UNIVERSITY OF GHANA SUSTAINABLE WATER UTILISATION IN GHANAIAN BREWERIES: CURRENT PRACTICES AND PROSPECTS RICHARD RYNICS ATIEGAH (10636993) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL CLIMATE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT DEGREE MAY, 2020 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this work is the original work of Richard Rynics Atiegah under the supervision of Prof. D. K Twerefou and Prof. K. Owusu and that it has not been submitted in part or in full to this university or any other university for the award of a degree. I further declare that all references and acknowledgement have been given to the scholarly works used. I bear the sole responsibility for any shortcomings. Name RICHARD RYNICS ATIEGAH (10636993) Signature Date University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CERTIFICATION I hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down by the University ofGhana. Name Signature Date PROF. D. K TWEREFOU a=t{GA--tv2L_ .......... : .. 1 .. l ..... . (SUPERVISOR) PROF. K. OWUSU (CO-SUPERVISOR) 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To my family, especially my wife and children iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First. my utmost gratitude goes to God Almighty for giving me life, good health and the opportunity to undertake this study. Secondly, my sincerest gratitude goes to my supervisors, Prof. D. K Twerefou and Prof. K. Owusu for their patience, deep knowledge, direction and great guidance. Lastly. my utmost appreciation goes to the staffs of ABL and GGBL who accepted to be interviewed tor this study. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Water is extremely essential for all life forms and their very existence. It is a fundamental necessity for livelihoods, economic growth, health and development and environmental sustainability. In the brewery sector, water is the single most important used raw material for production and cleaning purposes, Nonetheless, given the alarming nature of climate change, water pollution, population dynamics and land use evolutions, the brewery industry faces an enormous business risk as the diminishing of freshwater volumes pose a threat to its business continuity. Thus, breweries require a strong commitment to cleaner production processes that hinge on sustainable water management practices for continuous production. This study investigates the patterns and current trends in sustainable water use, opportunities for optimizing water use and organizational commitment to sustainable water management using sur\'e) data from the two main breweries in Ghana for the 2015 to 2018. Using 48 monthly specific water use data from January 2015 to December, 2018. the specific water usage for both ABL and GGBL are statistically significantly different from the international benchmark value of 6.50hL/hL at the I% level although, ABL's average water use has a stronger significance or is more sustainable over the study period than GGBI's average water use. Furthermore, the average specific water usage for both ABL and GGBL are compared with the best technology level of 4.00hL/hL and test results reveal that during the period under consideration, ABL's average specific water usage of 4.45hL/hL is statistically significantly different from the best technology level of 4.00hL/hL whiles GGBL 's average specific water usage is not statistically significantly different. Thus, considering water use at the best technology level of 4.00 hL/hL, GGBL is more sustainable than ABL. The study recommends collaborative partnerships between the brewery industry and government agencies that will lead to the development of sustainable water usage index or a local benchmark that factors local challenges and standards for monitoring water usage in the local economy. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARA TION ............................................................................................................................ i CERTIFICATION .. ...................... ............. .... .......... ........ ... .. ...................................... .... ...... ... ii DEDICATION ..................................................................... ..................................... .............. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................... ...... ...... .............. ............... .................. iv ABSTRACT ...................................................................... ......... .... ... .................. .......... ....... ..... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. x LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............. .. ............ ...................... .. ... .... ..................................... xii CliAPTER ONE .............. .......... ........................................ ... ....... .................... ............ ......... ! INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. ........ .......................... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Prob I em State1nent ............................ ............ ...... ..... .................. ............... .. ................ 3 1.3 Research Objectives .. .. .. .. .. ........................................ .... .............................. ....... .. ... .... 6 1.4 Research Questions .................................................................................................... . 7 1.5 Significance of the Study .................... ... ....... .. ....................... ................ ........ ............. 7 1.6 St:up~~: and Limilaliun of the Study ................. .. .... .. ..................... ............. .... ............... 8 1.7 Chapter Summary and Organization ofthe Study ........... ........................................... & vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO ..... ... ......... ..... .. ....... ... ... .............. ... .................................................. ........ lO LITERATURE REVIEW .. ................... ........ .. .... .......................... .. ...... ........ .. ................... lO 2.0 Introduction .................. .. .... ... ...... ... ... .. .. .. .. ... ................ .. .. .......... .. ... ............... .. .... ..... 1 0 2.1 Water Resources, Climate Change and Water Stress ...... .... ... ......... .... .. ...... .. .. .......... 1 0 2.2 Water Resource Management ... ... .. .. .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. ..... .. ............ .. .... .. ............................ 13 2.3 Integrated Water Resource Management ...... .. .. .... .. ..... .. ..... ............ .. ....... ............. .. .. 14 2.4 Sustainable Water Resource Use .. .... ... ......... .. .. .. ...... ... .. ...... .. ............. .. ...... .. ..... .... .. .. 16 2.4.1 Reducing outflow of wastewater ................. .................... .. ................... .. ..... .. ... 17 2.4.2 Pollution preventive approaches .................................................................... 17 2.4.3 Adopting integrated processes ................ .. .. .. .. ... ... ..... .. .. ... ............. ... ... ........... .. . 17 2.5 The Context ofthe Brewing Industry ...... .. .... ... ...... .... ........... .. .. .......... .. .... .. .... .. .. .. ... . IS 2.5.1 Water Use in the Brewery Process ...... ... ........... .............. ... .. ...... .......... ........ ... .... .. .. 20 2.5.2 Trends in the quantity of water utilized in manufacturing of beer ............. .. .. .. ....... 21 2.5.3 Water usage in the cellar ...... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ......................... ....... ...... .. .. ... .. ...... .. .. ..... 24 2.5.4. Water usage during packaging ..... ......... ........ ............. ........................................ 26 2.5.5. General Water usage .. .. ... ........... .. ............. ................ ...... .. ......... .. ....................... 27 2.6 A Brief History of Breweries in Ghana ................. .. .... .. .. .. ....... ... .. ...... .. ....................... .. 28 2.6.1 Guinness Ghana Brewery Limited .................... ...... ............. .. ................................. 28 2.6.2 Ghana Breweries Limited (GBL) ..... .. .. ....... ............ ........ .. .. .. ... .. .. .... ....................... 30 2.6.3 Accra Brewery Limited (ABL) ... .... .. ..... .. .. ........ .......... .... ....... ....... ......... ....... .. ........ 31 2.7 Theoretical Framework ............................................ ........................................... .. .. .. 32 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7.1 The Cleaner Production Framework (CPF) ............................................................. 33 2.8 E1npirical Review .. .... .. ..... .. ...... .. ..... .. .. .. .............. .... .......................... .. ........... ................ 36 2.9 Chapter Summary and Research Gap ........................................................................ 40 CI-IAPTER THREE ........... ...... .. .. ............................... ....................................................... 41 METHODOLOGY .............................. ..... ................................................................... ..... .. 41 3.0 Introduction .... .................... ....... .. .................. ...................................................... ...... 41 3.1 Research Approach ........ ........... ................. .... .. .. ......... ......... .. .. .. .. ....... ............ ....... ... 41 3.2 Research Design ..... ... .. .................. .. ... .... .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... .. ...... .. ............... .. ....................... 42 3.3 Target Population ............................. .... ... ................................................................. 42 3.4 Sampling Technique .. ........ ..... .... ... ... ... .. ... .............. .... ........ ........ .... .. .. .. ... ... ...... ..... .... 43 3.5 San1ple Size ...................... .. .. .. ................................. ............ ... ........... ............. .... ....... 43 3.6 Research LiJnitations ......... .................. ......................... .... .............. ....... ......... ........... 45 3.7 Sources of Data ......... ............. ................................ ........ ....................... ...... ............. . 46 3.8 Data Collection .. ..... ... ...... ... ... .... ...... ......... ..... .. ................. .... ........... ................. .. .. ... .. 46 3.9 Data Collection Procedure ................................................ ...... .. .. .............. ............. .. . 47 3.10 Data Analysis ............... .... ... ............ .... .... ..... ... ... ........... .... ... ........... ........................ .. 48 3.11 Ethical Considerations .... ... ........... .... ... ....... .. ... ... ......... .. .......... .......... ... ... .... ...... ........ 48 3.12 Chapter Summary ... ..... ........ .. .... ...... .. ................... ........... .......... .. ... .. ..... .. ....... .. .. .. ..... 49 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 50 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................ , ................................................... 50 4.0 Introduction ...... ... ................... .......... ..... ... .... .. .. .. .. .. .... .... .... .. .... .. .... .... ..... ....... ... .. .......... . 50 VIII University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1 Descriptive Analysis, Trend Analysis and Means test .......... ............... ... ... .. .................. 50 4.2 Benchn1arking ............. , ................... ... ..................................... ..... .................................. 57 4.3 Thematic Content Analysis ...................... , ................. ................... ................................. 59 CI-IAPTEI~ FIVE ................................................................................................................... 62 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 62 4.0 Introduction .. .. .. ... ..... .. .. .. .. ... ... .. .... ....... .. ... .... .. .... .... ... ........... ..... .......... ... .. ... .. .. .. ... .. ... 62 5.1 Sun1n1ar-y of findings ...................................................................................................... 62 5.2 Recon1n1endations ..................................................................................................... 64 5J Limitations and Suggestions for further studies ......... .. ..... ........ ...... ............. .. ............... 65 l~EFERENCES ................................................... ................ .................................................... 67 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: The Beer Brewing Process ................................................... .. ........................ 20 Figure 2.2: Typical brewery water use per area ..... .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. ........... ... .. .. .. .................... 22 Figure 2.3: Overall water balance for the brewhouse ...................... .. ... .. .. ........................ 