University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY, ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR AND JOB SATISFACTION OF A LEADING HOTEL IN GHANA BY ATUA-NTOW OKAI NANA YAW (10418321) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT DEGREE JULY, 2020. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I do hereby declare that this is the result of my research and has not been presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other university. All references used in the work have been fully acknowledged I bear sole responsibility for any shortcomings. 26/03/2021 …………………………………………… ………………………. ATUA-NTOW OKAI NANA YAW DATE (10418321) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CERTIFICATION I hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down by the University. 26/03/2021 ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my mother, Mrs. Grace Atua-Ntow for her support and love for this work. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My first acknowledgement goes to my supervisor, Prof Dan Ofori for his inestimable tolerance, input, and supervision. His professionalism, work ethic, and detailed guidance helped shape this work and further left me with enduring life lessons on effective structuring and being detail oriented. I am grateful for your patience and time to complete my work. Sir, God richly bless you. I further acknowledge all the faculty members of the Organisation and Human Resource Management Department at the University of Ghana Business School for their contributions during seminar presentations. Another big appreciation goes to my brother and colleague Nana Kojo Baafi for the encouragement, proofreading, and immeasurable support. Finally, I would love to say a big thank you to Aunty Rose for her assistance with my work. God bless you all. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION............................................................................................................................ i CERTIFICATION ........................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. v LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... xiii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ xiv CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 1.0 Background of Study ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Research Problem .................................................................................................................. 7 1.2 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................ 12 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 13 1.4 Research Hypotheses........................................................................................................... 13 1.5 Significance of Study .......................................................................................................... 14 1.6 Research Methodology ........................................................................................................ 15 1.6.1 Research Design ........................................................................................................... 15 1.6.2 Research Population ..................................................................................................... 15 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6.3 Sampling method .......................................................................................................... 15 1.6.4 Research Instruments .................................................................................................... 16 1.6.5 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 17 1.7 Chapter Disposition ............................................................................................................. 17 CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................ 19 2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 19 2.1 The Growth of Corporate Social Responsibility ............................................................ 21 2.2 The Concept of Corporate Social Responsibility ........................................................... 19 2.3 Definition of Corporate Social Responsibility ............................................................... 25 2.3.1 Economic Responsibility .............................................................................................. 29 2.3.2 Legal Responsibility ..................................................................................................... 29 2.3.3 Ethical Responsibility ................................................................................................... 29 2.3.4 Philanthropic Responsibility......................................................................................... 30 2.4 Related Concepts of Corporate Social Responsibility ........................................................ 38 2.4.1 Organisational Ethics .................................................................................................... 38 2.4.2 Sustainable Development ............................................................................................. 38 2.4.3 Corporate Governance .................................................................................................. 39 2.4.4 Social Investment ......................................................................................................... 39 2.5 Corporate Social Responsibility in Africa .......................................................................... 31 2.6 Corporate Social Responsibility in Ghana .......................................................................... 34 2.7 The Concept of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ....................................................... 39 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.8 Defining Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ................................................................. 40 2.9 Dimensions of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ........................................................ 42 2.9.1 Altruism ........................................................................................................................ 42 2.9.2 Courtesy ........................................................................................................................ 42 2.9.3 Conscientiousness ......................................................................................................... 43 2.9.4 Civic Virtue .................................................................................................................. 43 2.9.5 Sportsmanship .............................................................................................................. 43 2.10 Consequences of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour .................................................. 44 2.11 Characteristics of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ................................................. 46 2.12 The Concept of Job Satisfaction........................................................................................ 47 2.13 Defining Job Satisfaction .................................................................................................. 49 2.14 Dimensions of Job Satisfaction ......................................................................................... 50 2.14.1 Nature of Work ........................................................................................................... 50 2.14.2 Bonuses and Rewards ................................................................................................. 50 2.14.3 Promotion and Transfer .............................................................................................. 51 2.14.4 Co-Worker Support and Communication ................................................................... 51 2.15 Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction ................................................................................. 52 2.16 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 53 2.16.1 Social Identity Theory ................................................................................................ 54 2.16.2 Social Identity Theory - Cognitive Stages .................................................................. 55 2.17 Empirical Review .............................................................................................................. 57 2.17.1 Corporate Social Responsibility and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ............. 57 2.17.2 Corporate Social Responsibility and Job Satisfaction ................................................ 59 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.17.3 Corporate Social Responsibility and Organisational Outcomes in Ghana ................. 60 2.17.4 Corporate Social Responsibility and Organisational Behaviours ............................... 62 2.18 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 64 CHAPTER THREE - METHODOLOGY................................................................................ 66 3.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 66 3.1 Research Design and Strategy ............................................................................................. 66 3.2 Population............................................................................................................................ 70 3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique ........................................................................................ 71 3.4 Sample Size Determination ................................................................................................. 72 3.5 Sources of Data ................................................................................................................... 73 3.6 Data Collection Instruments ................................................................................................ 74 3.7 Validity and Reliability ....................................................................................................... 76 3.8 Data Collection Procedure .................................................................................................. 77 3.9 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 78 3.9.1 Quantitative Data Analysis ........................................................................................... 78 3.9.2 Qualitative Data Analysis ............................................................................................. 78 3.10 Ethical Considerations....................................................................................................... 79 3.10.1 Informed Consent ....................................................................................................... 79 3.10.2 Respect for Anonymity and Confidentiality ............................................................... 79 3.11 Profile of Marriot International Hotel, Accra.................................................................... 80 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR – DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ............................................... 83 4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 83 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ..................................................................... 83 Source: Field Data, (2020) ..................................................................................................... 84 4.1.1 Gender of Respondents ................................................................................................. 84 4.1.2 Age of respondents ....................................................................................................... 85 4.1.3 Academic Qualification ................................................................................................ 85 4.1.4 Tenure of Work ............................................................................................................ 85 4.2 Quantitative Data Analysis.................................................................................................. 86 4.2.1 Reliability Analysis ...................................................................................................... 86 4.2.2 Test for Data Normality ................................................................................................ 87 4.3 Objective 1: The Nature and Form of CSR Practices ......................................................... 88 4.4 Objective 2: Determine Employee Perception of CSR ....................................................... 92 4.5 Objective 3: Employee Perception of CSR And Organisational Citizenship Behaviour .... 95 4.6 Objective 4: Examine the Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ............................................................................................................... 99 CHAPTER FIVE – SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......... 102 5.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 102 5.1 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 102 5.2 The Nature and Form of CSR Practices ............................................................................ 102 5.3 Employees’ Perception of CSR ......................................................................................... 103 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 The Influence of Employees’ Perception of CSR on Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ................................................................................................................................................. 103 5.5 The Influence of Job Satisfaction on Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ................... 104 5.6 Revisiting the Conceptual Framework .............................................................................. 104 5.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 105 5.8 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 106 5.9 Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 107 5.10 Directions for Future Research ....................................................................................... 107 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 109 APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................ 142 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Respondents Profile ..................................................................................................... 84 Table 4.2: Reliability Analysis ..................................................................................................... 86 Table 4.3: Test for Normality ....................................................................................................... 87 Table 4.4: CSR Information on Marriott International Hotel ....................................................... 90 Table 4.5: One-Sample t-Test Results of Employee’s Perception of CSR ................................... 93 Table 4.6: Hierarchical Regression Analysis of CSR As Predictors of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ...................................................................................................................................... 97 Table 4.7: Linear Regression of Job Satisfaction on Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ....... 99 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Carroll’s Corporate Social Responsibility Pyramid ................................................... 31 Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework of CSR, Job satisfaction and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour ...................................................................................................................................... 64 Figure 5.1: Revised Conceptual Framework Revised Conceptual Framework………….………105 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACCP- Association of Corporate Citizenship Professionals CED- Committee for Economic Development CSR- Corporate Social Responsibility EPA- Environmental Protection Agency EU- European Union GIPC- Ghana Investment Promotion Centre ILO- International Labour Organisation ITC- International Trade Centre MNEs- Multinational Enterprises OCB- Organisational Citizenship Behaviour OHRM- Organisation and Human Resource Management SIT- Social Identity Theory SOEs- State-Owned Enterprises SPSS- Statistical Package for Social Sciences UN- United Nations WBCSD- World Business Council for Sustainable Development xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT This study examines the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR), organisational citizenship behaviour and job satisfaction in a leading hotel in Ghana. The study examines the nature and form of CSR practices of a hotel, the influence of employees’ perception of corporate social responsibility and organisational citizenship behaviour as well as the independent relationship between job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour. A Four-Star hotel in the heart of Accra was selected. Specifically, Marriott International Hotel, Accra was the organisation used for this study. The study employed the concurrent mixed-method approach to gather data at a point in time. Regression analysis was used in analysing the survey data of 162 respondents. Content analysis was also used in analysing the 2018 annual report of the hotel as well as the 2019 annual report of their corporate social responsibility program. Findings from the study showed that the CSR practices of the hotel were more economic in nature and it focused more on education and training. Results from the quantitative analysis showed that, employees had a positive perception of the hotel’s CSR practices. Further analysis showed that, employees’ perception of CSR practices influenced organisational citizenship behaviour. Specifically, economic CSR had the strongest predictor on organisational citizenship behaviour. Again, results from the independent relationship between organisational citizenship behaviour and job satisfaction showed that, job satisfaction significantly predicted organisational citizenship behaviour. Given the findings, it was recommended that, the hotel should focus more on its philanthropic CSR practices to increase the pro-social behaviours of employees. xiv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background of Study Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a relatively new management idea, but professionals and theorists within organisations and societies have improved its understanding and practice for more than a decade. This was achieved through an increase in the attention given to the phenomenon (Skudiene & Auruskeviciene, 2010). Understanding CSR is needed within organisations to improve their relationship with stakeholders (Jaén, Auletta, Celli, & Pocaterra, 2018). Over the years, CSR was used to create harmony between organisations and their stakeholders and this made way for varied terminologies such as corporate philanthropy (Liket & Simaens, 2015) and corporate sustainability (Márquez, Reficco, & Berger, 2010). The use of corporate social responsibility in an organisation’s business process can significantly improve the relationship between the organisation and its internal and external stakeholders (Schaltegger & Burritt, 2018). The attention given to the concept has increased stakeholders’ involvement with organisational processes, therefore improving the success rate of organisations (Glavas & Kelley, 2014). Examined literature indicates that, the long-term benefits of CSR activities introduce tremendous profit to practicing organisations (Arevalo & Aravind, 2017). For instance, there had been an improvement in sales amongst organisations involved with CSR. This was because, customers’ perception towards these organisations was positively related to sales (Plewa, Conduit, Quester, & Johnson, 2015). Corporate social responsibility also enhance the drivers for employee 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh motivation (Sekar & Dyaram, 2017) and engagement (Carina, Sigrid, Paula, & Adam, 2019). This improves the reputation of organisations and their financial performance (Aramburu & Pescador, 2019). Intangible assets such as a good reputation can increase a firm's success in an industry (Webb, Mohr, & Harris, 2008). According to Luo and Bhattacharya (2006), customers are satisfied with a firm’s products or services when the firm positively impacts its society. This positive impact is possible when these firms link their CSR activities with their mission and vision statements (Harjoto & Laksmana, 2018). These mission and vision statements, when influenced by CSR ideas, enhance the firm’s purpose towards its community (Ofori & Hinson, 2007). Organisations are naturally responding to their internal and external stakeholders, therefore, must focus on how to improve the conditions of stakeholders to achieve continuous existence (Rabinowitz, 2020). This natural responsibility must be accepted by both small and multinational organisations (Louis, Lombart, & Durif, 2019). There is therefore a need for organisations to initiate CSR activities into their daily operations for it to be purposeful (Ofori & Hinson, 2007). According to He, Zhang, and Morrison (2019), corporate social responsibility is defined as an organisational decision made to improve the administration of both shareholders and stakeholders of an organisation. Also, according to Akremi et al., (2018) corporate social responsibility is an organisational activity or plan that improves the sustainability of the environment. Through the appreciation of various CSR definitions, Hopkins in 2014 identified CSR as the strategic decision of an organisation to voluntarily act upon the social factors that have 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the potential of militating against the fulfillment of corporate goals. Meaning, there are a variety of definitions that made way for the understanding and identification of CSR. Therefore, no one definition is accepted for the identification of CSR in the literature (Louis, Lombart, & Durif, 2019). The definition of CSR based on Carroll’s (1983) definition states that, corporate social responsibility is the conduct of a business to be economically profitable, law-abiding, ethical and socially supportive. This definition was also in accordance with the definition given by Mohr, Webb and Harris (2001) which states that, corporate social responsibility is the commitment of a company to minimise or eliminate harmful effects and maximise long-term benefits that would impact its society. These two definitions showed that, CSR definitions were based on two main ideas. They are: organisations are to follow the law and be responsible beyond the law, and organisations are to be responsible to all stakeholders (Louis, Lombart, & Durif, 2019). For decades, organisations have used every responsible way to increase its relationship with its stakeholders (Ali, Rehman, Ali, Yousaf, & Zia, 2010). From the twentieth century to the twenty-first century, firms have experimented on various strategic models to improve stakeholder relationships (Davila & Molina, 2017). These models lead to the involvement of stakeholders during decision-making processes (Helmig, Spraul, & Ingenhoff, 