University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DYNAMICS OF HOUSING AMONG POOR MIGRANTS: A CASE STUDY OF AGBOGBLOSHIEI OLD FADAMA IN THE ASillEDU-KETEKE SUB-METROPOLITAN AREA. BY JOSEPH BANGU THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA. LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEGREE JULY 2006 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I,JosephBangu,doherebydeciarethatthestudywasentirely .doneby me .And aJl cited work have been dully acknowledged ~U STUDENT DR.KDJO APPIAH-KUBI DR. GEORGE OWUSU P91#Jr;~ ~ SUP£RVISOR SUPEERVlsoR ' University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to God. Maalme Banguu. the entire Banguu- Wobnyine family and the millions of slum dwellers worldwide. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my deep debl of gratilude to all {hose who c~ntributed in one way or the other to the successful complelion of this study. lam deeply grate ful to my supervisors Dr. Kojo Appiah-Kubi and Dr. George Owusu for the critical suggestions' encouragement and willing guidance throughout this work. Mygralitude goes to the following individuais for their immense contribulioninvarious ways, Mr. Farouk Braimah Executive Director of People' s Dialogue on Human Settlement for the valuable materials, support and encouragement, you are a friend indeed. Dr Edmund Der for the support and sacri lice, and to my good friend Emmanuel Kpari for the friend ly support. I also appreciate the support of Mr. Morrison Komia, Mr. Chatles 8anguu. Razak Korah. and the Shalom family in Boigatanga. To the entire teaching staff at the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) for the insight received in and outside the lecture hall. To the M.AlMphil coordinator, Dr. Felix Asante for the numerous reminders about the need for urgency. God bless you. I appreciate the work done by Abu Haruna and Fuseini who assisted in the data collection. Finally. I am thankful to you Theodora Kankpi, Maalme, Philemon, Faustina, Louisa and to my mother Cecilia Der for the sacrifice that has brought me this far. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Access to housing is a key social issue in Ghana. The housing market is characterized by insufficient existing stock, inadequate housing delivery frameworks, limited financial provision and hence ongoing under·supply. Large numbers of Ghanaians, even informal employment. find it difficult to access housing. The Poor bears a disproportionate burden of the housing shortage especially in the city of Accra. This has resu lted in the proJiferationofslums in major cities inciuding Accra and the subse quent housing market in these senlements. Target II of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is specific on achieving a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million s lum dwellers world wide by 2020. Implicitly this recognition highlight slums as a developmen tissue which needs to be faced because of its effects on the life of individ uals and families. In Ghana, the GPRS I in line with the declaration propose the upgrading slum settlements targeting 500 thousand people. All these initiatives suggest the urban poor have a unique form of housing themselves that might not conform to acceptable international and national standards The study essentially sought to identify the extent of the housing challenge the poor migrants encounter and the processes they go through in housing themselves. The Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama located in the city of Accra is patronized by migrants from the different regions of Ghana largely employed in the informal sector of the economy. Two main category ofdwetling units were identified, namely the shacks and thekiosks,the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh shacks are however the dominant and preferred dwelling units in the settlement A large group of renters live along with owners also known as slum landlords. The shack seems to suggest permanency as well as best fit to withstand the threats of the weather, For those renting, the daily rental unit cost ¢4500and ¢7000respective ly fora shack and kiosk respectively. Occupancy is very high beginning from 10 to as high as 20 peopJe depending on the size of the unit. Contrary to the often repeated reports on the settlement as a chaotic place, the study observed a highly organized informal housing market regulated by slum land lords with considerable influence. In the context of housing, the sludyobserved a trend in which migrants graduate from a lowly placed new migrant to a sophisticated middle income individual, who may reside outside the settlement yet has vested interest in the settlement. The pace of graduation seems to depend on the rate of integration into the urban setting as well as improvement in income. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION .. . .... H DEDICATION .. . ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .... ....... iii ABSTRACT ..... . ACRONYMS. CHAPTER ONE. . 1.0 INTRODUCTION. ......... 1 1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ....... . 1.2 OBJECTIVES .... . .... 6 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY ... .. ...... 6 1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .... 1.4.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE STAGES .... 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... .. ... 10 1.5 .1 SAMPLING METHODS ..................................................................................... 12 1.5.2 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ........................................................ 12 1.5.2. a KEY INFORMANT INTERViEW ........................................................ 13 1.5.2 b STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRES ... . ....................................... 13 1.5.3 ANALYS IS OF DATA ............................................................................ 14 1.5.4 REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND DEFINITION OF TERMS ......................... 14 1.5.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDy ............................................................................ 14 1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDy ........................... ........................... 15 J.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY .............................................................. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ...... 16 CHAPTER TWO ...... . 2.0 THE STUDY AREA: ASHIEDU-KETEKE SU B_METROPOLITAN AREA ..... 16 2.1 THE AGBOGBLOSHIE/OLD FADAMA SETTLEMENT ... .. ...... ... ... . .... ....... 18 .... 21 CHAPTER THREE ..... 3.0 LITERA TLRE REVIEW AND DEFINITION OF TER MS ........ . .. 21 . ... ..... 21 3. 1 MIGRATION ...... . . ........ 23 3.2 URBANISATION ... 3.3 POVERTY AND URBANIZATION OF POVERTy ..... . ......... 25 3.3.1 POVERTY ... .. ..... 25 3.3.2 URBANIZATION OF POVERTy .... . ......... 26 3.4HOUSING .... . ............. 27 3.4.1 GHANA'S HOUS ING POLiCy ......... ... ... 29 3.5 URBANIZATION, HOUSING AND POVERTY REDUCTION ....... .. ... 31 3.5. 1 HOUSING DECISIONS OF POOR MIGRANTS.. . . .... .. .. . .............. .. 32 3.5.2 HOUSING AND POVERTY REDUCTION ... .. ............ 33 CHAPTER FOUR.... . .................. 35 4.0 ANAL YSIS AND RESULTS .... .. ................................ 35 4.1 AGE AND MIGRATORY HISTORY OF RESPONDENTS ................................ 35 4.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF RESPONDENTS .......... ........... .. ................. 39 4.2.1 OCCUPATION AND INCOME DISTRIBUTION .. . ........ 42 4.3.1 THE HOUSING DYNAMICS ..... . . ............ 46 4.3.2 TYPES OF DWELLING UNITS ... . ............................... 47 4.3.3 ACCESSING DWELLING UNITS ... .. ............... ·· ................. .48 vij University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.4 SEARCH MEDlA USED BY MIGRANTS .... ...... 49 4.4.1 DWELLING UNITS AND SATISFACTION LEVEL. .......... . . .............. 53 CHAPTER FIVE ... . .............. 55 5.0 CONCLUS ION AND RECOMMENDAT IONS ....... 5.1 THE GROWTH OF SLUMS AND HOUS ING SHORTAGE ................................. 55 5.2 SOCIO·ECONOM IC STATUS OF THE SETTLEMENT ...................................... 56 5.3 HOUSING AS SOCIAL SAFETY NET FOR MIGRANTS ... .. ....... 58 5.4 HOUSING MOB ILITy.... . .......................................................................... 59 5.5 GENDER AND HOUSING ....................... .. ....................................................... 60 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 61 APPEND iX .... . ..................... 69 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FIGURES AND TABLES Figures Figure I Income and Residential PrioritiesorMigrants ... ....... 8 Figure 2 Conceptual Framework ..... . .. ..... 9 Figure) Occupations of Respondents ...... . Figure4SourcesofCont3ctsforMigrantsintheCity ......... . . ....... 48 Table I : Age and Migratory History of Respondents .. . ..... 37 Table 2 Years of Schooling and Dwelling Units . .. ........ 41 Table) Daily Income and Ownership of dwelling units .... Table 4 Search Media Util ized by Migrants .... Table 5 Housing Mobility Trend ............................................................... 51 Table 6 Housing Satisfaction LeveJ.... .. ................................. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACRON\,~:IS AMA Accra Metropolitan Assembly CBO Central Business District CBO Community Based Organization CHf' CHF International COHRf Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions CWIQ Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire GlSS Ghana Living Siandard Survey GHPF Ghana Homeless Peoples Federation GPRS Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy GPRS Growth and Poverty ReductionSlrategy GSS Ghana Statistical Service HBE Home Based Enterprises IRS IntemalRevenueService LI Lc:gislativelnstrument People's Dialogue SOl Slum Dwellers International SSNIT Social Security and National Insurance Trust UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Senlement University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION Housingconstirutesan essential condition for human existence; glob ally there has been a tremendous demand and pressure for housing. Rapid urbanization fuelled by rural-urban migration has placed immense pressure on the resources of national and local governments. UN- Habitat (2003) reports that population growth especially in developing countries is alarming; "the world's population has increased fonn 2.5 billion in 1950t06 billion in 2002 of which 60% has been in the developing countries. This population is expected to increase by more than 2 billion by 2025", The growth in population is bound 10 have implications on existing social services includinghousin g especially in the urban centres, For instance, it is estimated that more than one billion of the world's city dwellers live in inadequate housing, mostly in the sprawli ng s lums and squatter settlements in developing countries. Such areas are regarded as one of the most visible expressions of hum an poverty (UNCHS; Habitat. 2(01). The case is particularly worrisome for developing nations. With worsening poverty and growing urban population. developing nations are finding it difficult in meeting their housing needs. II iseslimated that nearly 18millionadditional housingunilS are needed annually to cope with the demand (UNCHS: Habitat 2001),. However with stagnating development, most developing countries are struggling in addressing social services especially in the urban centres. This leaves "nearly Ibillion people" (UN- Habitat, 2003) in insecure and substandard homes, and with many others homeless. The urban poor in particular are the most exposed. Due to low and inconsistent flow of incomes they University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh invariably find themselves in informal settlements and in poor housing conditions. These include living on alleys, shacks and other related dwellings which "often reflect the socio-economic and cultural needs of low-income communities . . ' (Payne and Majale; 2004). In Sub-Saharan Africa, housing for the poor in the face of lack of fin ancehastakenanew trend and is "a highly visible dimension of poverty" (Gi lbert and Gugler 1982). This has become an emotive issue in the region in the last two decades. A n earlier study cites that ''the 1980sand 1990sbecame, in more common parlance, period of 'urban crises' across the continent. The crisis which itself was a reflection of declining or stagnating economies in the face of continuous rural-urban migration-had se veral components: a decline in the level offonnal employment, and a correspo'}ding increase in 'informal sector' activities in many key areas of the urban economy, a deterioration in both the quality and distribution of basic services, and a decline in thequalit yoftheurban environment both built and natural. All these changes affected the quality of urban life for everyone, but particularly for low-income groups" (Bacho, 2001). The critical issue here is the linkage between urbanization, social service provision vis-a-vis the socio- economic situation of the urban poor. Urban centres increasingly continue to attract rural immigrants with limited skills creating congestions in the process. This is expected to be a major challenge to planned provision of infrastructure. Ghana's situation is not any better. The country's urban and popu lation growth rates currentlystandat4.2%and2.7%respectively(GSS,2000).Population and urban growth University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is not matched with economic development, consequently there is rising poverty with varying ramifications on social infrastructure in the cities. For instance urban population account for 37% of the total national population of 20m ill ion, and 1.9 million of this urban population lives below the poverty line (GPRS I, 2002~2004). The implication is obvious; pressure on existing social services particularlyhousing ,which requires urgent attention Migration contributes significantly to population and urban growth in Ghana. Available figures indicate that in Ghana, 52% of adult population is migrants and Ihis is high in the Greater Accra. Volta and Westem regions where 4 in every 10 of the population are im~ migrants. (GSS, 1998/99; GLSS4). In the Greater Accra, the migrant population is significant, nearly 75% of migrants had moved from other urban areas; about 22% move from rural areas and the rest about 3% represents retum migrants(ib id) The Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing estimates the nation's annual housing units at seventy thousand (70,000) against the current supply of twenty four thousand five hundred units per annum. Currently the demand for housing in Ghana outstripSlhe supply and the effect of this is hardiest on the urban poor due to their low socio~economic status. The 2000 Population and Housing Census final report cites that ofatolalof287,840dwellings, 1.9% people live intents,kiosks,container/anachment, and 24,800 of this type of dwellings are within the Accra Metropolitan Area (Al\1A). The Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy II estimates that more than four million people live in slums in the major cities of Accra, Kumasi, Takoradi, Tamale, Koforidua, Cape University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Coast, Bolgatanga among others The scale of urban housing problems in Ghana therefore raises major questions. 