Heliyon 8 (2022) e12404Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyonResearch articleFactors influencing rice production in the south-eastern belt of Ghana
Matilda N. Bissah a, Daniel Ashie Kotey a, Pangirayi Tongoona b, Kenneth Fafa Egbadzor c,*,
Vern Gracen b,d, Eric Y. Danquah b
a CSIR – Plant Genetic Resources Research Institute, Bunso, Ghana
b West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement, University of Ghana, Ghana
c Department of Agro Enterprise Development, Ho Technical University, Ghana
d School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, USAH I G H L I G H T S
 Farmers had the perception that soil salinity reduces the yield of rice.

 The lack of requisite machinery negatively affects rice production in Ghana.

 Farmers adopted flooding to reduce soil salinity stress in their rice fields.

 The trait most preferred by rice farmers in the study communities was aroma.A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Convenient sampling
Jasmine 85
Lowland
Marketable traits
Soil salinity* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kegbadzor@htu.edu.gh (K.F. Egb
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12404
Received 5 May 2022; Received in revised form 19
2405-8440/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Els
nc-nd/4.0/).A B S T R A C T
Ghana has great potential to produce rice for local consumption, however, the average rice produced barely meets
half of the country's consumption needs. Focus group discussions (FGDs) and surveys were held within the coastal
lowland rice production belt in Ghana. The FGDs were held at Okyereko and Afife followed by surveys in the two
communities in addition to Dawenya and Ashaiman. The objectives were to assess the production challenges faced
by farmers in the four communities and determine the rice traits preferred by the farmers. Twenty farmers were
involved in each of the FGDs while 227 respondents were selected through convenient sampling for the in-
terviews. Sixty-nine percent of respondent farmers were male, 53% were above 50 years while 44% had varied
levels of education. Farmers preferences mainly related to marketable traits such as aroma (87%), taste (83%) and
yield potential (78%). There was special preference for Jasmine 85 (62.8%) and Togo Marshal l (25%), an
indication of the high adoption of aromatic rice varieties in the study areas. Challenges such as securing credit,
input supplies, soil salinity and ageing work force were matters of grave concern to respondent farmers. Given the
importance of rice cultivation in the study areas to Ghana’s quest to achieve self-sufficiency in rice, targeted and
coordinated support from relevant governmental and non-governmental organizations is needed to sustain a
higher level of production in the study areas.1. Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa, L.) is one of the world's most important grain crops.
The largest share of Africa's rice production is concentrated in West Af-
rica. Rice is an important cereal crop in Ghana with a mean annual
growth rate in consumption estimated at 8.1% (SRID, 2015). The level of
rice consumption in Ghana is predicted to continue to increase because of
population growth and urbanization. Rice production in the country is
however not increasing at a pace that equals increasing demand (Oteng,
2017; SRID-MoFA, 2015). Ghana produces only 57.14% of the riceadzor).
September 2022; Accepted 9 De
evier Ltd. This is an open access aconsumed in the country making the country a net importer of rice (SRID,
2015). In 2015, the total rice produced was 400,000 metric tonnes,
which fell short of local consumption by 300,000 metric tonnes (Apaw,
2017; Oteng, 2017).
The Coastal Savanna Agro-ecological Zone of Ghana comprising the
Accra plains and parts of the Ho-Keta Plains (Titriku, 1999), is a major
rice producing region of the country. Production in these areas, focused
mainly on high input rice varieties, is done mainly under irrigation
schemes supported by dams, pumps and elaborate water channeling
systems. The average rice yield achieved in these areas, whether as acember 2022
rticle under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
M.N. Bissah et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12404percentage of the national average yield or of potential yields is the
highest in the country (SRID, 2015; Ministry of Food and Agriculture,
2009). In addition, the annual rice production within the area has been
on the increase (Ofori, 2016; SRID, 2015). Notwithstanding, the average
yield of rice in the area and across Ghana is far lower than the its po-
tential. Famers might be aware of the factors contributing to the low
yields. The objectives of the study therefore, were to assess the produc-
tion challenges faced by farmers in the four communities and determine
rice traits preferred by the farmers.