2016). According to Campbell (2007), it is irresponsible for a firm to cause harm to its stakeholders, therefore, it is important to involve key stakeholders with the daily decisions of a firm. Contributions from key stakeholders on CSR practices introduce human relationship benefits (Kim, Youn, & Lee, 2017). Stakeholders are willing to go beyond their normal duties for 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisations that involve them incorporate social responsibility decisions (Yuen, Thai, & Wong, 2016). For instance, in a quest to identify and assess the effect of CSR and customer loyalty, He and Lai (2012) indicated that, when customers involved in the type of CSR practices an organisation should practice, it leads to greater customer satisfaction and loyalty. Among employees, corporate social responsibility influences their satisfaction and their responsibilities at work (Aguilera, Rupp, Ganapathi, & Williams, 2006). Therefore, there is a need to involve such key stakeholders during CSR decision making. Empirical data on CSR and employee attitude also indicated that, the existence of job satisfaction among employees of CSR practicing organisations significantly improved the pro-social behaviour of employees (Valentine & Fleischman, 2008). For employees to exhibit pro-social behaviours at work, it is important to understand their behaviours on CSR at the micro level (Gao & He, 2017). This made way for research to be conducted on the influence of CSR on employees’ work attitude and behaviour (Kim, Lee, Lee, & Kim, 2010). It is therefore important to study CSR at the micro-level, to indicate how CSR can contribute to the outcome of employees' behaviour at the workplace (Gao & He, 2017). According to Organ (1988), pro-social behaviours such as organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) are individual behaviours that are discretionary, not directly and explicitly recognized by the formal reward system of an organisation, but have the potential to promote the efficient and effective functioning of an organisation. Behaviours of organisational citizenship behaviour include altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). This concept was one of the most researched areas directed towards employees since its introduction by Bateman and Organ in 1983 (Salarzehi, Yaghoubi, Naroei, & Sin, 2011). Employees engage in OCB when they benefit positively from 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisational activities related to CSR (Gond, El-Akremi, Igalens, & Swaen, 2010). In other words, through CSR, employees voluntarily increase their responsibility level towards their organisation, to further increase organisational performance (Ali, Rehman, Ali, Yousaf, & Zia, 2010). According to He, Zhang, and Morrison (2019), corporate social responsibility influences employees' organisational behaviour. They expressed how CSR improved employee’s belongingness and their psychological connection with the organisation. Organisations use CSR activities to improve the psychological expectations of key stakeholders (He, Zhang, & Morrison, 2019). The effect of CSR on employees psyche is significant since it could help attain a competitive advantage (Gu, Ryan, Li, & Wei, 2013). This showed that, employees’ perception of their organisations’ CSR, affects the relationship between their attitude and their organisation (Bhattacharya, Sen, & Korschun, 2008). The relationship between CSR and the attitudinal behaviour of employees at the workplace has been identified by most research as significant to organisational success (McNamara et al., 2017; Voegtlin & Greenwood, 2013). It is therefore imperative to know how CSR activities are formed psychologically by employees and how it further influences employee behaviours such as organisational citizenship behaviour (Story & Neves, 2015). Few research has been conducted on employees' perception of CSR and its relation to their behaviour (Muddassar, Wang, Muhammad, & Alvi, 2018). Appiah (2019) recommends that, there is a need to expand research on stakeholders’ perception of CSR with a particular group of stakeholders in an organisation. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Companies usually have a higher survival rate when their stakeholders are comfortable with their social contributions (Suleiman, 2013). Stakeholders usually have different expectations and behaviours towards an organisation’s corporate activities (Long, Perumal, & Ajagbe, 2012). It is also difficult for organisations to succeed without addressing the expectations of every stakeholder (Suleiman, 2013). Therefore, it is imperative to understand a group of stakeholders’ perceptions of CSR and its effect on their attitude at the workplace. One of the key stakeholders of an organisation is employees. They provide the needed skills to improve the functions of an organisation (Doyle, 2019). These skills combined with corporate social responsibility produce numerous intangible advantages to employees as well as their organisation (Muddassar, Wang, Muhammad, & Alvi, 2018). Research has indicated that, both small and multinational organisations use CSR to drive the performance of employees (Holcomb, Upchurch, & Okumus, 2007; Njite, Hancer, & Slevitch, 2011). For instance, CSR could be used to increase job satisfaction and increase the performance of an employee. During a study on organisational leadership in the hotel industry, Appiah (2019) indicated that, employees are satisfied with work when their organisation practices CSR. Also, when employees are searching for work, they look for organisations that practice CSR (Appiah, 2019). According to Aziri (2011), employees are satisfied with their work when they have a positive perception of their organisation’s corporate social responsibility activities. This form of satisfaction in literature is known as job satisfaction, which is adequately researched by researchers (Austin, 2011). According to Sarfraz et al. (2018), job satisfaction is the level at which individual workers enjoy their work and see their tasks as friendly to them. Job satisfaction includes workplace issues that are related to; growth, pay increase, benefits, supervision, co-workers, and 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the work an individual is performing (Fichter & Cipolla, 2010). When CSR makes it possible for workers to be satisfied, it makes workers exhibit accepted behaviours towards their organisation, improving the bottom line of the organisation (Cronin, Brady, & Hult, 2000). Employees’ perception of their work environment affects their satisfaction at work, which further influences behaviours such as their organisational citizenship behaviour (Glavas & Kelley, 2014). Knowledge of this is important to shareholders since it has a significant influence on the bottom line of the organisation, therefore a need to understand CSR and employee workplace behaviours (Lindgreen & Swaen, 2010). According to Appiah (2019), at the micro-level the perception of CSR activities of an organisation could predict behaviour. The behaviour and satisfaction of employees are sometimes dependent on their perception of CSR activities in their organisation (McNamara, Carapinha, Pitt‐Catsouphes, Valcour, & Lobel, 2017). There is therefore a need to systematically and empirically establish an understanding between CSR and OCB and job satisfaction and OCB of employees. This can predict the behavioural outcomes of employees’ perception of CSR and the significance of Job satisfaction on OCB. 1.1 Research Problem For the past few decades, executives of organisations have come to realize the relevance of corporate social responsibility (Holcomb, Upchurch, & Okumus, 2007). During these periods, CSR received attention from researchers and practitioners through the analysis of empirical data (Gao & He, 2017). Analysis of data from various economic sectors showed that, corporate social responsibility was one of the relevant constructs discussed in business (Muddassar, Wang, Muhammad, & Alvi, 2018). This was because, businesses were causing pollution and depletion of 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh natural resources (Jones, 2016). The aforementioned disasters increased debates on how businesses are to operate responsibly towards their stakeholders (Basu & Palazzo, 2008). To avoid its community from criticizing them of environmental pollution, businesses used CSR to reduce pollution by involving its community in decision making (Gupta & Sharma, 2009). According to Turker (2009), corporate social responsibility (CSR) involves an organisation involving its community in decision making to improve the management of its natural environment. According to the European Commision (2019), CSR refers to the voluntary incorporation of societal and environmental concerns into business functions. Over the years, definitions of CSR showed differences in focus (Hopkins, 2014). The concept may not attain a consensus definition (Blowfield & Frynas, 2005). The differences in focus has led to a variety of labels such as sustainable development, corporate citizenship, and business and society (Matten & Moon, 2004). The differences in focus also led to the study of corporate social responsibility and behavioural constructs such as organisational citizenship behaviour. From the 1970s to the 1980s, the construct, organisational citizenship behaviour became known through empirical studies conducted by doctorial students (Organ, 2018). Since this period, a lot of studies conducted on OCB made it possible to come up with phrases such as “extra-role performance” (Singh & Srivastava, 2016). An organisational citizenship behaviour researcher impacted the OCB community by identifying the five categories of OCB (Organ, 2018). These five categorizations could further be classified into two, namely organisational citizenship behaviour of an organisation and organisational citizenship behaviour of an individual (Zhang, Bai, Caza, & Wang, 2014). 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To understand attitudinal behaviours and CSR, researchers established the relationship between CSR and organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) (McNamara et al, 2017; Voegtlin & Greenwood, 2013). Organisational citizenship behaviour gained popularity in studies related to the behavioural sciences and management sciences, due to its impact on business processes (Foote & Tang, 2008). According to Organ, organisational citizenship behaviour is “individual behaviors that are discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in its aggregate promote the effective functioning of the organisation” (Gao and He, 2017, p. 296). This definition gives a clear cut difference between OCB and similar constructs such as organisational commitment which was also developed by behavioural researchers (Murphy, Athanasou, & King, 2002). For instance, one of the main difference between OCB and other similar constructs is that, OCB relates to a particular group of stakeholders’ responses in an organisation. Empirical evidence shows that, CSR programs affected employee OCB (Swaen & Maignan, 2003). Employees engaged in OCB based on their organisation’s behaviour towards the community (Vlachos, Panagopoulos, & Rapp, 2014). According to Haslam (2001), OCB is exhibited when employees understand their organisation’s CSR program. Haslam (2001) further indicated that, this program made employees demonstrate other positive behaviours such as job satisfaction. There has been an established understanding of job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour. This is because, they are mostly reciprocated in most management and behavioural studies (Koys, 2001). Job satisfaction has been used by most organisational researchers since it has proven important at every level of an organisation (Spagnoli, Caetano, & Santos, 2012). The 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ranks of every organisation are made up of employees, therefore every employee gains a level of enjoyment on his or her job (Tantiverdi, 2008). Job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour are two variables that can improve the productivity levels of an organisation. This has given rise to a growing need to continuously find out the type of relationship existing between these variables, especially amongst an organisation’s key stakeholders (Bishop, Scott, & Burroughs, 2000). Globally, firms achieve long term success when employees enjoy their tasks at work. This has been the case since most global companies measure their strategic goals with their employees’ job satisfaction (Ackabah, 2018). Apart from it being used as a measure for the attainment of the strategic goals of an organisation, it has been a key function amongst human resource professionals as well as other executives. This concept is also important because, it is capable of measuring the productivity level of employees (Akins, 2017). Service providing companies identified job satisfaction as a vital construct since it was used to determine the quality of service received by customers (Choi, Cheung, & Pang, 2013). Employees’ happiness is affected by their responsibilities at work. The feeling towards employees' work is mostly conceptualised as job satisfaction (Appiah, 2019). Most of the research on employee job satisfaction was as a result of dissatisfied workers who exhibited their dissatisfaction through negative behaviours (Tsai, 2011). According to Appiah (2019) during his studies in the hospitality industry, he defined job satisfaction in accordance with Price’s (1977) definition. It stated that job satisfaction is a measure of emotions an individual has towards an organisation. Employees are more stable and act positively towards an organisation when they have a psychological good of their organisation’s CSR practices and policies (Aziri, 2011). 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A large focus at the micro-level of CSR has contributed to studies on the internal stakeholders of an organisation. With little contribution to employees such as managers, who largely face most of the complexities of implementing CSR (Hunoldt, Oertel, & Galander, 2018), it is, therefore, important to improve the findings of CSR at the micro-level. (Yadanar, Jung, & Park, 2018; Santhosh & Rupashree, 2018; Islam, Ahmed, Ali, & Sadiq, 2016). Corporate social responsibility over the past decade has witnessed a rise in curiosity in Africa as compared to Europe. This is due to the number of literature produced on the continent over the past decade (Jamali, Lund-Thomsen, & Jeppesen, 2015). In other words, research on CSR in Africa has been consistently limited (Vig, 2016), but with increased interest over the past decade (Ofori, Nyuur & S-Darko, 2014). In Ghana, corporate social responsibility has relied heavily on data obtained from external associates of organisations, while little attention is given to the incumbents of organisations (Baba, 2010; Ofori et al, 2014). Corporate social responsibility literature focused more on the banking sector (Baba, 2010; Ofori et al., 2014), telecommunication sector (Giannarakis & Litinas, 2011), Small and Medium- Sized Enterprises (SMEs) (Cowling, 2003; Lamberti & Noci, 2012) and the mining sectors (Fonseca, 2010). The literature on CSR in Ghana is mostly on philanthropic issues within the above-mentioned sectors (Baffoe, 2018). This study focused on the hospitality industry of Ghana. This selection was based on the current challenges facing the identified industry. When industries are faced with challenges, employees within these industries witness a lot of challenges in their homes and when performing their duties (Nketiah et al, 2004). Every industry is faced with challenges that mostly reduce the profitability 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh level of companies. One of Africa’s leading booking online site reports indicated that, most of the challenges facing the hospitality industry are mostly channeled towards the hotel sector of the industry (Jango.com, 2016). In Ghana, the industry has witnessed a hike in utility bills which took more than 40% of operation cost (Arthur, 2019). Meanwhile, challenges of this nature are easily avoided when there is an appropriate implementation of CSR programs (Obeng, 2017). Employees mostly face difficulties such as long working hours while performing complex tasks that are demanding in nature. Increase in the responsibility of most supervisors has given pressure to most employees in performing a complex task with deadlines, making it a trend in most organisations, especially in the hospitality industry (Wilkinson, 2015). The above situation as well as insecurity and other work stress issues have made it important for supervisors and executives to support employees to attain a level of enjoyment at work. The support can provide quality services and behaviours that promote the success of both employees and organisations (Pezaro, Clyne, Turner, Fulton, & Gerada, 2015). Also, Porter and Kramer (2008) indicated that CSR activities play a strategic role in employees’ behaviour and organisational competitiveness. The above challenges within the hospitality industry of employees identified the weak attention given to CSR in some parts of the African continent. In essence, this study intends to fill the gap within the hospitality industry of Ghana, by providing empirical data to examine employees’ perception of CSR on OCB and the influence of job satisfaction on OCB. 1.2 Research Objectives The objectives of the study are followed. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. To examine the nature and form of corporate social responsibility practices in a hotel. 2. To determine employees’ perception of corporate social responsibility in a hotel. 3. To examine how employees’ perception of corporate social responsibility predicts organisational citizenship behaviour in a hotel. 4. To examine the relationship between employees’ job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour of a hotel. 1.3 Research Questions To attain the objectives of the study, the following are the questions the researcher seeks to address. 1. What is the nature and form of CSR practices in the selected hotel? 2. What are employees’ perception of the CSR practices in the selected hotel? 3. How does employees’ perception of CSR predict OCB in the selected hotel? 4. What is the relationship between employees’ job satisfaction and their organisational citizenship behaviour in the selected hotel? 1.4 Research Hypotheses The following are the hypotheses of the study. H1a: Employees’ perception of economic CSR will significantly influence OCB. H1b: Employees’ perception of legal CSR will significantly influence OCB. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H1c: Employees’ perception of ethical CSR will significantly influence OCB. H1d: Employees’ perception of philanthropic CSR will significantly influence OCB. H2: Employees’ job satisfaction will positively influence OCB. 1.5 Significance of Study The significance of the study can be identified from three dimensions. This study would add to existing literature since it will increase the understanding of CSR in Ghana. The study will also increase awareness of the perception of CSR within a group of internal stakeholders of a selected hotel in Ghana. For practice, the study will show how employees’ perceptions of CSR practices could be used to modify employees' behaviour at the workplace. This study will also inform the organisation under analysis, how employees understand their CSR practices. It is essential to state that, this study can help organisations incorporate their CSR practices into their mission and vision statements. For policy, the findings will encourage companies to have a CSR policy that encourages employees’ adherance to other policies such as job satisfaction and OCB policies. Guidelines for the implementation of CSR can be properly formulated and aligned with the laws and culture of the selected organisation. These guidelines when effectively implemented can improve the growth and survival of the selected hotel. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Research Methodology Every academic literature has methods that are adopted to arrive at answers based on questions posed by a researcher (Boateng, 2018). According to Creswell (2014), the key issues to consider when selecting a research approach for a study are, the researcher’s philosophy, the research design to be adopted and the method for data collection, analysis and interpretation. 1.6.1 Research Design The mixed-method approach known as the concurrent mixed-method research design was employed to answer the research questions. The use of both quantitative and qualitative data relatively strengthens the findings of research as compared to the use of only one approach (Cresswell, 2014). Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected together over a particular period therefore the cross-sectional survey method was used. 1.6.2 Research Population The population for the study was employees of a four-star hotel in Accra-Ghana. The selected hotel is one of the state of the art hotels in Ghana. Through reviews from customers, it is considered as one of the few luxury hotels in Ghana. Therefore, employees from a luxurious four- star hotel were the observed participants for the study. 1.6.3 Sampling method A non-probability sampling approach was employed due to the identified population. Three sampling methods were used for this study. The hotel used in this study was selected using the 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh convenience sampling method. This was because the researcher anticipated the difficulty of being given the chance to research within the identified population. Participants were selected using both purposive sampling and snowball sampling. The purposive sampling used was the judgemental purposive sampling method. This method was used because a particular group of internal stakeholders was being observed. Also, snowball sampling was used with the purposive sampling method to attain other employees that were difficult to get to by the researcher, but easier with the help of identified participants. The sampling size determination formula used by Akins (2017), was adopted to determine the number of participants for this study. With a confidence interval of 95 percent, the total number of employees within the selected hotel was identified and used in calculating the sample size needed. Fifteen percent of the identified number of sample size was calculated and added to the sample size to offset any eventualities on the field. 