23 Figure 2.4: Overall water balance for the Cellar .................................... .. .......... .. ..... .. ..... 25 Figure 4.1: Overall Trend of Specific Water Use (SWU) (2015-2018) .. .. .. ..................... 51 Figure 4.2: Trend of Specific Water Use (20 15-20 16) ................. .................................... 53 Figure 4.3: Trend of Specific Water Use (20 17-20 18) ..................................................... 54 X University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Areas in which resource consumption may be reduced .................... .. ............ 35 Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics ....................................................................................... 50 Table 4.2: Means test for Specific Water Use .................................................................. 55 Table 4.2: Specific Water Use (International best practice benchmark of6.50 hL/hL) ... 58 Table 4.3: Specific Water Use (Best technology level of 4.00 hL/hL) ............................ 58 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABL A BREW AGI AMA CCSD CPF CSOs CSR EIA EPA FAO GGBL GSA GWP GWP hL IPCC JWRM KPI NCPCs OECD swu SDGs LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Accra Breweries Limited African BREwery Sector Water Saving Initiative Association ofGhana Industries Accra Metropolitan Assembly Center for Climate Change and Sustainable Development Cleaner Production Framework Civil Society Organizations Corporate Social Responsibility Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Protection Agency Food and Agriculture Organization (ofthe United Nations) Guinness Ghana Breweries Limited Ghana Standards Authority Ghana Water Partnership Ghana Water Partnership hectoliter International Panel on Climate Change Integrated Water Resource Management Key Performance Indicator National Cleaner Production Centers Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Specific Water Use Sustainable Development Goals xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNDP UN[P USA WMO WRC United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environment Programme United States of America World Meteorological Organization Water Resources Commissio xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.1 Background of the Study CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Issues on climate and weather have been critical to the story of human lives. The ''International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)" in 2007 identified that issues like extreme weather events, flood, droughts and tropical storms which are already happening across continents are expected to increase its intensity. The impact of these among others would include decreased yield from rain-fed agriculture, increased food insecurity and malnutrition, increase in arid and semi-arid land. water stress (IPCC, 200 I, 20 12). Humanity, therefore. face the choice of whether to ··seize the opportunities or the transition to a stable climate and a water-secure future, or continue business as usual and face untold risks. Water is fundamental to many aspects of life, and the surrounding natural environment. It is a fundamental necessity for lives and I ivelihoods; tor economic prosperity, health and development, and environmental sustainability. It is a major natural resource that enables humans lo pursue several economic activities: agriculture, domestic and industrial. "It is part of the natural capital base that underpins the production systems that" sustains livelihood (UNDP, 2006). Water is also at the heart of sustainable human development. Yet, its use is often not sustainable. Water, dependent on how it is managed, may become a vessel for social­ economic development or a source of conflict between and among communities or states. For example. lza and Stein (2009, page 17)) suggest that "how a country manages its water resources determines the health of its people, the success of its economy, the sustalnability of its natural environment, and its relations with its neighbors". Hence, government play a major role in water resource management. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Governments across the globe have signed several international protocols and agreements and passed significant laws and policies as well as establishing institutions to regulate water resource use. Just like Ghana, water use in most sub-Saharan Atl·ican countries is governed by both customary rights and formal rights (see UNDP, 2006). In Ghana for example, "the Water Resources Commission (WRC) was established by an Act of Parliament (Act 522 of 1996) with the responsibility of regulating and managing Ghana's water resources and coordinating government policies about them. This law provides that ownership and control of all water resources are vested in the President on behalf of the people, and clearly defines the WRC as the overall body" mandated to manage Ghana' s water resources. Beside these formal institutions. other customary arrangements such as taboos and cultural practices have protected \Vater resources over the years (Opoku-Ankomah et al, 2006). However, the social settings of an environment determine which rules and practices can offer the best results. Beyond the efforts to manage water resources, sustainability concerns have been called to question. Such sustainability concerns are raised both at the domestic and industrial levels. Communities that received tl·ee water resource tend to misuse it whilst industries (at various sectors) also demand excessive water and in most times fail to reuse. Duncan (2020) reveals that besides the effects of climate change, one of the major challenges confronting most African countries is the issue of uncontrolled small-scale and illegal mining activities. It is worthy to note that in Ghana, the threat posed by heavy metals polluting water bodies and the deteriorating water quality due to "galamsey" or illegal mining activities has become a major public concern with discussions centered on impending potential freshwater shortage and hence its sustainable use. Sustainable water use basically refers to maintaining a balance between water supply and demand in a manner that does not pose any challenges to society, economic activities, and biodiversity (Gavrilescu et al., 2008). Breweries are a widespread industry in Afl·ica and brewing is intrinsically a water-intensive industry." The brewery industry is known 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to be one of the most important water consumers (Oiajire, 20 12), which contributes to conflicts \\ ith communities over water supply sources. According to UNEP (2006) most breweries in Ghana. Morocco and Uganda locally compete for water resources with other industrial and urban domestic users. In view of the water shortages already experienced by many cities and planned major expansions of several breweries, this is likely to lead to future conflicts in water allocation. In Ghana. the utility companies cannot meet the water demands of some of the breweries and supplies have to be supplemented with bore water. The effect of this water extraction on other users of groundwater is unknown. Water supply from the municipality is also erratic and the breweries make use of water reservoirs to ensure a steady water supply. This makes it imperative for the brewery industry to adopt sustainable water use. However, the litemture on sustainable water resource use in manufacturing industries pays little attention to the brewery sector which is the tocus ofthis study. 