2. Methodology
2.1. The study locations
Farmers who cultivate rice in the Ashaiman, Dawenya, Okyereko and
the Afife irrigation schemes along the coast of Ghana were purposively
selected for the administering of the questionnaire. The natural agro-
ecology in the study areas is coastal savannah. All the irrigation schemes
in these areas are public facilities managed by the Ghana Irrigation
Development Authority (GIDA), an agency under the Ministry of Food
and Agriculture (MoFA). The Okyereko irrigation scheme is a 111 ha dam
facility located near the Okyereko community in the Central region
(525'00.0"N 036'00.0"W). The Ashaiman irrigation facility occupies a
total area of 155 ha while the Dawenya irrigation scheme on the other
hand occupies an area of 450 ha. Both schemes are located to the east of
Accra in the Greater Accra region. The Weta Irrigation Project referred to
as the Afife Rice Farming Project is located in the Ketu North District of
the Volta Region of Ghana. It is located about 162 km eastward of Accra.
The Afife scheme covers an area of 880 ha. In all the four irrigation
schemes, rice is cultivated as a cash crop using improved seeds, fertilizer
and agrochemicals. The description of the soils at the irrigation sites is
presented in Table 1.Table 2. Constraints to rice production and research needs in two irrigation
schemes.2.2. Focus group discussions
Focus group discussions (FGDs) were carried out in two communities;
Okyereko and Afife. The FGDs involved twenty farmers from each of the
two communities. The FGD sought information on varietal preferences,
production incentives, technical support, technology dissemination and
adoption, marketing constraints and biotic and abiotic stresses of rice
production.Question Okyereko Weta
What are the major challenges to rice Water availability Cost of farm inputs
cultivation in the area? Machinery Machinery
Credit Pests and diseases
Weeds Salinity
What are the indications of high soil salt White particles Whitish crystal
content Taste of soil Poor establishment of
Bare land crop
Presence of Scotching
certain weeds Stunted growth
Scotching of Poor tillering
plants Poor seed set
Low yield Ineffectiveness of
fertilizer applied
What is your estimate of yield loss due 15.0–17.5 bags 15 bags (84 kg)/acre
to salinity? (84 kg)/acre 60% yield reduction2.3. Survey
The FGDs at the two locations was followed by interviews at all four
locations. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to a total of
227 farmers in the four communities. The respondents were selected on
the basis of cultivating rice using the irrigation facilities. There were 13,
61, 55 and 96 respondents for Ashaiman, Dawenya, Okyereko and Afife
respectively. The higher number of respondents from Afife was due to the
higher number of rice farmers in that community compared to the others.
The respondents from Ashaiman were only 13 because at the time of the
study, most of the farmers at the irrigation facility were cultivating
vegetables and not rice. The questionnaire was administered at farmer's
convenience (in farms and at homes) in all the communities.Table 1. Soil types at the irrigation locations at which the study was conducted.
Location Soil type
Afife Dystric Cambisols, Vertic Cambisols, Dystric Vertisols
Ashaiman Dystric Planosols, Cambic Arenosols, Gleyic Cambisols, Dystric Vertisols
Okyereko Skeletic-Haplic Arisols, Cambic Arenosols, Haplic Alisols, Dystric Cambisols,
Gleyic Cambisols
Source: Irie et al. (1997): Dawenya data is not available.
2
2.4. Data analysis
The study was qualitative. Data collected in the form of responses to
focus group and interview questions were summarized and discussed.
Some responses were put into proportions.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Outcome of FGDs
The FGDs revealed some constraints associated with rice cultivation
from the perspectives of the focus group members. The farmers also
expressed their views on high salt content of soil, their estimated yield
loss, practices that they adopt to handle salt stress and their preferred
traits in rice varieties (Table 2).
3.1.1. Challenges to rice production
Farmers at Okyereko indicated unavailability of water during dry
season, lack of machinery, lack of credit and incidence of weeds as the
major constraints to rice production. At Afife, the challenges enumerated
by farmers included the high cost of farm inputs, lack of machinery and
the incidence of pests (stem borers, armyworm and bird attack).