1.6.4 Research Instruments Research instruments were used during the data collection period of the study. For the quantitative aspect of the study, the CSR scale adopted by Carroll (1991) and Lee (2008) was used. Organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) scale developed by Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) and the job satisfaction scale by Closon, Leys and Hellemans (2015) were adopted for this study. The CSR scale measured employees’ perception of CSR along the four dimensions of CSR by Carroll (1991). They included the economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic CSR. Statements such as “We have been successful at maximizing our profits” for the economic dimension, “The 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh managers of the organisation try to comply with the law” for the legal dimension, “Our business has a comprehensive code of conduct” for the ethical dimension, and “The corporation tries to contribute towards bettering the local community” for the philanthropic dimension. Organisational citizenship behaviour was measured with statements such as “I am always ready to lend a helping hand to those around me” and “My attendance at work is above normal”. Closon et al.’s (2009) job satisfaction scale was made up of statements such as “I am satisfied with the work climate where I work “and “I am satisfied with my working conditions”. These instruments were adopted because of their high-reliability coefficient. The qualitative aspect adopted a semi-structured interview to gather information on the nature and form of CSR practices. 1.6.5 Data Analysis The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23 was used to analyse the quantitative data. To make predictions between employees’ perception of CSR and OCB and job satisfaction and OCB, a regression analysis was conducted. Content analysis was used in analysing the qualitative data of the study. 1.7 Chapter Disposition The study is composed of five chapters. Chapter One introduced the study by identifying the background of the study, research problem, research question, research significance, a summary of the methodology, and disposition of the study. Chapter Two presents the theoretical knowledge and framework of corporate social responsibility in the world and Ghana and 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh knowledge on OCB and job satisfaction. Chapter Three presents the methodological approach of the study. It presents the research design, study population, sample size, sampling techniques, data collection instruments and method, data processing and analysis, validity and reliability, and the ethical procedures for the study. Chapter Four presents the results and interpretation for the identified hypotheses and objectives and discussions on the findings. The final chapter, Chapter Five presents a summary of the study, a conclusion, and ends with recommendations for practice and future research. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter focuses on the literature relevant to the concepts of the study. It reviews published works that are related to the concepts of the study. Information within these selected works was discussed succinctly to understand the state of knowledge available to this study. This chapter is directed towards the review of definitions, growth, and synonymous concepts of, corporate social responsibility, organisational citizenship behaviour and job satisfaction. The theory related to the study is also discussed. The chapter ends with an analysis of relevant empirical studies and a pictorial presentation of the conceptual framework for the study. 2.1 The Concept of Corporate Social Responsibility There has been a significant increase in the attention given to corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Ankoma-Sey & Seth, 2014). Scholars from various fields and professions have paid keen attention to the value of CSR to improve its understanding of society (Trivellas et al., 2019). This awareness was to reduce the increasing nature of various depletion issues on the environment and help solve these environmental issues (Apronti, 2017). Apart from sustaining the environment, CSR can also reduce the cost of most organisations to increase their financial capabilities (Amin-Chaudhry, 2016; Liu & Zeng, 2010; Ofori, S-Darko, & Nyuur, 2014; Trivellas et al., 2019). According to Ofori et al. (2014), most corporate professionals counter the view that CSR reduces cost. This was because CSR was viewed as one 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of the factors that increase the operational cost of an organisation, hence finances towards CSR were reduced to maintain operational cost. A significant number of researchers go contrary to this argument because, they believed organisations gain more when CSR is practiced (Baffoe, 2018; Musah, 2015; Ranjan & Tiwary, 2018; Wolff & Barth, 2005). Some of the means through which organisations gain financially from CSR are reduction on employee cost and increased employee performance. These hidden benefits have made CSR a strategic concept that needs proper application at the workplace (Ofori et al., 2014). In terms of strategy, CSR could be strategically used to attract high performing employees and to reduce turnover at the workplace (Ranjan & Tiwary, 2018). Corporate social responsibility is now an integral part of most businesses as compared to the past decade (Amponsah, 2015). Organisations today encourage the use of CSR to gain important benefits such as operational approval from society (Ofori, 2007). Most developing countries do not have laws that explicitly state the rules and regulations of CSR (Amponsah-Tawiah & Dartey- Baah, 2011). Meanwhile, most organisations in developing countries foresee the need to incorporate CSR to avoid legal issues (Atuguba et al., 2006) and operate within the laws of the society (Kuanda & Hinson, 2012). These laws are diligently followed by firms to protect their global image (Abane, 2013). Apart from having a good global image, firms are also pressured to stay relevant above their local and foreign competitors (Mishra, 2019). These pressures have forced firms to be involved with CSR programs even when there are no explicit laws to guide them (Ankoma-Sey & Seth, 2014; Baffoe, 2018; Ofori & Hinson, 2007; Sood & Arora, 2006). 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 The Growth of Corporate Social Responsibility Most organisations presently acknowledge the importance of history to improve on mistakes made. Corporate social responsibility is not far from such improvements. The historical paths of CSR are mostly acknowledged as an improvement towards application (Mishra, 2019). These paths improve and enhance the knowledge of CSR of an organisation (Schrempf-Stirling et al., 2016). History also serves as a competitive advantage to an organisation when the knowledge is properly used (Suddaby et al., 2010). Corporate social responsibility is important as the strategic policy of an organisation and is mostly based on past circumstances (Musah, 2015). Therefore, the history of an organisation about any business concept is needed for corporate professionals to achieve organisational objectives ((ACCP), 2019). It is then important for this study to look back at the evolution of CSR, to adequately understand the empirical findings provided during its evolution. The origination of corporate social responsibility has been one of the hot debates in management science. The beginning of the concept in literature was mostly attributed to both developed and developing countries such as the USA and India respectively (Abane, 2013; Mishra, 2019). Its geographical origination is mostly not certain since it is as old as the act of “buying and selling” (Essays, 2018). The initiation of the concept was noted to be guidelines and codes of conduct presented by decision-makers in society. For instance, a code was established in ancient Mesopotamia by a king in 1700 BC. The code was that key professionals were liable to death if their functions brought uncontrollable harm to the kings’ society (Essays, 2018; Mishra, 2019). Also, lawmakers of Roman civilization were troubled with how businesses avoided taxes for the development of the Roman Empire. During 753 BC they came up with guidelines that forced 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh businesses to constantly pay taxes to develop and make the empire strong. (Mishra, 2019). In 1622, individuals affiliated to an Indian company began to make statements on how management was not being transparent enough (Essays, 2018). Issues related to the company in India and that of ancient Rome were witnessed all over the United States with minimal presence in Europe during the Industrial Revolution in 1760 (Mishra, 2019). For the past fifty years, the foundation of CSR has shown relevance in sustaining the world. (Carroll & Shabana, 2010). This initiated various CSR theorizations and practices in the 1990s (Lee, 2008; Waddock & Graves, 1997). In terms of practice, CSR was charitable and was practiced mostly by wealthy men with notable businesses during the industrialization era; around the 1800s (S. Waddock & Graves, 1997). This charitable nature of CSR during the 1800s was known by businesses as “Social responsibility (SR) (Carroll, 1999). The practices of CSR before and during the industrialization period were more or less of philanthropic activities performed by businessmen (Abane, 2013). For instance, Bowen in 1953 defied the concept by noting how individual businessmen were generous to society (Wolff & Barth, 2005). Bowen later criticized their generosity by indicating that, individual executives alone cannot bring out the usefulness of their philanthropic activities. He, therefore, suggested that the functions of their organisation must have an impact on the society and not just the individual executives impacting it (Amponsah, 2015). Corporate social responsibility reports were recognized more in the USA than in Europe, especially during the twentieth century (Sood & Arora, 2006). This was in part due to the increase in the number of executives with large businesses in the USA than in Europe. Businessmen such 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller immersed themselves in Philanthropic activities in the name of their businesses (Jones, 2013). These philanthropic activities made way for the USA to understand CSR better as compared to other developed countries (Mishra, 2019). These activities also influenced the good reputation of businesses from the USA (Schrempf-Stirling et al., 2016). After the 1900s, businesses were being recognized as charitable and not their executives, making social responsibility adequate to identify the construct (Abane, 2013). The philanthropic activities practiced by businesses proved to be more beneficial to society than the one previously done by businessmen (Schrempf-Stirling et al., 2016). The Association of Corporate Citizenship Professionals (ACCP) affirms this through the indication that, CSR gained its beginning from corporate philanthropy ((ACCP), 2019). Corporate social responsibility gradually became an academic discourse through the published works of an American economist known as Howard R. Bowen, and to whom credit is given to by researchers and professionals as the founder of CSR (Amin-Chaudhry, 2016). Bowen’s work was more relevant with the help of works from Barnard, Clark and Kreps in the 1940s (Abane, 2013). These published works were based on topics related to; the responsibilities of businessmen and the rights of the society (Carroll, 1999). Carroll (1999) made mention that, Bowen made his work unique due to his ability to answer all the relevant issues that were identified by the above-listed authors. Most developments on CSR were from various territorial borders, making CSR limitless to a particular geographical region (Aaronson, 2002). For instance, developments on CSR showed that, Europeans led the way to modern CSR (Sood & Arora, 2006). Also, during the Apartheid era in South Africa, most corporations reacted to the 1960 and 1970 public protest and established 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh themselves as agents of ethical CSR (Schrempf-Stirling et al., 2016). This demonstrates that, CSR is not attributed to a geographic region in the world. The major growth for the conceptual development of CSR was in the 1970s. This was when the Committee for Economic Development (CED) approved a new study on CSR (Baffoe, 2018). This major publication was titled “A New Rationale for Corporate Social Policy”. This easily made way for authors to argue out their thoughts, to adequately examine the concept (Lee, 2008). According to Lee (2008), the committee identified how businesses were to manage the affairs of their society in addition to theirs. Most of the prominent writers of CSR commented for or against the findings of the CED. For instance, in 2009 a professor emeritus at Georgia University, Carroll, indicated that, the findings from CED were well recognized due to the composition of the members on the committee. The members were executives and educators with long practice in business and a higher understanding of how businesses affect society. Carroll (1999) also made it clear that, the findings of the CED reflected the realities of the various issues surrounding CSR (Ranjan & Tiwary, 2018). Currently, CSR is based on how corporations, groups and organisations treat human rights violation issues, corruption of a political regime, the environment and mental illness of a society (Mishra, 2019). Mishra (2019) indicated that, corporations are now forced to make ethical decisions that give them legitimacy in their industry as well as their society. This pressure also boils from competitors who can effectively make decisions that portray good corporate behaviour for their society and the globe (Schrempf-Stirling et al., 2016). 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3 Definition of Corporate Social Responsibility Most corporations show responsibility to shareholders to sustain their reputation (Amponsah, 2015). A responsible corporation is one with professionally managed practices and policies that move beyond its day to day activities. These activities are to improve and sustain a good relationship with key players of the corporation (Baffoe, 2018). This identifies that, every function undertaken by a corporation must not bring harm to its stakeholders. Indicated above as the father of CSR, Bowen in 1953 emphasized the importance of businesses towards stakeholders. He indicated that, businesses are to bring joy to the society through their day to day activities (Schrempf-Stirling et al., 2016). Contrary to Bowen (1953), Friedman (1962) was of the view that, businesses are not to interfere with issues emanating from society. In 1971, Friedman again made known that; businesses are accountable to only shareholders and not the society (Mishra, 2019). Based on these comments, he established that, the only responsibility that links business with its society is its compliance with laws established by society (Farrington et al., 2017). This influenced later scholars in their definition of corporate social responsibility. The definition of CSR has taken different forms. According to Abane (2013), CSR relates to corporations going beyond their economic and legal obligations. She defined it as the legal and economic management of a firm and its society. This tells that; firms are to be the best at what they do. They are to exceed the given requirements on products, services, and legal settlements such as taxes, employment conditions and rules in the society. Businesses are to understand the various policies surrounding a society, making it possible for them to make ethical decisions for the benefit of both society and the business (Baffoe, 2018). 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh During the industrial era, CSR definitions were directed towards a particular person or a group of people with a known and successful business (Mishra, 2019). This changed during the growing stages of the modern era of CSR. With similarity to Abane’s definition above, Fredrick defined CSR as, organisations being responsible to their various stakeholders (Ofori & Hinson, 2007). To improve the understanding of CSR in West Africa, Amponsah-Tawiah and Dartey-Baah (2007) considered and analysed various definitions of CSR from the USA, Europe, Asia, and Africa. This was done in their study on “CSR in Ghana”. They gave a holistic definition of CSR, stating that, corporate social responsibility is the “strategic decision of an organisation to voluntarily act upon the social factors that have the potential of militating against the fulfilment of corporate goals” (p. 108). Through their analysis of various CSR definitions, they identified a hidden characteristic involved with CSR, which was volunteerism. This was affirmed by Nyuur, Ofori, and Debrah (2014) when they stated that, corporate social responsibility is a behaviour and a voluntary one as well. This characteristic of CSR is prominent because CSR programs go beyond an organisation’s mandatory laws. This therefore also means that, to perform CSR you are to satisfy all requirements of the law to go beyond it voluntarily. International corporations have also made it possible to contribute to the definition of CSR to gain a global definition that can improve commonality of the concept. The International Organisation for Standardization made it possible to go beyond the understanding of scholars and academicians in defining CSR. They defined CSR as the ability of an organisation’s decisions and activities to have a positive impact on their society through accountability and good behaviour that improves the society for future generations to enjoy (Abugre, 2014; Youmatter, 2018). Another notable organisation in the business world also introduced how CSR is to be understood. The 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh World Business Council for Sustainable Development explained CSR as the daily commitment of a business to contribute good behaviour and ideas that can impact the development and well-being of their employees, their families, and the community as a whole (Moir, 2001). The emergence of Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) made it necessary for there to be a standard procedure for CSR to be observed, especially when concerned with internal CSR (Damanka, 2016). The International Labour Organisation (ILO) is an organisation that makes it possible for international laws concerning workers of MNEs to be smoothly coordinated. They defined CSR as a management process that improves the minimum requirements of society and also solves the daily operations of an enterprise ((ILO) & (ITC), 2012). Also, some organisations such as the European Union (EU), defined CSR as an organisation’s consideration of its internal and external environment (Baffoe, 2018). There is a need for organisations as well as individuals to be concerned about the state of CSR. Organisations such as the EU and the International Labour Organisation introduced their definition of CSR to obtain a worldwide view of the concept. Meanwhile, this effort has not been attained since there is no central understanding of the concept (Baffoe, 2018). Baffoe (2018), indicated that, the reason why a central understanding of CSR is still not achieved, is due to the differences in the background knowledge of those who defined them. He made a point in his research by stating that, researchers and individuals have explained corporate social responsibility from varied disciplines. Also, according to Ofori et al. (2014), different names are mostly used when referring to corporate social responsibility. An example of these synonymous names indicated in their work were corporate governance, sustainable development, and corporate ethics. 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The voluntary nature of CSR is key, therefore CSR must be achieved without breaking any existing law in the society (Nyuur et al., 2014). The voluntary activities done in the name of CSR are mostly for organisations to stay relevant in their community (Amponsah, 2015). Apart from the voluntary characteristic of CSR, Amponsah (2015) also characterized CSR based on people in the society, the environment, and the profit the organisation wishes to attain. Amponsah further indicated that, these three intentions are parallel when wanting to attain a good and effective CSR program as an organisation. According to Ofori and Hinson (2007), organisations are to understand their functions to adopt a definition that fit their operations. They continued by indicating that, organisations with CSR policies are to formulate activities that fit their day-to-day functions. Dahlsrud in 2008 supported the views of Ofori and Hinson after an examination of CSR definitions from about thirty diverse organisations (Baffoe, 2018). Dahlsrud identified that, most organisations base on their mission and vision to formulate their understanding of CSR. According to Amponsah (2015), businesses consider their daily functions to define CSR. This may be the contributing factor to the various synonymous names attributed to CSR. This equally tells how CSR is given great attention in various organisations (Ofori et al., 2014). Just as organisations are defining CSR to fit their mission and vision, this study also intends to adopt a definition for CSR, to attain the objectives of the study. To gain answers to the identified questions of this study, the definition established by Carroll in 2016 was used in defining CSR. Carroll’s understanding of CSR was in line with the objectives of the study. Carroll originally defined the concept stating that, “Corporate social responsibility encompasses the economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic expectations that society has of organisations at a given point in 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh time”(Carroll, 2016 p.3). Studies based on this definition have given that, the definition makes it possible for businesses to identify which of the four basic elements they have attained and which ones they have not (Baffoe, 2018). To improve the understanding of this study, below is an explanation of Carroll’s four dimensions of corporate social responsibility 2.3.1 Economic Responsibility At the base of Carroll’s pyramid is the economic responsibility. It illustrates the basic elements needed in a CSR program. Carroll argued that, every business is in to attain adequate or higher economic gains and that, it is essential for businesses to make a profit. Economic gains of an organisation are essential since there is competition within the industry of the organisation. The economic responsibility of an organisation must be adequately attained to perform CSR. 2.3.2 Legal Responsibility In as much as businesses are to make a profit to stay relevant, businesses are to go beyond their economic principles to satisfy their society. According to Carroll, organisations that go beyond economic gains sustain a smooth business within its society. It also shows how businesses respect and appreciate the common laws of the society they operate in. Businesses are to obey the laws of society to avoid legal penalties that can cause harm to their organisation. Carroll makes things concise and precise by identifying some basic responsibilities bestowed on businesses. They include businesses behaving in accordance with the established laws, following and practicing all local laws, functioning in accordance with the required quality of goods and services and anticipating societal laws that are to be observed. 2.3.3 Ethical Responsibility 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Following the required laws of the land and producing goods in the required standard may be said to be ethical. Meanwhile, Carroll indicates that, businesses are to portray behaviours that respectfully goes beyond the legal rules of the society. Carroll states that, businesses are ethical when they observe and acknowledge their societal standards. These practices are mostly not written or identified legally but are essential for the survival of the business. Businesses are ethical when they properly respond to and go beyond the norms, values, and standards of the society they operate in. Thus, they are ethically responsible when they are accountable to society. 