ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF LANGUAGE TRANSLATION TOOLS IN THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: A TAM-BASED STUDY OF FRANCOPHONE STUDENTS STUDYING IN GHANA BY HARRIET OFORI (10375934) This thesis is submitted to the University of Ghana, Legon, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of MPHIL in COMMUNICATION STUDIES Degree. June 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that except for the references to other people 's work, which have been duly cited, this thesis is the result of my own research undertaken at the Department of Communication Studies, University of Ghana, Le~on. The work was under the supervision of Dr. Gilbert Tietaah. /4r1r:fut . ......... ~ .l-~· ·· ·· ··· ·· Harriet Ofori (Student) DATE: 13/06/2022 ......... :g ...................... . Dr. Gilbert Tietaah (Primary Supervisor) DATE: 13/06/2022 Professor Audrey Gadzekpo (Secondary Supervisor) DA TE: 13/06/2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION This research is dedicated to the Almighty God, whose faithfulness has brought me this far in my academic pursuit. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would first of all like to express my profound gratitude to God Almighty. I would not have made it this far without His grace, mercy and faithfulness. I would also like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Gilbert Tietaah. His time, critique, academic counsel and patience greatly helped in giving the needed focus and quality to my work. A big thank you also goes to my second supervisor, Professor Audrey Gadzekpo, whose intellect and advice immensely contributed to my work. I am equally grateful to my family, especially my mother, Madam Patricia Ofori, whose constant prayers and moral support always gave me the confidence and faith I never knew I had. Mum, your God will always be my God. In the same light, equal gratitude goes to my siblings – Sandra, Betty, Lina, Alex and Kay. A simple message to my family: Ayekoo! You have been great. Again, I would like to acknowledge Dr. Abena Animwaa Yeboah-Banin, whose discipline, zeal and drive for excellence pushed me to go the extra mile in my academic pursuit. Many thanks also go to my Assistant lecturer, Fidelis. In many ways that you may not be aware of, you were helpful, especially in helping me believe in myself and in streamlining my work. I would also like to acknowledge Clark Louma Eyougha of the Ghana Institute of Languages (GIL). You were very helpful and I say “Merci”! I also wish to state my appreciation to Korku. You have been supportive in more ways than one, and your constant interest in my progress has paid off. Thanks to you, I have finally done my Dao. Finally, to Fidel, my friend and colleague, my MPhil experience would have been terrible without your friendship and support. Thank you. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................i DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................ viii CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of Study ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1.1 Mediated Communication Age; Global Educational Experience and Internationalization of Universities ......................................................................................... 2 1.1.2 Scholarly Appeal of Translation Technologies ............................................................... 5 1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................. 7 1.3 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................. 10 1.4 Research Questions .............................................................................................................. 11 1.5 Significance of Study ........................................................................................................... 12 1.6 Operational Definition of Key Terms .................................................................................. 13 1.7 Organisation of Study .......................................................................................................... 15 1.8 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................ 16 CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................................... 17 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................. 17 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 17 2.2 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) ............................................................................... 17 2.2.1 Perceived Usefulness (PU) ............................................................................................ 19 2.2.2 Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) ....................................................................................... 20 2.2.3 External Variable(s) ...................................................................................................... 21 2.2.4 Attitude toward Acceptance and Use ............................................................................ 22 2.2.5 Behavioural Intention to Use ........................................................................................ 22 2.2.6 Actual System Use ......................................................................................................... 23 2.3 Application of TAM in Related Studies .............................................................................. 23 2.4 Relevance of TAM to Study ................................................................................................ 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v 2.5 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 24 CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................................... 25 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 25 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 25 3.2 [Related Studies] .................................................................................................................. 25 3.2.1 Second Language Acquisition (SLA) in a Study Abroad (SA) Socialisation Context ... 25 3.2.2 Language Barriers and Related Issues in Foreign Language Environments ............... 27 3.2.3 Overcoming Language Barriers with Language Translation Tools ............................. 32 3.2.4 Usefulness and Ease of Use of Language Translation Tools ........................................ 33 3.2.5 Technology Acceptance and Use ................................................................................... 37 3.3 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................ 41 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 43 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 43 4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 43 4.2 Research Design ................................................................................................................... 43 4.3 Population and Sample......................................................................................................... 44 4.4 Unit of Analysis ................................................................................................................... 46 4.5 Sampling Procedure ............................................................................................................. 46 4.6 Data Collection Instrument .................................................................................................. 47 4.7 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 49 4.8 Ethical Considerations ......................................................................................................... 49 4.9 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 50 CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................................... 51 FINDINGS .................................................................................................................................... 51 5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 51 5.1.1 Context of Interviews ........................................................................................................ 51 5.2 Language Translation Tools Used and Reasons for their Choice(s) .................................... 52 5.3 Perceptions on the Usefulness of Language Translation Tools ........................................... 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 5.4 Perceptions on the Ease of Use of Language Translation Tools.......................................... 63 5.5 Contexts within Which Language Translation Tools Are Most Helpful and Least Helpful65 ................................................................................................................................................... 65 5.6 Experiences of Studying in Ghana vis-à-vis Communication Challenges and Language Translation Tools ....................................................................................................................... 69 5.7 Other Factors That Influence Acceptance and Use of Language Translation Tools ........... 74 5.8 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................ 77 CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................................ 79 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................... 79 6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 79 6.2 Language Translation Tools Used and Reason(s) for their Choices .................................... 79 6.3 Perceptions on the Usefulness of Language Translation Tools ........................................... 80 6.4 Perceptions on the Ease of Use of Language Translation Tools.......................................... 83 6.5 Contexts within Which Language Translation Tools Are Most Helpful and Least Helpful82 ................................................................................................................................................... 83 6.6 Experiences of Studying in Ghana vis-à-vis Communication Challenges and Language Translation Tools ....................................................................................................................... 85 6.7 Other Factors That Influence Acceptance and Use of Language Translation Tools in the Foreign Learning Environment .................................................................................................. 86 6.8 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................ 88 CHAPTER SEVEN ..................................................................................................................... 90 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................. 90 7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 90 7.2 Summary of Main Findings ................................................................................................. 90 7.3 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 92 7.4 Limitations of the Study ....................................................................................................... 94 7.5 Recommendations for Future Studies .................................................................................. 94 7.6 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 95 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................ 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................. 106 INTERVIEW GUIDE ............................................................................................................... 106 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Davis (1989) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) .................................................. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii ABSTRACT This study is a qualitative exploration of the experiences of francophone students with the use and utility of language translation tools for navigating the communication challenges they face in a foreign language learning environment. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) underpinned this study. A total of 20 francophone students from the Ghana Institute of Languages (GIL) were interviewed. There were similarities between the findings of this study and those of many previous studies, in the revelation that while translation tools do have some functional utility, their inability to reflect the imperatives of context in meaning making impose limitations on their reliability in enabling competent communication. However, while the threshold for error may be low in fields such medicine and healthcare, the lack of complete accuracy of language translation tools was perceived to be less of a barrier to students in the foreign language learning environment. Furthermore, the findings show that perceptions of the usefulness and ease of use of different translation tools informed the preferences of francophone students for particular types of language translation tools. Finally, similar to conclusions by Tabiri and Budu (2017), notwithstanding individual testimonies about experiences of foreign language anxiety (FLA), a shared opinion among the informants was that immersing into the language and culture of the target language gives them the opportunity to interact with Ghanaian English speakers, which would in turn, increase their English language proficiency. Future studies may consider including a quantitative dimension that would pick on the indicators identified in the present study, in order to increase breadth as well as generalisability of findings. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Study In what has been referred to as the age of globalization (Sparks, 2007; Sreberny-Mohammadi, 1991), effective communication, together with the enabling technologies, has been metaphorically described as the oxygen and lifeblood of interpersonal, social and organizational functioning (Keranen & Sanprie, 2008; Nwabueze & Mileski 2018; Sethi & Seth, 2009); without which very little meaning can be shared among people. Foreigners living in countries where they do not share any linguistic commonalities with the citizens however find it difficult to communicate meaningfully, resulting, in most cases, in a phenomenon known as the Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA), in their attempt to speak the target language. FLA is also believed to negatively affect the academic performance of foreign students in countries whose national language they do not speak fluently (Kiya, 2015). According to Ezzi (2012), university students in foreign countries have to communicate using foreign language (FL) in the classroom, which causes some level of communication anxiety among them. Some, in an effort to mitigate the challenges, resort to such technologies as language translation tools, an example of which is Google Translate. The possible expediency, if not efficiency, of these tools notwithstanding, users hold different views on their usefulness in terms of how effective they are in helping them communicate with people with whom they do not share the same linguistic backgrounds. The research evidence reflects an equivocal verdict on language barriers and the factors that influence the adoption of these tools by users. Whereas some base the acceptance and use of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 translation tools on their perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, evidence from other studies suggest that the acceptance and use of these technologies vary from one person to the other, as determined by various other factors, which also depend on the individual (Baturay et al., 2017; Faqih & Jaradat, 2014; Hussein, 2017). 1.1.1 Mediated Communication Age; Global Educational Experience and Internationalization of Universities Learning a foreign language (FL) in this era of globalization has become a necessary tool to broaden one’s horizons, gain a better understanding of foreign people and their cultures and communicate with them (Hwa & Peck, 2017). According to Rajanthran et al. (2013), communication is an essential element in human interaction, which is connected to the oral and listening aspects of a language. Different languages all over the world have become a means of communication for many. Of these languages, English is considered as one of the dominant few and has thus acquired an important communication role in the world. In countries such as Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand and the United States of America, which Kachru (1985, as cited in Roy-Campbell, 2014) refers to as the inner circle, it is spoken as a native language. It is also used in other countries, including former British colonies in Asia and Africa, also referred to as the outer circle (Kachru, as cited in Roy-Campbell, 2014). As English is used together with several indigenous languages in the outer circle, its role differs from that of the countries in the inner circle (Crystal, 1997 as cited in in Roy-Campbell, 2014). Among the many different social spheres where evidence of this is easily observable are the educational systems worldwide both at pre-university (Dalton-Puffer, 2011) and university levels (Doiz et al., Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2013a; Smit & Dafouz, 2012). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 In an effort to design efficient language learning programmes and due to the hegemony of English, governments and education systems have been forced to implement English-medium instruction (EMI) programmes, with the hopes of accomplishing two objectives simultaneously – content learning and language acquisition – (Dafouz et al., 2014; Doiz et al., 2013a; Smit & Dafouz, 2012). What is more, there is currently an active engagement of higher education institutions in an internationalisation process now more than ever (Lasagabaster, 2015). Moreover, universities have become a place of convergence for people of different racial, cultural and linguistic backgrounds, where they come together for the common goal of learning and sharing knowledge. The English language, considered to be one of the main instruments of internationalising universities all over the world according to Lasagabaster (2016), has become a particularly important medium of communication. According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, the international profile of universities is one criterion by which they are ranked in terms of performance. Therefore, the more foreign students a university enrols, the better it is deemed to perform. Implicit in this is the idea that universities have an interest in reflecting an internationalised operating profile. This ‘competition’ has boosted the already privileged position of English, which constitutes ‘a covert form of language policy’ as it strongly favours EMI (Piller & Cho, 2013, p. 23). Higher Education Institutions in Ghana for example, in an effort to establish an internationalised profile, admit foreign students. According to the National Accreditation Board of Ghana, as at June 2018, there were 212 tertiary institutions in the country, some of which admit foreign students. The problem with internationalising tertiary institutions vis-à-vis the English language however is that, it may result in unexpected side effects (Piller & Cho, 2013; Shohamy, 2013; van der Walt, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 2013). Examples of these side effects are students’ communication challenges and disinterest in academic material due to their lack of English proficiency, resulting in limited participation and interaction in classes, which according to Kiya (2015), negatively affects their academic performance. Another effect of internationalising tertiary institutions through the English language, foreign language anxiety, has become a matter of considerable interest in the context of language education since it is considered a major obstacle to learning in foreign language environments (Wu, 2011). According to Horwitz (2001), one-third of all foreign language learners experience language anxiety to some extent, hence, the scholarly interest in the topic in recent years (Ellis, 2008). It is in view of this communication challenge that the importance of mediated communication tools is highlighted. For years, mediated communication tools such as e-learning platforms have played an immense role in teaching and learning. This has stirred scholarly interest in the study of cross- cultural communication as well as mediated communication in the learning environment. There has been tremendous growth in research related to mediated communication vis-à-vis mobile-based technologies in the past decade; specifically, in the fields of mobile commerce, mobile banking, and mobile learning (Chung, Chen, & Kuo, 2015; Shaikh & Karjaluoto, 2015; Turban et al., 2015). In addition, Granić and Marangunić (2019) assert that educational settings involve a wide range of potential users of technologies, which support the process of knowledge transfer and acquisition. Examples of such technologies are language translation tools, such as Google Translate, which some people especially in cross-cultural settings resort to in an effort to mitigate communication challenges caused by language barriers. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 In foreign learning environments, language translation tools are not being proposed as absolute remedies, but as facilities to provide an expedient shortcut, to help foreign students negotiate meaning and understanding in the foreign learning environment. 1.1.2 Scholarly Appeal of Translation Technologies In professional contexts such as healthcare, language barriers threaten the quality of hospital care received by patients whose linguistic backgrounds are different from that of their caregivers (van Rosse et al., 2016). Hospital procedures such as medication administration, pain management, interaction between patient and physician as well as risk communication are at the risk of being unsuccessful due to language barriers. To mitigate these communication challenges, health care professionals rely on language translation tools to facilitate communication between them and their patients. In spite of the possible convenience and/or efficiency provided by these tools, practitioners hold their reservations on their usefulness in terms of how effective they are in helping them communicate with their patients with limited English Proficiency (LEP). For example, Turner et al. (2019) found that although Emergency Medical Service (EMS) personnel and patients with LEP appreciate the flexibility of translation tools, multiple translation errors and difficulty responding to questions limit their usefulness in facilitating communication between them and their patients with LEP. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 In addition, Vasconcellos and Bostad (1992) noted that, sometimes, in addition to using approved terminology, translations call for special phraseology, which may not be in the technology’s ability. Patil and Davies’ (2014) in their study also found limited usefulness for the tools for medical phrases used in communications between patients and doctor, largely because many of the translations were “completely wrong.” These results can be explained from the findings of a study conducted by Weissbort and Eysteinsson (2006, p. 347), who said: Since no two languages are identical, it stands to reason that there can be no absolute correspondence between languages. Hence, there can be no fully exact translations. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original, but there can be no identity in detail. Language translation tools can, therefore, facilitate some level of understanding and meaning negotiation to some extent. There is however always a possibility that meaning may be distorted and lost in translation. Language translation tools, according to the literature, have limitations in terms of efficiency and accordingly, may not be the most useful in certain fields of enquiry such as medicine (Bundgaard et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2016; Patil & Davis, 2014; Turner et al., 2019). However, whether they are useful in other contexts such as the foreign language learning environment in which they may just be considered as aids, is still open to research. Evidently, observations made by scholars in related studies that have tended to repudiate the value of machine translations have generally been examined in the context where errors are understandably not entertained. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 To what extent therefore are the conclusions from said studies universally generalisable to all contexts? Are there contexts in which they provide sufficient understanding to facilitate negotiation of some meaning such as in the context of the foreign learning environment where foreign language students have the need to learn and may find it as a tool for learning the normative language – English? Questions such as these were raised and addressed in the present study. 1.2 Problem Statement Multiple studies on the challenges posed by language barriers and the translation tools to attenuate them have tended to focus on the medical context understandably because such studies have been interested in the far-reaching consequences that may arise from errors in the translation of medical presentations, terminologies and prescriptions (Chen et al., 2016; Patil & Davies, 2014; Turner et al., 2019). Désilets et al. (2009), for example, conducted an ethnographic study to determine the types of translation problems faced by human translators and the types of resources they used to solve translation difficulties and found that human translators 41 per cent of the time consulted translation tools and resources in the practice of their profession. Scholars however have differing views on the utility of language translation tools. Whereas some find them very useful, others think otherwise. After an evaluation of the general performance of freely available machine translation (MT) tools in the translation of metadata records, Chen et al. (2012) concluded that language translation tools are useful and dependable. On the contrary, other scholars posit that translation technologies are limited in usefulness, and point to the significant limitations of translation technologies in the medical context (Bundgaard et al., 2016; Chen et al., University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 2016; Patil & Davies, 2014; Turner et al., 2019). They argue that although translation tools provide a level of assistance in negotiating meaning and understanding, multiple translation errors and difficulty responding to questions limit their utility, especially since they are set in the medical context. In the context of the foreign learning environment however, the usefulness of language translation tools is still unclear, as there remains a scarcity of studies on the subject. The verdict is therefore out, as to how language translation tools can be used by foreign students in the foreign learning environment. Studies on communication challenges faced by foreign students with language barriers have only focused on the challenges they face, with particular reference to foreign language anxiety and few solutions or suggestions have been sought on how to overcome them (Gopang et al., 2015; Javid, 2014; van Rosse et al., 2016). In fact, Yasuoka and Bjorn (2011) have argued that little is known, as regards the practice of machine-translation mediated communication and have made a call for more scholarship into the area. Indeed, translation technology has in recent times become an integrated part of human life (Christensen et al., 2017). In 2016 alone, Google Translate (an online language translation tool), translated an average of 143 billion words a day in 100 language combinations (Christensen et al., 2017). Across various contexts and multi-lingual communication situations such as hospitals, churches, businesses and universities, many people are beginning to leverage language translation tools to communicate with people they share little to no linguistic commonalities with. These language translation tools, such as Google Translate, have become especially salient, as universities are internationalising, for which reason non-Anglophones enrol in institutions in Anglophone countries and vice-versa. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 The proximity of francophone countries such as Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire and Togo to Ghana has increased the number of francophone students in the country for educational purposes (World Education News & Reviews [WENR], 2019). A 2019 report by the WENR has described the educational system in Ghana as being generally better than that of other countries in sub-Saharan Africa. This means that after enrolment, they, being francophone, would face communication challenges, especially in the learning environment (Tabiri & Budu, 2017). For example, Tabiri and Budu (2017) conducted a study on the difficulties francophone students in the Ghana Technology University College (GTUC) face. They found that in addition to the academic contexts, francophone students face difficulties in social spheres as well, and therefore concluded that finding a solution to the academic challenges could be a stepping-stone to resolving all other communication challenges of francophone students in the English learning environment. Isabelli-Garcia (2017), Pinar (2016) and Wang (2010) have argued that if it were only for the purpose of learning grammar and acquiring classroom knowledge of the English language, francophone students would remain in their countries and employ other ways of learning. They are however motivated or encouraged to actually move to Ghana or other English-speaking countries because they know that language is also learnt more efficiently in a social setting. In fact, majority of studies on language immersion academic programmes have come to a consensus that studying in the target language country helps to improve communicative competence, fluency and pronunciation, mainly owing to the numerous opportunities presented to participate in interactions with the native speakers of the target language in a social out-of-the-classroom setting (Isabelli Garcia, 2017; Pinar, 2016; Wang, 2010). Thus, for example, when francophone students come into a new foreign learning environment, they rely on language translation tools to negotiate communicative meaning and understanding within and outside the academic environment on an University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 everyday basis. However, how useful are these tools to them? There is a scarcity of studies to answer this question. The present study was therefore designed to extend existing scholarship on translation challenges beyond the context of health and into the context of education. The study looks at the experiences relative to the learning environment of francophone students with limited English proficiency (LEP) studying in Ghana. Furthermore, the study explored the remedies available in the form of translation technologies in the context of the foreign learning environment. The study called on the constructs of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), which, although has been studied, has been limited in scope to fields such as business/economics, agriculture/environment, and corporate/organisational contexts. The study thus explored how francophone students with LEP studying in Ghana reconcile the opportunities presented by translation tools with the challenges caused by language barriers. The study also explored whether, and in what ways, the tenets of the TAM plays a role in users’ adoption of translation technologies. 1.3 Research Objectives The overall purpose of this research was to find out the use of language translation tools among Francophones studying in Ghana and the factors that influence their acceptance and use. To achieve this, the study pursued the following specific objectives: 1. To explore the language translation tool preferences of Francophones studying in Ghana and the reason(s) for their choices; 2. To explore francophone students’ perceptions on the usefulness of language translation tools for overcoming communication challenges; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 3. To explore francophone students’ perceptions on the ease of use of language translation tools; 4. To explore the contexts within which Francophones studying in Ghana find the language translation tools most helpful and least helpful; 5. To explore experiences of Francophones studying in Ghana vis-à-vis their communication challenges and their use of translation tools to mitigate them; 6. To explore what other factors influence francophone students’ acceptance and use of language translation tools in the foreign learning environment. 1.4 Research Questions To meet the objectives of the study, the following research questions were considered pertinent: 1. What language translation tools do Francophones studying in Ghana prefer and what are the reasons for their choices? 2. What perceptions do francophone students hold on the usefulness of language translation tools for overcoming communication challenges? 3. What are francophone students’ perceptions on the ease of use of language translation tools? 4. Within what contexts do francophone students in Ghana find the language translation tools most helpful and least helpful? 5. What are the experiences of Francophones studying in Ghana in terms of communication challenges and what roles have translation tools played in mitigating them; 6. What other factors influence francophone students’ acceptance and use of language University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 translation tools in the foreign (English) learning environment? 1.5 Significance of Study This study, which sought to explore the acceptance and use of language translation tools from the perspective of the TAM, has an import for both scholarship and practice. As Yasuoka and Bjorn (2011) argue, there is a lull in scholarship with regard to the practice of machine-translation mediated communication, creating a scholarly gap, which this study attempted to fill, to an extent. First, the study is important in contributing to empirical understanding of the ways in which the assumptions of TAM are sustainable in the context of language translation tools. The study sought to extend the heuristics of TAM beyond the traditional subjects of education (in terms of learning management systems such as Sakai, Moodle and Canvas), banking and social media and into the domain of language translation within the educational sector. Second, the findings of the study add to scholarship around the issues of language barriers in the foreign learning environment, which have tended to focus on challenges, rather than remedies or suggestions for improving communication and negotiating meaning between Francophones with LEP and the rest of the English community. Finally, the findings of this study suggest a functional corpus of situations that are encountered within and outside the academic context, and the development of reference resources appropriate to the particular needs of students with LEP. In addition, the findings provide possible feedback for tool developers to include in their corpus of terms. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 1.6 Operational Definition of Key Terms The key terms used in this study are language translation tools, learning environment, acceptance, use, language barriers, opportunities, experiences, challenges, anxiety, perceptions, influence, usage behaviour, usefulness and ease of use. These are operationally defined as follows: Language translation tools: These are software applications that translate text from a source language into a target language to facilitate communication between people who do not share a common language. Francophones: This term was used in the study to denote French speakers. It was used interchangeably with “francophone students” throughout the study. Learning environment: This was used throughout the present study to represent contexts of conversation or communication within and outside the formal structures of the classroom or an examination. This was used interchangeably with “foreign learning environment”, “English learning environment”, “foreign language learning environment” and “academic setting/context” in the study. Acceptance: This construct was used in the study to denote the act of accepting technological tools such as language translation tools. Use: This was used to denote the act of actually using the language translation tools to facilitate communication and negotiate meaning and understanding between francophone students with LEP studying in Ghana and the rest of the English learning environment. Language barriers: This construct was used to denote conceptual setbacks to effective communication, occurring when people who speak different languages attempt to communicate with each other. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 Usefulness: “Usefulness” in the study denotes the practical and beneficial use of technological tools as well as their ability to enhance users’ performance. Ease of use: This construct was used in the study to represent the quality of a particular technological tool in terms of how its use is free from physical and mental effort. Opportunities: This construct was used throughout the study to represent possibilities language translation tools could present to francophone students in Ghana to remedy their language barrier. Experiences: This term is used in the study to indicate events and/or activities which francophone students in Ghana go through and from which they have gathered knowledge, opinions, and skills. The construct, “communication challenges” is an example of the experiences of Francophones studying in Ghana. Challenges: In the study, this concept was used to signify communication difficulties Francophones studying in Ghana face due to their limited English proficiency. Anxiety: “Anxiety” was used in the study to denote the constant state of worry and nervousness of foreign language speakers, especially when they have to communicate in languages that they are not sufficiently proficient in. Perceptions: This was used in the study to represent Francophone students in Ghana’s conscious understanding of as well as their opinions on the usefulness and ease of use of language translation tools. Influence: In the study, this construct was used to represent the process of and the ability of one entity to have an effect on another’s behavioural intentions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 Usage behaviour: This term was used in the study to signify the decisions users make in terms of their adoption of technological tools such as language translation tools. 1.7 Organisation of Study This study is organised into seven chapters. Chapter one is an introduction to the study, which provides the study’s background and contextual lay-out. The chapter further presents the research problem, research objectives, research questions, significance of the study, and operational definition of key research constructs and terms. The second chapter discusses the theoretical framework used for the study – the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Chapter three focuses on literature related to the study. The research approaches and relevant findings of previous studies on study abroad programmes, communication challenges and utility of language translation tools are reviewed and presented. Chapter four explains the methodology used in the study. The method, population, sample and sampling process, unit of analysis, data collection and analysis procedures are all discussed in this chapter. In chapter five, the findings of the study as pertained to the themes derived from the research questions posed are presented. Chapter six presents a discussion of the findings from the study in light of the theory and related literature. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 Chapter seven concludes the study by summarizing the findings and discussions presented in previous chapters and drawing out practical implications. Limitations of the study as well as recommendations for future studies are also presented. 1.8 Chapter Summary This chapter has provided an introduction to the research topic, including a background to the study and the problem statement. It has also expressed the research objectives and research questions, operational definitions of key terms as used in the context of the study, and an explanation of the significance of the study. In Chapter Two which follows, the theoretical framework on which the study is grounded – the TAM – is discussed. The chapter discusses the tenets of the TAM and its relevance to the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction This study, which was interested in exploring the acceptance and use of language translation tools among francophone students in Ghana, relied on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as the theoretical framework. The theory provided the logic for the problem statement and research questions flowing therefrom. It also guided the nature of interview questions and helped in discussing the findings deriving from the interviews. This chapter discusses the tenets of the TAM and its relevance to the study. 2.2 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) According to Watson (2003), the media and communications research prism anticipates four possible approaches to studying communication and media. These approaches include the output theory, content theory, response theory and the medium theory. The medium theory involves communication vis-à-vis technology and is also the focus of this study. TAM, which was introduced by Davis in 1989, is an adaptation of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). It identifies factors that enable integration of technologies into an organization as well as to determine motives behind acceptance or rejection of a technology. Davis’ (1989) TAM suggests two yardsticks for evaluating the probable factors that could influence the adoption of a new technology. These measures are the potential user’s perceptions of usefulness and perceptions of ease of use of the technology. While perceived usefulness describes the degree to which a person University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 believes that using a particular technology would enhance his or her job performance, perceived ease of use focuses on the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system or technology would be free from effort (Davis, 1989). According to Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1989), about 50 per cent of the variance in the levels of technology acceptance among users can be explained using the TAM. Figure 1: Davis (1989) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) With regard to the present study, the TAM was useful for determining the utility language translation tools have for the informants, in terms of their (language translation tools’) capacity to enable francophone students negotiate meaning and understanding in the foreign (English) learning environment. As mentioned earlier, the two yardsticks by which the factors influencing technology adoption could be measured, according to the TAM are the users’ perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of the technology. External variables Perceived ease of use Perceived usefulness Attitude towards use Behavioral intention to use Actual system use University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 2.2.1 Perceived Usefulness (PU) Robey (1979) theorises that a system that does not help people perform their tasks is not likely to be favourably received in spite of careful implementation efforts. For instance, it was observed in a study conducted by Portz et al. (2019) that perceived usefulness played a key role in participants’ intention to use My Health Manager – a health management application – resulting from how useful they found it for managing their health. Due to the tendency of people to accept a technology based on their perception of the usefulness of the technology as suggested by Davis (1989), it is important to understand the ways in which the perceived usefulness of language translation technologies might inform learners’ disposition towards, or tendency to, employ them as handy means of overcoming their language barriers. In the specific case of physician-patient communication, however, Patil and Davies (2014) found that language translation tools are limited in utility. This is understandable, given that the medical context is a setting that gives very little room for error. Specifically, Patil and Davies (2014) explained that they had found limited usefulness for medical phrases used in communications between patients and doctor. Clearly, language translation tools have limitations in terms of the fact that they are not sufficiently sensitive to the variable contexts in which meaning is derived from specific concepts, phraseologies, and usages. When an individual uses a particular language translation tool to convert texts into a target language, the translated text produced by these mechanical tools may fail to fully convey and communicate the intended meaning and understanding (Vasconcellos & Bostad, 1992). This, according to scholars, leads to a degree of loss of meaning. Turner et al. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 (2019) described language translation tools as limited in usefulness as despite their flexibility, they proved to produce multiple translation errors and difficulty responding to questions. Interestingly, the studies noted above (Patil & Davis, 2014; Turner et al., 2019) were conducted in the medical context, where, as stated earlier, errors are justifiably not tolerated. This is unlike the context of the present study – the foreign learning environment – where the value of the language translation tool may lie more in its facility or functional utility in helping the user gain a general sense, rather than the technically accurate meaning, intended by the interlocutor – whether as fellow students or instructors. The technology acceptance model suggests that individuals would generally accept and eventually use a technology (in this case language translation tools) when they believe that using them would enhance their performance in any task assigned (Davis, 1989). In the analysis of computer mediated communication, acceptance is regarded as the act of embracing, entertaining and employing the use of language translation tools in the learning environment. As far as language learners are concerned, accepting to use a particular language translation tool may only reflect its ability to improve, rather than perfect, or even fully resolve, their communication competences. 