3.1.2. Indications of high soil salt content and practices adopted to reduce its
effects
Response of farmers at the Okyereko and Afife Irrigation schemes
indicated panning of the soil surface, presence of certain weed species,
poor germination of rice seeds, scorching of seedlings, reduced tillering
and reduced seed set as themain indicators of salt stress. Two indicators of
high salt content in soil: presence of crystal particles and scotching of
plants were common to the two locations. One hundred and six (46.7%)
out of the 227 farmers reported observing salt in their fields, one hundred
andfifteen (50.7%)were not affected by salinity and6 (2.6%)providedno
response to the question. At Afife, about 42% of farmers observed saline
conditions in their fields whereas the remaining 58% had normal fields.
In the current study, 43.4% of the affected farmers employed no
remedial measures to alleviate the impact of salt stress. In a similar study
in Niger, Souleymane et al. (2015) reported 70% of farmers affected by60% yield
reduction
What are the practices for minimizing Flashing Continuous flooding
salt in affected field? Manure Organic Manure
Use older Leveling
seedlings
What are your preferred traits in new Aroma Blast resistance
rice varieties (in order of importance)? Taste Salinity tolerance
Yield Earliness
Salt tolerance Soft grain
Soft grain Aroma
M.N. Bissah et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12404saline conditions in their fields did not adopt any measures to overcome
the problem. This affirms the fact that aside the main production costs
that cannot be avoided, resources poor farmers are reluctant to incur
extra costs associated with the mitigation of constraints such as saline
conditions. The viability of alternate coping strategies such as the use of
organic matter is limited by the sparse vegetation in this agro-ecological
zone, the lack of fallow and the many competing uses of vegetation
(roofing, fuel wood, livestock feed and handicrafts) (Asamoah et al.,
2013). Efisue et al. (2008) recognized that resource-poor farmers use
fewer external inputs and prefer zero-cost technologies. The early seed-
ling stage of rice has been identified to be highly susceptible to salt stress
(Singh et al., 2010). In view of this, the use of salt tolerant rice varieties
seems to be a better option especially in the face of predicted climate
events (IPCC, 2014; Abdrabo et al., 2014). Therefore, deploying
stress-tolerant cultivars could increase productivity and expand rice
cultivation in salt-affected regions as reported in Bangladesh by Pon-
namperuma (1994).
3.1.3. Estimates for yield loss
Farmers reported yield in bags (84 kg bag) averaging 15.0–17.5 bags
per 0.4-acre field at Okyereko and 15.0–17.5 bags per one acre field at
Afife.
3.1.4. Preferred traits in new rice varieties
Farmers at Okyereko and Afife indicated preference for an improve-
ment in traits such as blast resistance, salinity tolerance, earliness, softer
grain and aroma. Farmers at Okyereko however prioritized salt tolerance
as the trait which required the most urgent attention. This was followed
by disease resistance, yield and then earliness. The three traits that were
highly preferred by majority of the respondent farmers were aroma, good
taste and high yielding ability. The fourth and fifth ranked traits wereTable 3. Background of respondents, external assistance received and varieties cultiv
Educational background of respondent farmers (n ¼ 227)
Highest Level % of respondents Weta Ashaiman
None 19.38 19 1
Primary 25.55 38 4
Secondary 44.05 23 4
Post-secondary 11.01 16 4
Age of respondents
Age group Weta Ashaiman
20–29 6 4
30–39 16 1
40–49 30 3
50–59 30 3
60 þ 17 6
Total 99 17
Type of support received for rice production
Form of assistance Source
Cash loan Marketers, Cooperatives
Agro-chemicals Government, Cooperatives
Seed Cooperatives, seed companies
Rice varieties cultivated
Variety Varietal Characteristics
Jet 3 Long grain
Jasmine 85 Aromatic, Long grain,
Good taste
Seed producers
Togo Marshall Blast tolerant, Aromatic
Long grain
Note: GIDA (Irrigation development authority), NGO (non-governmental organizatio
3
market premium and earliness respectively, whereas the least rankedwas
drought tolerance.