2.3.4 Philanthropic Responsibility This responsibility is the subjective behaviour businesses demonstrate to positively affect their society. Carroll argues that, it is not the responsibility of businesses to show benevolence towards their society but necessary since most stakeholders within the society expect such behaviours. These voluntary activities are mostly channelled toward solving an issue within society. These issues are mostly not required by businesses to solve, but they are done to gain support from the society. This support allows businesses to demonstrate positive behaviours that influence society and their reputation. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.1: Carroll’s Corporate Social Responsibility Pyramid Philanthropic Responsibility Disired by society Ethical Responsibility Expected by society Legal Responsibility Required by society Economic Responsibility Required by society Source: Adopted from Carroll (2016). 2.5 Corporate Social Responsibility in Africa The African continent for so many years has been involved with CSR. Corporate social responsibility in Africa was mostly ignored by most scholars (Amponsah-Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2011). According to Amponsah-Tawiah and Dartey-Baah (2011), most organisations in Africa have acknowledged the importance of CSR over the past few years. Meanwhile, these organisations fail to initiate CSR activities within the core functions of their business. For instance, Ghanaian firms verified the importance of CSR but mostly failed to add value to it, due to its omission from their vision and mission statement (Ofori & Hinson, 2007). This behaviour towards 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CSR by firms is mostly based on the cultural background of the African collectivist orientation (Dartey-Baah et al., 2015). Based on Carroll’s definition of CSR, the most widely used form of CSR practice in Africa is the philanthropic form of CSR (Abane, 2013; Amponsah, 2015). African scholars indicate that, Africa is noted for the discretionary form of CSR ( Ofori, 2007; Ofori & Hinson, 2007). This form of CSR is mostly credited to South Africa as the initiating country of CSR on the continent (Damanka, 2016). South Africa’s CSR started just as in the USA when managers and businessmen invested ethically and discretionally during the apartheid period and democracy in 1994 (Schrempf-Stirling et al., 2016). According to Damanka (2016), out of the 53 countries on the continent, only 12 countries had their research on CSR published and more than half of the published works focused on South Africa, and about sixteen percent on West Africa. For instance, in Nigeria, most of the published works on CSR referred to their petroleum industry, especially on Shell’s scandal and its effect on the people of Ogoni (Ite, 2004). This and other related issues on the continent made Blowfield and Frynas (2005) advocate for critical analysis and research on CSR in Africa. Currently, the story on CSR in Africa has tremendously improved since there has been an increased volume on CSR literature on the continent (Amponsah-Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2011; Ofori et al., 2014; Ofori, 2007). Meanwhile, there has been difficulty in the application of CSR theories into Africa as compared to the Western world (Musah, 2015). This difficulty has been attributed to several factors but with higher attribution to the drivers of CSR (Amponsah-Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2011). Amponsah-Tawiah and Dartey-Baah (2011) indicated that, the cultural, political, and economic setting in developed countries questions the smooth application of CSR in 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Africa. Again, through their work, Amponsah-Tawiah and Dartey-Baah (2011) observed that, the African continent has a high-power distance culture. Thus, apart from elders, managers were valued as the solution to most community issues and not the means to solutions. However, they continued by adding that, managers practiced CSR creatively even without strict laws and policies related to CSR on the continent. This has made way for most scholars in Africa to advocate for an indigenous form of CSR (Muthuri & Gilbert, 2011). Corporate social responsibility was long practiced in Africa but was not well incorporated into the African way of doing business (Amponsah-Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2011). Africa had terms such as Ubuntu, African Renaissance and Omuluwabi, which form the idea of CSR today. Amponsah-Tawiah and Dartey-Baah (2011) again made known that, these terms were not fully utilized in the business world since there was little research done on these terms. Visser (2005) also stated that, Ubuntu is the reason why modern CSR is accepted on the African continent. The business world in Africa witnessed a slow approach towards CSR. The reason for this slowdown in Africa was due to the nine hindering and supporting factors of CSR (Nyuur et al., 2014). Nyuur et al. (2014) indicated that, most managers overseeing CSR activities within an organisation were responsible for other major functions that needed much attention. They further concluded that, most managers on the African continent gave out little time to understand the CSR issues attributed to their organisation. A lot of multinational organisations come to African with lots of CSR projects (Nyuur et al., 2014). The projects are largely channelled towards education, health, and sustainability of the environment. This had similarities with the findings of Lindgreen, Swaen, and Campbell (2009). Lindgreen et al. (2009) argued that, the difference between CSR practiced by multinational 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisations in South East and South West Africa was not significant. These CSR practices on the continent contributed tremendously to the financial and societal growth of businesses as well as the continent at large (Hinson & Ndhlovu, 2011; Ramlall, 2012). In Africa, the contribution of CSR by the government is less as compared to individual organisations (Visser, 2005). Therefore, the economic contribution of CSR in Africa is mostly contributed by the private sector of the continent. Although this is stated, most scholars think it is not fully verified in all the African countries (Adewuyi & Olowookere, 2010). These contributions have made it possible for the advancement of the minimum standard of living on the continent (Valente & Crane, 2010). Valente and Crane (2010) indicated that, some activities by private organisations have reduced the burden on the government. These activities have also made it possible for some developmental deficiencies on the continent to be cured (Amponsah-Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2011). Meanwhile, these developmental gaps filled by individual organisations reduce the power and control of the government since they failed to perform their developmental duties (Haalboom, 2012). In all, CSR programs on the continent have practically improved developmental deficiencies on the African continent (Kolk & Lenfant, 2010). 2.6 Corporate Social Responsibility in Ghana The understanding of CSR is mostly seen as a harmonious interaction between stakeholders and organisations (Damanka, 2016). This is mostly achieved when managers and key players of an organisation understand the link between them (O’Riordan & Fairbrass, 2008). Implying that, managers of an organisation are to balance the needs of the organisation with the society. An organisation’s vision and mission are to adequately identify the harmonious relationship between an organisation and its stakeholders (Abane, 2013; Baffoe, 2018; Damanka, 2016). 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In Ghana, CSR is mostly executed through the country’s educational and health sectors. An analysis made by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) during the last decade revealed that, Ghanaians perceived CSR as a way to improve their educational and health deficiencies in the society (Damanka, 2016). For instance, Ofori and Hinson (2007) indicated that, CSR in Ghana is mostly towards the support of the society. These supports include building educational institutions and improving the sanitation circumstances of the country. According to Amponsah-Tawiah and Dartey-Baah, (2011) Corporate social responsibility makes it possible for diverse cultures in a community to understand each other and solve community issues affecting them. Historical issues and happenings in Ghana have affected the practice of CSR. The philosophical ideologies as well as the orientation towards CSR by the late Dr. Kwame Nkrumah influenced the practice of CSR in Ghana. He created the notion that, only State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) in the country were the capable organisations to solve community problems (Amponsah- Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2011). Amponsah-Tawiah and Dartey-Baah (2011) revealed that, private corporations were therefore reluctant to involve themselves with the society since they adequately settled their part of their agreements with the state. Currently, the need for CSR in corporations have increased since the rise of privatization and flexible packages given by the government to attract organisations to operate in Ghana (Damanka, 2016). This has made it possible for the private sector of Ghana to adequately support the public sector of the country to fill the societal gaps witnessed in the country (Husted, 2000). According to Ofori (2010), the behaviour of executive members within the private and the public sectors, have both impacted CSR in Ghana. Furthermore, there were no agreed or direct 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh laws towards CSR in Ghana. Meanwhile, most companies in the country engaged in CSR towards the educational and developmental sectors of the country. He also revealed that, in as much as there were no written laws, most managers exhibited behaviours related to CSR. The unavailability of specific laws towards CSR made way for the formulation of regulatory bodies to specify the importance of CSR. For the past fifteen years, regulatory bodies involved with ethics and the environment have been in existence to regulate CSR issues (Ofori, 2010). This decision by the government was partly due to competition by other multinational firms as well as pressure from global organisations on the observance of ethical procedures during the production of goods and services. These decisions have improved both economical and environmentally friendly procedures by companies operating in Ghana (Ofori, 2010). According to Anku-Tsede and Deffor (2014), Ghana is capable of observing CSR to its fullest when all the relevant laws towards CSR are properly enforced. Corporate social responsibility practices are familiar with Ghanaian organisations (Ofori & Hinson, 2007). Ofori and Hinson (2007) however, established that, these firms were mostly practicing CSR without any form of strategy in place. Thus, the CSR of these firms were mostly not visible within the vision and mission statements of the firms. Organisations in Ghana that do not link their values with CSR practices usually have less understanding of the morals and ethics involved in practicing CSR (Ofori & Hinson, 2007). With the ability to compare local and foreign firms established in Ghana, Ofori and Hinson (2007) found out that, foreign firms operating in Ghana, performed every element of CSR as identified by Carroll. Meanwhile, local firms were performing more of a dimension, which was the philanthropic dimension of CSR. The banking 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and mining sector of the country, both international and local were the sectors involved with all the dimensions of CSR as identified by Carroll (Dartey-Baah et al., 2015; Nyuur et al., 2014). Corporate social responsibility has improved the reputation of both individual managers and firms in Ghana. These improvements came along with a few challenges that slowed the growth of CSR in Ghana. A few of the complex reasons hindering the promotion of CSR in Ghana are per capita income, weak currency, low productivity, and low savings (Amponsah-Tawiah & Dartey- Baah, 2011). In as much as these challenges exist, multinational companies in Ghana do well to use CSR to counter some of these challenges. This is because, CSR has the capability of introducing tremendous benefits to organisations in the long-term (Hinson & Ndhlovu, 2011). The challenges hindering the growth of CSR are also being tackled by promotional bodies such as the Ghana Investment Promotion Centre (GIPC). The Ghana Investment Promotion Centre has been able to make CSR a requirement when selecting good companies in the country. These companies are featured as the best and presented in ranking on Ghana Club 100. Ghana Investment Promotion Centre (GIPC) is a government agency established to encourage, promote, and facilitate investments in all sectors of the economy of Ghana. The Ghana Chamber of Mines, the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation, Minerals Commissions and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are strategic institutions in Ghana that are making efforts to ensure effective CSR within the Mining, Oil, and Petroleum industries through their stated regulations. The mining sectors’ activities towards the environment and human rights, made way for pressure groups to advocate against their practices. This also gave rise to the importance of CSR in the mining sector; making CSR a requirement in the mining sector (Amponsah-Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2011). Another important agency promoting CSR in Ghana is the UN Global Compact Network. This is 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh one of the current international bodies that support the local bodies to implement CSR in Ghana. According to their website, they have a well-established platform for organisations and corporations to learn about CSR. During the establishment of this body in the year 2002, their goal until now is to promote globally accepted CSR principles throughout Ghana. It also serves as a platform for sharing CSR practices within the country and that of other countries. 2.4 Related Concepts of Corporate Social Responsibility 2.4.1 Organisational Ethics Organisational ethics encompasses the implication of an organisation’s behaviour towards its society. These behaviours are well observed to make organisations stay competitive, in their society and industry. A lot of issues related to human rights and communal safety are the main reasons organisations behave ethically to stay relevant (Kurniaty et al., 2018). Also, organisational ethics is a form of strategic behaviour done to avoid legal charges as well as religious and cultural rejections from society (Abane, 2013). 2.4.2 Sustainable Development Social responsibility by some organisations is understood as a subsection of sustainable development. Sustainable development is mostly channelled towards the impact a business has on the community or the environment at large. Most European organisations instil the practice of sustainability in their day-to-day activities. This is mostly recognized to improve and maintain a level of economic growth for society (Abane, 2013). 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.3 Corporate Governance For there to be transparency within an organisation, corporate governance must be well established within an organisation. It is identified as the proper management of organisational goals and societal goals (Kurniaty et al., 2018). This has made it necessary for organisations to properly manage corporate governance from a global perspective, making it essential for managers to adequately balance the needs of all stakeholders (Messier et al., 2000). 2.4.4 Social Investment According to Abane (2013), social investment was made with regard to religious camps. It addressed the belief of people within various religious camps. She also indicated that, most consumers did not only want to relate to an organisation’s goods and services but also their philosophy and belief systems. In other words, consumers wanted to live with organisations in their society. 2.7 The Concept of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour The dynamic business world contributes to the behaviour people work with. Defining a work with its responsibility to employees is vital for the creation of a harmonious environment in every organisation (Foote & Li-Ping, 2008). Organisations today seek to lead their industry; therefore formulate and implement various strategic plans to beat higher performers in their industry (Aravamudhan & Krishnaveni, 2014). These strategies are mostly based on behaviours that contribute to the bottom line of the organisation (Hui et al., 2004). These are behaviours that 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are voluntarily performed by employees. According to Khan and Abdul-Rashid (2012) behaviours that are not determined by an employees’ job description but are good for the success of an organisation, are essential and most superior in gaining higher returns. One such behaviours is organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) and it is identified to be exhibited by employees with an established relationship between them and their organisation (Belwalkar et al., 2018; Van Dyne et al., 1994). During the last few years of the seventies, psychological concepts and organisational concepts established the construct, organisational citizenship behaviour. This establishment was based on the emotional behaviours existed by employees in an organisation (Jordan et al., 2007). Over the last four decades, the concept has been on the heart of both scholars as well as professionals. They found benefits such as employee loyalty and their readiness towards day-to- day activities at work (Caldwell et al., 2012). This psychological concept was academically recognized when it was suggested that, OCB improved employees’ performance and influenced organisational objectives (Zeinabadi, 2010). In simple words, OCB when performed by employees is highly significant to the organisation, therefore increasing the satisfaction level of employees. The relevance of OCB at the workplace attracted many researchers to study the concept, therefore introducing various definitions and dimensions of OCB (Belwalkar et al., 2018). 2.8 Defining Organisational Citizenship Behaviour The increased interest of organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) by scholars and managers have made it necessary to establish an understanding of the concept and how it relates to employees (Belwalkar et al., 2018). In defining OCB, Organ (1988) and other scholars depended on the established knowledge of Chester and Daniel Katz’s works that were related to 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisational citizenship behaviour. Organ defined organisational citizenship behaviour as an employee’s exhibited attitude that are not explicitly cited on their job description and are not rewarded by the organisational system of reward, but effective to improve organisational functions. From the definition, OCB are behaviours that go beyond the standard norm or practice of employees in an organisation. Also, it is possible to benefit an organisation tremendously since these behaviours can improve or increase the bottom line of the organisation. Lambert (2006) also defined it as the attitude that goes beyond the basic requirements of workers’ recognized responsibilities as well as their formal motivation system in an organisation. Similarly, Cohen (2006) identifies it as a massive behaviour that is voluntary and done to improve the reputation of an individual’s group. Indeed, individuals exhibiting OCB behaviours mostly improve the objectives of an organisation and individuals are not punished when OCB is not exhibited (Abane, 2013). In considering an organisations policies and norms, Oplatka (2009) referred to OCB as actions performed by employees, but are not enforced through an organisations policies or work procedures. Also, OCB within an organisation are mostly not measured (Abane, 2013) and not compulsory to be practiced by employees. These behaviours cannot and are not to be regulated, even though they contribute heavily to an organisations strategic objectives (Organ, 1988; Van Dyne et al., 1994). Organisational citizenship behaviour is mostly observed when workers cooperate with colleagues and mentors and they perform extra responsibilities without any form of delay or grievances and also use resources efficiently (Turnipseed & Rassuli, 2005). These behaviours are mostly voluntary and influenced by other organisational factors (Hsieh & Hsieh, 2003). Its voluntary nature makes other scholars identify it as the ability to contribute voluntarily 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to the effectiveness of an organisation (Danaeefard et al., 2010). These contributions introduces a positive and progressive advantage for organisations to fulfil their strategic objectives (Wagner & Rush, 2000). 2.9 Dimensions of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour As a theorist on organisational citizenship behaviour and the root of most definitions on the field, Organ in 1988 established the five dimensions of organisational citizenship behaviour. These behaviours are desirable behaviours workers prefer to engage themselves in and are mostly beyond their responsibilities (Abane, 2013). Workers wish to use their available time and effort to exhibit these desirable behaviours (Jha & Jha, 2010; Wang et al., 2013). According to Magdalena (2014), there are types of OCB. These types of OCB are also known as the dimensions of organisational citizenship behaviour as indicated by Organ (1988). 2.9.1 Altruism Another name replaced with Altruism by some authors is “helping co-workers” (Belwalkar et al., 2018). It is a voluntary way of helping others to have an impact on their performance or situations (Abane, 2013). An example of such behaviours is, to help others effectively perform their responsibility at work. 2.9.2 Courtesy This form of behaviour is to foresee problems that are avoidable and to prevail harmoniously with others (Oo et al., 2018). For example, a common way of exhibiting courtesy within an organisation is when a worker helps a colleague to enhance the colleague’s efficiency 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and effectiveness at work. Another exhibition of courtesy at work is when an individual expert, solves an organisational problem voluntarily (Abane, 2013). 2.9.3 Conscientiousness This form of behaviour involves the relationship between an individual worker and his or her organisation. They involve an individual’s loyalty to his or her organisation. For instance, strictly obeying the rules of an organisation without any thought of going contrary to it is an exhibition of conscientiousness (Abane, 2013). It is the voluntary behaviour to follow an organisation’s rules and procedures without questioning. According to (Belwalkar et al., 2018), conscientiousness is doing better than the stated rules and regulations of an organisation. 