1.1 STATEMENT OF TH.E PROBLEM The Greater Accra Region is the fastest urbanizing region in Ghana. The 2000 Population and Housing Census recorded a total population of2,905, 726, which account for 30.7% of Ghana's urban population. The region has a housing slock 0(287,840. The urban centre in Ihe region account for 80.4% (GSS,2000) shareofhousing stockwith38.3% owning houses, 39.9% renting and 1.5% perching (UN-Habitat. 2004). A careful observation depicts a housingshor1age in the region. TheshOr1age is much felt in the Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA) which is the nerve centre of the region with numerous functions. AMA has a population of 1,658,937 against a housing stock of 131 ,355 thereby creating a housing shor1age in the metropolis (GSS, 2000). The Ashiedu-Keteke Metropolitan Area is located within the AMA. The Ashiedu-Keteke Sub-Metropolitan Area is home to the Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama infonnal settlements. Because of its centralloc3tion as a result of the presence of the Central Business District (CBD), it is host to a daily influx of new migrants in search of jobs. The area has an estimated population density of over 350 per hectare especially in the James Town and Ussher (Konadu-Agyemang, 2001). The high population density exer1S considerable pressure on social infrastructure like housing. Besides there is competition for land use especially for commercial purpose raising th ecostoflandand University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh thus housing. The urban poor including migrants are the most affected as a resull of the housing shortage and the Jowincome status of migrants. Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama is predominantly a migrant settlement. Most of the migrants with limited skills are found in the informal sector of the economy doing jobs including "street hawkers, metal artisans. and shoe shiners among others" (Syagga and Kiamba: 1992). Thus they are limited in the housing choices particularly formal housing because of the high rents demanded. Yet they have to find a way of housing themselves. Over the years, in spite oflhe difficulties the urban poor encounter they continue to house themselves in various forms; from sleeping on the pavements to the shacks, the urban poor have been able to evolve altemative housing albeit with little income usually in informal settlements. This study analyses the socio·economic conditions of the urban po or who are the hardest hit by the housing problem. It examines the present housing situati on as well as examines the processes the poormigram go through in housing themselves. The questions that the research anempts to address therefore are: I What are the challenges encountered by poor migrants on housing? What are their priorities in housing and what inform these choice s? What are the strategies and transitions the urban poor adopt in ho usingovertime? How can the government mainstream the needs of the poor in its housing policy? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 OBJECTIVES The overall objective of this study is to examine the socio-economic conditions of the poormigrants,theirhousingconditionsandtypesinthecontexlofincreasingpovcrtyand government housing policy. Specifically, the study will Identify the major housing ehallenges facing poor migrants in the cities Identify and analyze their main priorities and how their choices are made with respect to housing Identify strategies adopted by the poor migrants in housing. Make recommendations based on the find ings for intervention in the housing needs of the urban poor and other low-income groups. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The significance of any academic work can be seen in its linkages to practica l or theoretical problems and social policy issues. The study is particularly irnport'ant with in the context of social policy and practice. The issue of housing the poor in the cities in the face of increasing urbanization and poverty poses a challenge to the international community. governments, non-governmental organizations and civil society organizations. WhileGhana'shousingstrategieshavesoughtto increasehousingstock for low-income groups, implementation has frequently been a problem with the cost way above the means of the urban poor. Lumping low-income groups and the urban poor together in housing policy isa false start since the urban poor peculiar needs are not catered for. This study intends investigating the transitions and strategies the urban poor University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh adopt in housing, the appreciation of which will infonn stake holderswork ing with the urban poor as well as infonn Ghana' s future housing policy. 1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The conceptual model for understanding the housing decisions m ade by poor migrants is the one developed by Turner (1968). The model as shown in figure I, based on infonnal settlement argues that the migrant to the city make ralional decision on housing in relation to income. He suggested that alJ families have three basic needs with regards to; security, identity, and opportunity and trade-ofTs are made between these three needs (Gilbert and Gugler, 1982). In the context of housing, the poor value proximity to unskilJedjobs(opportunity) rnuch more highly than either ownership (se curity) or high quality standards of shelter (ibid). The model identifies three category of housing transitions; the bridgeheader, the consolidator and theslatus seeker. The bridgeheader (new migrant) with the lowest income has high priority to employment location, generally found in city centres. The city centres provides varied casual opportunitiesfortheunskilledlabour(bridgeheader),andtendtohave very low priority to high standards of amenities and pennanent housing ownership. The low-income consolidator may be semi-employed with very high priority to ownership, declining priorities forlhe inner city, and shares a low priority for ameniti eswith the bridgeheader. The middle-incomestarus seeker on the other hand places high value on amenities and very low value on pennanent ownership and proximity to city centre. These three can be compared to their priority oflocation, ownership, and amenity (Turner, 1968). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure I Income and Resideolia l Priorities of Migranls ~~I~~~i:!II Modem Q Standard_ of /,/;n Ace •• Amenit!ll ~ :.. . .. • / Middle-Income . / ,.' "SULtus Seeker" /' I Low-Income " Consolida.tor" Very Lo w- Ina::.me " Bridgeheader" V~ry V~ry Low High Priority Priority Source: J.F.C .Tumer (1968), Adopted from American Institute of Planners (AlP) The housing path/trajectory poor migrants traverse in Ihe city therefore can be seen as theproduci of the needs for location, tenure, and amenity combin ed with the income for their satisfaction . Location to the poorest will be innuenced by the minimum subsistence costs. and in the upward striving consolidator, location will bedetennined by the cost of owner-occupied land and construction if the dwelJingplays a primar ysocialsecurityrole (Turner, \968). The upward mobility through the three stages is not linear, it could take long years of toil to move up. Factors that facilitate the upward movement include the land ownership and the level of development of the economy. The argument is that the poor will invest in improving housing as their income improves and where land ownership is well defined by appropriate housing regu latory frameworks. This is because ownership ofa dwelling unit in the city provides "at least a partial University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh aliemativesourceofsocialandeconomicsecurityforthepoor. Evenifthedwellingisno more than a shack on a plot of rough land, it frees the owner from rentpay ment; it also provides him with the opportunities for additional income and the chance 10 invest his small savings, skills, and spare time" (Tumer, \968). Source: AuthorsconSlruct based on Tumer'smodel (1968) 1.4.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE STAGES The model is the basis for appreciating the inherent housing dynamics in informal settlements. The bridgehcader and consolidator 3re both resident in the senlements. Some consolidators who might own dwelling units may accommodate the poorer fami ly members (bridgeheader) for a period or could rent part of it fora fee. The rents constitute an important income forihe gradual consolidation process and the desire to get 10 the final phase (status sct:k~r) . Tht: status seeker on the olher hand has passed through the two phases and is now in better position to rent or build outside the first resi dence, but the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh status seeker could still spend some time in the settlement. They usually have considerable power and influence in the settlement. Relationship exists between the three stages in tigure2 defined by a set of social network. Thenetworkistheconduitfor thetransmissionofinformationabout jobs and avai lability of dwelling units that may involve the transfer of 'ownerships'. The relationship of concemtothisstudyhoweverwillinc!ude: The movement from one stage to the next level which may vary depending on the pace at which income improves. Generally a rented unit can be given up on a very short notice, and the occupier is free to move quickly to anothe rlocation . • Even though the status seeker may move out of thei r initial environment, they maintain relationship with settlement because of vested interest depicted by the two arrow head. I.S RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The case study approach was adopted in selecting the Ashiedu-Keteke Sub -Metropolitan Area. The area was selected because of two main reasons: the presence of Accra's Central Business District (CBD) and the presence of two informal settlements of AgbgbloshieJOld Fadama. The two settlements are separated by the Abossey Okai road, and have a number of satellite markets such as the Agbogbloshie market, the yam market with the timber market nearby. Thus AghogbloshieJOld Fadama settlement serves as an ideal destination for migrants with low skills. The case study approach also ensured a 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh detailed investigalionsuitable fora study Ihat requires investigat inginteractionsinthe "natural"environmenl. The case study approach enabled the appropriale category of the interest population, in this case poor migrants to be located and interviewed. It is estimated that the CBD is host 10 an influx of about 200,000 people from all parts of Ghana including neighbouring countries for commercial apd other related activities. These twO factors perfectly fit the interest of the study viz poor migrants and their housing strategies. Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama informal settlement is less than a kilometre from Accra's Central Business District (CBD). (see platc 2, appendix II). Its nearness to the CaD servesasapointofanractionformigrantsmostlyengagcdintheinformalsectorofthe economy doing jobs such as head portcrs, lrtlck pushing, scrapdeaiers, sh oe shincrs and peny traders. The living conditions are poor and are characterized by high populations living in wooden shacks and kiosk. A shack depending on its size can take between 10·20 people. Being an informal settlement, accurate statistics is pr~blcmatic, while the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS, 2000) puts the population at 4,505. Local opinion leaders estimale more than 34,000. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5.1 SAMPLING METHODS Purposive and probability sampling methods were used in the select ivc collection of data. purposive method was used in selecting the cluster of poor migrants because of the mobility of the population of interest (new migrants). This method ensured the population best fit into the purpose of the study that is migrants were capture d.lnaddition,economy and convcnience partly infonned the use of the purposive sampling method. Under probability method, simple random sampling technique was then applied in selecting and interviewing II0people.lnadwellingunitwithrecognizablehead,onlythehousehold head was interviewed. Where a dwelling has more than 10 people with no recognizable household head. 2 people were interviewed. This enabled the varied experiences in the housing transition process to be captured. Forthosesleepingrough eachindividualthat came under the sample was interviewed. In all 3S household heads were interviewed and the remaining 74 covered renters and those sleeping rough. 1.5.2 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION The study used both quantitative and qualitative methods in gathering primarydata . The quantitative method involved the administration of structured questionnaires. Two resc for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh capturing the processes, descriptions and explanations occurring in the local context (settlemenl). There were revisits to individual under this approach for clarifications on issues. The combination of these two methods facilitated the analysis process as well as drawing of conclusions. 