1.2 Problem Statement Since natural resources needed for economic and social development are taken from the environment, which receives as well the resulting pollutants and wastes, a constant reduction ol' environmental adsorption capacity and a decline of natural resources would help influence the development of the society and ensure ecological equilibrium positively (Gavrilescu et al., 2008). The main cause of environmental damage is unsustainable production and consumption by firms. The concept of sustainable production emerged at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. This was a key component towards sustainable development, which balances three principal requirements: the social, economic and" environmental issues (Bruntlandt, 1987; Krajnc & Glavi, 2003; Harris, 2000). Achieving sustainable development requires changes in industrial processes, the type and quantity of water used, the treatment of wastewater and the control of emissions. Many of the 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh present industrial systems are not sustainable in the long term because of their excessive demands for non-renewable resources (Gavrilescu et al., 2008). Society needs to rely on sustainable growth rather than destructive consumption. The achievement of such ambitious objectives requires a radical reconsideration of numerous practices of industry such as textile, rood, manufacturing, and particularly the brewery. Prior studies on sustainable water use in industries suggest that several manufacturing firms are adopting new ways of incorporating cleaner production approaches in their business operations. For example, Gavrilescu et al. (2008) explore strategies on sustainable water use practices in papennaking in a Romanian mill. According to them, cost reduction is a key concern of every mill, and it is now widely recognized that minimizing water consumption provides significant cost-saving opportunities and can help to improve profitability whilst conserving the natural resource. Given such large amount of wategr usage in the brewery industry, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) references specific water usc (hi , water I hi, beer) of 6.5hL/hL ns nn internationally accepted hcst rwac1ice henchrnCJrk lt:vel whiks 4.0 hL/hL is the best technology level ofspccitic water usc practiced in some European and Japanese breweries to enhance water sustaninability (Adewumi, Oyebode, lgbokwe & Aluko, 20 II, p.171; UNEP, 2006. p.9). UNEP (2006) through the African BREwery Sector Water Saving Initiative (ABREW) study involving breweries in Ethiopia, Ghana, Morocco and Uganda reports that speciiic water use varies greatly between breweries in the study countries and ranges from 7.2 hL/hL in Uganda to 22.0 hL/hL in Ethiopia. The UNEP report further claimed that in the case of Ghana, specific water use was between 7.4hL/hL and 9.5hL/hL using 2005 industry data. When the lens is focused on Africa and particularly Ghana, two main problem areas stand out for research consideration. One, the sustainable water consumption in the brewery industry and 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh two, tile threat posed to fi·eshwater bodies by climate change and human activities. On the l(mm:r. UNLP (2006) through the All·ican BREwery Sector Water Saving Initiative (ABREW) reports that whiles sustainable water use in AJi·ican breweries ranges hom 7.2 hL/hL in Uganda to 22.0 hUhL in Ethiopia, breweries in Europe and Japan are operating at the best technology level or 4.0 hL/hL. Thus, the specific water use of European and Japanese breweries is more sustainable compared to the international best practice benchmark of 6.5hL/hL whiles water use orA1i·ican breweries is not sustainable with respect to the international benchmark. Secondly. rreshwater bodies are under a serious threat of drought as a result of climate change and human activities such farming along river banks. lumbering. bush burning and most important!) illegal mining activities. Duncan (2020) points out that a major challenge which has arisen in most African countries is the challenge of uncontrolled small-scale and illegal mining activities. It is worthy to note that in Ghana, the threat posed by heavy metals polluting \\aler bodies and the deteriorating water quality due to ''galamsey" or illegal mining activities has become a major public concern. As a result, some water treatment plants in the country are closed down or operated at minimum capacity. Olu (20 15) posits that the beer industry is one of the largest users of pure water. He states that even though water is a key ingredient for the making of beers, large quantities of water are used in the breweries to maintain the cleanliness of the brewing equipment. As a result, the unsustainable utilization of water in the brewery industries may aflect the future of brewery industries. Water resource management has been studied in various settings and industries. These studies adopted various theoretical lenses and frameworks in their studies such as the hyclro-econom ic model (Harou et al., 2009), the "Integrated water resource management (!WRM) (Rahaman & Yaris, 2005)," adaptive governance theory (Bark et al., 2012), and the cleaner production approach (UNEP, 2007). For example, whilst Rahaman and Varis (2005) analyze the evolution of the integrated water resource management over the past three decades 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and highlight the prospects of the IWRM in resolving the current water crisis, Harou et al. (2009) use the hydro-economic model to characterize the economic value of water