2.9.4 Civic Virtue This unique behaviour relates to one’s ability to make time for any organisational event. Within an organisation, a way to exhibit this behaviour is to be ready and involved with every form of a social event organized by the organisation. 2.9.5 Sportsmanship This form of behaviour deals with how one can work under pressure. It is the willingness of an individual worker to work without complaints, or exhibit withdrawal behaviours that may draw the organisation back. It is the ability to tolerate other’s behaviour to complete your work objectives. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The five dimensions of OCB by Organ (1988) have been explained further by some authors. Williams and Anderson (1991) simplified the five dimensions and categorized them into two. The organisational citizenship behaviour- individual (OCB-I) is suggested by Williams and Anderson as the form of OCB that is channelled towards individuals within an organisation, with indirect effect on the organisation. The other categorization they gave is organisational citizenship behaviour towards the organisation (OCB-O). These behaviours affect the success of the organisation and directly impact the organisation. From Organ’s five dimensions, the first categorization of Williams and Anderson makes up the first two dimensions, while the last three dimensions make up the OCB-O categorization formulated by Williams and Anderson. 2.10 Consequences of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour The human resource department faces a lot of challenges when solving issues related to organisational citizenship behaviours. One major way to solve organisational issues is to understand the consequences at play (Bez, 2010). MacKenzie, Podsakoff, and Ahearne (1998) improved the knowledge of OCB by indirectly identifying its consequences. One of the consequences they identified was an employees’ performance level. Indeed, managers have no authority to involve themselves with an individual’s voluntary roles at work. In the same vine, employees are not to expect any form of bonuses or positive behaviours from managers when they voluntarily contribute to the success of their organisation. Meanwhile, OCB is noted to easily increase bonuses of workers and also improve organisational performance (Gürbüz, 2006). Managers mostly want to make judgments about the satisfaction level of their employees using their performance at work. This can also be done by using the measurement scores obtained from OCB (Bez, 2010). Bez (2010) identified that, individuals performing extra roles at work are most 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh likely to be promoted earlier on their job. Also, a study on OCB, CSR and job satisfaction, by Podsakoff and Mackenzie (1997) suggested that, OCB improved the overall performance of an organisation. This further suggests that managers are to manage OCB effectively to identify scores and make analysis with their organisation’s CSR program and other behaviours such as job satisfaction. According to Podsakoff and Mackenzie (1997) managers are to initiate training programs that improve the performance and skills of employees. This increases the tendency for employees to be satisfied with their responsibilities at work and may further increase their extra roles to influence their organisation. Also, recruitment and selection strategies must not be based only on qualifications but on an individual’s ability to demonstrate voluntary behaviours. Human resource directors and line managers are to have a higher interest in OCB to maintain and improve organisational performance at the workplace. When employers fail to show interest in OCB for a long time, most workers are discouraged to demonstrate such voluntary behaviours (Abane, 2013; Bez, 2010). This may further lead to the dissatisfaction with one’s job. This can also lead to low confidence in management, which can lead to other organisational discrepancies such as low commitment and high turnover rates. Another powerful feature of OCB is its ability to increase the productivity level of an organisation (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993). Organisational citizenship behaviour is a long-lasting grease within the social mechanisms of an organisation. It can reduce the impact of unwanted social issues within an organisation (Foote & Li-Ping, 2008). Organisational citizenship behaviour demonstrates the influence on other attitudinal behaviours such as job satisfaction, making OCB an indicator to an organisations long-term success (Abane, 2013). 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.11 Characteristics of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour In the late 1990s, a group of researchers illustrated two main foundations of OCB. The prime involved organisational matters and the second involved individual matters. (Bez, 2010). Also, Ozdevecioglu (2003) argued that, two forces characterize OCB. To easily demonstrate these forces and characterize OCB for self-understanding, “Winning and Not-losing” were used by Ozdevecioglu to demonstrate the two main characteristics of OCB. Winning demonstrated how individual workers are to have a dynamic and competitive attitude towards their responsibilities. This characteristic makes it possible for workers to strive for consistent success within an organisation. “Not losing” demonstrates that, individuals are to do well to enjoy the policies provided and ensure the implementation of the established rules given by the organisation. This demonstrates that, individual workers are to simply avoid any form of negative thinking and behaviour towards their roles and responsibilities. To have a good understanding of OCB, it is essential to identify the characteristics established by an author with a substantial number of works on OCB. According to Organ (1988), there is a combination of three key behavioural characteristics of OCB. Having similarity to Oze and Ozdevecioglu, Organ characterized the first pattern of behaviour as not to just follow the known rules and regulations, but to voluntarily improve these rules through the demonstration of promotional behaviours. The second pattern was that, OCB is demonstrated by workers who considers no form of formal reward. The third characteristic of OCB is that, it positively impacts the performance of the organisation. An organisation must be able to know when OCB had a positive impact on them. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To demonstrate and elaborate on the key characteristics of OCB, Cohen and Vigoda-Gadot (2000) characterized OCB to make it more practical to improve organisational performance. They argued that, there are five key characteristics of OCB. The first character they illustrated was that, OCB are behaviours performed in an organisation - makes it possible for workers to demonstrate behaviours that are outside their established responsibilities. The second character is that, when OCB exists, it attracts the orientation of new workers in an organisation. This strengthens the bond between existing workers and new workers. The third pattern argued out as a characteristic of OCB, were behaviours demonstrated with an impact to sustain the success level of an organisation. The fourth characteristic of OCB improves the skills sharing and coherence between workers in an organisation as well as between groups. The last illustrates that, OCB makes it possible for organisations to corporate adequately with their external environment and achieve their objectives. Characterizing OCB in this study makes it possible to know when OCB exists in an organisation. These patterns demonstrated above indicates how OCB is mostly demonstrated by Individual workers, and how it affects both workers and their organisation at large. 2.12 The Concept of Job Satisfaction Socio-economic issues and responsibilities at work are some of the few indicators of job satisfaction (Belwalkar et al., 2018). The step by step processes that made it possible for the understanding of job satisfaction is mostly traced back in the 1930s (Jordan et al., 2007; Williams & Anderson, 1991). As an attitudinal concept within the work setting, job satisfaction is noted to be feelings based on the day to day experiences of one’s current job (Kramer & Hafner, 1989). It is the judgement workers make based on their qualification and experiences, including what they receive as a reward. Job satisfaction is important for the success of an organisation because, it 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh determines the feeling or attitude a worker channel towards his or her work (Baffoe, 2018). Factors that introduce job satisfaction at the workplace are bonuses, the conditions within the work environment, the availability of tools and the nature of the responsibilities involved with work. These factors are all important individually but a combination of one or more is also important to influence a workers’ job satisfaction (Abugre, 2014). With less validity, but worth knowing to make analysis, bonuses are mostly conceded to be the most important factor in job satisfaction. This is less valid because some researchers made known that, workers are less concerned with rewards obtained in the form of payment, as compared to their working environment and their established relationship with their organisation (Acquaye, 2007). According to Zhu et al. (2012) job satisfaction is when workers analyse their work with their work environment and with their received or perceived outcome. It can, therefore, be indicated that, job satisfaction as a concept is the relationship between a worker’s expectations and his or her responsibilities. Dissatisfaction is the opposite of satisfaction. Dissatisfaction at work does not lead to any form of success at the work place (Hamza, 2018). It rather reduces an individual’s reaction, productivity, and organisational commitment at work. This therefore means that, dissatisfaction leads to less OCB and therefore with low productivity there is less financially to take advantage of economic CSR programs. Where an employee’s needs are not satisfied, organisational production could be affected, but when an employee’s needs are sufficiently met, their job satisfaction and motivation often increases, leading to higher production (Appiah, 2019). It is therefore adequate to use CSR programs to gain higher satisfaction of an employees’ working environment, to make it possible for the employee to exhibit OCB behaviours that are beneficial to the success of an organisation (Baffoe, 2018; Williams & Anderson, 1991). 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.13 Defining Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction has been understood for more than 80 years (Bednarska & Szczyt, 2015). Job satisfaction as described by Locke (1976), is a positivist form of thinking with pleasurable emotions based on the appraisal of an individual’s job and their experiences. Locke also argued that, there are three elements within the appraisal process of one’s job and experience. These elements can determine the satisfaction or dissatisfaction a worker would have towards their work. The level at which workers gain enjoyment from the execution of their responsibilities at work is job satisfaction (Bednarska & Szczyt, 2015). From this, employers attempt to keep workers satisfied with the belief that satisfied workers tend to be more industrial with a positive attitude towards work. This notion by employers has improved the level of harmony within organisations (Farrington et al., 2017). An understanding of one’s work environment makes it possible for employers to understand how workers desire their working conditions. Gao and He (2017) made job satisfaction simple to understand through established classifications. For instance, they classified employees to be satisfied, indifferent and dissatisfied with various aspects of their work. Other classifications of job satisfaction were done based on the level of importance of an individual’s work (Hamza, 2018). Another way job satisfaction is defined is through its subjectivity. According to Griffin, Hogan, Lambert, Tucker-Gail and Baker (2010) job satisfaction is a personal enjoyment one has and shows towards his or her work. It could simply be indicated as the level at which employees demonstrate a level of enjoyment towards their work. Thus, workers are the only individuals to subjectively tell how satisfying they are about their work. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.14 Dimensions of Job Satisfaction In recent times, practitioners and the research community identified the importance of job satisfaction and its benefits to most organisations. Amongst workers, job satisfaction can predict the performance of workers and predict an organisations’ output (Dessler & Akram, 2012). There are dimensions of job satisfaction that is also used to predict organisational output. According to Yalabik, Rayton and Rapti (2017), the different facets of an individual’s responsibilities at work determines their level of enjoyment Therefore, there is a need to identify a few dimensions of job satisfaction as identified in the literature. 2.14.1 Nature of Work The form and structure of a job are one of the key dimensions of job satisfaction. It enclaves the nature of one’s work, the level at which a job is challenging, and the task identity involved with it. According to Yalabik, Rayton and Rapti (2017), the nature of one’s work has a tremendous influence on their career and self. They continued by indicating that, the satisfactory behaviour of a worker may affect the results of their work. They lastly indicated that, workers with a high level of satisfaction understood their responsibilities and achieve their work objectives more often. 2.14.2 Bonuses and Rewards Compensation and benefits have also been described as one of the noted dimensions of job satisfaction, but mostly misused with less understanding of how it must be implemented (Deli,2018). This dimension encompasses all the benefits one perceives to benefit from their organisation without factoring their daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly pay. Therefore, when 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh workers find a negative correlation with what they expect to receive with what they receive, it increases the tendency of a higher level of dissatisfaction (Deli, 2018; Eyiah-Wilson, Donkoh, & Brown, 2013). Spector in 1997 also argued that, this negative correlation influences other behaviours such as OCB, which may later have an impact on the organisation’s success (Yalabik et al., 2017). 2.14.3 Promotion and Transfer This dimension mostly relates to an employee’s behaviour at work. Thus, how workers behave towards polices in an organisation. These policies, constitute the movement of workers (Hamza, 2018). This affects the satisfaction level of individual workers and the success of the organisation (Baffoe, 2018). Most employees value promotions within an organisation since it increases the value of the worker when achieved (Griffin et al., 2010). Transfers serve as a high motivator since individuals can change their work environment and challenge themselves to a higher level (Foote & Li-Ping, 2008). Kosteas (2010), identified a strong correlation between an employee’s promotion and job satisfaction. In Kosteas’ study, workers with the knowledge that, promotion and transfer are likely to happen within the next few years in their organisation were highly satisfied with their job. 2.14.4 Co-Worker Support and Communication Support from co-workers is important to determine the satisfaction level of a worker. This dimension relates to the behaviour one shows towards their fellow workers. According to Chalofsky (2003), the climate within an organisation has a huge impact on the enjoyment level of a worker. This means the social environment within an organisation influences the level of 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh satisfaction of most workers. Co-workers play an important role in the livelihood of an individual during working activities. According to Lapalme, Stamper, Simard and Tremblay (2009), the exhibition of OCB through appropriate support from co-workers improves the level of job satisfaction of workers. This has made it possible for most researchers to understand the relationship between co-worker’s support and their satisfaction level. This has also made it possible for researchers to establish a relationship between OCB and job satisfaction (Freeney & Fellenz, 2013). 2.15 Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction There are a variety of variables that affect the existence of job satisfaction among workers. The working conditions within an organisation can influence both satisfaction and dissatisfaction levels of one’s work. For instance, socio-economic factors such as sex, marital status, education, and professional training have shown to have an influence on job satisfaction. Ghana Health Service’s 2004 annual report indicated that, an individual’s job satisfaction increases when the worker ages (Hamza, 2018). The report also identified that, there was low job satisfaction when new professionals flooded an industry. This was because new workers were now making it possible to accept new challenges due to their new responsibilities. Older professionals had a higher level of job satisfaction since they understood their challenges and responsibilities better. Also, experienced old workers within an organisation, introduces unique results to the success of an organisation, therefore significantly increasing their satisfaction on the job. According to Njuki, Mapila, Kaaria and Magombo (2008), the age of some health workers has a relationship with their salary, making it significant enough to influence their job satisfaction level. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh An organisation is made up of a variety of individuals with various statuses. Thus, to say, there is a diversity of workforce within an organisation. Organisations employ both married and single workers. Within an organisation, marriage circumstances have a hand in the enjoyment level of an individual’s work. Azim, Haque and Chowdhury (2013) indicated that, workers married with their spouses living with them had a positive impact on their job satisfaction level than those married but living without their spouses. Another factor that makes it possible for workers to enjoy autonomy and satisfaction over their work responsibilities is their educational level. Education improves the level of enjoyment one has on a job (Appiah, 2019; Hamza, 2018; Bednarska & Szczyt, 2015; Murphy & Athanasou, 2002; Williams & Anderson, 1991). The higher an individual’s education, the more chances the individual is skilful and therefore easily promoted to higher and challenging responsibilities. Meanwhile, other studies indicate that, education sometimes hurts job satisfaction. The results used in stating this was that, workers with higher education expect higher challenges, making them feel less satisfied when working in less challenging environments (Mickson & Anlesinya, 2019). 2.16 Theoretical Framework The Social Identity Theory (SIT) was originally proposed by Tajfel and Turner in 1979. It involves the psychological makeup between groups. When workers psychologically perceive their organisation engages in CSR, they become proud of their organisation and have pride in being part of their organisation than another. The theory adequately explains the relationship that exists between an employee’s perception of corporate social responsibility and their organisational citizenship behaviour. It also explains the relationship between an employees’ job satisfaction and 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisational citizenship behaviour. This makes it possible to theoretically understand all the three variables used in this study. 2.16.1 Social Identity Theory Social Identity Theory (SIT) has been widely used as the basis for explaining the relationship between the perception of CSR and employees’ behavioural outcomes (Jones, 2010; Newman, Miao, Hofman, & Zhu, 2015). One of the greatest contributions to social psychology was Henri Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory. It identified a person’s sense of whom they think they are, based on their membership with a group (organisation). Tajfel and Turner (1985) proposed that, individual membership is priceless and is mostly associated with pride and self-esteem. Thus, to say, being part of a group establishes a sense of belongingness. According to Social Identity Theory, individuals tend to categorize themselves with a certain group to enhance their self-esteem over other similar groups. This enhances an individual’s tendency to accept their in-group’s successes and failures as personal successes and failures (Seering et al., 2018). The theory further suggested that, individuals within a society divide the world into “them” and “Us” which is based on some cognitive processes. Henri Taifel proposed that, stereotyping is one of the cognitive processes that lead individuals to group things and make meaning of the social world. According to Azim, Diyab, and Al-Sabaan (2014), this theory is capable of explaining the influence of an employees’ perception of corporate social responsibility and their attitudes and behaviours at the workplace. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.16.2 Social Identity Theory - Cognitive Stages According to Tajfel and Turner (1979), there are three mental processes involved in identifying ourselves with a group. Thus, forming groups into “us” and “them” (in-group and out- group). They identified cognitive stages that usually occurred in the order of social categorization, social identification, and social comparison. 2.16.2.1 Social Categorization The first cognitive process involved with Social Identity Theory is social categorization. Individuals categorize social objects and concepts to understand them and identify them. In a remarkably similar way, we categorize people (including ourselves) to understand our social environment. We use social categories like black, white, Ghanaian, Christian, Muslim, student, and employees because they are useful in understanding society. If we can assign people to a category, then we can gain advanced information on how they may behave. Similarly, we find out things about ourselves by knowing which category of the society we belong. We define appropriate behaviours by referencing groups we belong to. In other words, we may be able to identify one’s behaviour when they are part of our social group. 2.16.2.2 Social Identification In the second stage, individuals adopt the identity of the group they have associated with. For example, an individual who categorizes himself or herself as a student would adopt the identity of a student and begin to act in the ways he or she believes students act. There may be an emotional attachment with a group, and this may increase or decrease one’s self-esteem. This is the stage 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh where an employee identifies himself or herself with an organisation’s CSR program (Rodrigo & Arenas, 2008). 