of nations exporting natural honey in 2009, according to the Ghana News Agency, with US$276.6 million, or 12.3 percent of all exports. New Zealand came in second with US$206.7 million, or 9.2 percent. With a value of US$142.4 million, or 6.4 percent of global exports, Sierra Leone is the only African nation among the top five exporters. According to Ghana News Agency (2009), the top 15 countries sent 77.2 percent of all natural honey exports in 2016, accounting for more than three-quarters of all natural honey exports (by value). In locations with a lot of melliferous plants, beekeeping can be a lucrative business. The potential for beekeeping development in Ghana in general, and in the Volta and Oti regions in particular, is immense due to the country's varied environment and infinite floral resources gathered from cultivated crops and wild vegetation. The production of honey for both domestic and international markets has been seen as a key step in generating money. As a result, chemical analyses of honeys from various parts of the country have been conducted in preparation for their usage in the food business (Doddo & Aidoo, 1999). According to Ms Okudzeto of SNV, Ghana currently consumed 340 metric tonnes of honey annually, 300 metric tonnes of which was produced locally while the 40 metric tonnes shortfall was imported, 14th Aug 2009 .-GNA, (2009), according to a news item carried by GhanaWeb News on 28th July, 2017 titled, “SNV to facilitate honey making business in the Volta Region”- In a 2019 report by COMTRADE on honey trade of Ghana, a total of six thousand, four hundred and five kilograms (6,405) of honey worth two hundred and eighty thousand dollars ($280,000) was exported to various countries in the world including Canada ($159,000), United States University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 ($5,800) and the United Kingdom ($3,400) while seventy thousand dollars ($70,000) worth of honey was imported within the same year of 2019. 2.3.4.2 Trade in Beeswax Beeswax, according to Gentry, (1982) and FAO (2021), are produced by the wax gland situated at the lower abdomen of the bees. The bees use the wax to build their combs. Beeswax is used by man industrially to produce cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, polishes, candles, comb foundation sheet, as well as for a variety of other purposes such as polish, grafting waxes, lubricants, and electrical insulations (Bradbear, 2009 & FAO, 2021). In an Egyptian papyrus made around 1550 BC, beeswax was mentioned in 32 prescriptions. It is lauded for its positive effects on the energy and blood systems as well as the body's general equilibrium (Bogdanov, 2016). Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and the Chinese people all utilized beeswax candles. Since the birth of Christianity in Europe, it has been used in churches. Natural beeswax of high grade is required by all businesses. Beeswax is commonly priced between $4 and $10 per kilogram around the world. Beekeepers in industrialized countries use the majority of locally produced beeswax to make comb foundation sheets. Ethiopia produces around 4300 tons of beeswax annually, ranking first in Africa and third globally, according to Johannes (2005). However, the yearly production of beeswax would probably exceed 5000 tons given the current growth in honey production, which is anticipated to reach over 54,000 tons. France, Germany, and Greece are the next three biggest beeswax importers into the EU, together making up 39% of all beeswax imports. Between 2003 and 2007, imports climbed by 5.4% annually in terms of volume and by 14% annually in terms of value, which was a significant growth when compared to other major importers. The value of imports in 2007 was € 9.4 million University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 per 2.9 thousand tonnes. There are no data on the German beeswax market, which is unfortunate, but given that imports far outweigh exports, it may be presumed that Germany has a sizable beeswax industry. Beeswax is utilized for a variety of uses, including comb foundation sheets for frame hives in modern times. Cosmetics consume twenty-five to thirty percent of it, pharmacy consumes 25-30 percent, candles consume 20 percent, while 10-20 percent goes for other purposes. Beeswax is a highly stable and oxidation-resistant material. The chemical makeup of beeswax is quite complex, and the industry has yet to develop a counterpart with comparable qualities (Bogdanov 2016). Beeswax remains irreplaceable in many industrial applications although many synthetic waxes are available today (Krell, 1996). Ethiopia produced 163,257.42 tons of honey between 2007 and 2011, with 99.2 percent used domestically and 0.8 percent exported. Ethiopian honey exports totaled 1,297,716 kg in 2007– 2011, with a total value of US$4,066, 528 (Miklyaev, 2013). Sudan, Ethiopia's northwest neighbor, was Ethiopia's single greatest honey importer in terms of volume and monetary value. Despite a little increase in honey exports between 2007 and 2011, Ethiopia's honey exports remain small in relation to its total honey production (Miklyaev, 2013). Data gathered by Miklyaev (2013) indicated that the majority of honey produced in Ethiopia is consumed locally while small amounts are exported. For instance in 2007-2008, forty two million, one hundred and eighty thousand, three hundred and forty six (42,180,346) kilograms of honey was produced by Ethiopia. Out of this number, forty one million, nine hundred and sixty thousand, four hundred and fifty seven (41,960,457) kilograms was consumed while two hundred and nineteen thousand, eight