use. Bark et al. (20 12) also use the adaptive governance theory to deal with uncertainty and change in water planning and allocation decisions to study: i) decision-making'' and policy learning in the contexts of high levels of "uncertainty over the information base and legal and policy arrangements: and ii) institutional arrangements to coordinate decision-making and accountability across multiple decision-making units, values and jurisdictions, to accommodate indigenous water claims in" Australia and the United States of America (USA). However, in Africa and particularly in Ghana, knowledge on the practice in the brewery sector begs for understanding. In light of the extant studies into water resource management, the literature pays limited attention to sustainable water resource use particularly in the context of developing countries, A ti·ica, and the sub-Saharan. This research contributes to the existing body of knowledge on water resource management by exploring sustainable water use in the Ghanaian brewery industry. 1.3 Research Objectives This study, in a broader sense, explores sustainable water use among Ghanaian brewery companies. The research sought to ascertain the current patterns and water usage within the Ghana brewing industries for a sustainable water future. "To achieve this broade1· objective, the study is guided by the following specific objectives:" i. To ascertain the current trend ofwater use among some of Ghana's brewery companies with reference to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) international practice benchmark of 6.5hL/hL and the best technology level of 4.0 hL!hL. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11. To identify the "needs and opportunities for optimizing water use and wastewater generation from the breweries in Ghana. iii. To assess the organizations' commitment to sustainable water management practices. 1.4 Research Questions To achieve the specific objectives above, this study is directed at answering the following research questions:" 1. What is the current trend of water use among Ghana's brewery industry, with reference to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) international practice benchmark of 6.5hL/hL and the best technology level of 4.0 hL/hL? 11. What are the drivers for optimizing sustainable water use and wastewater generation from the breweries in Ghana? iii. What informs the organizations' commitment to sustainable water management practices? 1.5 Significance of the Study This research contributes to the scanty literature on water resource management in the context of climate change and sustainable development in Ghana, a developing country. Again, the study provides climate change policy directions and contributes to climate change and sustainable development by offering alternative means of addressing water stress. Whilst contributing directly towards attaining the "Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 6, 9 and 12 of ensuring availability and sustainable management of water for all, Improving Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure and promoting responsible consumption and production respectively this research also contributes" to laying the initial groundwork for future research on sustainable water resource use in the manufacturing industries in Ghana. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study "This study does not claim to be exhaustive. It is limited to an inquiry into assessing" sustainable water use among some Ghanaian brewery companies. The study focuses on recent trends in sustainable water use; prospects from optimizing water use and reuse among the brewery industry; and the nature of commitment towards sustainable water management practices by recommending policy directions. In this case, challenges that impede sustainable water use in Ghana and Africa as a whole were sought without throwing into the oblivion factors that may be employed to improve the practice in these regions. The study uses Ghana's brewery industry as a case study drawing primary data ti·om water resource management institutions. and two (2) main brewery companies: the Accra Breweries Limited (ABL) and the Guinness Ghana Breweries Limited (GGBL). In selecting these organizations, the researcher considered organizations with a key mandate of ensuring that Ghana's natural resources, particularly, water resources are effectively managed. Aside this, the resean..:her also considered respondents whose activities/responsibilities are consistent with ensuring sustainable water use in the various units ofthe two brewery companies. 1.7 Chapter Summary and Organization of the Study This research consists of five (5) "chapters. The first chapter forms the introductory chapter. Jt comprises the background to the study, statement of the research problem, objectives of the study. research questions, significance ofthe" study, scope and limitation ofthe study, and the organization ofthe study. Chapter two broadly focuses on a review of relevant literature. Both theoretical and empirical literature relevant to this research were reviewed. The chapter also presents Ghana's policy on 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh water resource management, state of sustainable water management practices and its processes and an out I ine of some major challenges that hinder efforts to promote sustainable water use in general and also reviews some relevant frameworks and theories that are altered based on the study findings. The third Chapter provides the methodology adopted for this research. This chapter deals with issues such as the research approa3ewch, research design, study area, sources of data, instrument and data collection tools and data management and analysis as well as ethical considerations, among others. Chapter four contains a presentation of data analysis and discussion of key research findings. The last chapter summarizes the findings of the research, concludes and makes specific recommendations for practitioners, academia and the general public on the subject investigated. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.0 Introduction CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW While the preceding chapter presents the background and justification for this research, this particular chapter presents a I iterature review of the study. It discusses the extensive theoretical and empirical literature on key concepts in water resource management in the context of sustainability rt·om different perspectives and on salient issues in order to put this study in a context. The section, foremost, introduces the concept of water resource management and use as the main issue under discussion and further emphasizes its role in the global development agenda. Situated 111 the climate change literature, sustainable water use and practices in Ghana is subsequently presented. The chapter also discusses some of the contemporary approaches in adopting sustainable water use and management such as cleaner production and the Integrated Water Resource Management (JWRM). Relevant theoretical frameworks, models and tools proposed by scholars for enhancing effectiveness in the sustainable water use practices towards development and 111 itigating the negative impacts of climate change are also discussed. 2.1 Water Resources, Climate Change and Water Stress Rural communities in Africa are home to most of the world's poorest people, who depend greatly on the exploitation of natural resources . Africa has about 59% of its "poor people living in rural areas, depending primarily on agriculture for food and livelihood (Hope, 2009). Water management remains central for the survival of rural people in developing counties, which depends largely on rain-fed agriculture. This is because the water in most of these communities 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are 1101 processed or treated . Water is a part of the natural capital base that underpins the production systems that sustains livelihood (UNDP. 2006)." However, recent trends in climate change pose major threats to this natural resource. This has therefore drawn the attention of international development agencies and scholars to study how this situation could be improved (see Grafton et al., 2013; Arnell, 2004). For example, over 2 billion people. representing about a third of the world's population, live in countries experiencing high water stress (UN, 2018) whiles Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2016) asserts that about 4 billion people, representing nearly two-thirds of the world population, experience severe water scarcity during at least one month of the year. Irrespective or the nature of water source. c I i mate change may affect the resource. For instance. with the existing climate change scenario. by 2030, water scarcity in some arid and semi-arid places will displace between 24 million and 700 million people (UNESCO, 2019). In the Antarctica, a large quantity of ice is melting making it unsafe and unsustainable for biodiversity that lives there. Similarly, the dry and sunny Sahara region also experience erratic rainfalls that pose major threats to livelihood and existing water bodies. This also makes monitoring of rain fa II patterns difficult (Grafton et al., 20 13). Climate change due to an increasing concentration of greenhouse gases is likely to affect the volume and timing ofriver flows and groundwater recharge, and thus affect the numbers and distribution of people affected by water scarcity (Arnell, 2004). Estimates of the effect of climate change, however, depend not only on the assumed emissions scenario and climate model used to translate emissions into regional climates but also on the assumed rate of population change." Whilst some scholars blame the depleting water resource on climate changes, others disagree. Those opposing this view (see Seckler et al., 1998, 1999; Alcamo et al., 2000) assert that the depleting water resource is as a result of its use. For instance, II University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Seckler et al. ( 1999) ·'assessed future water resource scarcity at the global scale by 2025. They assumed no climate change, and their study concentrated on the development of scenarios for water use- focusing particularly on irrigation use. In their projections of future water resources vis-a-vis water demand, they found that a quarter of the world's population or a third ofthe population in developing countries live in regions that will experience severe water scarcity vvithin the nrst quarter of the next century. Furthermore, they found that at a global level, about 23% more water will be required under a scenario of increased irrigation efficiency compared to 56% under the business-as-usual scenario (constant irrigation efficiency). Without factoring in the effect of climate change, Alcamo et al. (2000) also assessed future water resource scarcity at the global scale based on the assumption that a river basin is under '"severe water stress·· if its criticality ratio (annual withdrawals over availability) is greater than 0.4. Considering the business-as-usual scenario, Alcamo et al. (2000) uncovered that "water withdrawals in most industrialized countries decline and therefore the pressure put on water resources also declines, while, withdrawals grow in most developing countries and increase the pressure on their water resources". The study claimed that between 1995 and 2025, the areas affected by "severe water stress" expand and intensifY, growing globally from 36.4 to 38.6 million km 2 whiles the number of people living in these areas also grows from 2.1 to 4.0 billion. The authors note that in Africa, the increase is especially significant in Southern and Western AJI·ica. Whichever way the argument is advanced, there is a fact that resources are being depleted and diminishing to a point that the available water supply may not meet both domestic and industrial demands. Hence, the need for adopting practical water resource management strategies (Grafton eta!., 20 13). 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 Water Resource Management "Waler management dates to ancient times when stone rows and ditches were used for irrigation and later aqueducts were built to carry water hom the source to points of needs. The purpose of water management" has changed tl·om the past where the focus was placed on getting water for domestic consumption, for hydropower generation and irrigation, to current dispensation where water management is not only for delivering water services, but also to balance the competing interests of stakeholders: individuals domestic needs, industry, agriculture, wildlife, and for recreational purposes (lza & Stein, 2009). This goes a long way to maintain a good relationship "between all the users who share water resources and develop systems that wi II accommodate future generations ... Anowie (20 12) suggests that effective water resource management that is tailored towards stakeholder participation is a necessary part of the solution to the challenge of managing the resource amid the harsh impact of climate change. Managing water resource has various dimensions: social