2.2.2 Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) This study, aside from exploring users’ acceptance and use of language translation tools based on their perceived usefulness of the tools, also explored their (users’) acceptance of language translation tools based on their (users’) perceptions of the ease of use of the tools. Davis’ (1989) TAM suggests that perceived ease of use may be a factor that influences users’ decisions to accept and use a new technology to which they are introduced. A considerable number of studies have University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 been conducted to ascertain the accuracy of this assertion. For instance, Baturay et al. (2017) investigated pre-service teachers’ intentions towards technology acceptance and found that perceived ease of use sometimes played a role in users’ decisions to accept and use a new technology to which they are introduced. Similar results were also revealed by other relevant scholarly works (Bakhsh et al., 2017; Dumpit & Fernandez, 2017; Faqih & Jaradat, 2014). This study sought to explore whether perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of a language translation tool influenced francophone students’ decisions to accept and use specific language translation tools. In addition to these, however, there are other equally important variables worthy of discussion within the TAM – external variables, behavioural intention to use and actual system use. 2.2.3 External Variable(s) In the model (Davis, 1989), external variables are the first elements projected to influence prospective users’ perceived usefulness and their perceived ease of use of a new technology. What this suggests is that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of a new technology do not happen in a vacuum, but can however be determined by some external factors which may vary from context to context. With regard to the present study, the external variables are the foreign learning environment, users’ level of proficiency in the English language as well as their experience in the use of the language translation tools. In the present study, external variables were as crucial as in any other context, as francophone students’ presence in the foreign learning environment, level of their English proficiency, and their University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 experience in the use of language translation tools played important roles in their respective perceptions of usefulness and ease of use of their language translation tool choices. 2.2.4 Attitude toward Acceptance and Use Davis et al. (1989) defined attitude toward acceptance and use as a cognitive appraisal of how a computer system or technology can help a prospective user improve (upon) their performance. They also suggested that there could be cases in which an individual might form a strong behavioural intention towards a new technology without first forming an attitude towards the technology. They conducted a study to ascertain this and found that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use in many cases directly influenced behavioural intentions towards a new technology. What this means in the context of this study is that francophone students are not necessarily expected to form attitudes towards language translation tools before they make their choices. In view of this, the study did not engage the variable of attitude in the quest to explore the acceptance and use of language translation tools among francophone students in Ghana, but only focused on their behavioural intentions to use new language translation tools to which they were presented. 2.2.5 Behavioural Intention to Use Davis (1989) and Davis et al. (1989) emphasise by way of the TAM that the behavioural intention of a prospective user towards a new technology is usually directly influenced by their perceptions of the usefulness and ease of use of the technology or system. Therefore, when francophone University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 students form positive behavioural intentions to use a particular language translation tool, it is expected that it would usually result in the actual use of the tool. 2.2.6 Actual System Use This is the final stage in the technology acceptance spectrum and is usually the end-goal. Davis (1989) and Davis et al. (1989) aver that when an individual perceives a new technology to be useful in terms of the fact that it has the potential to enhance his performance and is relatively easy to use, coupled with other factors relative to the individual, he would usually accept and use the technology. Indeed, informants in the present study do not make their language translation tool choices in a vacuum, but rather have different preferences, for different reasons. In fact, one of the benchmarks by which this variable was measured in the present study was users’ average daily use of language translation tools, to which it was found that the tools are often used, often, for different purposes. 2.3 Application of TAM in Related Studies Numerous studies have used the TAM to understand how potential users of a new system or technology react to new technologies. For instance, Baturay et al. 2017 conducted a study to investigate the intention of pre-service teachers towards technology acceptance. Similarly, Iqbal and Bhatti (2015) conducted a study to investigate the readiness of university students towards MLearning. In fact, the process of technology acceptance and use varies from person to person and has been studied widely (Bakhsh et al., 2017; Dumpit & Fernandez, 2017; Granić & Marangunić, 2019; Hussein, 2017). In all, these studies prove that the TAM is useful for the current study, which University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 among other things, sought to explore the acceptance and use of language translation tools among francophone students in the foreign learning environment. 2.4 Relevance of TAM to Study Language translation tools are products of technology. As has been stated earlier, TAM suggests that when users are presented with a new technology, a number of factors, such as the perceived usefulness and the perceived ease of use of the technology influence their behavioural intentions towards the technology. If francophone students perceive language translation tools to be useful and with potential to enhance their performance, they would accept them and subsequently use them, as suggested by the TAM. Further, if they (francophone students) find the language translation tools easy to use, they would also use them, as suggested by the TAM. As this study explored the acceptance and use of language translation tools among francophone students in the foreign learning environment, it was expected that prospective users of language translation tools would make their choices as determined by their respective perceived usefulness and ease of use of the tools, among other subjective factors. 2.5 Summary This chapter discussed the assumptions and tenets of the TAM, particularly as the theoretical lens of the present study. Chapter three, which follows, presents a thematically organised discussion on significant scholarly works relevant to the present study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1 Introduction Quite a number of studies have examined the phenomenon of technology acceptance, second language acquisition, multi-lingual communication and associated issues. Many of these studies have been conducted in other parts of the world and in different contexts. Such studies have provided useful lessons in various aspects of the research process, particularly in the discussion and comparison of key findings. This chapter presents a review of the most significant of these studies. The literature is organized thematically under five subheadings to generally reflect the key objectives and core constructs of research interest to this study. 3.2 [Related Studies] 3.2.1 Second Language Acquisition (SLA) in a Study Abroad (SA) Socialisation Context A review of literature on study abroad (SA) indicates general inconsistencies and inconclusiveness on SA outcomes. In a study of second language acquisition (SLA) from a socialisation perspective, Wang (2010) discussed inconsistencies of this nature with regard to the different contexts and the unstable nature of SLA. Wang (2010) found that interactional encounters with native speakers of the target language play an important role in the acquisition of language in the SA context. Studying in target language countries helps to improve fluency and pronunciation in the target foreign language, especially because numerous opportunities are presented for foreign students to engage with native speakers (Isabelli-García, 2017). This may explain why it has become common University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 knowledge that studying or immersing into the target language country is vital if one wants to improve upon their linguistic knowledge and communication competence in the target language (Pinar, 2016). This has positively influenced the participation of students in study abroad programs. In a study to explore second language acquisition in a study abroad (SA) context, Pinar (2016) conducted a review and synthesis of earlier research projects in which he highlighted recent and diverse research in this area. The findings of the study revealed that students who studied abroad in the country of the target language become more fluent than their counterparts in their home country especially because of the opportunity they are given to interact with native speakers of the target language in a more social context outside of the classroom. In a similar study, Isabelli-García (2017) asserted that much focus in the field of SLA has been placed on university language learners, where numerous opportunities are presented for foreign students to engage with native speakers in different contexts, which consequently helps improve upon their communicative competence. This agenda is further facilitated by several universities’ efforts to internationalize their curricula, which results in the high number of students traveling abroad each year to acquire a second language. The findings of Isabelli-García’s (2017) study revealed that constant interaction with native speakers allows language learners the benefit of the development of second language knowledge and communicative competence, thus corroborating the findings of Pinar (2016). In terms of the present study, one possible reason for which francophone students would immerse into a foreign learning environment such as Ghana could be their effort to learn the English language in the target language country as learning only grammatical rules of the English language, which could be done in their home countries, would not suffice. An actual immersion into the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 English-speaking environment to socialise with the native speakers could be more reason to move into the Ghanaian learning context. The present study was therefore designed to extend existing scholarship to answer the questions of whether and how in this social context of learning the English language, language translation tools play any roles to aid francophone students in Ghana’s communication with Ghanaian English speakers. 