hundred and eighty nine (219,889) kilograms were exported. Then in 2010-2011, one hundred and sixty three million, two hundred and fifty seven thousand, four hundred and twenty (163,257,420) kilograms of honey was produced out of which one hundred University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 and sixty one million, nine hundred and fifty nine thousand, seven hundred and three (161,959,703) kilograms were consumed while five hundred and twenty thousand and, three hundred and one (520,301) kilograms were exported (Miklyaev, 2013 & Bogdanov 2016). Comparing the percentage domestic consumption with that exported, the researchers came out with the following that in 2007-2008, 99.5% of honey was consumed as against 0.5% exported while 99.6% was consumed as against 0.4% exported in 2008-2009. In 2009-2010, 99.6% was consumed as against an export of 1.0% and lastly, 98.7% of honey was consumed as against 1.3% exported in 2010-2011. The above shows that the Ethiopians consumed more of what they produced and exported less (Miklyaev, 2013 & Bogdanov, 2016). 2.3.5 Beekeeping and its Influence on Food Production Bees are important in food production and sustenance of the environment. It is therefore important that they are conserved and protected. Unfortunately, a number of human activities have affected bees and caused the destruction of bee habitats. Bushfires, the incessant and uncontrolled use of pesticides in agriculture has led to the destruction of bee habitats. For life to exist on our planet, pollination is essential. Bees and other pollinators have sustained biodiversity and thriving ecosystems for plants, humans, and bees for millions of years. They also provide food security and nourishment (FAO, 2021). Pollinators are necessary for the growth of many of the micronutrient-rich fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and oils that people consume. In nearly 75% of the world's crops, bee pollinators are crucial for the ongoing production of high-quality fruits and seeds for human consumption. Animal pollinators and for that matter bees, are responsible for a huge portion of the world's diversified food resources. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 According to the FAO (2021), bees either directly or indirectly pollinate close to one third of all plants and plant products consumed by humans. Unfortunately, pollination services by the bees are on the decline in a number of areas. Previously, nature offered this service at no apparent expense. Agricultural techniques have altered as farm fields have grown larger, with an emphasis on a smaller number of crops and more pesticide use. According to FAO (2021), accumulating data refers to these issues as potential reasons of a major drop in bee population and activity. The reduction is projected to have a negative impact on the production and pricing of vitamin-rich foods like fruits and vegetables, leading to increasingly unbalanced diets and health problems including malnutrition. In order to safeguard biodiversity and increased food production and security, efforts must be made to protect bees. Most of the pollinators are wild, including over 20 000 species of bees. Crop yields could be raised by as much as 25% with better pollination management. Pollinators would greatly contribute to world nutrition and food security for an increasing global population, as well as eradicating poverty and hunger, by ensuring increased yields and successful agricultural production (FAO, 2021). 2.3.6 Beekeeping and Biodiversity Bees play major roles in maintaining biodiversity. They are involved in pollination of many plant species. Their constancy (their continuous stay and foraging of a particular plant species until nectar is exhausted before moving to another species) makes them the most important pollination agent. According to Bradbear (2006), beekeepers that practice beekeeping in a forest will be concerned about forest protection, particularly the large trees that bees enjoy. He went on to remark that when a forest has more bees, the pollination is better, which leads to more tree regeneration University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 and biodiversity protection. Bushfires have destroyed the habitat of bees that pollinate Brazilian nuts (Bertholletia excelsa), and this is considered to be one reason why the production of Brazil nuts in the Amazon has decreased (Mori & Prance, 1990). Pollinator shortage, deterioration of bee habitat, and resulting decline in plant reproduction have all been extensively documented (Roubik, 1995). A survey found that beekeepers in Zambia's North West Province played a key role in promoting forest conservation because they value dense woods and want to prevent damaging late fires (Clauss, 1992). According to Clauss (1992), "beekeepers are frequently concerned about late fires between August and October," which "scorch the flush and, above all, the blooms of the most significant nectar plants like Cryptosepalum exfoliatum pseudotaxus, Brachystegia spp., and Copaifera." According to available data, beekeepers who stand to financially benefit from the preservation of bee habitat are motivated to safeguard forests. The degree to which other beekeepers around the world care about and are prepared to invest in forest conservation is not known. Lumbering, illegal gold and other minerals mining and sand winning are among human activities that is in recent times, threatening the existence of our forests and other vegetation types. Beekeeping projects can be adopted to conserve forests and for that matter, the ecosystem thus conserving biodiversity. It