2.16.2.3 Social Comparison The final stage is social comparison. Once we have categorized ourselves as part of a group and have identified with that group, we then tend to compare that group with other groups. When pursuing our self-esteem, our group needs are a priority as compared to the needs of other groups. According to Tajfel and Turner (1985), this is the stage individuals begin to have stereotypes on an out-group. From the Social Identity Theory, employees develop a sense of psychological attachment to their organisation. These employees identify their organisations as prestigious with an attractive social image that can drive their self-esteem. They feel proud that their organisation is more favourable than others in terms of its contribution to society. This leads them to engage in extra-role behaviours that are favourable to their organisation (Abane, 2013; Baffoe, 2018). The Social Identity Theory adequately explains several CSR and attitudinal studies. For instance, prospective and incumbent employees prefer socially responsible organisations (Greening & Turban, 2000; Turker, 2009; Zhang et al., 2014), because an organisation that promotes CSR activities is considered a good employer by prospective employees (Greening and Turban, 2000). Rupp, Ganapathi, Aguilera and Williams (2006) established that employees’ perception of CSR activities on their organisation led to emotional, attitudinal, and behavioural responses that identified themselves with their organisation. The behavioural and emotional constructs they identified included, job satisfaction, organisational attractiveness, organisational commitment and organisational citizenship behaviour (Newmana et al., 2015). Newman et al. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2015) have also investigated the effect of employee perception of CSR activities on their organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) and job performance among three organisations in China using the Social Identity Theory as a theoretical foundation. Therefore, Social Identity Theory provides a good theoretical underpinning as to how employees’ perception of CSR practices and job satisfaction can lead to positive employee attitudes and behaviours such as organisational citizenship behaviour within a four-star hotel in Ghana. 2.17 Empirical Review According to Murray and Ayoun (2011), organisations must become familiar with the influence of CSR activities from the perspective of the employees. Although scholars suggest research on CSR with a group of stakeholders as the focus of analysis, there has not been enough research on a group of key organisational stakeholders (Rupp et al., 2006; Swanson & Niehoff, 2001). According to Al-bdour, Nasruddin and Lin (2010), understanding the relationship between CSR on various employee attitudes, can result in a close to accurate outcomes that could adequately direct practitioners and researchers into observing how useful and impactful CSR is on employee attitudes. This has made organisational leaders recognize the importance of corporate social responsibility in the hotel industry (Holcomb et al., 2007). Therefore, this section reviews related studies on corporate social responsibility, organisational citizenship behaviour and job satisfaction. 2.17.1 Corporate Social Responsibility and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour At the micro level, CSR influences employees’ attitudes and behaviours such as OCB (Gao & He, 2017; Jones, 2010; Newmana et al., 2015; Santhosh & Rupashree, 2018; Zhang et al., 2014). 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to Graham (1991), when an organisation provides greater socioeconomic benefits to its employees, the employees are likely to be satisfied with their work and return the favour by engaging in behaviours, such as OCB. Similarly, Glavas (2016) conducted a literature review on 166 secondary materials to understand CSR at the micro-level. Glavas indicated that, out of the 166 materials reviewed, only 28 were publications on employees. Out of these 28 publications, more than half were on prospective employees. The outcome of the review indicated that, there was a positive relationship between CSR and organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB). Through this, he further indicated that, when organisations go beyond their financial goals and benefit their society, employees would also go beyond their stated tasks and responsibilities for the greater good of the organisation. To understand employees’ perception of CSR on OCB, Jones (2010) explored employees’ response to their participation in CSR activities. Using Social Exchange Theory, he indicated that, the higher an employee’s perception of a volunteerism program, the greater they identified with their organisation. This was because, they felt proud of being a member of the organisation, therefore engaged in OCB-loyalty behaviours. Also, Lee and Kim's (2013) research on CSR of service employees of franchised organisations in South Korea indicated that, when employees feel their organisation engages in socially responsible activities, they feel proud that they are part of the organisation, therefore participating in pro-social behaviours. In China, Gao and He (2017) used four organisations in understanding the relationship between CSR and OCB. Their empirical findings which were underpinned by the Trickle-Down Theory indicated that, there was a positive relationship between CSR and OCB among employees of these four organisation. Farid et al. (2019) conducted research on employees’ perceptions of 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CSR, work engagement, and organisational citizenship behaviour. Using the Social Exchange Theory as the theoretical underpinning of their study, they made use of 350 employees within the banking sector of Pakistan and using a cross-sectional design, they found out that there was a significant relationship between CSR and OCB, and CSR and work engagement among employees within the banking sector of Pakistan. To improve understanding of the relationship between employees’ perception of CSR and OCB. Rupp et al. (2013) researched 245 employees who were part-time graduate students in a university. They found out that, the part-time graduate student employees’ perception of external CSR positively influenced OCB. Also, based on the Social Identity Theory, Oo, Jung, and Park (2018) examined a research model linking CSR perception to OCB with the inclusion of organisational pride as a mediator, and collectivism and Person-Organisation fit as moderator. During their correlational analysis, they found out that, age, as well as education of employees, had a significant effect on their variables. From their study, they stated that, the older and the more educated an employee, the higher their CSR perception, organisational pride, OCB, collectivism, and Person-Organisation fit. 2.17.2 Corporate Social Responsibility and Job Satisfaction Several empirical studies confirm the positive relationship between employees’ perception of CSR activities and employee job satisfaction (Barakat et al., 2016; Rahman et al., 2016; Valentine & Fleischman, 2008; Zhang et al., 2014). According to Valentine and Fleischman’s (2008), US business managers who perceived their organisation as socially responsible were more satisfied with their work. Zhang et al. (2014) made an addition when they found that, employee- related CSR activities, such as improving the work environment of employees, paying for social 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh security of employees and providing extra awards besides those in labour contracts, positively affected employee satisfaction. This emphasizes that, to improve employee satisfaction, there is a need for organisations to strategically apply CSR activities. According to Sarfraz, Qun, Abdullah, and Alvi (2018) employees are known to be one of the vital stakeholders in an organisation, therefore they studied the influence of their perception of CSR on job satisfaction and found a significant influence of CSR on job satisfaction. Closon, Leys and Hellemans (2015) also investigated the influence of employees’ perception of the four dimensions of CSR. Measuring the ethical, legal, discretionary, and economic dimensions of CSR, they indicated that, ethical, legal, and discretionary CSR influenced employee job satisfaction. Recently, Rahman et al. (2016) explored the effect of employee CSR perception on job satisfaction and organisational commitment in the Bangladeshi banking sector and found a positive relationship between employee CSR perception on both job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Also, an exploratory study conducted amongst US hotels by Appiah (2019) indicated that, there was a positive relationship between CSR and job satisfaction of employees working in hotels. These findings had similarities with Raub and Blunschi (2014) when they also acknowledged an existing relationship between CSR and job satisfaction. 2.17.3 Corporate Social Responsibility and Organisational Outcomes in Ghana Behavioural outcomes such as job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour have been explored with CSR in Ghana. Using the Stakeholder Theory, Agyemang, Ansong, and Kyeraa (2016) examined the perception of individual Ghanaian shareholders on CSR. They used the qualitative method with 20 consistent investors on the Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE). They identified that, shareholders are of the view that, other stakeholders such as customers and 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employees and the society are to benefit from the profits and successes made by the organisations they invest into. They also identified that, in as much as shareholders want organisations to satisfy their interests, they wish for a family-friendly working condition within the organisation. This indicates that, shareholders of an organisation wish to increase the satisfaction level of employees within the organisation they invest into. A comparative study conducted by Abane (2013) within the banking, hospitality and telecommunication industries in Ghana also contributed to the literature by understanding the perception of CSR on employees OCB. Using a sample size of 225 employees, in a quantitative approach and a cross sectional survey design, accompanied by several theories such as Social Identity Theory and Stakeholder Theory. She identified that, CSR and OCB are significant for the development and achievement of an employee as well as an organisation. She also identified that, there is a high tendency for workers to be satisfied with their work when they perceive their organisation to be a good social institution. Also, Abane (2013) also identified that, the practice of CSR in Ghana is more within the philanthropic form. Therefore, in Ghana the more an organisation is involved with the philanthropic form of CSR, the higher the exhibition of pro-social behaviours of employees. To understand the link between CSR, employee engagement and job satisfaction within the financial sector of Ghana, Baffoe (2018) used a cross-sectional study design with 322 participants. He found a positive relationship between the CSR perception of employees and their attitudinal behaviours. He also identified that, most organisations’ form and nature of CSR were towards education and health. He further concluded that; the ethical dimension of CSR was higher than philanthropic CSR when predicting employee engagement. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Based on the above, this study proposes that, just as other researchers have looked into the relationship of CSR and other behavioural variables of employees, there was a need to expand the literature on CSR by understanding employees’ perception of their organisations’ social responsibilities and identify the significance between it and OCB of hotel workers in Ghana. Also, most of the research identified on CSR in Ghana concentrated more on the mining sector (Amponsah-Tawiah & Dartey-Baah, 2007; Dartey-Baah et al., 2015). The prevailing consensus that the tourism industry plays a crucial role in the development of the society of Ghana, there was a need to understand how employees’ perception of CSR is related to some behaviours and how these behaviours may influence each other within the hospitality sector of Ghana. Hence, the following hypotheses were suggested: H1a. Employees’ perception of economic CSR will significantly influence OCB. H1b. Employees’ perception of legal CSR will significantly influence OCB. H1c. Employees’ perceptions of ethical CSR will significantly influence OCB. H1d. Employees’ perception of philanthropic CSR will significantly influence OCB. H2. Employees’ job satisfaction will positively influence OCB. 2.17.4 Corporate Social Responsibility and Organisational Behaviours As discussed earlier, the existing body of literature has shown a direct link between CSR and employee attitude and behaviour. Organisational researchers have paid much attention to exploring the underlying mechanism linking perception of CSR and employee attitudinal and behavioural outcomes (Fu, Ye, & Law, 2014; Hansen, Dunford, Boss, Boss, & Angermeier, 2011; 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Islam, Ahmed, Ali, & Sadiq, 2016; D. Jones, 2010; Lee & Kim, 2013; Newmana et al., 2015; Santhosh & Rupashree, 2018; Youn, Lee, & Seoki, 2018). For example, surveying 486 Malaysian hotel employees, Santhosh and Rupashree (2018) found that, organisational commitment partially mediates the relationship between perceived CSR activities and employee OCB. Similarly, Newman et al. (2015) revealed that organisational identification fully mediated the relationship between one CSR dimension and employee OCB. According to empirical studies from Fu et al. (2014), corporate social responsibility influences OCB through the mediating effects of both organisational identification and commitment. Lee and Kim (2013) also surveyed 306 hotel employees working in five different hotels and explained the underlying mechanism linking perceived CSR activities of hotel employees and their OCB. This study revealed that, affective organisational commitment fully mediated the relationship between CSR perception and OCB. Other variables such as ethical leadership, organisational pride and employee trust were mechanisms linking perceived CSR and employee attitudinal and behavioural outcomes (Farid et al., 2019; Oo et al., 2018). Hansen et al. (2011) found that, employee trust in an organisation partially mediates the relationship between turnover intention and employee OCB, while Moon, Hur, Ko, Kim, and Yoo (2016) revealed that both employees’ compassion and intrinsic motivation were mediating mechanisms on the relationship between perceived CSR and employee creativity at work. A study by Gao and He (2017) showed that, a supervisor’s ethical leadership mediates the relationship between perceived CSR and employee OCB. According to Youn et al. (2018), job satisfaction mediates the relationship between employee CSR perception and their commitment to an organisation. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Prior studies support the positive relationship between both CSR and job satisfaction (Valentine and Fleischman, 2008; Barakat et al., 2016) and job satisfaction and OCB (Murphy, Athanasou, & King, 2002; Williams & Anderson, 1991). Based on these findings, this study argues that, when employees perceive their organisation as ethically, economically, and discretionarily responsible it influences extra-role behaviours and also, when employees’ job satisfaction exists among employees’, it can influence their extra-role behaviour at work. 2.18 Conceptual Framework Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework of CSR, Job satisfaction and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Source: Author (2020) As established from literature, employees have been classified and identified as one of the unique and important stakeholders in every organisation. Their evaluations on organisational 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh practices and policies lead to the formation of their perceptions, which consequently leads to some specific behaviours and attitudes that have an overall consequence on the organisation. Given this, the study adopted Carroll’s (1979) conceptualization of corporate social responsibility (economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic) for the evaluation of employees’ perceptions of CSR and how their perception influences OCB. The framework in Figure 2.2 above captures what has been discussed from the literature in this study, it highlights the relationship between the individual dimensions of CSR and organisational citizenship behaviour. Again it highlights the independent relationship that exists between job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour. The study proposes that, the various dimensions of CSR has a direct relationship with organisational citizenship behaviour and that job satisfaction also has a direct relationship with organisational citizenship behaviour. This framework is the proposed framework that describes the dependent and independent variables of the study. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter presents the systematic processes used for this study. It presents an explanation of the design and plan used for the study. It also described the selected population for the study. The sampling technique used to identify the needed participants for the study was also described and explained. The chapter is also made up of the procedures used in collecting primary data and secondary information. It identified the data collection instruments used to collect data. Before data collection, ethical considerations were made. These ethical issues were also explained in this chapter. A description of the organisation used for this study ended the chapter. 3.1 Research Design and Strategy For research to have a level of generalization, there is a need to follow systematic procedures (Kumar, 2011). For this study to have the ability to generalize its findings from the sample to the population, there was a need to identify the methodology that could generate the output of the study. To gain the appropriate answers to the research questions, there was a need to follow a research approach, thus a scientific approach. According to Creswell (2014), there are three main designs to research; quantitative, qualitative and mixed-method research approaches. Creswell indicated that, these designs are not rigidly unique from each other when answering the research questions, but rather, they are to be seen on a continuum with blurred endings. From his fourth edition book on research design, he indicated that, research may be more qualitative or quantitative, but the mixed method always resided in the middle of the continuum. The main 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh difference underling the quantitative and qualitative research designs are mostly based on the former being more numeric (Adams et al., 2007; Kumar, 2011; Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). Creswell (2014) opposes the use of one distinction to identify whether a quantitative or qualitative research design was used in a study. This he indicated because of his belief that research designs are hard to distinguish when seen on a continuum. Another common distinction is that, quantitative uses closed-ended questions while qualitative uses open-ended questions when conducting research. The philosophical view of a researcher, the strategies used in the research, and the methods used in establishing these strategies influence the determination of a research design used in a study (Creswell, 2014). Therefore, the three research designs, methods and approaches are to are to be seen on a continuum without clear distinct differences. The qualitative research design is mostly used to understand and explore the meaning of an organisation’s association with a social phenomenon (Kumar, 2011). For instance, to achieve the objective of exploring the nature and form of CSR performed by a hotel in Ghana, there was a need to obtain relevant information from the hotel and theme out the nature and forms of CSR performed by the hotel through the information obtained. The organisation’s annual report will be used to theme out the nature and forms of CSR in the hotel. This identifies the qualitative bit of the study. Also, a quantitative research design is conceded to be an objective way of understanding the relationship between variables (Kumar, 2011). This design makes it possible for variables to be measured using instruments. These instruments can then be used to obtain numeric data for statistical analysis. One of the main objectives of this study was to understand the relationship between its variable and make statistical predictions. The design that sits between the qualitative and quantitative approach is the mixed method. This design integrates both quantitative and 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh qualitative data (Baffoe, 2018; Creswell & Clark, 2017). The assumption underlying this design is that, the use of only the quantitative or the qualitative research design may not complete the understanding of a research problem. According to Creswell (2014), these research designs are broad and are influenced by three elements that interact together; the philosophy, research designs and the specific methods used to solve a study. A researcher’s worldview is mostly not questioned after conducting a study (Weaver & Frey, 2018), meanwhile, a researcher’s philosophical view influences the processes used to produce an output for the various questions identified in a study (Creswell, 2014). The philosophy of a researcher improves the understanding of why a researcher used a particular research design as opposed to other designs (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). Therefore, to state the research design used, it is appropriate to identify the philosophical view of the researcher to appreciate the design used by the researcher. The worldview or paradigm of a researcher is set to mean the basic beliefs influencing the actions of a researcher (Creswell & Clark, 2017; Creswell, 2014). It is the orientation of a researcher’s world. It tells the nature of the research presented by a researcher. They are the individual factors that affect a researcher’s choice of one research design over another. According to Creswell (2014), the most discussed philosophical views of researchers are post-positivism, constructivism, transformative, and pragmatism. For this study, the researcher identified a social phenomenon and wanted to explore this phenomenon within a hotel in Ghana. The researcher’s objective was to gain answers to identified questions formulated in this study, therefore, the researcher used appropriate methods needed to achieve his objective in a year. The researcher then employed available methods that could be used to solve the objectives of the research. The 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh objectives of the study did not indicate any form of political changes in the behaviour of the participants to be used for the study, rather, the objectives sought to understand the subjective understanding of CSR in a hotel in Ghana. The researcher also sought to identify the relationship between variables and therefore not the cause and effect between the independent and the dependent variables of the study. The objectives of the study, therefore, opposed the post- positivist, constructive, and transformative paradigms as indicated by Creswell (2014). The researcher’s philosophical worldview was the pragmatic worldview. Creswell (2014) identified that, a pragmatist researcher does not view the world as an absolute unity, thus, they explore social issues using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Therefore, mixed-method research was employed to attain the research objectives of the study. Thus, to identify the type and nature of CSR of a hotel in Ghana, as well as the relationship between the identified variables of the study. The concurrent mixed-method research design was specifically employed to achieve the objectives of the study. This type of mixed method allowed the researcher to collect both qualitative and quantitative data simultaneously. This approach also made it possible to adequately understand the questions from various angles, making the study have the triangulation feature, therefore improving data analysis. An analysis of seasonal reports was done systematically using content analysis. The use of specific instruments was also employed to obtain primary data. It was therefore appropriate to use the concurrent mixed-method research design to achieve the objectives of the study. Using the cross-sectional study design, the study intended to find out how corporate social responsibility influenced organisational citizenship behaviour. The study also intended to collect both qualitative and quantitative data together within a given period. The objectives of the study 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh also informed the use of this design because, the study intended to describe the variables identified and not to determine the cause and effect of the identitied variables. According to Newman (2014), there are three main reasons why research is conducted. They are done for the exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive reasons. This study conformed more with the explanatory approach since it intended to understand the relationship that existed between CSR and organisational citizenship behaviour and job satisfaction and OCB of workers in a hotel in Ghana. Also, the cross- sectional design was used as opposed to the longitudinal design, because the different information used for this study was gathered once over a period. 