1.5.2. a KEY lNFORMANT INTERVIEW One person each from People's Dialogue on Human Settlement (PO) and Ghana Homeless People's Federation (GHPF) were interviewed. PO is a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) dedicated to working with the urban poor and infonnal settlements in the area of micro-credit and advocacy. Currently PO operates in the area under study, while GHPF is a Community Based Organization (CBO) which derives its membership from the informal settlements of Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama. These interviews provided rich insights into the processes and activities of poor migrants with respect to housing. The interaction with People's Dialogue and GHPF provided opportunity for detailed explanations, descriptions and clari fications on the housing dynamics on daily basis in 1.5.2 b STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRES Structured questionnaires were administered on rhe sampled popu lationbasedonthetype of dwelling unil.The questionnaires captured information about Ihe d ifTerent activities in the settlement as well as the characteristics of the urban poor. The administration of questionnaires followed a simple random sampling pattern. 1n all one hundred and ten (110) questionnaires was administered pertaining to income. occupation, level of I) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh education and length of stay of respondents in a dwelling unit. In addition, respondents wert asked if they intended moving out of the senlements. whether they knew of people who have moved out of the area and the rent they pay. Existing secondary sources was reviewed from published and unpublished sources. 1.5.3 ANA LYS IS OF DATA Data was first cleaned, coded and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS). The analysis also used other packages of the Statistical Package for Social Scientist such as tables and charts. Notes derived from observations and interactions from key infonnant interviews were carefully perused and incorporated into the analysis oflhe study. 1.5.4 REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND DEFINITI ON OF TERM S Terms helpful to the understanding of the study are defined. Olher specialized and technical terms are defined as well. Relevant works on the study by previous authors were reviewed to serve as basis for developing theoretical and con ceptualframeworkfor thesludy.Thereviewsoflheliteraturearecapturedunderdifferentsub-headings. 1.5.5 SCOPE OF T HE STUDY The study concentrated on Old Fadama/Agbogbloshie. an informal settlement within the Ashiedu-Keteke Sub-Metropolitan Area. Large sections of the population in the senlement are migrants and are in the informal sector of the economy. The study sampled University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh population involved lItose sleeping rough as well as lItose in dweJling units in lite senlement. 1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Getting official figures on the settlement was difficult, the 2000 Population and Housing Census figures did not help much as lite settlement was almost invisible. The study thus had to rely on figures provided by officials of lite Ghana Homeless People's Federation and estimates by earlier studies in theseulements. The population under study was quite elusive and gening them to respond to questionnaire was very difficult. These are groups who work throughout the week except on Sundays. The sludy therefore had to rely on Sundays forquesti onnai readministration. and this slowed down the pace of work. 1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY The study report is organized into five chapters under various headings. Chapler one involves introduction, problem statement, objectives of the work, significance of the work and melltodology. Chapter two is devoted to lite profilc ofthc study area. Chapter three will cover the defin ition and review of related literature and the development of linkages between the concepts, whi le chapter fou r covers the prese ntationandanalysisof data. Chapter five captures lite major findings and reeommendations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO 2.0 ASHIEDU-KETEKE SUB-METROPOLITAN AREA The Ashiedu-Keteke Sub-Metropolitan Area is located within the Central Business District (CBD) of the city of Accra. It is one of the six Sub-Metropolitan Areas under the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), it is the smallest of the six sub-d istrict structures of AMA. The Sub-Metropolitan Area is further divided into lhru electoral 1lt't8S; Ngleshie, Kinka and Korle Wonko. The Sub-Metropolitan Area has one Town Council namely the Ga Mashie Town Counci l. The sub-metro was established by Legislative Instrument (L1) 1615 of the Local Govemment Act, 1993 Act 462, and section three (3). The creation of the Sub-metropolitan is part of Ghana's decentralization policy which see"~lobringgovemancetothelowestlevelofsociety. The Sub-Metropolitan Area consists of two units, the political, represented by the Assembly Members and the techn ical unit made up of civil servants. A chairman elected amongst the assembly members presides over the sub-metropolitan meetings, while the technical unit is headed by the sub-metropolitan direclorwhoisa Iso the secretary to the Assembly. The functions of the Sub-Metropolitan Assembly according to LI 1615 schedule incJudethe following; Crealion of enabling environment for all economic activities. Provision of social infrastructure in thefieldofhealth,education ,and social welfare Responsible for the day to day administration of the area Provision of good sanitary and healthy environment 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Ashiedu-Keteke Sub-Metropolitan Area occupies the centre most part orthe CBD. It is bounded to the north by The Graphic road, to the south by the Gulf of Guinea, on the west by the Korle Lagoon. Eastward the Motor Transport and Traffic Unit (MITU), the Kinbu School through and along the Rex Cinema to the Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum to meet the Gulf of Guinea again border the Sub-Metropolitan Area, (see appendix II, plates I and 2). The Sub-Metropolitan Area has a population of about 88,717 (GSS, 2000) and an estimated floating population of over 100.000: a result of the daily influx of people for purposes including trade and job search. This floating population puts strain on the social and other related infrastructures in the Sub-Metropolitan Area. Notable settlements in the Sub-Metropolitan are Ga Mashie, James Town and Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama. Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama is an informal settlement and is a choice destination of poor migrants to the city of Accra and therefore has a high migrant popu lation. The human settlements in the Sub-Metropolitan Area consist of the indigeno us people (the Ga's) and the migrants. The migrants under the study are located in the AgbogbloshieiOld Fadama. The Sub-Metropolitan Area has both commercial and administrative function with numerous financial institutions, the Makola market. In addition, the area contains a number of municipal authority offices, example AMA market office as well as the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1 THE AGBOGBLOSHIE/OLD FADAMA SETTLEMENT The term senlement "implies a place where more than one household lives. It can include a village, town. major city or metropolitan centre" (UNCHS, 1990). Settlement therefore provides the living space for all humanity. Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama has a total land surface of about 361.29 acres (Grant, 2005). The land is bounded by the Abossey Okai Road, the Odaw River (the Korle Lagoon) and the Agbogbloshie Drain, about a mile from Accra's CBD. Living conditions are poor and characterized by wooden shacks and kiosks. The settlement lack basic sanitary facilities and waste are discharged into the Lagoon. Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama has a large commercial function and contains a number of food markelS namely the Makola, Agbogbloshie food market, a commercial bus depot. numerous small shops and stalls. The senlement has no official population figurebecausethestateconsidersthesettlemenllobeiJIegal,Anearlierstudyestimates the population to be in the range of 34,000 people (Jack and Braimah,2004). The land is public. but in the past it was under the control of local stools, principally the Korleand Gbesestools. The senlement pattern in Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama seemed 10 be more influenced by location and cost. This is because such a " location enableslhe"ne w migrant to gain access to work in the nearby city and thus make a claim to the job market in the city" (Turner, 1968). Therefore most migrants with limited skills congregate in senlements on the margins of the city where accommodation is cheapest. Officially these settlements may go unrecognized by the]ocal authorities and are without basicservice slikeelectricity, education and other social infrastructure. Overcrowding, discomfort, and e ven the usually 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh avoidabJefilthoftheslummaybeapricetheaspirantlobetterlivingstandards is quite willing 10 pay for improved opportunities (ibid). The new migrants who find themselves in this type of settle men I usually have to contend with filth and limited capacity for management of waste The development of this informal settlement at Agbogbloshie IOld Fadama was identified as early as in the 1952 Land Use Map (Acquah, 1972) with 298 houses. Agbogbloshie was initially composed of Ga ethnic people, who had obtained land rights from the local chief (Accra Studio. 2003 cited by Grant, 2005) while Old Fadama was composed of migrants who came from Northern Ghana (Jack and Braimah, 2004). Subsequent developmentsinthel990shavetransformedthesettlementintoamulti-ethnichotbed. Historically, the area has gone through several stages of development. In 1991, the AMA embarked on decongestion exercises to remove hawkers from major intersections around the CBD in Accra. This exercise relocated hawkers to the edge of Agbogbloshie on the Abossey Okai main road. In a second exercise in 1993, AMA relocated the yam market to Old Fadama. The yam business is labour intensive and requires raw labour for loading and off-loading, in addition to the yam market; a vegetable market was also created in the area. The relocation created a wave of linkages and "created an initial demand for trustworthy labour, which was met by bringing people in from the food producing areas" (COHRE, 2004: cited in Grant, 2005). In turn, trucks needed repairs from time to time so requisiteservicesaisodeveJoped(welders,mechanical,tire,repair shops.). As the market became established, workers came and stayed: the market served as home and workplace 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh these labourers (ibid). Over time the need for additional accommodations arose and temporary (shacks) ones were built. In acldition, a series of land struggles innonhern Ghana in 1995 displaced thousands of inhabitants, and many made their way to urban Accra. And Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama became the preferred destination because of the availability of jobs. Fourth, the population of the settlement continues 10 grow as migrants fromnei ghbouringstatessuch as Niger, Nigeria and Sierra Leone find it unaffordable to rent accommodations in established r~idence of uther areas (Grant. 2005). The Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama area offers migrants the cheapest rents in the city as well as proximity to th ecentralmarketsin the city, where many migrants seek casual and infonnal employment. Renting a sleeping space per night usually containing up 10 20 people or more for 3,000 cedis (roughly $0.35) Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama also accommodates temporarily transit travellers in Accra, especially women travelling to and from northern Ghana with goods to other markets (CHF,2004). 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE 3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW A_ND DEFlNIT10N OF TERMS This section examines the relationship between the socio-economic characterizations of the category of the urban population with emphasis on the poor and also looks at the housing in informal settlements in particular. In addition this section operationalizes concepts relevant to Ihesludy and put them in the right perspective for purposes of analysis. This involves the following· Migration Urbanization, urban, urbanized Poverty and Urbanization ofpoveny Housing and type of dwelling units Urbanization, Housing and Poverty Rcduction Migration is broadly defined as a permanent or semi-permanent change of residence (Jansen, 1969). This change of residence is a demographic problem, since it influences size ofpopulstion at origins and destination. The decision to move canbeinfluencedbya number of factors; changes economic conditions and economic imbalances between areas; family, and in some instances connict and political factors compel people to move. To the rural population migration is a means of escaping from the constraints of the traditional environment (Konadu-Agyemang, 200\). The economic factor is particularly strong in the case of developing countries of which Ghana is not an exception. The migrants in the city go through sociological experiences involving integrat ing into the 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh new social structures and cultural systems in the host society (Jansen, 1969). To cope with these experiences requires adjustment by the migrant usually highlighting the processes within thephysical,economicand social environment. In the Greater Accra. the migrant population is quite high. nearly 75% of migrants had moved from other urban areas; about 22% move from rural areas and thc rest about 3% represents return migrants (GSS, 1998/99; GLSS4). Similar panerns are observed for the city of Accra, according to the GLSS4 (2000), if you moved to Accra, there was a 24% chance you had migrated there from a rural area, but a 73% chance you h ad migrated to Accra from another urban area. This trend has effects on housing especially on the very poor migrants in the Ashiedu-Keteke Sub-Metropolitan Area The attraction oflhc city of Accra to migrants appears to have historical antecedents. First the city of Accra is the national capital, thus it plays both administrative and commercial functions. And secondly, the Lewis' dual economy model of development pursued over the years in Ghana concentrated industries in what was known as the gro"-,h centres namely Takoradi. Kumasi and Accra. Lewis' model involves the transfer of excess migrant labour from thcpredominantly subsistent rural agrarian areas 10 the modernized urban areas for employment. But in the midst of unemployment in thc cities, movements there have not ccased. For the purpose of this sludy, mi grant labour is defined comprise casual and unskilled workers who move (rom one region to anQther offering their services on a temporary, usually seasonal basis (new encyclopedia Britannica, vol 8). 