follows that areas with high beekeeping potential will have virgin woods and low human population densities, both of which are conducive to beekeeping. Bees are essential pollinators, and many ecosystems depend on them to reproduce and diversify their genetic makeup (cross -pollination). Therefore, the viability of plant species that depend on bee pollination may be impacted by declining bee colonies and species. Some types of plants need bee pollination to live (FAO, 2007). According to Mau-Mandela (2010), ecologists predict that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 52 over 100,000 species will go extinct if bees are not used to fertilize plants. Additionally necessary for pollinating food crops are bees. Bees pollinate a third of all plants and plant-based foods consumed by people, either directly or indirectly (FAO, 2021). In the United States of America, bees are anticipated to assist in pollinating more than 90 crops valued at more than USD 15 billion annually (Berenbaum, 2007). Bee pollinated crops are shown to have higher yields and better quality, at no additional expense to the farmer. Regardless, many farmers consider bees and other pollinators to be pests. 2.3.7 Honey Production and Livelihood Rural communities can obtain livelihood security by managing bees and boosting income access at the same time (Ali & Jabeen, 2015). According to Jaffe' et al. (2015), when low-income communities keep bees, they can gain additional revenue from trade in bee products, which would reduce their need to exploit other natural resources. It will also provide incentives for beekeepers to conserve natural ecosystems like food sources and nesting places. Beekeeping has the potential to increase crop yields and offer quick returns on investment. It is suitable with most farming techniques and does not require very large amounts of land (Klein et al., 2007; Kluser & Peduzzi, 2007; Gupta et al., 2014; Schouten, Lloyd & Lloyd, 2019). Equipment required for beekeeping could be accessed locally as a number of local materials could be used as beehives. Some of these are pots, baskets, old metal trunks, barrels and wooden boxes among others which could be used to keep bees. Many women in Berekum Municipality and Nkwanta South were active in honey trade as a source of income, according to Jeil et al. (2019). Aside beekeepers who make a living from honey production and sales, those who work in the industry include carpenters who build beehives, welders who build smokers, and tailors who create bee suits. Beekeeping programmes University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53 are becoming more popular in developing countries, with the goal of providing rural impoverished people with alternative sources of income (Crane, 1999, Bradbear, 2009, Lloyd, Somerville & Schouten, 2016 & Gratzer, et al., 2019). The benefits of beekeeping programmes may not always be realized, despite their exceptional attributes. According to Otis and Bradbear (2003) and Narayan (2018), despite the greatest efforts of development organizations, many beekeeping programmes have offered the intended recipients few, if any, favorable livelihood advantages and in other cases have made things worse for the poor. 2.4 The Impact of Training on the Development of Beekeeping Rahman and Islam (2016) define training as the process of enhancing employees' aptitudes, skills, and competencies to carry out particular occupations. They asserted that training supports both the acquisition of new skills and the updating of existing ones. Training, according to Srirekha and Rao (2017), is a critical component for enhanced performance since it can increase individual and organizational capability. Unlocking the potential for growth and development and creating a competitive advantage requires training. As a result, beekeeper training is likely to improve their aptitudes, talents, and capacities to do beekeeping more efficiently. Training, according to Lynton and Pareek (1990), consists mostly of carefully planned opportunities for participants to acquire the knowledge and skills they need. Beekeepers are given training to help them become more efficient at their jobs. Farmers, and beekeepers for that matter, have been shown to produce a variety of outputs. Murshed-E-Jahan and Pemsl (2011) discovered that improving farmers' (beekeepers') abilities through training is more beneficial than providing financial aid in terms of raising output and income levels. This finding was based on their study of small farmers in Bangladesh. Similar to this, a study by Tripp and Hiroshimil (2005) affirms University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 54 the value of training and claims that it can aid farmers' (beekeepers') improvement of their skills in their farming (beekeeping) activity. In fact, beekeeping training would go a long way toward improving the skills of beekeepers. According to Pocol and McDonough (2015), Mburu et al. (2017), and Ekele et al. 2019, vocational training for beekeeping can improve equal employment possibilities. In India, Kumar (2018), in a research involving 196 participants on the impact of training on beekeepers’ knowledge found out that 65.81% had low knowledge level, 26.53% (Low-Medium) knowledge level, 7.65% (High- Meduim) knowledge level and 0.00% (high) knowledge level before the training programmeme. At the end of training, the results drastically changed to Low knowledge level 0.00%, Low- Medium knowledge level, 18.36% High-Medium knowledge level 67.85% and high knowledge level 13.77%. The above results from Kumar indicated that training of beekeepers is very important