3.2. Outcome of the formal survey of farmers
3.2.1. Characteristics of survey respondents
The background of respondents, the external support they have ever
received in their rice farming and the varieties cultivated are presented in
Table 3.
One hundred and fifty-eight (69.60%) of the 277 respondents were
male while the remaining 69 (30.39%) were female (Table 3). There
were 70male respondents at Afife, 11 at Ashaiman 53 at Dawenya and 24
at Okyereko. With regard to female respondents, there were 28 at Afife, 2
at Ashaiman, 8 at Dawenya and 30 at Okyereko. Okyereko had the
highest number of female respondents which also outnumbered their
male counterparts.
There were 44, 58, 100 and 25 individuals with no, primary, sec-
ondary and post-secondary education respectively among the farmers
interviewed (Table 3). Whereas 51.89% of male respondents had sec-
ondary education, 49% of female respondents had no formal education.
Forty-four farmers constituting, 75.6% of people with primary school
education were male whereas 14, constituting 24.14% were female.
Eighty-two (82) individuals out of the 100 respondents with secondary
education were male whereas 18 were female. Twenty-two out of the 25
individuals with post-secondary education were male whereas three
were female. The number of respondents within the age groups, 20–29,
30–39, 40–49, 50–59 and above 60 were 10, 35, 59, 66 and 54 respec-
tively. The number of respondents above 50 years constituted 52.9% of
the population sampled.
In an earlier study, Ragasa et al. (2013) reported that the literacy rate
of farmers in Ghana is low and this had a negative effect on the adoptionated.
Dawenya Okyereko Male Female
4 20 10 34
9 6 44 14
43 29 82 18
5 0 22 3
Dawenya Okyereko
0 0
7 11
11 15
19 14
17 17
54 57
Number of recipients Percentage (%)
17 7.11
67 28.03
9 3.77
Communities growing variety Seed source
Dawenya GIDA/Own
Ashaiman Dawenya Okyereko, GIDA, NGOs,
Weta Farm saved
Ashaiman, Weta GIDA, Seed producers
Farm saved
n).
M.N. Bissah et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12404
Table 4. Factors Influencing Preferences of rice varieties in the coastal rice belt of
Ghana.
Factors Number of farmers preferring traits Number of farmers expecting
on past and current varieties traits in new varieties
High yielding 177 115
Early maturing 127 76
Aromatic 197 89
High market 152 –
premium
Disease resistant 34 128
Drought Tolerant 75 77
Good taste 188 74
Availability of 84 –
seeds
Few pests 75 –
Good keeping 75
qualities
Salinity 109
tolerance
NB: multiple responses were accepted.of agricultural technologies. In the current study, 44 out of the 227 re-
spondents had no formal education and lacked the ability to read and
write. To enhance technology dissemination, there is the need for the use
of participatory learning approaches such as video supported group
learning and Farmer Field Schools (Kotey et al., 2016; Agboh-Noameshie
et al., 2013). The use of such participatory methods should provide
adequate opportunities for addressing the needs and challenges of most
farmers (MoFA/WAAPP, 2014). Seventy-six percent of the respondent
population were above the age of 40. This observation indicates an aging
population of rice farmers. There is therefore a need to attract much
younger people into rice production in Ghana. Previous studies by
Agbanyo (2012) and Addison et al. (2014) reported similar findings and
recommended appropriate interventions to modernize agriculture since
existing farming practices are labor-intensive and do not appeal to per-
sons under the age of 35 who constitute 50% of Ghana's population.
Responses obtained from farmers indicated that rice farming was
predominantly a male pursuit. At the Okyereko scheme however, female
farmers out-numbered male farmers by 24 (140%, Table 3). This finding
confirms the report by the National Rice Development Strategy that
although men Journal Pre-proof dominate rice production in most of the
ecologies in Ghana, female rice farmers could be more than male farmers
at specific locations (MoFA, 2009). The proportion of female rice farmers
identified in the current study is far higher than that reported by Addison
et al. (2014) who attributed the low female engagement in rice cultiva-
tion to the drudgery associated with producing the crop as well as the
lack of resources to engage labor for strenuous activities.