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Todaro (2001) cxplains that rural-urban migration will continue whether or not jobs are available. What then account for this trend especially to lhe city of Accra? The answer seems to be provided by Konadu-Agyemang (2001) who explains that most of the migrants do not seek employment in the formal sector but are more and more into the infonnal sector doing jobs including hawking, portering (Kayayei), prostitution, drug peddling and shoe shining. Whilelhis may be true the very fewer opportunities in the rural environmenl seem 10 be the major compelling factor for people moving inlO cilies. MigralioncouldresI1lts in increasing spatial polnri zation where economic developmenl does not occur in pari-pasu and can contribute to massive urban po verty. This appears to be the case in the Ashiedu-Keteke Sub-Metropolitan Area with serious ramifications on housing and other social services 3.2 URBANISATION Urban refers to an "agglomerated settlement whose inhabitants are primari ly engaged in non-agricultural occupation" (UNCHS; Habitat, 2001). In Ghana settlements with populations of five thousand are considered to be urbanized. Urban ization is defined as Ihe "transformation ofa population from rural to urban status; and the process of city fonnation and expansion" (Marshall. 1989). Urbanization is a process of urban fonnation and growth in population and size. It isa function of population increase both natural and migratory and thesp8tial and non-spatial expansion of the settlements to accommodate increasing population (Adedibu and Afolayan, 1989). Therefore, there are three main components of urbanization viz: migration, natural increase. and changes in city boundaries. The migratory component of urbani7.ation in Ghana and the Accra 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Metropolitan Assembly is of particular interest in this study due to its i mpactonhousing in the inner city of Accra. In Ghana, the population living in urban areas increased from 32.0% in the 1984 to 43.8% in 2000 nationwide. This represents an intercensalgrowth ra te of 4.6% as against 2.7% overall growth. and this is expected to double by 2020. This certainly has implications on social infrastructure and could facilitate the development of more slum s and shantytowns. For example. the 20 largest localities recorded popu lations between 43.703 for Nkawkaw to as high as 1,658,937 for the Accra Metropol is (GSS; 2000). The Greater Accra agglomeration grew from 250,000 in 1950 to 852,000 in 1970 and to an estimated I million in the 1984 census. The rate of population growth was about 4.5% in the 1950s, 6.5% in the 1960sand slowed down to 3% between the 1970 and 1984 census. The current urban growth for the region stands at 4.4% is far above the national average of2.7%. The region is the most urbanized with as much as 87.4% living in urban centres -principally clustered within the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (GSS,2003).This trend has effects on the existing social services including housing and water. The situation is worsened by the absence of a "national urbanization policy to guide settlement development" (GPRS I). The critical issue arising from urbanization is economic growth and development to support the process is not occutTing i ncomparable rates. This call for a strategic approach to the provision of housing and related infrastructure at costs that they can afford. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 POVERTY AND URBANIZATION OF POVERTY 3.3.1 POVERTY Poverty is best described by the persons or groups of people experiencing it. Thus there are different ways of looking at poverty. The economist measures poverty by the use of income or consumption expenditure. By this criterion individuals whose income or expenditure lies below the accepted international standard are then classified as being poor (Oduro, 2001). This definition ofpoveny conceals the differe nt levels of deprivation bythevarioussectionsofthepopulation.Thisthereforerequiresabroaderunderstanding of the dynamics of poverty for the purposes of the adoption ofa bener poverty reduction agenda (Appiah.Kubi; Aminning-Ampomah, unpublished work). On the basis of this, Oduro (2001) extend the meaning of poverty to include deprivation, helplessness, frustration, alienation and marginalization. This concern is reflected in the GPRS (2002-2004), which defines poverty as an "unacceptable physiological and social deprivation". Physiol ogical deprivation could deal with the lack of the innate needs: food, water emotional relaxation among others, wh ile social deprivation emanates from lack of employment, inadequate access to water, health, education and decent housing facilities. Most of these indicator sare in lack among poor people (Sanerthwaite, 2001,cited in Mitlin,2004).lnGhana,povert y isgenerally heldto be a rural phenomenon, several indicators point to Ihis assertion. I n 199811999,"17.3% of urban and 49.50010 of rural popUlation were poor" (GPRS 2003 Annual Progress Report). The Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire (CW1Q) 1997/2003 provides insight on the literacy rates for rural and urban areas. Between 199811999 and 2003 the literacy 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh rates were 63.0% and 69.9'10 for the urban areas, while for the same period the rural areas recorded 40 % and 40.1%. This phenomenon has resulted in the over concenlration of poverty reduction activities in the rural communities to the detrim entoftheurban. 3.3,2 URBANIZATION OF POVERTY II appears urban poverty in Ghana is nO! well recognized or well understood. Apart from maintaining a minimum standard of living, essential basic social services such as healthcare. housing. safe drinking water, garbage collection a ndsewerageequallyhavcto be accessed at a cost in urban centres. In the cities of developing countries for instance, "renting a room takes 20-30% of poor house hold income and forthoseac cessing 'pay as you use toilets ' spends 5-20% of their income (UNCHS; Habitat, 1996). Thi s is more difficult on the low-income groups who spend a disproportionate part of their income on In addition ,manyofthe factors that contribute to urban poverty include "inadequate unstable or risky asset base ; inadequate sheller ;inadequate provision of public infrastructure; inadequate provision of basic services ;limited or no safety nets ;inadequate protection of poorer groups rights through the operati on of; and the poorer groups voicelessness and powerlessness" (Satterthwaite, 1997, citcdinMitiin,2004and Sanerthwaite 2001) The urban poor arc usually found in the informal sector of the economy with unskilled labour and inconsistent income. And they incl ude, scrap dealers, hawkers. metal anisans, head porters (Kayayei), truck pushers, shoe shiners among 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh others. These are the category likely to be found in the Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama Over the years urban poverty has risen in the city of Accra from 8% in the 1980s to 24% in the 1990s with significant patterns emerging from those living on the fri ngesofthe city (Apt; 2002). Among city dwellers, the dimension of poverty is also different: the migrants, the aged and the indigenous poor among olhers are differently exposed to poverty each reflecting a certain pattem of the fai lure of the state to plan for urbanization. 3.4 HOUSING Housing is"first and foremost" a pre-requisiteofa household (Pa geandSeyfried, 1970). It is an important basic need and thus is central to every nation. A hou seisdescribedasa "structurally separate and independent place of abode such that a perso norgroupof persons can isolate themselves from the hazards of climate such as storms and the sun" (UNCHS, Habitat, 2003). Going by this definition, a house essentially serves to protect the occupants from the dangers of the weather. In many developing countries like Ghana, rapid urbanization has not been accompanied by increased infrastructure provision. Consequently majority of citizens live in makeshift houses with limited access to water, andsanitationfacilities.Othershavemadeproposal fo rhousingto be defined in terms of the "dwelling environment and not the dwelling structures" ( Marja and Kees van der Rees,2006) 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Ghana Statistical Service (GSS; 2000) defines housing unit at th etime of census as a separate and independent place of abode intended for habitation by a single household,or one not intended for habitation but occupied as living quarters by a hou sehold. Examples include improvised housing unit, mobile and marginal housingunit s.lmprovisedhousing unit is an independent makeshift structure, built of waste materials and without a predetermined plan for the purpose of habitation by one household, which is being used as living quarters usually found in urban fringes. The housing situations al AgbogbloshieJOld Fadama fall under this category, usually known as a slum. A slum is often not recognized by local authorities as an integral part of the city. It is defined as the "contiguous settlement where the inhabitants are characterized as having inadequate housing and basic services" (UNCHS; Habitat, 2003). Another definition of slum as "a highly congested residential area characterized by de terioratedunsanitary buildings, while a shanty town is a section ofa city where the houses are small crude buildings or small poorly built huts, huts usually made of wood for temporary use" (Ankerls,1983) highlights the state of people in these settlements. Slums exhibit the following characteristics: • Overcrowding and high density Unhealthy living conditions and hazardous location Poverty and social exclusion Substandard housing or illegal and inadequate building strucrures lnsecuretenure; irregular or informal settlements. (Satterhwait e,2001) Shacks, mostly constructed with wood, plastic and some concrete (mostly for 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh flooring), and cOrTUgated tin roofing sheets are the common dwelling units in slums. OthertypesofdwellingunitsofsignificancetothestudyaredefinedasfoHows; Kiosk/Container/Shop. These are structures constructed with wood/metal ostensibly for trading purposes, but converted to dwelling units i n the nights. Compound house·Thcse arc large houses containing several households with communal use of bathrooms and toilets. Sleeping rough- Practice where individuals sleep in open spaces i.e. verandahs usually exposed to the vagaries of the weather. This practice is common in big 3.4.1 GHANA'S HOUSING IJOLley Ghana has not yet developed any comprehensive housing policy sp ecificallytargetingthe poor. Even where houses have been constructed by state agencies, the issue of affordabilitywith respect to rental and ownership has not been appropriately dealt with The Ghanaian Constitution makes some specific references to the living conditions and services that Ghanaians can expect and to government's obligations in this regard. For instance section 35 sub-section 3 of the Constitution make room for all citizens to have reasonable access to public facilities and services in accordance with law.lnspiteofthe constitutional requirement on the state. housing provision is inc reasinglybeing left in the hands of private estates developers, who have alienated the poor due to their low incomes. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh More recent attempts on the pan of the government to build low cost houses have not changed much. Low income eamers especially those in the informal sector have low and inconsistent incomes. These are without any colJateral to access loans and other facili ties 10 enable them rent houses let alone make outright purchases. Under the Vision 2020, conSlruction of low-income houses, which are affordable and within the means of the poor was considered as a means to improve the living conditions of the poor (Vision 2020.1997-2000). The operation of this plan however required beneficiaries to be contributors to the social security scheme in Ghana, which is the Social Security and National Insurance Trust (SSN1T). This demand of the policy effectively cut out majority of the people in the informal sector of the economy who are outside this scheme. This also meant that Ihe urban poor were not direct beneficiaries of the progl'1lmme, even if the programme had gone on. The Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) recognizes the need to upgrade slums to benefit about five hundred thousand (500,000) persons. But the approach is rather seen to be narrow in addressing the needs of low income groups (UN-Habitat, 2004), since once again the strategy does nOI specify the beneficiaries under the package. In terms of policy and process. Ghana's more recent housing projects have not been designed with the poor generally in mind. The fact that Govemmem seeks to adopt a facilitative role by providing the requi site incentives cenainly leaves housing supply in the domain of the private sector and the few state housing bodies. The proliferation of slums in Ghana can thus be attributed to the absence of pro-poor housing policies. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5 URBANIZA nON, HOUSING AND POVERTY REDUCTION Population growth and rapid urbanization vis-A-vis the housing problems in the dry of Accra have historical antecedents. From the colonial government through to the successive post independent govemments the housing situation has not been g ivenmuch attention. While the colonial government was clearly not interested in developing the social infrastructure (Konadu-Agyemang, 2001) the successive government fai led to develop a realistic housing policy to address the ever increasing ur ban population demand for housing. For instance the few time'S the colonial government spent money on public housing for the local population occurred only in 1939 after the ea rthquake, even then beneficiaries had to pay full cost with interest (ibid). The rapid population growth orlhe dry of Accra has led to serious shortages in the housing market with its attendant problem~ of high rentals and overcrowding. The high rental cost have alienated low income earners and created Ihe situati 00 where the poorest of the migrants have resorted 10 housing themselves in makeshift and temporary structuresatthemarginsoftheinnercily. The developments of squatter settlements and the subsequent slums that have emerged can therefore be traced to th ehousingshortage arising out of urbanization. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5.1 II OUSING DECISIONS OF POOR MIGRANTS. To Ihe poor migrant, location and housing affordability are ciitical issueslhat inform the renting of dwelling units. The ability to gain a foothold on the urban system is a more pressing issue than water and other infrastructures. Because of low incomes, a migrant 10 the city adopts three social housing situations: Ihebridgeheader; the consolidator and the status seeker (Tumer, 1968) and this is in relation 10 the level of in come of the migrant. The bridgeheader is relatively new in the city and places high premium on employment and thus location, the consolidator has been in the city for sometime but because of increasing population and urbanization his Space is threatened and may decide to purchase a housing unit within that environment. The status seeker on the other hand have improved income and is now better off financially and is dissatisfied with the slum environment and therefore decides to move out by either building or renting in a better neighbourhood. The rationality behind these strategies isthe trade-offs, whic h enable the poor to improve their welfare levels in midst of limited choices in the city (Gilbert and Gugler, 1982). The model also portrays the typical rural-urban migrants as graduating from the inner city rental accommodation to ownership in the city, to ownership in the periphery (Konadu- Agyemang, 2001). Accommodation shifts, therefore occur as migrants income improves and may either move to other suburbs or live independenlly within th e first residence. The housing situation in the cil}' of Accra presents a contrasting picture of poverty and inequalities in development, where there is a "well planned low-density suburbs on one 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hand, and poverty~stricken decayed and 'overcrowded suburbs full of shacks' and open sewers on the other hand" (Konadu~Agyemang, 2001). It is in these overcrowded suburbs full of shacks that most migrants to the city of Accra are found. 3.5.2 HOUSING AND POVERTY REDUCTION The government of Ghana recognizes the relations between housing, poverty reduction and development and therefore lays emphasis in developing the housi ngsectorthrough the creation ofatTordable houses. Access to adequate housing, sa fe water and san itation facilities, is an important ingredient in efforts to improve the health outcomes and livelihood of Ghanaians (GPRS I). The health implications of housing, wellbeing in particular, is important to the poor migrants, who in the cities have their labo ur as their most important asset. The Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (OPRS II) treats housing provision as an important area for sti mulating economic growth while at the same time improving the living conditions of Ghanaians. For instance it is estimated in the OPRS II "'that for every ten thousand dollars (US$:iO,OOO) spent on housing construction more than seven (7) jobs are created in related indust ries and enterprises". The housing design for the urban poor will have to reflect their social as well as economic needs. This is because housing is more than a dwelling unit of the urban poor; it provides alternative Home~Based Enterprises (HBEs) activities and thus a source of income for the family. According to Payne and Majale (2004) "HBEs can be found in between 20 and 40 percent of properties in low~incomeneighbourhood in many cities in developing countries , even though they are almost unapproved by planning authorities". University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Within infonnal settlements, the shack appears to incorporate HBEs, hence it serves as the "foundation upon which the more bener of, or more innovative sought a way out of their poverty" (Gilbert and Gugler. 1982). In this regard the strategies of poverty reduction on housing for the poormusl be participative with the "beneficiaries at the centre of the process and must beconsistenl with the economics and sociology of the poor "(Azfarand Rahman, 2004). )4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 ANAL VSIS AND RESULTS According to Ghana' s 2000 Housing and Population Census, the city of Accra has the highest migrants' population followed by the Ashanti Region. The high influx of population into the city of Accra over the years without corresponding anempts to provide infrastructure especial!y housing has led to acute housing sho rlageandover crowding. Thus in the words of Konadu·Agyemang (2001) "in a place like Accra where housing demand outstrips supply, finding accommodation to rent is almost always a nightmare, people must be content with what they have and make the best use of the situation". This chapter discusses the results of the study under relevant su bheadings. For the purposes of analysis, a migrant as used in this study refers to migrant labour. The shack. compound house, kiosk, container, shop, and sleeping rough are used as types of dwelling units. 4.1 AGE AND MJGRAT ORY HISTORY OF RESPONDENTS The respondents fall within the age groups 16·25,26·35,36·45.46·55 and 56+ years representing 37.3%(41), 22.7%(25) , 26.4%(29), 10.9%(12) and 1(0.9%) respectively ,see Table I . The age group 16-25 fonns the majority of the respondents .This age group is yomhful,and has implicalion on housing and other social infrastructure incJudingwater and sanitation. This is because the senlement has virtually no credible social facilities to support the population. It is therefore likely that the few social infrastructures provided by private individuals could deteriorate rapidly as population r ises with consequences on the environment and on their health . Significantly, the provisions of these facilities are 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh essential in helping Ghana meet the MilleMium Development Goals of halving poverty by the year 2015 . The age group also constitutes the economically active group, and thus represents an important human resource that can be developed through appropriate training programmes. The benefits of such a programme are obvious; improved income BndrelatedimprovcmenlSintheirhousing T.bt~ I : A ~ and Mi riCo Histo in Perc~nl or R~ nd~nlli Age Lived in a Town Before Frequency 37.6(4 1) 20.2(22) 15.6( 17) 26-35 22.9(25) 18.3(20) 6.4(7) 26.6(29) 22.9(25) 3.7(4) 11.9(13) 11.0(12) 0.9(1) Above 0.9(1) 0.9(1) Tora l 100(109) 73.4(80) 26.6(29) Source: Field Survey, July 2006. AbsolUlejigum in bl'ocke/li The settlement has more female members than male. About 75 representing nearly 69.0% of respondents are females compared to 31.0 % (34) for males. Two factors probably account for this phenomenon. In the first instance,there is a practice within the three northern Regions of Ghana where girls of marriage age temporarily migrate to the southern cities to work and acquire basic household utensils and othe ritemstoenable them settle well in their future homes. The result is the eXChange of migrant labour in the form of kayayei particularly for the girls in the dties. In addition, the extended family system as practiced in northern Ghana allows other members to raise children of their 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The migratory trend tends to be age specific. more influenced by the need to improve ones live and chances of securing a future for the generation and fam Hies. This is true for Ghana where majority of her population in the rural area experience the worse form of poverty where opportunities for development are virtually non-existenl. These situations serve as additional catalyst for the younger generation to migrate to secure a better future. Analysis of the observed trend therefore. reveals the rational sac rifices and decisions that the potential migrant undertakes in hislher efforts to get into the cit iesto enhance their chances of better life. The age group 16-25 accounted for the highest proportion of respondents. representing nearly 38 %(41) in the settlement. The age groups 26-35 and 36-45 account for22.9%(25) and 26.6 %(29) respectively. The trend ha s significant impact on rural economy since these age groups constitute the economically active population. This can have consequences on rural demography (aging rural population), where only the aged are left behind. and rural economy that engage the youth in agricuiture especially in food crop production The need for work was the most compelling consideration for the individual to move to the city. Across the different age groups the need for work accounted for 75 %( 80). Escape from conflict, forced marriage, lack of education and povenyac counted for the remaining 35.9 %( 29) of the responses. Analysis oflhe study indicates that employment consideration. rather than domestic needs is the greatest influence on the tendency to migrate. Anexplanstion for this can be found in the poverty ·profileofGhana. the three Nonhern Regions (Nonhern, Upper East and West) and the Central Region experience high incidenceofpoveny. For instance the GPRS 1(2002-2004) states that 9 out of 10 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh peopJe are poor in the upper east region, 8 out of JOpersons in the upper west,70utofl0 in the northern and 6 and out of 10 in the central region are poor. This confirms the assertion that people will migrate from areas with limited opportunities to places where therearechancesofrealizingthedreamofself-fulfilmems 4.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF RESPONDENTS The socio-economic status of individuals or groups gives indication of the extent and capacity to access facilities including the urban housing market. It also measures the quality of human capital and how it can be harnessed for development. Thus the study investigated the socio-economic background of the settlement. The settlement is a mix of people from all the regions in Ghana. By regions, the Northern Region has the highest representation, accounting for nearly 70 %( 76). The Upper East and West Regions together have 15.6 %( 17), while the Central Region account for 6.4 %( 7). The Greater Accra, Eastern, Brong Ahafo and Volta Regions together accounted for just 8.2 %( 9) of the population sampled. This result is to be expected given the earlier factors precipitating the development of the sett lement into its current status. Again the dominance of the northern region in particular is explained by a series of conflicts that induced mass exodus to the city where they were absorbed by relatives in the settlement But the general impression from the regional trend is that a slum provides a place of residence for all shades of people. It also gives indication of poverty as across-cutting issue which affects all categories of people even though,theextent mayvary. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The case of education is not any different, 59,60/0{ 65) have not had any formal schooling. the remaining 40.4 %( 44) of the respondents had experienced some yean of schooling ranging from 1-20 years, Importantly 22%(24) have had 7-10 years of schooling probably completed Junior Secondary School or dropped out due to financial or other poverty related factors, This category can rcad and write and could be given the appropriate training to improve their chance of enhanced lives, The combined effect of the need for work and the high number of migrants without any form of schooling meant that they are predisposed to working on jobs in the informal sector which usually does nol require any schooling, Consequently, any form of job thai will keep body and soul together in the early stage of their stay in the city is a welcome relie[ In the contexl of housing.lhere is an obvious relationship between educalion andlhe Io cationof preference of the average poor migrant in the cily, Access to jobs in the CBO becomes a very important factor, and this correlates positively with reasonably cheap forms of housing units in slums, that can be obtained at relatively short pe riod 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Years DwellingUnils Frequency Sleeping Rough Kiosk/Shop Compo House Shack No schooling 59.6(65) 6.2(4) 1.5(1) 92 .3(60) 1-3 3.7(4) 25( 1) 75(3) 7.3(8) 12.5(1) 12.5(1) 75(6) 7-10 22(24) 4.5(1) 22.7(5) 4.5(1) 68.2(15) 4.6(5) 20(1) 80(41 15-20 2.8(3) 40(2) 60(3) 100(109) Source. FIeld Survey. 2006. Absolufl!jigurf!s m brockf!ls Whilepreferencefortheshackisoverwhelm ing,other unitsreceived subdued patronage, s~Table2. Sleeping rough is the least preferred form of housing by migrants in the study area .. The study did no! observed any significanl correlation between years of schoolingandlhelypeofdwellingunils. The only relevantobservalion is thai forlhose sleeping rough, none have years of schooling exceeding 10 years. This observation seems to explain Ihe crucial roleofeduc3tion in reducing incidence of po v erty. 4.2.1 OCCUUPAnTivIOerNs AityN Do fI NGChOaMnEa I )hJSttTpK:/l/utg"TsIpOaNc e.ug.edu.gh Figure 3 depicts the occupation profile of the residence, and displays a homogenous work related ca1egory that ha.. relationson bousingm the Sludy area. Figu reJ OccupalioosorRHpoadeoh Occupation of Respondents Sowce: fo'ieldSurvey, 2006 Almost all the reipOndents are in the informal sector of the economy characterized by low and wueLiablc income" Ka}ayci (head porters), petty traders account for a signific:ant propon.ionofthe respondcnb represcnting3L2 0/0(34) and 29.4 %(32) respectively, (see figure 3). Scrap dealers and truck pusbers' together account for 26.7"0{ 28) of the n:spondents in the settlement; this is to be expected since the area bas many shops dealing in scraps, The impact of the scrap business on the: environment is likely to have 8 long lasting effect if not well managed by the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA). The ineppropriale discharge of waste (including meta1 scraps) into the nearby Korle Lagoon is gnduaIly silting and hampering tbe Karle Lagoon Restoration Projea. Interaction wi1h an opinion leader in the settlement indicated 8wan:t1e5S of the problem and n:coumed the numerous appeals for sanitation and \\"3Ste disposal equipments to 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AMA to minimize the problem has yielded no results. The attitude of the local authorities seems to reflect official state position on the settlement as an illegal one. In addition the state has plans of resettling residents outside the boundaries ofAMA. The attitude of AMA and similar authorities to the needs of residents in such areas seem to suggest a larger slate attitude and neglect of the needs of people in informal settlement. Put in anotht:r form, slate authorities refusal to pay attention to residents of informal settlement could be attributed to ignorance of the emerging global engagementsofgovemments, CivH Society Organizations and people in informal settlements in addressing their needs. 