dimension (equitable use), environmental dimension (sustainable use), political dimension (equal pa1iicipatory opportunities in decision making), and an economic dimension (efficient use) (see Salame et al., 2009). Hence, the need to weave in various stakeholders representing these interests to be able to address all these four (4) dimensions. Water resource management involves the "manner in which allocative and regulatory politics are exercised in the management of water and other natural resources. This broadly embraces both formal and informal institutions by which authority is exercised (Batcherlur, 2007)." Water use in most sub-Saharan African countries is governed by customary right and formal right (UNDP, 2006). According to Opoku-Ankomah et al. (2006), many rural communities employ llexible institutional arrangements including the use of taboos and other cultural practices to protect natural resources such as water resource over the years. The socio-cultural settings of an environment determine which rules and practices can provide the best results. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Although these informal institutions have made good efforts in improving water resource management, certain challenges inherent in the cultural relationship weaken compliance and enforcement of these customary laws. In more recent times, however, new reforms have placed water resources in the hands of the states. The aim is to create a unified and consolidated legal framework for government to allocate water rights with limits of environmental sustainability. This is to ensure that water resources are treated with an integrated fashion (UNDP, 2006). Governments' role in water policy formation and enforcement does not rule out decentralized state-structures, the participation of the poor, nor the local level from making decisions bothering on water resource management (Brauser. 2002). This is the main tenets of Integrated Water Resource Management as espoused by Rahaman and Varis (2005). 2.3 Integrated Water Resource Management The "Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is the" main approach used to manage water resource, globally. The "Integrated Water Resource Management is defined by Ghana Water Partnership (2000) cited in Rahaman and Varis (2005:15) as "a process, which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems". In their paper titled "Integrated water resources management: evolution, prospects and future challenges" which was "published in Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, Rahaman and Varis (2005) emphasized that water should be managed in a basin-wide context, under the principles of good governance and public participation. Since then, this approach has been adopted and recommended by the United Nations for ensuring availability and sustainable management of water for all. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To ensure sustainability and efficient water use in the future, several studies including Mondello (2006) have called for the implementation of IWRM. The Integrated Water Resource Management seeks to reconcile basic human needs, ensure access and equity with economic development not overlooking the integrity of the ecosystem (van der Zaag, 2005). Ahead of the introduction of IWRM concepts, social and economic development and water resource management tended to be fragmented, uncoordinated, top-down approach by sectoral institutions (GWP, 2000). The concept of IWRM has been accompanied by the promotion of the river basin as the logical geographical unit for its practical realization. In the early 2000s, several countries in Africa incorporated IWRM concept into their formal \Vater governance structures. For example, Ghana has set up a Water Resource Commission with a cross-sectoral mandate. Other policies such as the Ghana Water Act ( 1998), the South Atl·ican Water Act (1998), and Mali's 2007 Water Code also adopted an integrated approach to water resource management. Reports by Ghana Water Partnership (GWP) (2000) indicates that Kenya, Malawi, Mali Senegal, and Zambia also completed plans in 2008 whilst Eritrea, Mozambique, Swaziland among others are in the process of developing similar plans to embark on the IWRM approach. However, the motivation and the rate with which the IWRM was being implemented has begun to reduce, especially in sub-Saharan Atl·ica. Some critics believe that IWRM may work in more formalized water economies in the industrialized countries and not the informal water economies of the Global South. Hence, a renewed and growing call for a new vision of a more refined role for states. and other" players in water resource management in informal sectors in the Global South that allows community-based arrangement to play their full roles (Shah & van Koppen, 2006). 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4 Sustainable Water Resource Use Sustainable use of water resource is critical to the survival of human and industrial operations. Gavrilescu et al. (2008) including several other studies have examined sustainable water use in industries. According to them, the manufacturing process is one ofthe most important water consumers in the world. In the manufacturing sector, water ''resources needed for economic and social development are taken from the environment. However, the environment is bombarded with pollutants and waste materials from economic activities and as a result, triggers a constant reduction of environmental adsorption capacity and causes a decline of water resources. Subsequently, the decline in water resources influence the development of societ: and the ecological equilibrium. thereby making unsustainable production and consumption processes the main cause of environmental damage. Practices that are consistent with sustainable development appears to be the way forward. Achieving sustainable development requires changes in industrial processes, the type and quantity of water used, the treatment of wastewater, the control of emissions, and the products itself. Many of the present industrial systems are not sustainable in the long term due to excessive demands for natural non-renewable resources. Society needs to rely on sustainable growth approaches rather than destructive consumption. The achievement of such ambitious objectives requires a radical reconsideration of numerous practices of industries. Within the framework of sustainable development, water and its management play a major role, not only because water is and always has been an essential resource for the existence and evolution of I iving matter and human activities but also due to its importance for the social and economic development (Teodosiu et a!., 2003; Culabra & Purvis, 1999). Sustainable development assumes a continuing equilibrium between ecological, economic, and social development and the fact that any disturbances from this equilibrium lead to environmental damages, economic decline and social unrest" (Gavrilescu et al., 2008). In the context ofpaper 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh production. Gavrilescu et al. (2008) found three ways through which water resources may be conserved and sustained: i) reducing the outflow of wastewater in papermaking processes; ii) pollution preventive approaches; and iii) adopting integrated processes. 