3.2.2. Rice farming support services
Rice farmers received support from the government, non-govern-
mental organizations (NGOs), seed companies, cooperatives and rice
marketers. The support that farmers receive from the government was
mainly in the form of training, fertilizer subsidies, extension services and
the construction and maintenance of the dams. The seed companies and
cooperatives assisted farmers with seeds, agrochemicals and cash loans.
The marketers on the other hand provided cash loans (Table 3). One
hundred and twenty (53%) of the 227 respondents enjoyed no form of
external support for their farming activities.
Some respondents indicated that they had at previous times received
extension and advisory services from agricultural extension officers. One
hundred and forty-six (64%) of the respondents indicated they had
received such services from extension officers in their areas while fifty-
two (23%) respondents indicated that they had never received any
extension and advisory support from extension officers. One farmer
stated “I have never seen an extension officer in the area before”. Twenty-
nine farmers representing 13% of the respondents provided no answer
to this question.
3.2.3. Rice varieties being cultivated and factors influencing the choice of
varieties
The traits that influence the choice of what rice variety farmers chose
for cultivation and those that farmers want incorporated into their va-
rieties to improve them are presented in Table 4.
From a multiple choice question, the top three traits preferred by
farmers were aroma (87% of respondents), good taste (83%) and high
yielding ability (78%). In Ghana, taste, aroma and texture are reported to
be the three most important attributes that consumers look for in cooked
rice (Diako et al., 2010). Asante et al. (2013) reported that Ghanaian
consumers selected rice based on grain quality and fragrance.
Though 34 respondents chose their previous varieties based on dis-
ease resistance, 128 respondents want to see new varieties of rice pos-
sessing those traits (disease resistance). Similarly, even though no farmer
chose to cultivate rice varieties based on its ability to tolerate salt, 109
representing 48 percent of respondents want the salt tolerant trait
incorporated into new varieties. Thus diseases and soil salinity could be
emerging production challenges farmers need to grapple with going
forward.4
Nwanze et al. (2006) and Tomlins et al. (2005) have reported that rice
consumers in Africa pay attention to grain quality and favorable pricing.
The preference for grain quality traits is reflected in the current varieties
grown in the study area, which include Jasmine 85 (62.8%), Togo
Marshal (25.6%) and Jet 3 (2.4%). In Tanzania, Bucheyeki et al. (2011),
reported high yielding ability, good aroma, and marketability as prime
traits in rice variety selection. A high yield is important for ensuring
profitability and sustainability (Asare, 2000). Fitzgerald et al. (2009) and
Calingacion et al. (2014) have stated that the growing demand for high
yielding rice varieties coupled with superior grain quality has become a
breeding priority in rice improvement. Bedzra (2017) noted that Jasmine
85 and Togo Marshall are both high yielding varieties with potential
yields of 8 tons/ha. The predominance of Jasmine 85 (62.5% of re-
spondents reported) in the current study corroborates the finding of
Akintayo et al. (2015), who reported that most of the certified rice seeds
produced in Ghana is Jasmine 85. This study found drought tolerance to
be the least preferred trait. This observation could be because the study
was conducted within irrigation schemes where stresses associated with
low precipitation are supposedly absent. However, the year-round
availability of water for irrigation is an emerging issue for farmers at
Okyereko. Low water levels in the dam at Okyereko resulted in portions
of the scheme receiving inadequate water supply. A decrease in irrigation
volumes in salt-affected areas could result in an accumulation of salts in
the root zone, which, over time, could be detrimental to crop growth.
Farmers in Okyereko for instance had not been able to plant at 200%
intensity (a normal practice in irrigation schemes) since 2011, due to the
depletion of water in their dam during the dry season.
Saline conditions in the Accra plains and the Lower Volta Basin within
the Coastal Savanna Agro-ecological Zone was reported in the recent past
(Allotey et al., 2008; Boateng, 2005) after the initial report by Brammer
(1962). In response to the question on how farmers ascertain the pres-
ence of salt in the soil, the following answer epitomized the views of
farmers regarding the subject.