4.2.2 INCOME DISTRIBUTION The highest daily earnings within the settlement account for 25.7 %( 2S), 27.5 %( 30) and IS.3 %( 20) for groups earning 5,000-15,000,15,100-25,500, and 25,100·35,000 respectively. On the average, nearly 72 %( 79) respondents eam above the dollar mark, averaging ¢20,OOO. By international standard for the definition of poverty, residents of Agbogbloshie/Old Fadama are outside the poor. But a closer analysis of daily income vis- a-viz the daily expenditure on non-farm items and other services reveals the inherent poverty typical of the urban poor. Dependingonthetypeofdwellingunit,thedailyrentontheaveragevaryfrom¢4,500to t7,OOO. The study found the daily rent to be ¢4,500 for a shack and ¢7,OOO for kiosk/container/shop. There is an observed correJation between the cost of dwelling unit and patronage; cheaper units attract high patronage and vice-versa.Th is observation seem to reinforce the rational decision of the average poor migrant; the res olvetooptimizecost 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and to save for an anticipated better future. Results from oursludy indicate Ihat there are more renters 67.9 %( 74) than owners 32.1 %( 35) in the settlement .This seems 10 contrasts with the 38.3% owners and 39.9% renters on the national level (UN-Habitat, 2004). Thecontra,«:1 is probably accounled for by the number of individuals living rent- free on close relatives and friends. The average renter and owner all pay for the use of services such as baths and toilets (on pay as you use-basis). By inspecting Table 3, there appears to be an inverse relationship between income and housing ownership. Income increase however, does not result in corresponding ownership increase of dwelling units. In addition, income increase for the average resident is slow particu larly since most of the residents are found i nthe informal sector. For instance less than 15% of the respondents earn above ¢55, 100-¢65,OOO mark daily. This is reflected in the number of renters 67.9 %( 74) and owners 32.1% (35). The high levels of renting may reflect the worsening poverty situation of the urban poor. This certainly has implications on the transition from the very low-income (bridgeheader) to the consolidator stage as proposed in Turner's concept of immigrants graduation with respect to housing, (See figure 1). The process further confirms the conceptual framework adopted in the study, Ihat is both owners and rentersre side in the settlement with the status seeker living outside. The low income levels of the respondents have restricted the range of housing choices available to them. Thus they are compelled to occupy dwellings which are relatively cheap and readily obtainable. This is confinned by Wingo's (1966. cited in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Animashaun.l, 1981) comments that poor migrant tend to occupy any available housing units which thcsenlement readily provides. TablcJOail la(omeaadOwnushi iaPuunlOrd.ul1ia uaitt Ow nership of Dwelling Unit l ncome(¢) No 5,000- 15,000 10.1%( 11) 17,3%(19) 15,100-25,000 6.4%(7} 16.5%(18) 25,100-35,000 7.3%(8) 8.3%(9) 35,100-45,000 1.8%(2) 13.8%(15) 45,100-55,000 4.6%(5) 7.3%(8) 55,100-65,000 0.90/0(1) 3.70/0(4) 65,100-75,000 1.8%(2) 75,000+ 0.9%(1) Tota l 32. 10/.(35) 67.9%(74) Source. FIeld Survey,July,2006. Absolulejigtires inbrackels. 4.3 HOUS ING DEC ISION Urban housing decisions for the poor migrant is nol homogenous. i tisamixofchoices informed by location, the cost of the infonnalhousingmarkel,andby Ihesocio·economic status of the migrant. A contact in the city is an imponant asset to the new migrant particularly if this conlact has a close proximity to the CBD. And this is typical of the bridgeheader (new migrant). The very poor migrants with no contact tend 10 have limited housing choices. To this group, the only option left isto sleep.on alleys and pavemenls in theseulcment. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The location choice enables the migrant to access the urban job market, and reduce cost of transportation. Asked about the most pressing factor when look ingforahousingunit, nearly all the respondents indicated nearness to work as a compelling fa ctor. Just a litlle over 1% considered water and sanitation. This finding is in line with (Turner, 1968; Gilbert and Gugler, 1982) suggestions that the classic bridgehead er and consolidator look out for closeness to work on housing decision This observation has policy implication for future resettlement programmes, the typical bridgeheaderandconsolidatorpreferlocationsclosetowork,which is readily available in the CBD. A future resettlement exercise that does not consider these economic and social factors are likely to encounter problems, and could affect the success of such programmes. For instance, the bridgeheaderhas limited options in the early phase in the city with respect to housing, and trade·offisalmost non-existen ce (Gilbert and Gugler, 1982). Further more new migrants without contacts will resort to any available accommodstion including sleeping in the open alleys and pavement s 4.3.1 THE HOUSING DYNAMICS A well organized and functional internal housing market was observed in the study. Generally two groups of players are found. the renters and the owners. there are more renters 67.9 %( 74) than owners 23.1 %( 35). The owners are part ofa class of investors providing complementary settlement facilities such as baths and toilets. These probably fall under the status seeker type of slum dweller. Individuals, probably status seekers 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh have made investments insanitation and water facilities in the area with quite substantial returns. For instance, an opinion leader showed a recent investment in Agbogbloshiein baths by an absentee slum landlord estimated at ¢17 million cedis. This observation revealstheleveJofinequality,accumulationandbusinessinvestment in the settlement. 4.3.2 TYPES OF DWELLING UNITS There are four dwelling unit types using the basis of daily rent pay mentasclassiflcation criterion. These are categorized into Kiosklcontainerlshop, compound houses, shacks and those sleeping rough. A shack is rented for between ¢4500-¢5000 per day, kiosklcontainerlshop cost 7000, while the compound house and thos e who sleep rough do not pay rent. The respondents in compound houses either rent or live with relatives. Those living rent free in tum support their relatives in their trading activities. For the respondents who sleep rough on the alleys and other structures, the irluggagemaybeleft with a friend ora benefactor until they are able to rent a place. Patronage of the shack is high in thesenlement. The explanation for the preference of shacks is due to the cost element. Besides the cost, the shack seems to provide a certain degree of security against the hazards of the weather. Shacks account fo r nearly S4 %( 91) orthe total dwelling units. Kiosk I containers/shops, compo und house units account for the remaining 26 %( IS). The dwelling units reflect the norms and acceptability of what constitute a house in the senlement. Depending on the size of the unit. it could take up to twenty people at atime. 4.3.3 ACCESUSnINivGe DrsWitEyL oLfI NGGh UaNnIaT Sh ttp://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Access to housing by migrants on arrival in the city of Accra is relatively casy for those with acquaintances. On first arrival, they make contacts with either relatives or friends resIdent in the settlement. Nearly 79 % (86) of respondents indicated they knew of somebody in the city prior to their movement while 21 %( 23) did not know anybody_ Source of Contacts for Migrants in the City 3.3% 23.21% 43, 39%~ • Friend 40, 37% • Relali", o Spouse/children o Nobody Source: Field Survey, July 2006. Signifi<:antly.~rel.tionsrupsalsoprovidcdthcrc:.punden1:iwiththcirfirst housingin tbecity. nus confirms Rosser's (1971) frndings that relations in infonnal settlements and slums provide: (I) free housing and (2) reception centres for new immigrants. The results of the study show that fiiends{36.7%) and reJatives(39.4%) serve as important 3OW'Ce for mig;ranlS ilousing I\CCd3 in ilie eity of Accra, (See Figure 4). IDacidition. friends and relatives facilitak migrant ' s .tjustment to the city in many ways. They make loans available in cam and kind until the new migrant finds bislherown source ofinc::ome. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh They help migrants 10 find a place to live either temporary or permanent 1yand help in social life in the initjal adjustment phase. However,theseservice sprovidedbyrelatives and friends serve as pull effect to attract more migrants to the slums. Rei ativesprovided the most re!!abJe initial sOllrce of housing 63.3 %(68)followen by friends 16.5%(18) andspouse!childrenI4.7%( 16).Thosewithoutanyrelationsinthe city have to [ook for ahemative housing by sleeping rough on the alleys! pavements in th esettlement. Findings from the study generally show that anewmigrant to the city i seasi lyabsorbed into the urban informal housing system where contacts have been made. Importantly, the contacts/relativesandfriendsserveaschannelsofsocializationfor themigranttothecity. These functions according to a slum landlord include information about live in the settlement and job orientation. Fora typical Kayayei (head porte rS),workbeginsthenext day where the host buys an old basin. an important tool for the job ofa Kayayei. The housing unit first provided by the friends I relatives is free. The results of our study reveal that 61.5 %(67) of respondents do not pay (or their first residential units either in cash or kind, while 38.5% (42) indicated a form of payment. This is important since it enables the individual to secure job and make initial savings critical forsta yinthecity. 4.3.4 SEARCH MEDIA USED BY MIGRANTS The respondents were asked to indicate the channels through which they search for housing. This was an attempt 10 identifY the faci li tating agents in the housing path taken bylhemigrantinconsolidatingtheirholdontheinformalhousingmarket.ltalsosought 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to analyse the graduation of the immigrant using the housing model of Turner (1968) .The result (Table 4) is similar to the source of contacts for the migrants. Table 4 Searcb Media in PercentVtilized byMi raots Media Frequency Percent Friend 67 Relative 38.8 Employer 1.8 Source. Field Survey, July 2006 Friends 61.5 %(67) and relalives38.S %(39)arethe most preferred sea rchmediaused by new migrant (bridgeheader) as can be seen in table 4. Employer and private persons are the least popular channels adopted. This is due to their employment status in the informal sector where friends and relatives serve as the most reliable collateral in securing jobs. The study observed a settlement pattern along regional and ethnic groupings largely informed by the search media used. For instance it is common to find a section of the settlement consisting of only a particular ethnic g roup with distinct identity. 4.4 THE TRANSITION STAGES Various stages of transitions from one dwelling unit to another were derived for a bener appreciation of the upward movements of migrants in their housing choices. Stage one to threedepictsthepatternofhousingwhenthemigrantsgetintothecity.lnthe first stage, the migrant has vinually no choice except what is provided by relative. friends, family so University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh members. and any available housing including sleeping rough. The new migrant encounters a number of limiting factors; no income, the need for job and facing the reality of urban life. Oursludy found that23.9%(26)ofnewmigrantsslee p rough(in the market and on alleys), 39.4 0/0(43) are housed in the sbackspossibly provided by relatives and friends . Compound house and kiosk/container/shop account for 7.3 0/0( 8) and 29.4 0/0( 32) respectively. The first stage of the housing unit becomes the most important period because il probably marks the process of accumulation and saving in anticipation of moving into a better dwelling unit. The first phase is likened to Turner's bridgeheaderstage. The length ofstayoflhe bridgeheaderwith a relative/friend depe nds on the grace period granted. The benefactors adopt different strategies to push out their guest where they overstay. It ranges from deliberalelyslaying lateoulside to threats of out right sale of the dwelling unit (where it is owner-occupied). Mobility Unit First Dwelling Second Dwelling Third DweUing Sleeping Rough 23.9%(26) \8.3%(20) 5.5%(6) Kiosk/Shop 29.40/0(32) 13.8%(15) \0.1%(11) Compound House 7.3%(8) 21.1%(23) 0.9%(1) Shack 39.45%(43) 46.8%(5 J) 85%(9\) 100"/0(109) 100%(109) 100%(109) Source: Field Survey, July 2006. AbsoJutejigurt!s m brackets The second stage indicates a decline in the rate of persons sleeping rough and kiosk/container/shop dwellers from 23.9 %( 26) and 29.4 %( 32) to 18.3 %( 20) and 13.8 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 0/0{ 15) respectively. It depicts a period where the new migrant becomes semi-employed in the informal sector, gels a form of income and becomes assertive. Fuelled by the desire to make a claim on the urban system and the additional savings arising from increased social networks and doing multiple jobs, renting becomes the obvious option. Usually lhe decision is to rent a shack and is also informed by the possibility of ad ditional fundsthat may accrue from renting part of the unit. This sh ifts in the housing de cision accounts for the rise in occupancy for shack in particular. Again income increase and length of stay seem to influence transition. For instance, our study found that migrants with more than two years of Slay in the community 18.3 %( 20) tend to have daily earnings of more than ¢35,OOO, compared to no,ooo for migrants 15.6 %( 17) with lees than two years residence. In this regard,the second stage seems to fall in line with the consolidator stage as proposed in Tumer's model. The third stage completes the graduation. At this stage the migrants appear to have successfully integrated into the urban system. The observed trend in Table 5 shows a gradual and consistent preference for shack as a dwelling unit. The preference for the shack as a housing unit can be linked to the cost of renting and mode of transfer of ownership forlhe potential consolidator. While a shack can be sublet or sold out to a prospective buyer which may include the space of land occupied includingeleclricity, this does not apply to kiOSk/container/shop. The cost element of ¢7,OOO per day for a kiosk appears to be additional disincentive forlhe renting or purchase of the kiosk unit. The shack also suggests a sense ofpennanency for the renters as well as a status symbol for the prospective consolidator and status seekers. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Locating the stalUs seeker yielded minimal results. Respondents indicated an awareness of people, who had moved out of the settlement, 56.9 %( 62) were aware of people that had moved out compared to 43.1 %( 47). Asked why they moved out, 15.9 %( 17) said they had moved toa betlerneighbourhood,and 9.3 %( 10) said Ihey had bui lt their own houses, 36.7 %( 40) noted that they had gone back home, while 38.5 %( 42) did not know why people moved out. The conclusion that can be drawn from the analysis is that only 25.2%(27) of settlers seem to have attained the third stage, the stat us seeker, The status seeker is more attuned to the search fo r amenity and security in the housing choice. This finding is in line with Konadu-Agyemang (2001) comments that "accommodat ion shifts may take place later as migrants are able to establish themselves and may either move to other suburbs or live independently within the suburb of first res idence". To appreciate respondents' perception of what constitute housing, the questions how satisfied are you with the dwelling unit were asked. The response indicated that 57.5% (58) were very satisfied, 15.6% (17) were somewhat satisfied, while 31.2% (34) expressed dissatisfaction with the dwelling unit. The response depicts the rational choice and alternatives available to them. In their initial life in the city • immigrants especiall y those with limited employable skills lend not to worry about the housing environment. BUI improved housing becomes an increasing source of concern with length of urban residence. This is because low income limits migrants choices of renting better units, consequently the sJum provides the on ly alternative route from bei ngdeclaredhomeless. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table6Housin SatisfactioDLevetiDPercenl Level of Satisfaction Dwelling Unit Very Satisfied Somewhat Satisfied NotSatisfied Sleeping Rough 2.8%(3) 2.8%(3) Kiosk/Shop 4.6%(5) 0.9(1) 4.6%(5) Compound House 0.9%(1) Shack 45.9%(50) 14.7%(16) 22.9%(25) Total 53.2%i58) 15.60/.(li) 31.2o/.Q4) Source. FLeid survey, July 2006Absolutejigures in brackets Further examination of Table 6 reveals the shack dweller shows the highest level of discontentment 22.9 %( 25) with their unit of dwelling. To measure the level of dissatisfaction, the respondents were asked to indicate their intention to either stay or leave the settlement. About 46.8 %( 5 1) of respondents were definite about the intention to move out within the next twelve month, 15.1 %( 16) said probably while 7.3% (8) responded possibly. Ontheotherhand,31.2%(34)hadnoplansofmovingwithinthe same time period. One possible reasons for the intention to move out, 58.7 %( 64) indicated they were moving to a better neighbourhood. This response is significant in two main ways; it portrays the appreciation of the relationship between living environment and development, and that lhe urban poor will gradually improve on their housing as income improves. This is contrary to the general misconception about urban poor with no appreciation of good environment and thus an improved housing. On the basis of the foregoing, Perlman (1987) assertion that "the urban poor have the aspirations of the bourgeoisie, the perseverance of pioneers, and the valuesofpat riots"isconsistentwith thesocio-economic reality of the poor. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 CONCLUSION Al"JD RECOl\1MENDATlO:\,S The housing shortage and the apparent high absorptive capacity of the informal settlements in the Ashiedu-Keteke Sub-Metropolitan Area call for closer collaboration with all stakeholders. The findings indicate that the housing market in the settlement is well integrated into the urban system and tend to meet the socio-economic needs of the poor migrant. The settlement also provides opportunity in the upward movement of the migrant in the city. Given the appropriate support, slum housing market provides an altemative for addressing the housing needs of the urban poor. What isessenlial is an understandingoftheneedsofthepoorandgreatertlexibilitytoenable them design and construct their own housing. Proximity to job, income and related businesses are important factors for the poor migrant. The study observed the upward transitions of the poor as income improves. Residents of informal settlements suffer from insecure tenure, poor housing, overcrowding and unsanitary conditions. Investment in housing and infrastructure has not matched the demands of urbanization, which is causing and exacerbating urban poverty. Recommendation at the end is intended to inform governmenlfuturehousingpolicies. 5.1 THE GROWTH OF SLUMS AND HOUSING SHORTAGE Rapid urbanization and urban growth has led to Slresson the few social infrastructure in the city of Accra in particular. The stale has not been able to put in place sufficient and affordable housing and related services panicularly for the poor. The urban poor are the worse affected. The result is that the urban poor have found their own "solution in 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh various types of unauthorized or informal senlements" (Payne and Majale, 2004). The states role under its various documents GPRS I and lithe national shelter and housing policy only seek to facilitates private sector participation in housing delivery. Housing delivery by the private sector does not fit into the economics of the poo rand other low income groups. The need for the state to develop a pro-poor housing policy is imminent. Future housing policy should be developed in collaboration with the poor themselves through their umbrellaorganizalions. In this regard Oflecan argue that such a policy developed should recognize the incremental housing of the poor. 5.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE SETTLEMENT Residents in the settlement are not homogenous as is often represented. It is a heterogeneous senlement with people of different background . They are a well organized sub-society within the urban milieu. While majority nearly 60 %( 65) may not have any rormal schooling, they are not ignorant of the working of the urb2.n system. There is an appreciation of the tag on the settlement by non-residents especially poli c)' makers and urban elites. These groups of urban elite and power brokers unfortunately attribute the living conditions in the settlement to be the very handiwork of the residents. Despite its peculiar spatial detachment from the rest of urban housing system, slums arc both highly organized within themselves and well integrated into the housin gsystem.For instance, housing construction in the slums depends on discarde d buildingmsterials from the formal housing markCl.lncreases in the cost of building materials affect the rateo( construction and upgrading in the slum scttlemem. This means for slum upgrading to be 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh realized, appropriate policy on building materials that make cred it available to the urban poo~should be developed. The policy so designed should be in partnership with residents of informal senlementtaking into consideration their livelih oodactivities. Slum landlords wield considerable power and influence in the settlement. The slum landlords have made relatively huge investments in the settlement. In an instance, an individual invested over ¢17miUion into a public bath. These ar~ the elusive absentee slum landlords who own the public baths and toilets in the locality. On the other hand, there are the poorest dwellers along the railway lines. Majority of the residents are engaged in the informal sector of the economy. They are into multiple jobs to cope with the high cost of city life .An understanding of the dynamics is an important source of information for designing flexible housing programmes and the government intended slum upgrading proposed in the growth poveny reduction slrategy papers. The current poverty reduction programmes need to be re-appraised in order to target people such as those in informal sett[ementswithoul schooling 59. 6%(65) but constitute a significant proportion in the informal sector. In this regard as part of the poverty reduction strategy, this category in the settlement can be harnessed and trained to fonn the cream of the govemment's slum upgrading programme. For purposes of training the level of years spent in schooling can beayard stick for grouping an d thus shape the developmentofrelevantlrainingmodules. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Importantly there is a growing network of settlers known as the Ghana Homeless People's Federation (GHPF). GHPF is a Community Based Organization (CaO) whose key function is to build information on all slum settlement in Ghana, this is to ensure that residents arc well informed and better placed to negotiate and plan their development. 5.3 HOUSING AS SOCIAL SAFETY NET FOR MIGRANTS The shacks and related housing units provide temporary relieffo rthenew migrant in the city .Withoutasourceofincomeand provide rent-free housing for migrantsaswellasa social support during time ofdiffieulties. The housing market in the settlement consists of an intricate network ofreming, subletting, leasing to out right sale. In some instances owners rent sections of the shacks fora fee, and this forman impo rtant source of income. The shaeks are therefore more than a eramp and illegal structures; it serves as a support base for immigrants, a piaee of hope rather than a plaeeofdespair. The destruetionof slums implies the destruction of a well organized informal hOllsing whose residents' livelihoodsareintrieatelylinkedtothesettlement. Policy wise, the state and local authorities shou ld incorporate schemes in the housing policy that is responsive to social and eultural needs of the urban p oor.Consequentlythe design of housing for the urban poor should ineorporate home based enterprises. Home Enterprises (HBEs) constitutes important income opportunities, and enable them to improve on their units with time. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 ROUSING MOBILITY The level and rateofgradu3tion from one state to the next as proposed by Tumer (1968) was observed in the comext of the study. which provides useful lessons. The housing decisions of the average poor migrant is rational and make trade-otTs to optimize welfare. meome, length of stay tends to be the most important catalyst that affects the pace of upward housing mobility arthe poor in the city. As income improves, the tendency to rent, purchase or move out of the selliement increases. They subsequently improve on their housing as incomes improve. Proximity to job location was the most important consideration for both the renter and owner. Any future resettlement housing policy therefore will need to recognize this need. The pace of graduation fo r the migrant depends on the contacts and networks the individual possesses. It can be slo\\' and painful for those with limit ed networks. but quite fast for a well networked individua l. It also depends on the performance of the economy as a whole; a buoyant economy facilitates the process while the process sla ckens with a failing economy University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.5 GENDER AND HOUSING Gender is a cross.cutting issue which impacts on all matters related to the housing question in the settlement. However, women are more visible than their male counterparts in the settlement because or their roles in everyday tife. For instance women represent about 68.8% in the settlement yet, more men own dwelling units than women. Even in the shacks, women are still the primary user.:; and caretakers of the home. The observation is to be expected since Ghana is still largely a patriarchal society. Thusthepropertyofa married woman is automatically transferred to the husband. In add ition, on issues of land and the "acquisition"ofrelated landed property, women have subdued roles. These, in addition to customary land tenure system, make it "difficult to access land,propenyand hOLising rights" (Benschop, cited in Payncand Majale2004). The increasing high demand for land in the Sub·Metropolitan Area, and the threat of eviction by the state if not properly handled threatens the Iivel ihoodofoversixty thousand people in the two seulements. Thankfully through the activities of PD. GHPF and other related Non·Govcrnmcntal Organ izations, a framework involving slum upgrading and resettlement is being worked out. In addition, the state in collaboration with identified bodies intend carrying out enumeration of the settlement to give an accurate population figure of slums in the country. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Acquah, lone (1972). The Accra survey, London: University of London Press. Adedibu, A. A; Afolayan, M.B (1989): Socio-Economic Areas and Associated Housing Types In lIorin, Nigeria in African Urban Quanerly. Anarfi, J.K, Ahiadeke,C, C.(2006):lmproving the health of children among the urban poorinthecityofAccra,Ghana,ISSERpublication. Animashaun.l A.