2 . ../.1 Reducing ou(flow (~/'wastewater Reducing efiluent in manufacturing processes involves designing a strategy for reuse, generation reuse, and "regeneration recycling of wastewater streams with the aim to minimize water consumption and wastewater discharge. A major challenge is that wastewater discharge from manufacturing facilities often comprises of diverse contaminants such as ions, salts, colouring/bleaching agents. and organics which have severe negative impacts on the ecology. This should be reduced by recycling, reusing and detoxifying towards sustainable water use. 2..1.2 Pollution preventive approaches In order to determine optimal strategies for water consumption and discharge in processing industries, it is crucial for firms to develop a comprehensive, generic approach to water management and pollution prevention which incorporates economics, reliability and product quality along with maximizing the use of already available process internal resources. In recent times, new methodologies have been developed which are capable of systematically minimizing waste and improving the overall process efficiency. Water conservation and source reduction are interconnected. Source reduction initiatives may result in less wastewater to be lrealeJ ur JisposeJ resulling in less sourcing, smaller volumes of hazardous wastewaters, and potentially enabling more efficiency. 2. Spzoe W RiminG watel ~walet Wastewaier Source: Vander Merwe and Friends (2002) 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tokos & Glavic (2007) had a similar discovery in his research as recorded by Brewers Research and Education Fund, BREF (2006), revealing the water usage in litres per litre of beer produced at the department tl·om the Brewhouse to wort cooling and Clean-in-place (CIP) systems to be within the range of 1.3-2.36 (LIL) (Tokos & Glavic, 2007). 2. 5. 3 Water usage in the cellar The cellar is a component of operations during the brewing process which is a continuation of the process accomplished at the Brewhouse. In this department, fermentation and yeast handling with CIP. maturation with CIP. and thirdly. filtration and bright beer tanks (BBT) \\ ith C I P experienced water usage ratios per I itre of beer produced with in the range of 0.32 - 0.53 (LIL). 0.24- 0.67 (LIL) and 0.31 - 1.09 (LIL) respectively as revealed by the BREF (2006) and Tokos & Glavic (2007). After wort cooling, yeast pitching is the next operation in the cellar where water is added to the wort while fermentation follows and at the end of fermentation, a product termed green beer is derived and sent to the storage vessels for maturation via the racking process (which involves centrifugal separation, chilling and carbonation steps). This process prompts an addition of cooling water transferred through the shell of the centrifuge and discharged to the drains in order to avoid the damage of the centrifuge (Vander Merwe and Friends, 2002). Water is also used during the pre-coating process and backwashing and a quantity of de-aerated carbonate water is also added to correct the alcoholic content of the high-gravity beer which is later stored in bright beer tanks (BBT) till when it will be packed into containers for distribution and consumption. For cleaning the vessels and transferring between the vessels a quantity of 38,0 I 0 hi and 14,912 hi of water is utilized respectively and at the end of the cellar operations, 0. 89 hi water/ hi packed beer was used (Vander Merwe and Friends, 2002). 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.4: Overall water balancefor the Cellar I WalLY in yeas1 (ptooossl ~~-~-m_g_w_~-~----------~:> ,~ ~'-Ba_c~ __ ~s_h_~------------~:>·~~ I Precoat WB_ter ______ ~:> 0 Blending waler lproca,.s) l..i _Tr-Br_15f_ar_w_Mer _________ ~:> <€>- Cleaning WBI« Source: Vander Merwe and Friends (2002) ~- ~ Water in baer to packaging (frocll'Ss) > Cellars ~~Bal!f1oss > ~'-· ____ ___, The German brewery industry reported that the process steps of wort cooling, fermentation cellar and yeast treatment, filter and pressure tank room and finally, storage cellar recorded water consumption per sold beer, as stated in the figure above, of 0.0 within a range of 0.0- 2.4 (m3/m3), 0.6 with a range of 0.5- 0.8 (m3/m3), 0.3 with a range ofO.l - 0.5 (m3/m3) and 0.5 within a range of0.3- 0.6 (m3/m3) ~pectively (World Bank, 1998). This shows from the compared research works that a reduction in water usage during cellar operation was experienced per volume of beer produced or sold by the breweries. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5.-1. Water usage during packaging In 1998, the World Bank "Pollution prevention and abatement" handbook revealed that during the packaging operations, bottling consumes 1.1 cubic meters of water per cubic meter of beer sold while barrel filling used 0.1 (m3/m3). In Van der Merwe and Friends (2002) research work, it was discovered that the packaging operations consume an overall of 153,290 hi water to pack 104,016 hi ofbeerwith a water ratio at the packaging section as 1.47 (hi/hi). The sections ofthese operations that consumed water include; water used by the vacuum pump, the amount used to flush broken glass or cullet from the filler, to make-up the levels within the pasteurizer and to the cooling towers, the quantity utilized in washing and rinsing containers and crates and in transferring the beer to the filler up to the water used for wash down of equipment used in production as disclosed in figure 6 below (Van der Merwe and Friends, 2002). 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure .J. 0: Overall water balance for the packaging section ._l_w_m_er_r,_om_c.et_ls_B_Ipro_~_l __ _,) 0- 1 T~mr~ __ wr __________ -J:> ~ c;:~_Ri_M_i~---~-------~~~ l._c_tMet_nu_st~_wa_tor _____ __,) ~'> ~ I Wlllllr in packed product (Jman.sl ) Vanun pump water [ Pas.!ourisor msko-~ Wllll!r Packaging > r CD