3.2.2 Language Barriers and Related Issues in Foreign Language Environments Studies that have examined how language barriers threaten effective communication have sought to explore the challenges as well as the risks associated with language barriers in various domains, principal among which are the contexts of the learning environment and healthcare delivery. Communication competence in a foreign language is the common currency for negotiating and navigating membership and participation in the global knowledge commons (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages [ACTFL], 2011; Duncan, 2010). Without the ability to negotiate meaning with people of different linguistic backgrounds, communication on a global level becomes difficult and tends to breed communication challenges (Bollinger, 2017). In a study on anxiety differentials among English language learners in Malaysia, Hwa and Peck (2017) found that foreign language anxiety (FLA) was an important barrier to effective communication across different learning environments. These barriers made it difficult for interlocutors to effectively meet the social and pedagogical needs of non-English speaking students in the learning environment. The present study sought to find out if, or the extent to which, optimism, especially among technophiles, about the prospect of translation technologies to mediate and mitigate such barriers, is borne out by the personal experiences of Francophone students in the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 English learning environment of tertiary institutions in Ghana. Some 10 years prior to the study by Hwa and Peck (2017), Marwan (2007) conducted a study similar to Hwa and Peck’s (2017), to investigate levels of FLA among Indonesian students, to explore the nature and types of anxiety experienced by foreign language (FL) learners; and to find out the strategies they used to cope with their anxieties. A Likert-type questionnaire was distributed among 100 students, although 76 respondents satisfactorily completed and returned the survey. The findings confirmed the presence of FLA among a majority of the students, irrespective of the differences in their academic levels. Although different in terms of geographical contexts, a possible implication of the findings for the present study was that francophone students studying in Ghana faced similar communication challenges. Students in foreign language learning environments suffer from significant levels of anxiety because they are challenged to handle the learning materials in the medium of the target language with which they are not very familiar (Javid, 2014). In the process of interacting with their teachers, colleagues and even the textbooks, students in Javid’s (2014) study were confronted with contingent challenges that create anxiety in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. This made it difficult for them to achieve their language proficiency goals in the target language. Briefly, Javid (2014) administered the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) to 216 randomly selected freshmen students enrolled in the preparatory year programme at Taif University in Saudi Arabia. The findings showed medium level of language learning anxiety among respondents. Following from the studies so far discussed (Hwa & Peck, 2017; Javid, 2014; Marwan, 2007), FLA appears to present itself in foreign language environments irrespective of geographical location. Francophones studying in Ghana can therefore be concluded to be barely any different from the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 respondents in the studies discussed above. In fact, Tabiri and Budu (2017) have found that one of the main difficulties Francophones studying in Ghana encounter is academic, which, according to them, negatively affects their (students’) performance. This implies that in order to improve francophone students’ educational experience in an English learning environment such as Ghana, remedies to language barriers need to be sought – an area the present study sought to explore. In a study to examine the differences between students’ FLA levels (high, moderate, low) and student achievement in different learning environments – traditional or distance learning – in a college setting, Bollinger (2017) made some interesting findings. The FLCAS was administered to Spanish and French language learners at a community college in Central Georgia in a quantitative study. Bollinger (2017) wanted to find if there were statistically significant differences in foreign language students’ achievement and foreign language anxiety scores, based on their FLA levels and their learning environment. Students’ course final grades were used to measure their foreign language achievement. A causal-comparative design was used in conducting this study, and data were analysed and interpreted using T-tests and a one-way ANOVA. Results showed that the place of learning (traditional or distance) had no significant bearing on student achievement, however, there were significant differences in student achievement between students with different levels of FLA. In addition, there were significant differences in FLA scores between students in traditional and distance learning foreign language classes, suggesting that, actual immersion in the foreign country increases more anxiety as compared to receiving the education over another medium such as the internet. Interestingly, the enrolment of foreign students (of which francophone students are a part) in Ghana is on the increase (WENR, 2019). This may be attributed to the fact that universities nowadays have an interest in reflecting an internationalized operating profile, as according to the Times Higher Education World University University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 Rankings (2019), the international profile of universities is one criterion by which they are ranked in terms of performance. Essentially, the findings imply that it is highly possible for francophone students studying in Ghana to encounter more anxiety in communicating via the English language and would therefore need some form of assistance in negotiating meaning with their English- speaking counterparts. This, along with their acceptance and use of such assistive communication technologies as language translation tools, was what this study sought to explore. A common theme running through the findings of the aforementioned studies is the existence of FLA. Considering the fact that language is a communication tool, evidence from the reviewed literature suggests that in any learning environment, the inability to communicate effectively leads to relatively poorer performance. In spite of the fact that the reviewed studies are set in different geographical locations from Ghana, their subject matter is parallel to the Ghanaian context. In Ghana, just as in the countries where the above previous studies were conducted, there are foreign students, among whom are Francophones with limited English proficiency (LEP). This group of people also experience varied levels of FLA, especially because the language of instruction in Ghanaian tertiary institutions is English (Tabiri & Budu, 2017). Moving on to the scope of healthcare delivery, a study by van Rosse, de Bruijne, Suurmond, Essink-Bot and Wagner (2016) on communication challenges in care delivery found that language barriers threatened the quality of hospital care received by patients who did not share linguistic commonalities with their caregivers. They sought to investigate safety risks patients faced during hospitalization due to language barriers and the way they (language barriers) are detected, reported, and bridged in Dutch hospital care. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 The study took a mixed-methods approach where the researchers sampled 576 ethnic minority patients who were hospitalized in 30 wards within four urban hospitals. The nursing and medical records of 17 hospital admissions of patients with language barriers were qualitatively analysed. In addition, 12 in-depth interviews were undertaken with care providers and patients and/or their relatives to identify the safety risks of patients during hospitalization. The medical records of all 576 patients were screened for language barrier reports. The results were then compared to the Dutch language proficiency of patients as reported by the patients themselves. Van Rosse et al. (2016) concluded that in situations where patients did not share a common language with healthcare providers, language barriers posed a serious threat to the success of medical care. Ali and Watson (2018) had a similar conclusion as van Rosse et al. (2016) in their study to explore nurses’ perspectives of language barriers and their impact on the provision of care to patients with limited English proficiency from diverse linguistic backgrounds. Individual interviews and focus group discussions were organized to collect data from 59 nurses working in tertiary care hospitals in England. Ali and Watson (2018) identified communication as the most important aspect of healthcare provision and an essential component of a nurse’s professional role, regardless of his or her specialty or clinical area. They also identified language barriers as the biggest obstacles to providing appropriate, adequate, effective, and timely care to patients with LEP. These unanimous conclusions suggest the correctness of a school of thought, which argues that there can be little to no progress without communication. Unfortunately, these studies have only focused on the communication challenges posed by language barriers, without proffering any solutions. By exploring the experiences of francophone students in the Ghanaian learning environment and their acceptance and use of translation tools to negotiate meaning, this study will University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 contribute a fresh perspective to the discourse and hopefully encourage more research work on language translation tools for communication in foreign language environments. Coleman and Angosta (2017) also explored the personal experiences of acute-care bedside nurses of patients with LEP. The study was a phenomenological one in which a convenience, purposive sample of 40 registered nurses working in bedside care in a 380-bed hospital in the United States of America was interviewed. It was found that provision of care to patients with LEP is a challenge to many nurses as well as other healthcare providers due to the language barrier between them (healthcare providers) and patients with LEP. These results serve as proof that language barriers inhibit communication success in any human setting. 3.2.3 Overcoming Language Barriers with Language Translation Tools Language translation tools attempt to make the communication across cultural and linguistic boundaries easier, while trying to retain, as much as possible, the content and meaning of the message. These tools are however quite volatile due to the need for context and social intelligence on the part of the translator and the lack of it on the part of (the) language translation tools. This is because language translation tools are inanimate products of technology incapable of adaptive intelligence beyond what has been programmed into them. In addition, translations often call for special phraseology and these may not be in the translation tool’s ability. Désilets et al. (2009) conducted an ethnographic study to determine the types of translation problems faced by human translators and the types of resources they used to solve difficulties University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 pertinent to translation. They found that human translators consulted translation tools and resources 41 per cent of the time in the practice of their profession. In a study to find out what makes it difficult to communicate through machine translation, Yasuoka and Bjorn (2011) found that little was known, as regards the practice of machine-translation mediated communication. Moreover, translation technology has become an integrated part of human life. According to Christensen et al. (2017), translation technology is no longer used exclusively by professional translators. It is also used by many unprofessional translators, who take advantage of free online machine translation (MT) engines to help them understand and produce texts in foreign languages. They found that in 2016 alone, Google Translate, (an online language translation tool) translated an average of 143 billion words a day in 100 language combinations. 