(1981): Housing Stock: A constraint On Urban Residential Migration in Oyo, Nigeria, in African Urban Studies, African Studies Centre, Michigan State University Ankerls, G. (1993): Traditional construction and the immediate improvement oftropicaJ Africa are housing conditions in Urban Sprawls, in Actes des seances de L'Academie Royale des sciences, Brusseis, 77-99. Appiah-Kubi,K.Amaning-Ampomah,E.Ahortor,C(Unpublished work):Multi-Dimensional AnalysisofPovenyinGhana. ApI, Nana Araba (2002), Accra in the 21"1 Century: Visions from the Crystal Ball of a Sociologist in Visions of the City in the 211t Century, Woeli Publishing Services, Accra Azfar, Asad and Rahman, Aun (April 2004), Housing the Urban Poor in Acumen fund. www.acumenfund.org 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bacho, F.Z.L (2001 ). Infrastructure delivery under poverty: Potable water provision through collective action in Northern Ghana, Spring Research Series No.34 Byman R, Burgers B.Robert (Eds) (1994) .Analyzing Qualitative Data. Routledge CHF International (2004) Strategy Assessment of the Affordable Housing Sector in Ghana. December 2004 Findley, S. (1977): Planning Internal Migration: A review of issues and Policies in DevelopingCounlries. Ghana Living Standard Survey, Report of the fourth Round. October, 2 000. Ghana Statistical Service (2000): Poverty trends in Ghana in the 1990s Ghana Statistical Service. 2000 Population and Housing Census, special report on 20 largest localities. March,2003. Ghana. Republic of, ( 1986) Ministry of Works and Housing: National Housing Policy and Action Plan 1987· 1990 Ghana, Republic of, Ministry of Works and Housing, Planning and Evaluation Unit: National Shelter Strategy, Part II Report. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Gilbert. A; Gugler. J. (1982): Cities. Poverty and Developmen.t: Urbanization in the Third World. Oxford University Press. Government of Ghana, National Development Planning Commission. (2002): Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy 2002·2004: An Agenda for Growth and Prosperity. Government of Ghana, National Development Planning Commission.(2004): Implementation of the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy ,2003 Annual Progress Report. Government of Ghana, National Development Planning Commission.(2003): Implementation of the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy ,2002 Annual Progress Report. Grant, Richard. (2005): Out of Place? Global citizens in local Spaces: A study of infonnal senlements in the Korle Lagoon environs in Accra, Ghana Grimes. Orville F.(1976):Housing for low income urban families. World Bank research publication. Jack, M; Braimah, F, R. (2004) Feasibi li ty study for the application of Community-Led lnfrastructure Finance Facility (CLIFF) operations in Ghana for UN-Habitat and Homeless International. Urban Management Programme 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Jacob,Songsore.(3003):TowardsabetterunderstandingofurbanChange:Urbanization, national development and inequality in Ghana, Ghana Universities Press. Jansen, Clifford (1969): Some sociological Aspect of migration in Migration edited by J.A. Jackson, Cambridge University Press. Josephine. Akoto-Bamfo (2004, unpublished Mphil thesis) The Hedonic pricing method and environmental externalities in the Ghana real estates housing industry: A case of Greater Accra Metropolitan Assembly. Knox,Paul (1986): Urban Social Geography: An introduction. Longman Konadu-Agyemang, Kwadwo (2001). The political economy of housing and urban development in Africa: Ghana's experience from colonial times to 1998. Praeger publishers, 88 Port Road West Krippendorff, Klaus (1980) Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. SAGE publications. Kubat, D. Richman H. Anthony (Eds) (1976) .Internal migration: The new world and the Third World. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kuiper, Marja and Kees van der Rees (2006) Growing out of poverty: Urban Job Creation and Millennium Development Goals in Global Urban Development Magazine volume 2 issue I, March 2006.http://www.g]obaLurbaniGUDMag06voI2isslfDurand- Lasserve.htm. Linn, F. J (1983): Cities in Ihedeveloping World: Policies forth eir equitable and efficient growth. A World Bank Research Publication, Oxford UniversilY Press. Marcuse. Peter (2006) Treating People and Communities as assets: The role of the public sector in promoting affordable housing in Global Urban Development Magazine, March 2006,volume2, Issue I. Marshal, J (1989): The Structure of Urban System. University of Toronto Press. Millburn, J (1977) British Business and Ghanaian Independence Hanover, NH: The University Press of New England Miller, C. Delbert (1991). Handbook of Research Design and social Measurement. SAGE publications. Millin, Diana (2004). Understanding urban poverty; What the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers tells us. www.jied.orglurbanldownloads.html 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Momgomery, M .R, Strcn, R. Cohen. B .Reed ,H.E.(cds) :Cities Transfonned: Demographic Change and its implications in the developing world . Earthscan. London New Encyclopedia Britannica, (1995) Vol 8, University of Chicago. Rosser, C (1971 ): Urbanization in Tropical Africa .Ford Foundation. Columbia University Press, New York. Oduro, Abena.D (200 1) Reducing the Extent and the depth of poverty in Ghana: Ghana in the 2151 century, ISSER millennium seminar series, No.5 Osuala. E.C (2005) Introduction to Research Methodology. Africana-First Publishers Limited. Nigeria Page.N. Ai Seyfried. R .Warren ( 1970) .Urban Analysis: Read ing in Housing and Development Payne, Geoffrey; Majale, Michael (2004): The Urban Housing Manual; Making Regulatory Frameworks work for the Poor, Earthscan. Perlman, E. Janice (1987) Misconceptions about the Urban poor and the Dynamics of Housing Policy Evolution. The mega-Cilies Project Publication MCP-016. Potter, R. B. Lloyd-Evans, S. (1998): They city in the developing world. Longman 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sanenhwaite, David (2001), Reducing urban Poveny: reconsidering its scale and nature, IDS Bulietin Vol 8,No2 Syagga, M.P, Kiambia J .M (1992) .Housing the urban Poor:' A case study of Pumwani , Kibera and Dandora Estates in the city of Nairobi, Kenya. In African Urban Quanerly - Urbanization and planning the city of Nairobi, Kenya .Volume & number 1&2 ,February and May, 1992 Todaro, M.P, (2001): Development Economics. Longman Publishing, New York Turner,John,F.C.(1968).Housing Priorities, Settlement Patterns, and Urban Development in Modernizing Countries in November AlP Journal. Pp 354·363. United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (1990) Human' settlement and sustainable development: The role of human settlements and of human settlement policies in meeting development goals and in addressing the issues of sustain ability at global and local levels, Nairobi,HS/214/90E United Nations, (1995). The challenge of urbanization : The world large cities, United Nations, New York.ST/ESAlSER.AI151.Depanment for Economic and social infonnationandpoiicyanalysis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh United Nalions (1998): SlUdies in methods, concepts and methods of environment statistics, human settlement statistics. A technical report, New York, series F NoS. United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (Habitat) (200J):Cities in a globalizing world. Global report on Human Settlement. United Nations Centre for Human Senlement·Habitat (2001).The state of the worlds cities.HS/619JOJE United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (UN-Habitat 2003): Slums of the world: The face ofurhan poverty in the new millennium. Global Observatory. United Nations-Habitat (2004), Housing and Urban Development in Ghana; with special reference to Low-income Housing, United Nations Human Settlements Programme. Yinn, K.Robert (1994) Case Study Research: Design and Method. Applied Social Research Method Seriesvol.5. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AP PE NDI X I UNIVERSITY OF GHANA INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL, SOCIAL ANO ECONOMIC RESEARCH (ISSER) INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONNAIRE Date of Interview . .. Name of Community INTRODUCTION Goodmoming/aftemoon/evening. My name is . ... ... ....... ... ... .... ...... .. ... .. .... I am a Student studying for MA degree in Development Studies at ISSER (University of Ghana). As pan of the Masters programme, I am undertaki ng a research on Dynamics of Housing among Poor Migrants in Agbogbloshie in Ashiedu-Keteke Sub·Metropolitan Area. The objective of the study is to identify the socio-economic facto rs, the networks as well as the challenges migrants encounter in the city in housing themselves. A. PERSONAL INFORMATION 1. Sex of respondent Male 0 1 0 female02[] 2. Age of respondents ) 18-25 years 01 [] b)26-35 years 02 f) c)36-45 years 030 d)46-55years 04 [) e) Above 55 years 05[J 3 Marital status of respondent a) SingleO IO b) Married 02 [) c) Separated 030 d)Divorced04[] e)Widowed05 [} f)underage 06[] 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. Years spent in schooling a)NoschoolingOI[] b)I·3020 c)4·6030 d)7-I004[J e) 11-13 05[] 014-16 06[]g) 17-20070 S. Which region of Ghana do you come from? a)Upper East 010 b)Upper West 02[] c)Ashanti 03[) d)Eastern 04[] e) Western OS[] f) Central 060 g) Brong Ahafo 07[) h) Greater Accra 08[] i)Volta 09(] j).Northern 10[] 6. Have you ever lived in another lawn either than your hometown for three or more months before coming to this present place? Yes 010 No 020 7. Why did you move here? a)Lookforwork DI[] b)Toescapeconflict 02[] c)Tostartschooling 03[] d)Toescapeforcedmarriage04[] e)Toescapepoverty 05{] 8. Did you know somebody before moving here? Yes Ol[] No02[] 9. If yes, who did you know that already lived here? a)Friends DID b)Relative 020 c) Spouse/Children 030 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10. With whom did you first live when you moved here? a) Friends 010 b)Relative02[] c)Spouse/Children 03[] d)Nobody04[] 11. Where did you first live on arrival? a)SleepingRough Ol(] b)Kiosk /shop 02[] c)CompoundHouse 03[]d)Shack04[] SECTION 8. EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND SKILL ACQUIRED 12. What kind of work do you do? a) Scrap dealer 01 [] b) Kayayei 02[] c) Other, specify 03[] d)TruckPusher 04[] e)Cleaner 05 g)Driver 07[] f)S lumLandlord 08[] 13. How long have you been doing this job? a)LessthansixmonthsO I[] b)4-12 months 02[] c)24monlhs03[] d) More than 24 months041J 14.Doyoudootherworkbesidewhatyouhavementioned? 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Yes Ol[] No02[] 15. How much do you eam (cedis) daily? 0)5000-15,000 Ol[l b)15,100-25,500 020 c)25,100-35,000 03[] d)35,100-45,000 04[] c)45,100-55,000 050 t)55,100-65,000 06[] g)65,00-75,000 07[] h)75,000+ 08[l Skills Acquired 16. Have you ever completed a training course or been an apprenlice or unpaid trainee before? a)YesOI [] b)No02[] c)currentlyanapprentice 03[) 17. Whal kind of training was it? Please indicate SECT ION C. DWELLING ARRANGEMENTS Presenl dwelling (Please tick appropriale unit) 18. Whal type of dwelling unit is it? a)SleepingRough 01[] b)Kiosk/shop 02{) c) Compound house 030 d)Shack04[J 19. How long have you been living in this dwelling? 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a) Less than three months 010 b) Less than 12 months 020 c) Less than 24 months 03 0 d) More than 24 months 04 0 20. Where were you living before moving in here? a)SleepingroughO I [] b)Shop/kiosk 02[] c)Compoundhouse 03[] d)Shack 04[] 21. Were you paying for it either in cash or in kind? V.sOID No 02[) 22. If yes, how much? Period Daily Ol [] Weekly 02 [] Monthly 030 Other, please specify. 04[] 23. Do you make installment for your present dwelling? VosOIO No02[) 24. If yes, what is the amount for the installment? Please specifyth e amount. 25. How many rooms do you occupy? One 010 Two 020 Three 030 26. Do you own this dwelling? 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Yes Ol[] No 02[] 27. How did you get to know ofthis dwelling unit? a)Fromafriend Ol[] b) Relative 02[) c) Employer 03[] d) Private person 04[J 28. From whom do you rent this dwelling? a) From a friend Ol[] b) Relalive02[] c) Employer 03[] d) Private person 04[J 29. Does your rent include any of the following? a. Electricity YesOI[) No 02[) b. Water YesO I[) No02[) c. Sanitalionfacility YesOI[) No02[) 30. Whatarethefactorsyouconsiderimportantwhenlookingfordwellingunit? Please tick appropriate ones. a) Nearness to work Ol[] b)Waterandsanitationfacilities 02() c) Availability of electricity 03[] d)Airquality 04[] e)Numberofwindows 05[1 31. In general,how satisfied are you with this housing unit? a)Verysatisfied Ol[] b) Somewhat satisfied 02[] c) Notsatisfied03(J SECTION C.MOBlLlTY University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32. Do you plan to move 10 another unil within the next 12 month? a)Ves,definitely Ol[] b) Yes, probably 02[] c) Ves, possibly 03[] d)No 04[] 33. If yes, why are you thinking of moving? a)LargerUJ!it OlD b)Smallerunit02[] c)Cheaperunit 03[] d)Betterneighbourhood04[] e)Other(specify) 05[J 34. Do you know of anyone who has moved out of this place? Yo, 0111 No02[) 35. If yes, why did the person move out? a) Moved to better place OJ[] b) Built own house 02[] c) Lost a spouse 03[] d) Went home 04[] e)don'tknow 050 36. Do you belong to associations such as hometown, work related and any other associations? YesOI[] No02U 37. If yes, whkh type is it? a) Hometown Ol[]b) Work related 02[] c)Ethnic 03[] d) Political 04[] 38. Does the association help in housing people like you? YesOIO No02[] KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW 7S University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (G hana Homeless Peoples Federation , GHPF) I. When was your organization formed? 2. Why was it formed? 3. When did you join the organization, what has been your major achievements? 4. What are the main challenges in the se[tlement? 5. Wha[isyourrclationshipwith the Sub-Metropolitan Area? 6 How is the housing s ituation like and what are the main problems? 7 Who are you collaborators? 8 Whatareyourfutureplans? KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (People's Dia)oguefor I-Iuman Settlemeot} 1. Whenwasyourorganizationfonned? 2. Why was it fonned,whoislareyour main c1icnt(s}? 3. What have been your major achievements? 4. What are the main challenges in the settlement? 5. What is your relationship with the Sub-Metropolitan Area and the settlement? 9 Who are you collaborators? iO What are your future plans? 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh "late 2: Map Showing Agbogbloshlel Old Fadama. Note the Karle Lagoon University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 81