“The presence of white particles on soil surface, the salty taste of soil,
poor plant growth, scotching of plants, bareness of land, stunted plant
growth, presence of certain weed species, poor tillering of rice plant,
low yield, poor seed set and ineffectiveness of fertilizer”.
Transplanting older rice seedlings, which have passed the salt
vulnerability stage, could ensure good stand establishment. Two main
seeding methods: broadcasting and transplanting are used in the study
communities. Farmers who broadcast seed acknowledged cost implica-
tions hindered their use of the transplanting method. Cost consideration
M.N. Bissah et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12404is the main reason for the high use of broadcasting by rice growers in
irrigation schemes across Ghana despite significantly higher yields in
plots that applied the transplanting method (Ragasa et al., 2013; Sure-
ndra et al., 2001). It is apparent that technologies (such as reapers) which
mechanize transplanting and row-planting of rice seedlings are not
readily accessible to the farmers in the study locations. This is a great
disincentive to the adoption of row planting by farmers in the study
areas. Dingkuhn et al. (1991) as well as Ehsanullah et al. (2000) sug-
gested that rice varieties suitable for direct seeded system must possess
Early Seedling Vigor (ESV) and enhanced foliar growth to combat weeds
at the vegetative stage. There is therefore a need to select and promote
varieties suitable for direct seeding and transplanting approaches. In the
current study, farmers’ contact with extension officers was limited. Many
authors have reiterated the inadequacy of extension staff for effective
dissemination of technologies to stakeholders along the rice value chain
(MoFA, 2009; Ragasa et al., 2013). The situation is not limited to Ghana.
Agyen-Sampong (1991) in a previous study indicated that extension and
education are socio-economic constraints limiting rice production under
mangrove swamp conditions in West Africa. Extension services play a
critical role in supporting small-scale farmers in navigating and
addressing production challenges towards national and household food
security (Rickards et al., 2018; Antwi-Agyei and Nyantakyi-Frimpong,
2021). Although the Ghana rice development strategy seeks to incorpo-
rate research, technology generation and dissemination support to
farmers, this has not been executed satisfactorily.
The study found that farmers had difficulty accessing credit. The
availability of credit at the right time may affect the timely application of
crop husbandry practices (Bedzra, 2017) and consequently reduce yield.
Farmers depended mainly on informal sources to finance their farming
activities. The cost of informal credit (22.5% interest rate) for agriculture
is high as recognized by Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2009) and
Agbanyo (2012). If pre-financing was regulated, it could have great po-
tential in promoting the timely management of farms and improved
yield.
Farmers in the current study want varieties that are tolerant to dis-
eases. Blast is the commonest disease and was previously managed with
synthetic pesticides. Although blast tolerant varieties: Bodia (ITA, 320)
and Sakai (ITA, 324) have previously been released to farmers in Ghana
(Ragasa et al., 2013), the desire for aroma by Ghanaian consumers
compelled farmers to abandon the production of such varieties. In view
of this, rice improvement programs geared towards grain quality traits
should also select against blast susceptibility.
4. Conclusions and recommendation
Rice production in the irrigation schemes is challenged by diseases
and soil salinity stress. The level of extension and advisory support ser-
vices and financing available to rice farmers for production were inad-
equate and the crop of farmers at the time was aging. Rice farmers in the
current study desired marketable traits which included aroma, yield and
taste. Jasmine 85 was widely accepted and could be improved further for
the traits suggested. It is thus recommended that (1) sustainable and
easily accessible credit schemes that farmers can benefit from to ensure
sustainable cropping is established and (2) the development and
deployment of technologies including salt tolerant varieties for the
coastal rice cultivation belt of Ghana.
Declarations
Author contribution statement
Matilda N Bissah: Conceived and designed the experiments; Analyzed
and interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.
Daniel Ashie Kotey: Performed the experiments; Analyzed and
interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.5
Pangirayi Tongoona; Vern Gracen; Eric Y Danquah: Analyzed and
interpreted the data.
Kenneth Fafa Egbadzor: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis
tools or data; Wrote the paper.
Funding statement
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies
in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability statement
Data included in article/supp. material/referenced in article.
Declaration of interest's statement
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Additional information
No additional information is available for this paper.
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