3.2.4 Usefulness and Ease of Use of Language Translation Tools Scholars have differing views on the usefulness of language translation tools. Chen et al. 2012 in a quantitative study sought to evaluate the general performance of freely available machine translation (MT) tools in the translation of metadata records. They randomly selected metadata records and translated them from English into Chinese using such language translation tools as Google Translate, Bing, and SYSTRAN MT. These translations were then evaluated using a five-point scale for both fluency and adequacy. They found that translations rendered by Google Translate and Bing scored equal to or greater than three. Chen et al. (2012) concluded that language translation tools are dependable. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 Other scholars, however, came to a different verdict. For instance, Turner et al. (2019) conducted a mixed-method study to evaluate the potential of (automated) translation technologies to improve emergency communication between Emergency Medical Services (EMS) personnel and LEP individuals in need of urgent medical attention in the United States. According to them, language barriers pose challenges to communication in emergency response in the United States and this negatively affects emergency care delivery and quality for individuals with LEP. Turner et al. (2019) developed a scenario-based design as well as post-session questionnaires for EMS respondents and LEP participants, providing qualitative feedback on translation technologies. Five group sessions were conducted – 3 Chinese and 2 Spanish – with 12 Chinese- speaking LEP participants, 14 Spanish-speaking LEP participants, and 17 EMS personnel. They found that although both EMS and LEP participants appreciated the flexibility and ease of use of the translation tool, multiple translation errors and difficulty responding to questions limited its usefulness. Research has shown that Spanish and Chinese speakers are more likely to have limited proficiency in the English language, and this poses a challenge to such patients residing in the United States. For this reason, health care providers in the United States as of the time of the study had leveraged technology to facilitate communication between them and their patients, in the form of iTranslate, a mobile phone application for translation (Chen et al., 2016). Chen et al. (2017) quantitatively evaluated the quality of translations done by iTranslate. The contents of the original education material for the diabetes patients were translated into English by two professional translators and then by iTranslate. Their output was then evaluated blindly by six certified medical translators – six Spanish, six Chinese – to compare the translations done by the application software and the humans. The translations were rated on four scales: meaning, adequacy, fluency and severity. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 They found that although iTranslate generally provided translation accuracy on simple sentences, more errors were made in translating complex and difficult sentences. They therefore concluded that language translation apps, such as iTranslate, needed to be used with caution. In that regard, they seemed to agree with Turner et al. (2019) in their assertion that language translation tools are limited in usefulness. Moreover, all professional translators are now involved in some kind of translator-computer interaction (TCI) (Bundgaard et al., 2016). Bundgaard et al. (2016) therefore conducted a study to investigate the relationship between machines and humans in translation. The scholars reviewed empirical research into the impact of Computer-aided translation tools on translation processes, and reported on an observational study of TCI processes in one particular instance of MT-assisted translation in a major Danish translation service provider (TSP). They found that although translation tools aided multi-lingual communication to some extent, they also restrained the process of communication. Patil and Davies (2014) in a study conducted in the United Kingdom also evaluated the ability of Google Translate (a language translation tool) to produce 100% accurate translations, and concluded that language translation tools, precisely Google Translate, could not be relied on, in terms of accuracy. According to them, Google Translate uses a statistical matching to translate, rather than a dictionary / grammar rules approach, which sometimes leaves it open to results that do not make much meaning in a given context. While MT enables collaborators to communicate via their native languages, it can introduce errors that make communication difficult. Gao et al. (2014) also agree with Weissbort and Eysteinsson (2006) in their position that the output of machine translation lacks in 100% accuracy. According University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 to them, machine translation (MT) creates both opportunities and challenges for multilingual collaboration. Moving on, in order to improve upon doctor-patient interaction in hospitals for improved health conditions of patients with LEP, hospitals depend on medical interpreter services. However, these services are not always available, for which reason effective alternatives have become necessary (Leite et al., 2016). Leite et al. (2016) attempted to determine how efficient and effective Google Translate (which is an example of a language translation tool) could perform under such circumstances. To do this, they used the translation tool to communicate with a patient in the process of presenting a clinical case and concluded that it was one of the most readily available, free and easy to use translation tools available. This is especially in cases where it serves as an initial mode of communication between a doctor and patient in situations where language is a barrier. However, similar to other scholars, Leite et al. (2016) warned users to not put total trust in Google Translate and should only use it in emergency cases where all other avenues to find a human translator have proven futile. Furthermore, in Malaysia, Google Translate has become the go-to for many English as a foreign language (EFL) students to perform tasks for their EFL class activities. Although this is the case, their insufficient knowledge and limited vocabulary on the language structure hinders them from effectively identifying the accurate and appropriate contextual meaning or semanticity of words and phrases (Jaganathan, Hamzah & Subramaniam, 2014). These researchers analysed the use of Google Translate among EFL students in decoding contextual semanticity. As part of its method, the study identified the strategies taken by the EFL student in selecting translations from Google Translate to arrive at a specific meaning. Intensive English Proficiency (IEP) students of the 2014 academic year from the School of Languages of the Universiti Sains Malaysia were sampled for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 the study. Among others, findings relevant the present study indicated that Google Translate is generally easy to use, which is one of the reasons they continue to use it. As has been found in other related studies, the findings also indicated that some students used Google Translate because their friends and colleagues recommended it to them. Finally, the current wave of technology has now made it possible to have instant translations to and from various languages (Medvedev, 2016). Medvedev (2016) conducted a study to explore the importance of translation in the English learning classroom, as well as explore the instant translation tools that were used in the English Foundation Program at the Language Centre at Sultan Qaboos University in Oman. Medvedev (2016) concluded that Google Translate, being a vital part of the “Google family”, could be regarded as one of the easiest and most accessible tools to help users meet various translation needs. It is clear from the review of literature that language translation tools may not be entirely counted on if one wants to communicate effectively with another from a different linguistic background, especially in professional contexts like healthcare. However, in the context of this study, and as was seen in some of the related studies (Jaganathan et al., 2014; Medvedev, 2016), unlike in the medical context where language translation tools have been found rather ineffective for medical purposes, the learning environment may prove to be more tolerant of errors. 3.2.5 Technology Acceptance and Use Considering the fact that people from different linguistic backgrounds can leverage existing technologies to create and negotiate meaning in order to mitigate the communication challenges posed by language barriers, and given the fact that an individual’s acceptance and use of a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 particular type of technology depends on him/her, this section, which provides a review literature on the general acceptance and use of (a) technology, is presented. Humans are currently living in an era of advanced technology, and this impacts our lives in diverse ways (Granić & Marangunić, 2019). The educational setting has been recognized as an area with good potential for the incorporation of new technologies. This learning environment is filled with a wide range of users of learning technology, which is expected to support the process of knowledge acquisition and transfer. The use of technology takes time and requires a change in paradigm in order to get people to adopt it (Baturay et al., 2017). Baturay et al. (2017) conducted a study to investigate the intention of preservice teachers towards technology acceptance. A survey was adopted to examine the potential association among three constructs – computer competence, attitudes towards Computer-aided Education (CAE) and intention of technology acceptance. Empirically validated scales were used to measure the constructs. The findings were analysed using regression and correlation analysis. The results indicated a significant and positive relationship between computer competence, attitude towards CAE and intention towards technology acceptance. More specific to the present study, perceived usefulness was found to have positive relationship with intentions towards CAE. Although perceived ease of use similarly had significant positive relationship with the intentions towards CAE, it did not predict the intention towards it. Implicit in the findings is the idea that, the acceptance and eventual use of language translation tools by francophone users will depend on their perceived usefulness and in some cases, on the perceived ease of use, since language translation tools, just like the technology adopted in CAE, are products of technology. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 Similarly, Hussein (2017) investigated the attitudes of university students towards the use of Elearning, based on the Technology Acceptance Model. This study analysed the relationship of university students’ intention to use E-learning with three antecedents, including attitude, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use. A survey was used to collect data from 151 randomly selected respondents. Hussein’s (2017) study found that attitude is a significant predictor towards student’s intention to use E-Learning. Interestingly, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were not significant predictors of the intention to use the E-learning technology. This finding is in direct contrast to findings of other TAM studies (Baturay et al., 2017; Dumpit & Fernandez, 2017, Granić & Marangunić, 2019; Iqbal & Bhatti, 2015), thereby highlighting a disparity in the discourse community of TAM. The present study will hopefully throw more light on the ‘confusion’ and provide some clarity. Dumpit and Fernandez (2017) included the subjective norm, internet reliability, perceived playfulness, and speed as additional constructs. To analyse the use of social media in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) using the Technology Acceptance Model, data were gathered and analysed from 500 students from both public and private HEIs in the Philippines. The study revealed that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, subjective norm, and perceived playfulness (happiness) are robust predictors of usage behavior of students. Considering the amount of work that has been done on the TAM, there remains a gap in existing knowledge as regards representative scholarly literature on the model (Granić & Marangunić, 2019). Granić and Marangunić (2019) conducted a study to provide an overview of the present state of research efforts on TAM application in the field of learning and teaching for different University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 learning domains, learning technologies and types of users. According to them, TAM’s core variables, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness, have been proven to be antecedent factors affecting acceptance of any technology. For some scholars, TAM is the only popular option among researchers for exploring acceptance of any new technology primarily because of its robust and parsimonious nature. Examples of such are Iqbal and Bhatti (2015), who conducted a study to investigate the readiness of university students towards M-Learning. The study focused only on the individual context in which students’ readiness to use M-learning is investigated using the TAM. According to them, M-learning is learning delivered via mobile devices and mobile technology. The study adopted the quantitative approach in which students from private sector universities in Rawalpindi/Islamabad were sampled and given questionnaires to fill. The findings, which were based on 244 valid responses, indicated that the students’ perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of positively influenced their behavioural intention to accept and use M-learning. Similarly, Bakhsh et al. (2017) conducted a quantitative study with 612 students and 448 other faculty members to examine the factors that influence students and faculty behaviour towards M- learning acceptance in Pakistan and found that together with prior experience, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use positively influenced behavioural intention (BI) towards the acceptance of M-learning. In another study, which was set in Jordan et al. (2014) attempted to explain the individual’s adoption intentions toward mobile commerce using its perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 The study took a quantitative approach in which data were collected from 14 universities using a paper-based questionnaire. The analysis included 425 valid data sets. The findings of the study revealed that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were important factors in explaining an individual’s intention to adopt the mobile commerce technology. The findings also demonstrated the impact of self-efficacy and perceptions of external control on the perceptions of ease of use and the impact of image and output quality determinants on the perceptions of usefulness. The related studies in this section suggest that the process of technology acceptance and use varies from person to person. Whereas some consider the perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use of technologies before acceptance, others base their acceptance on different factors. In addition, certain other factors also in turn influence the perception of usefulness and ease of use of technologies. Examples of such are self-efficacy and perceptions of external control, which influence perceptions of ease of use and the impact of image and output quality, which affect perceptions of usefulness. This is relevant to the present study because one of the ideas the study aims to explore is the acceptance and use of language translation tools, which are also products of technology and what influence users’ acceptance and otherwise rejection of said technologies. 3.3 Chapter Summary The review of related studies in this chapter gives helpful insight into the phenomenon of SLA in a study abroad socialisation context, and communication challenges caused by language barriers as well as the factors that may go into francophone students’ acceptance and use of technologies to mitigate the challenges. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 Whilst some of the literature focused on the accuracy of translations made by language translation tools, others dwelt on the reliability of these tools and the degree to which users must trust their outputs. The review showed a scarcity of studies that examine the communication challenges of francophone students studying in foreign countries such as Ghana and the opportunities language translation tools present them to mitigate said challenges. This study therefore helps to fill this gap by exploring the Ghanaian context as a microcosm of the African setting. Chapter four, which follows, describes the research methods used in the present study. Specifically, it explains the research design and the reasons for its choice. The population of research interest and the sampling decisions are also clearly explained. Also presented are the data collection and analysis processes as well as the ethical issues considered in the conduct of the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 CHAPTER FOUR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4.1 Introduction This chapter described the research methods used in the present study. Specifically, it explained the research design and the reasons for its choice. The population of research interest and the sampling decisions – including the sample size and sampling method employed – were also clearly explained. Also presented were the data collection and analysis processes; as well as the ethical issues considered in the conduct of the study. 4.2 Research Design The study employed the qualitative approach, entailing the use of in-depth interviews, in the data gathering process. According to Wimmer and Dominick (2011), qualitative methods allow researchers to view behaviour in a natural setting without the artificiality that sometimes surrounds experimental or survey research. In addition, qualitative techniques can increase a researcher’s depth of understanding of the phenomenon under investigation, which is what this research sought to achieve. With regard to the choice of the qualitative approach for a TAM study such as this, scholars have argued that the TAM is no longer reserved for quantitative studies (Vogelsang, Hoppe & Steinhueser, 2013). They assert that it is necessary to find out the nuances associated with users’ personal experiences with tools and their individual reasons for adopting them. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 Wimmer and Dominick (2011) posit that in-depth interviews, in addition to providing researchers with a wealth of detail, also provide accurate responses on personal experiences or sensitive issues, mainly due to the rapport developed between the interviewer and informant. As this was an explorative study, this enabled an inductive revelation of the personal testimonies of individual informants. Unlike in the survey method where there is the use of pre-set questions and answer options, there was little to no loss of depth and contextual flavour in this method. The in-depth interview method was therefore the best approach to explore francophone students’ acceptance and use of language translation tools from the perspective of the TAM. Among other things, this method enabled informants to freely reflect on, and share experiences of, their particular and sometimes peculiar experiences and anecdotes about studying in a foreign language learning environment. The method also inductively revealed the opportunities and challenges that language translation tools offer for overcoming the barriers that might be posed to foreign language students as they seek to access higher education in non-native language contexts. Specific subjects of interest were francophone students studying at the Ghana Institute of Languages (GIL). The study attempted to explore and capture all relevant information pertinent to the informants such as their demographic data, their use of language translation tools as well as the reasons behind their choices of language translation tools and their related usefulness and ease of use. 4.3 Population and Sample According to Babbie (2014), a population for a research study is an aggregation of elements from which a sample is actually selected. The population for this study constituted francophone students studying in Ghana, specifically, from the Ghana Institute of Languages (GIL). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 The decision to use the selected tertiary institution centres on two factors. Firstly, it allowed for a diversity of responses from informants of varied francophone nationalities. Secondly, GIL provides academic programmes that francophone students as well as English-speaking Ghanaian students share a common interest of studying, for which reason they are taught together in the same classroom. The GIL was established in 1961 to teach foreign language in order to promote Pan-Africanism and cordial relations between Ghanaians and foreign nationals; particularly those whose lingua franca is not English. In addition to the foreign languages taught – French, German, Arabic, Chinese, English, Portuguese and Spanish – the GIL also teaches translation and bilingual secretaryship, which all require competence in the English language since they are delivered in English. According to the uniRank World Universities Report (2019), student enrolment at GIL is between 1,000 and 1,999, about 20 per cent of which are indigenously Francophone, for which reason it was included in the population of the present study. Approximately, there are 200 francophone students studying at GIL. The study sampled 20 informants. This is because the findings were not intended to be generalisable to a larger group; rather, the study sought a focused and in-depth description of the particular and individual experiences of informants about their LEP challenges and the barriers and opportunities that translation tools offer in overcoming these challenges. On the contentious question of sample size, Tracy (2013:138) explains that “[s]ample size is critically important for researchers who need statistical power to generalize, but quality is usually more important than quantity for qualitative research.” In operational terms, Bertaux (1981) points out that a researcher learns a great deal from the first few interviews, by the 15th interview, the researcher recognises patterns in the in