3.2 Population To embark on research means a researcher has a group of individuals he or she wishes to generalize his or her finding on. The group a researcher wishes to generalize his findings on is known as the research population. A population according to Bryman and Bell (2011), is any group of participants that can be empirically measured or theoretically observed. Trochim and Donnelly (2008) further made things clearer by stating that, a population is a group a researcher wishes to generalize his or her findings on. A population can also be identified by indicating the source of the sample used for particular research (Creswell, 2014). The study targeted workers from a Four- Star hotel in Ghana. This population was targeted due to their contribution to the growth of the hospitality industry in Ghana. Therefore, employees from Marriott International Hotel, Accra were the main population. The hotel used for the study was also selected because of the number of reviews given by consumers and travel and tour companies. The reviews indicated how travellers expressed joy with the services and facilities available in the hotel. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique There have been numerous definitions for sampling but all convey the same idea or notion, especially definitions for academic research. Newman (2014) defined a sample as a subset of a population. This understanding of the sample was not different from Trochim and Donnelly (2008), they defined a sample as a way a researcher selected participants from a targeted population and studied those selected participants to fairly generalize the results to the targeted population. The aim to sample is to get a small unit from a large population and to effectively study the unit for an accurate understanding of the targeted population. In this study, non-probability sampling techniques were used to attain the selected hotel as well as the participants for the study. The study purposively sampled out a luxurious hotel in Accra-Ghana. The hotel was identified as one of the best in the Ghanaian hotel industry. It had a Four-Star rating which indicated its level of luxury. The Greater-Accra region was selected since it hosted most of these luxurious hotels in the country. Again, the hotel was purposively selected based on its corporate social responsibility practices. Therefore, the hotel used for the study was a hotel situated within the city of Accra- Ghana, luxurious with high stars rating and high reviews from users. The participants of the study were selected using convenience sampling and snowball sampling techniques. The convenience sampling technique was used because it was fast and easy due to the nature of work within the hotel industry. The hotel had a shift system therefore, the researcher was able to obtain data from the available workers at the time the researcher was given clearance. In other words, the convenience sampling technique was adopted because only employees from the company who were present at the time of the data collection period and were willing to volunteer were the participants considered. The snowball technique was also used to 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh obtain the estimated sample size. It was used since the researcher anticipated not getting an opportunity to directly meet some workers. Therefore, there was a need to use this technique to gain data from participants that were not directly reached by the researcher. 3.4 Sample Size Determination A sample is obtained when a few participants are representative of a large population. A sample improves the flexibility of research, therefore reducing the expenses involved in understanding the general population (Abane, 2013; Aikins, 2017; Baffoe, 2018). It is more appropriate to select a representative number of participants within a population to research than to expensively use the whole population and obtain close to the same results (Mickson & Anlesinya, 2019). To attain a valid sample size from an identified population, there was a need to use a statistical formula to attain the number of participants needed for the study (Creswell & Clark, 2017; Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). Employees were sampled using the sample size determination formula adopted by Akins (2017). This formula had a confidence interval of 95 percent. From the human resource management office of the Marriott International hotel, Accra, the estimated population of workers working at the Marriott International Hotel, Accra was 310. Calculating formula is n= N /(1 + 𝑁(𝑒)2) Where: n = sample size required N = number of people in the population e = allowable or acceptable margin of error (%) 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 = constant Calculation: n = 310/ (1 + 310(0.05)2) Therefore n = 174 From the above calculation, the estimated sample size for the study was 174 participants. To avoid any form of hidden eventualities during data collection, 15% of 174 was calculated to add to the calculated sample size of 174. The final sample size anticipated was therefore 200 since 15% of 174 was 26. The estimated sample size of the study was therefore 200. The sample included individuals who came to the premises of the hotel to work. It included all types of workers within the hotel. The study included both half-day and full-day workers. All workers receiving monthly, and weekly pay form the hotel. The sample size excluded individuals who worked in the hotel on an irregular basis. These were individuals rendering maintenance services to the hotel. Also, individuals who did not receive monthly or weekly pay form the hotel were excluded from the study. 3.5 Sources of Data To achieve the objectives of the study, the study made use of primary data and secondary information. The primary data was collected using a structured questionnaire to obtain data from respondents. The questionnaires sent to the hotel were exactly 175. The questionnaires retrieved by the researcher was 162, giving a 93% response rate. In understanding the mechanism between the perception of CSR and OCB of employees in Chinese companies, Gao and He (2017) had a response rate of 95%. Also, in understanding the role of CSR on job satisfaction in hotels, Appiah 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2019) had a response rate of 92%. With similarities in concepts and industry of the response rates of the above studies, this study continued with the quantitative analysis since its response rate was in line with the above two studies. Secondary information sources were made up of reports that were available from the hotel. 3.6 Data Collection Instruments The study used research instruments to collect the appropriate data needed from the sample respondents. A structured questionnaire was used in the collection of data. After a brief introductory note to the respondents and identifying the purpose of the research. The questionnaires were made up of four sections. “Section A” collected data on the demographics of the respondents. These demographics were answered by ticking or any form of identification style, using tools such as pens or pencils. The demographics were made up of gender, age, academic qualification, and the number of years a respondent had worked with the hotel. The second part of the questionnaire was made up of statements that described a variety of factors related to corporate social responsibility (CSR) within the identified hotel. In the questionnaire served to respondents, the second part was designated as “Section B”. It adopted the CSR scale by Carroll (1979) and Lee et al (2009). This construct made use of a seven-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Corporate social responsibility was measured using Carroll’s (1979) four dimensions of CSR. These dimensions included the economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic dimensions as clearly elaborated in Chapter Two of this study. Economic CSR comprised of seven (7) items, and measured employee’s perception of their company’s economic performance. Some sample items under economic CSR included, “We continually improve the quality of our products” and “We use customer satisfaction as an indicator 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of our business performance”. The legal CSR was also made up of seven (7) items, which focused on how employees perceive their company’s obedience to the legal systems in the country. Some sample items were, “All our products meet legal standards” and “The managers of this organisation try to comply with the law”. The ethical dimension of CSR also had seven (7) items, which measured how employees perceive their company with regards to ethical norms and behaviours. Sample items included, “Members of our organisation follow professional standards” and “Our business has a comprehensive code of conduct”. The last dimension of the construct, which was the philanthropic CSR had eight (8) items and addressed the company’s interest and behaviour on philanthropic activities. Some sample items on this dimension included, “The company tries to help the poor” and “The Company tries to contribute toward bettering the local community”. “Section C” of the questionnaire measured the organisational citizenship behaviour of the workers used for this study. This section determined the organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) of employees. The eighteen items instrument from Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) were adopted on a seven Likert scale with; 1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3- moderately disagree, 4-neutral 5-moderately agree, 6-agree, and 7-strongly agree. Sample items included: “I defend the organisation when other employees criticize it” and “I take action to protect the organisation from potential problems”. “Section D” of the questionnaire measured the job satisfaction of workers. This study adopted Closon et al., (2015) job satisfaction scale. This scale emphasized the situational causes of job satisfaction. The seven-item Likert scale was used to measure the job satisfaction of participants. For example, some sample items on this scale included, “I am satisfied with my professional activities” and “I am satisfied with the understanding that I have with my colleagues”. 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Validity and Reliability For this research to adequately measure its variables, there was a need to consider the validity of the instruments being used for this research. Validity is defined as the degree to which an instrument measures what it was intended to measure. According to Trochim and Donnelly (2008), validity is the best available approximation of the truth in a given proposition, inference, or conclusion. The validity of an instrument can be assessed in many ways. However, this study assessed the validity of the quantitative data instruments by ensuring the face validity, content validity, and construct validity. Validity was ensured through pre-testing of the questionnaires to check for any inconsistencies in the questionnaires before a full data collection exercise was conducted. In understanding, CSR and OCB within a hotel, financial, and telecommunication industry in Ghana, Abane (2013) used fifteen participants to pre-test the validity of the instruments used for her study. Through the use of a mixed-method on a study on CSR and other attitudinal behaviours within the financial sector of Ghana, Baffoe (2018) used twenty participants to conduct a pilot study to test the validity of his instruments. These pre-testing methods made it possible to correct any form of inconsistencies found in the instruments. Therefore, this study intended to use eighteen participants to pretest the instruments. The participants used to pre-test the instrument were not added to the estimated number of sample size determined. The ability for a measure to have consistency or repeatability is also important for this study. The quality of measurement also had to do with the reliability of the instrument being used. Reliability refers to the extent to which measurements are consistent when applied to different situations (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). This is often assessed through the internal consistency 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh value of a scale. According to Kimberlin and Winterstein (2008), internal consistency provides an estimate of the equivalence of sets of items from the same test. The coefficient of internal consistency gives an estimate of the reliability of measurement and it is grounded on the assumption that, items measuring the same construct should correlate. Therefore, Cronbach alpha, one of the most widely used methods for estimating reliability was used for this study. Cronbach alpha ensures the reliability of the scale, therefore giving a researcher the ability to alter a scale when necessary (Arthur, 2015). To gain academic acceptance of this study, the Cronbach alpha was used to check for the validity and reliability of the scales used for this study. 3.8 Data Collection Procedure An introductory letter was first secured from the Department of Organisation and Human Resource Management (OHRM) and sent to the head office of the human resource department of Marriott International Hotel, Accra. A follow up was done by the researcher on an approval letter. The approval letter was received by the researcher on the third day after the submission of the introductory letter. Eighteen questionnaires were then given to the human resource manager to pre- test the validity and reliability of the instruments to be used. The pre-test questionnaires given were distributed to employees of the human resource department. One week later, the researcher checked up on the eighteen pre-test questionnaires. All eighteen questionnaires were retrieved but with two being invalid since they were not filled at all. Therefore, the total number of pre-test questionnaires valid was sixteen. Using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 23, the researcher checked the Cronbach alpha for the various instruments used. The instrument used for corporate social responsibility had a Cronbach alpha of 0.97, organisational citizenship behavior had a Cronbach alpha of 0.91 and job satisfaction had a 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Cronbach alpha of 0.91. After that, full data collection started with the researcher being at the premises of the hotel after he was introduced to the various heads of departments in the hotel. All filled questionnaires were retrieved after the participants were given ample time to fill them. The retrieved questionnaires were subjected to further checks to make sure all retrieved questionnaires were well answered. Secondary information sources were also obtained from the hotel. 3.9 Data Analysis 3.9.1 Quantitative Data Analysis The primary data was coded into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23. The demographic data was first analyzed via descriptive Statistics (e.g. frequencies, percentages, tables, and charts). Furthermore, the hypotheses of the study were analyzed using regression analysis. This was to find out more about the dependent variable. This study sought to find out the extent to which an employees’ perception of their organisation’s corporate social responsibility practices predicted organisational citizenship behavior and the independent relationship between job satisfaction and OCB. Thus, making this analytical tool more appropriate for the analysis. Also, the normality test was done using the Statistical Package for Social sciences (SPSS) version 23. 3.9.2 Qualitative Data Analysis The qualitative information collected for the study were annual reports from Marriott International hotel, Accra. Information from articles and reports related to the corporate social responsibility of the selected hotel was used for the study. The reports and articles were analyzed via content analysis. The presence of certain words and concepts used within the hotel’s annual 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh report and articles on CSR were themed to identify the nature and form of corporate social responsibility practiced by the hotel. Content analysis was done using the eight steps recommended by Parveen and Showkat (2017). 3.10 Ethical Considerations Every research activity adheres to some ethical principles that guide the conduct of a researcher. This is mostly done to avoid any action related to previous studies such as the Tuskegee Syphilis study during the 1950s and 1960s. This study, like any academic research, also made some ethical considerations so it could be acceptable by all stakeholders within the academic and research community. 3.10.1 Informed Consent During a study on hotel services and tourists’ satisfaction, informed consent was identified to be practices that conformed to the social sciences research approach (Adjoe, 2014). These practices involved, making identified participants understand their role, the purpose and the nature of the survey instrument presented to them. In line with these practices, the study first sought the consent of the hotel through an introductory letter, which was sent to the human resource department for approval. After gaining approval from the hotel, the sampled respondents were also informed about the details of the research to ensure their express approval. 3.10.2 Respect for Anonymity and Confidentiality Confidentiality addresses the issue of giving out personal information of respondents to parties not involved with a study (Damanka, 2016). This principle assures respondents that, the 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh information they have provided would not be made available to anyone outside the parameters of the study (Baffoe, 2018). Anonymity essentially means that, a participant of a study would remain anonymous throughout the study. This also means a researcher does not have any system of identifying the response of a participant. Based on this, the tools used to gather data were designed such that, the identity of respondents were concealed from third parties and from the researcher. 3.11 Profile of Marriot International Hotel, Accra Accra Marriott International Hotel is under a large multinational corporation based in the USA., Marriot International, Inc. This organisation controls more than 6,500 properties located all over the world, with thirty leading hotel brands (Anjali Mehra, n.d.). Marriott hotel is one of the brands with an opening in the “Gateway to Africa” (Ghana). As a leader in technology and innovation for local and global travellers, Marriott hotel has changed the face of the world hospitality industry (Marriott Hotels Debut in West Africa with the Opening of Accra Marriott Hotel, Ghana – Hospitality Net, n.d.). It operates 500 hotels and resorts in more than 59 countries. Its functions are geared towards the satisfaction of the current generation but well managed for the benefit of the next generations (We Are Marriott International, n.d.). The Marriott International Hotel, Accra is owned by African Hospitality Limited. The location of the hotel is well placed for a competitive advantage and to attract global and local air travellers (Marriott Hotels Debut in West Africa with the Opening of Accra Marriott Hotel, Ghana – Hospitality Net, n.d.). It is situated in a unique urban and prestigious area in Accra. It is opposite the Kotoka International Airport, with about five minutes’ drive to the Palace shopping mall and about 3 minutes’ drive to the Accra Mall, and lastly a walking distance to the Marina shopping mall which is adjacent to it. Accra is located to be one of the growing economies in Africa with 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the energy and ability to improve and sustain the hospitality industry, making the country energetic enough to hold and accommodate the innovations and creativity introduced by the Marriott International Hotel, Accra (Anjali Mehra, n.d.). The hotel currently manages 208 state of the art rooms with both local and international creativity in each of these rooms. It also manages three well established and customer friendly dining areas. It also accommodates an indigenous and international version of a conference room (Marriott Hotels Debut in West Africa with the Opening of Accra Marriott Hotel, Ghana – Hospitality Net, n.d.). Just like every luxurious hotel, the hotel has a pool with well-established guidelines in place to secure customers, especially children. Being health-conscious to its variety of customers, the hotel has in existence a modern fitness centre that is safe for every customer interested in getting fit during their stay. With a great concern for its customers, it concentrates most of its finances on the quality of internet connectivity in the rooms and around the various surroundings of the hotel, including the car park. The hotel has aggressively improved technology within the hospitality industry of Ghana. Customers can use mobile apps to check-in and enjoy other wonderful experiences through its “Mobile Guest Services”. Apart from making traveling more convenient through airport pick up and other services, the hotel strives to inspire its customers with daily knowledge therefore, partnered with TED to expand the knowledge of its customers in the comfort of their rooms (Anjali Mehra, n.d.; Marriott Hotels Debut in West Africa with the Opening of Accra Marriott Hotel, Ghana – Hospitality Net, n.d.). Marriot International Hotel, Accra contributes to society through its innovative corporate social responsibility program known as “Serve 360”. The program strives to introduce quality 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh living to sustain its community (We Are Marriott International, n.d.). The CSR program is highly incorporated into the core values of the hotel. This strategy has improved the experience of travellers all over the globe. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 4.0 Introduction This chapter presents the analysis for the quantitative data and qualitative information gathered from primary and secondary sources, respectively. In this study, a total of 175 questionnaires were self-administered to employees of Marriott International Hotel, Accra. However, the total number of questionnaires retrieved and eligible for analysis was 162, making up for a 93% response rate. Content analysis was used to analyse the secondary information gathered by the researcher. This was done to achieve the first objective of the study. Thus, to examine the nature and form of CSR practices in a hotel. The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 23 program was used to analyse primary data gathered. This was done to achieve objectives two, three and four. The second objective was to examine employees’ perception of CSR in a hotel, while the third objective of the study was to examine how employees’ perception of CSR predicts organisational citizenship behaviour. The last objective was to examine the relationship between job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour among employees. The statistical tools used to analyse the primary data included a one-sample t-test and regression. Frequencies were also generated from the demographic characteristics (gender, age, educational level, and years of service) of the respondents. 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Below is a summary of the demographic characteristics of respondents. Table 4.1 displays the demographic variables of respondents. 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1: Respondents Profile Demographics Categories Frequency Percentage % Variables Male 90 55.6 Gender Female 72 44.4 Total 162 100.0 20-29 86 53.1 30-39 59 36.4 Age 40-49 16 9.9 50-59 1 0.6 Total 162 100.0 SSCE/WASSCE 15 9.3 Diploma/HND 52 32.1 Academic First Degree 74 45.7 Qualification Masters 21 13.0 Total 162 100.0 Less than 2 years 116 71.6 Tenure of Work 2-5 years 46 28.4 Total 162 100.0 Source: Field Data, (2020) 4.1.1 Gender of Respondents From the gender row of Table 4.1, the majority of the respondents were males, with 56.6%. This result had a similarity with the current employment statistics of income-generating jobs in 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana. According to Anthony, Dadson, Oduro-denkyirah, and Adzovor (2015), there are more males than females within the service sector of Ghana. 4.1.2 Age of respondents The age group 20-29 was the highest, accounting for 53.7% of the total participants. This group was followed by the 30-39 age group, representing 35.8% of the total respondents. From the above Table 4.1, there was a relatively large difference between the respondents of age group 20- 29 and age group 40-49. A combination of age groups 40-49 and 50-59 represented 10.5%. Further analysis showed that, a combination of the minority age groups accounted for 46%. This indicated that respondents who participated in the study were noticeably young employees. 4.1.3 Academic Qualification Concerning academic qualification, most of the respondents were degree holders representing 45.7% of the total respondents. The minority who responded to the study were SSCE/WASSCE graduates, representing 19.3% of the total respondents. The majority was closely followed by participants with Diploma/HND, representing 32.1%. The highest form of educational qualification was represented by 13.5% of the total respondents. This showed that majority of the respondents had higher education. 4.1.4 Tenure of Work Table 4.1 above showed that, employees who had worked with the hotel for less than two years were the majority with 71% of the total respondents. The minority group was workers who had been working for more than two years, representing 28.4% of the total respondents. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2 Quantitative Data Analysis 4.2.1 Reliability Analysis Firstly, there was a need to know the level of consistency of the measurements used for the study. According to Trochim and Donnelly (2008), a study must identify the reliability of its scales to make further analysis. In other words, before conducting further analysis on a data set, it was important for the researcher to identify the level of consistency or repeatability of the scales used to measure the constructs of the study. To achieve this, the Cronbach alpha coefficient values were computed for each scale. This made it possible to establish an internal consistency of the scales used for the study (Stangor, 2011). Most researchers in the social sciences accepted a Cronbach alpha value of at least 0.70 to establish internal consistency (Sekaran, 2003). From Table 4.2, the scales used for the study, with their calculated Cronbach alpha is presented below. Table 4.2: Reliability Analysis Variables Number of Items Cronbach Alpha Economic CSR 7 0.91 Legal CSR 7 0.91 Ethical CSR 7 0.88 Philanthropic CSR 8 0.90 Organisational citizenship 18 0.93 Behaviour Job Satisfaction 7 0.92 Source: Field Data (2020) 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.2 Test for Data Normality The normal distribution of the data set was to be determined to make further analysis of the data set. According to Sekaran (2003), a data set for academic purposes must achieve data normality before making further analysis from the data set. Data normality can be determined by numerically and graphically. This study used the numerical approach by determining the theoretical coefficients of skewness and kurtosis. Therefore, the normality of the data was determined by taking the absolute values of skewness and kurtosis of each construct. For skewness and kurtosis to identify that data has normality, the absolute values of these two terms are to have a coefficient between +2 and -2 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The computation for skewness and kurtosis was determined using SPSS version 23. From Table 4.3 below, it was identified that, data normality for the study had been achieved since the coefficient of the various variables was not more than +2 neither was it less than -2. In other words, CSR, job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour had coefficients that were within the recommended normality coefficient for skewness and kurtosis. The assumption for data normality was also important to reduce errors in analysis. Table 4.3: Test for Normality Variables Skewness Kurtosis OCB -.988 .670 Job Satisfaction -.696 -.676 Economic CSR -1.058 1.607 Legal CSR -.576 .060 Ethical CSR -.525 -.013 Philanthropic CSR -.488 -.187 Source: Field Data (2020) 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Objective 1: The Nature and Form of CSR Practices The first objective of the study intended to understand the nature and form of CSR practices at Marriott International hotel, Accra. This initial objective was attained through a systematic examination of the hotel’s 2018 annual report. In addition to its 2018 annual report, the hotel’s social responsibility report known as Serve 360 was also examined to identify the nature and form of CSR practices of the hotel. From the hotel’s 2018 annual report, it was well noted that, the hotel was more concerned with their immediate environment. The CSR practices of the hotel were made of activities that impacted their key stakeholders. The hotel impacted its external environment by first impacting its internal environment. This was done by incorporating its CSR activities into its daily functions. This strategic decision made way for them to establish a long-term program known as Serve 360. Serve 360 is the corporate social responsibility program of the hotel. This program makes it possible for the hotel to harmoniously serve its community. The program also improved CSR decision-making by the executives of the hotel (We Are Marriott International, n.d.). From Table 4.4 below, the hotel contributed meaningfully to its immediate stakeholders. The hotel made use of some of its funds to bring joy to its loyal customers. Loyal customers were given discounts on services provided by the hotel. Also, the hotel invested in the education and training of its employees. Employees were periodically trained and educated on their skills. Again, the hotel empowered its female employees by preparing them for leadership positions in the hotel. From literature, these activities can contribute to the pro-social behaviours and satisfaction of employees. 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The corporate social responsibilities of the hotel involved activities that contributed to the sustainable development goals of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). These goals are also known as Global Goals. These goals apply to United Nations member states, in which Ghana is a member. The seventeen goals aimed to improve the economic status of member states, protect life on the planet and protect the rights of individuals. From Table 4.4, it could be seen that, the nature of CSR was directed towards the sustainability goals of UNDP. For instance, “Nurture Our World” contributes to the fourth and fifteenth sustainable development goals. Also, “Sustain Responsible Operations” contributes to the eighth, ninth and thirteenth sustainable development goals. This showed that, the nature of CSR of the hotel was in accordance with Global goals. The nature and form of CSR by the hotel had elements of philanthropy. Apart from its internal environment, the hotel contributed to its external environment. Their participation in philanthropic activities was mostly done indirectly. From Table 4.4 philanthropic practices from the hotel were done by financially supporting philanthropic organisations such as UNICEF and NGOs. These non-governmental organisations were mostly involved in helping vulnerable children. Also, the hotel made monetary contributions to institutions within the hospitality industry. This was to improve the skills of the youth. The philanthropic nature of the hotel was more financial in form. 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.4: CSR Information on Marriott International Hotel Nature of CSR Form (Description of CSR activities at Marriott International Hotel) Nurture our • Volunteer hours to mobilize associates to support a selected group of World nonprofit organisations to support children around the globe. • A sum of 5 million U.S dollars was used to support and loyalty members of the hotel. • A sum of 1.7 million U.S dollars was used to support the activities of UNICEF to save the lives of vulnerable children. • Uses its Disaster Relief Fund to support the Red Cross. Sustain • Involving in activities to attain a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Responsible Design (LEED) certificate. • Training and education on sustainability and its social impact are given to Operations sales associates. • Using technology to benefit the environment. • Use of renewable energy for business. Empower • A sum of 4.6 million U.S dollars to empower organisations that develop through hospitality skills among the youth. • Provide diversity and inclusion training to improve the working opportunity relationship between the workforce and its associates. • Empowerment of women in leadership positions. Diversity and • Engages with organisations to prevent human trafficking Human • Ensure that the hotel environment is not biased towards one culture. • The hotel environment is also structured to accommodate disabled rights individuals. Source: 2019 CSR Report (Serve 360) From the above Table 4.4, the hotel had a structured CSR program that contributed to economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic issues in Ghana. As indicated earlier, from Table 4.4, most of the CSR practices of the hotel were strategic. This strategy used by the hotel was in accordance with the findings established by Ofori (2010). His findings indicated that, managers 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh appeared to have a good understanding of CSR when their understandings of CSR were influenced by the values and functions of their organisation. The strategic nature of the hotel’s CSR program made managers take decisions that contributed to the CSR of the hotel. The nature and form of the CSR practices of the hotel made it possible for the hotel to enjoy certain benefits. From their 2019 report, the hotel increased profit, thus when compared with their previous year’s report. This affirmed the findings by Amin-Chaudhry, (2016) and Ofori, S- Darko, and Nyuur (2014). Their finding stated that, when organisations properly execute their CSR program, they enjoy a good reputation and increase sales since their community wishes to associate with them. The emphasis placed on the hotel’s CSR program (Serve 360) by management, made the organisation mindful of its operations towards its community. During the hotel’s day to day functions, harmful materials that had the potential to affect its community were avoided. This increased profit since it reduced the responsibility of the hotel to clean up its community. It also made it possible for the hotel to reduce costs. This can help the hotel enjoy hidden benefits or profits that would be manifested in the long-term. (Nyuur et al., 2014). The nature and form of the hotel’s CSR practices were within the policies and laws of Ghana. Thus, the CSR of the hotel was embedded in the legal activities of Ghana. This affirms the findings by Atuguba, Dowuona-Hammond, Saani, and Atta-Kesson (2006). They indicated that, when organisations consider the long-term structure of their CSR programs, they can avoid a whole lot of issues related to the compliance of the law. This indirectly reduces legal costs towards the organisation and assures the long-term continuity of the organisation. According to Amponsah (2015), the CSR practices of an organisation must comply with the laws of society 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The CSR practices of the hotel involved all existing departments in the hotel. This cooperation made it possible for the hotel to achieve its CSR goals. One of the ways this form of cooperation was exhibited was when the hotel made use of digital platforms to communicate and pick up orders instead of using materials that could add up as waste and given to the community (Marriott Hotels Debut in West Africa with the Opening of Accra Marriott Hotel, Ghana – Hospitality Net, n.d.). Such an activity showed that, the CSR practices of the hotel involved every department. The analysis drawn from the reports contradicted some previous findings of the service sector of Ghana. For instance, Abane (2013) and Baffoe (2018) indicated that, most CSR practices in Ghana were philanthropic. Meanwhile, the hotel under study showed that, most of its CSR activities were more economic in nature and form. Their CSR practices were done to attain economies of scale, avoid legal issues and follow professional codes within their industry. The hotel’s CSR practices were less philanthropic when compared with these previous findings in Ghana. 4.4 Objective 2: Determine Employee Perception of CSR After the study identified the nature and form of CSR of the hotel, its second objective was to examine employee’s perceptions of CSR practices within the hotel (Marriott International Hotel, Accra). This was done according to the CSR pyramid established by Carroll (2016). Employees working with the hotel were required to use few minutes of their time to respond to a structured questionnaire that was made up of items on a seven Likert Scale, which ranged from strongly disagree to strongly agree. In other words, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 represented the level of disagreement from strongly disagree, moderately disagree, and disagree, respectively. Meanwhile, 5.0, 6.0, and 7.0 represented the various levels of the agreement which were, moderately agree, agree, and 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh strongly agree, respectively. To attain a neutral level between agreement and disagreement, 4.0 represented the neutrality of a respondent. To interpret the results, scores ranging from 1.0 to 3.0 meant that there was low employees’ perception of CSR practices. Meanwhile, scores ranging from 5.0 to 7.0 meant that, there was high employees’ perception of CSR practices. As indicated earlier, 4.0 meant neutrality, meaning the respondent had no low or high perception of CSR practices, therefore a null perception of CSR practices. To make the above scores meaningful, a one-sample t-test was computed using SPSS version 23. This was done to compute the mean scores of employees’ perceptions of CSR practices. Below in Table 4.5 are the mean scores on employees’ perception of CSR. Table 4.5: One-Sample t-Test Results of Employee’s Perception of CSR Variables Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Economic CSR 5.78 1.046 .031 Legal CSR 5.97 .955 .028 Ethical CSR 5.93 .910 .027 Philanthropic CSR 5.96 .913 .025 Note: Std = Standard Source: Field Data (2020) Table 4.5 showed the result of the mean scores of employees’ perception of CSR practices in a hotel in Ghana. From Table 4.5, it was identified that, the various dimensions of CSR had a mean score above 5.0, indicating high employees’ perception of CSR. Employees’ perception of CSR existed since the mean scores were above neutral. To state the mean scores from highest to lowest, 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh legal CSR had a mean score of 5.97 with a standard deviation of 0.96, philanthropic CSR had a mean score of 5.96 with a standard deviation of 0.91, ethical CSR had a mean score of 5.93 with a standard deviation of 0.91 and economic CSR had a mean score of 5.78 with a standard deviation of 1.05. Employees’ perception of legal CSR practices had the highest mean score and was closely followed by philanthropic CSR practices. Therefore, there was a positive employees’ perception of CSR practices. Activities performed regularly in an organisation help form the perception of employees' CSR (Carroll, 2016). A positive employees’ perception of CSR practices may involve a lot of factors to achieve, but when achieved, it has the capability of improving productivity behaviours such as organisational citizenship behaviour (Farid et al., 2019). Employees’ perception could be understood as the collective evaluation of an organisation’s core functions by its employees. These evaluations are mostly based on how an organisation’s core functions improved the internal and external society (Ofori, 2007). According to Waddock and Rasche (2015), employees’ perceptions of CSR practices are cognitive thoughts formed by workers of an organisation. These thoughts are mostly based on the business activities and policies affecting the organisation’s environment. Since employees used for the study had a positive perception of the CSR practices of the hotel, it indicated that, participants conceded their organisational functions as acceptable to the community. Explaining the result of employees’ perception of CSR practices with the Social Identity Theory. Employees identified themselves with the hotel since the activities of the hotel were in accordance with their values. Thus, employees felt attached and happy to be identified with the hotel. This positive attachment and feeling of happiness could lead to job satisfaction and the performance of extra behaviours that are not formally rewarded by the hotel. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5 Objective 3: Employee Perception of CSR And Organisational Citizenship Behaviour To attain results for the hypotheses formulated based on objective three, a five-stage multiple regression analysis was computed using SPSS version 23. Using the SPSS software, the dependent variable for the five-stage multiple regression was organisational citizenship behaviour. The first step was to test the demographic details of the respondents. The demographic data of respondents was used to make further analysis and help make close to accurate recommendations from findings. The second step was economic CSR, then legal CSR, ethical CSR, and philanthropic CSR in that chronological order. The CSR variables were done in that order to reflect Carroll’s (2016) interpretation of CSR. Thus, for an organisation to have a good CSR program, they are to be economically successful. This made economic CSR sit at the base of his CSR pyramid with philanthropic CSR at the apex of the pyramid. An insignificant relationship between the demographic data and OCB was identified. After running the hierarchical regression analysis on SPSS version 23, the results revealed that, at the first stage, gender, age, academic qualification and years of working with the hotel did not significantly predict organisational citizenship behaviour [R2=.001, p>0.05]. Economic CSR was then introduced into the model at the second stage and accounted for 38% of the variation in organisational citizenship behaviour. Economic CSR’s change in R2 was significant [R2=0.380, p> 0.05], therefore indicating that hypothesis 1a, which stated “employees’ perception of Economic CSR will significantly influence organisational citizenship behaviour” was supported. The introduction of Legal CSR at the third stage added 5.9% to the model and this change in R2 was also significant [R2=0.059, p> 0.05], therefore, hypothesis 1b was supported with the statement that, “employees’ perception of legal CSR will significantly influence organisational 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh citizenship behaviour”. Ethical CSR was added at the fourth stage, which accounted for an additional 13.3% of the total variation in organisational citizenship behaviour. Also, this R2 change was significant [R2=0.133, p>0.05], this also indicated that, hypothesis 1c was supported with the statement “employees’ perception of Ethical CSR will significantly influence organisational citizenship behaviour”. The fifth and final stage was achieved through the addition of Philanthropic CSR. The regression model explained an addition of 1.1% of its variation on organisational citizenship behaviour and the R2 change was also significant as the other CSR variables [R2=0.011, p>0.05]. The addition of Philanthropic CSR to the model made way for hypothesis 1d to be supported, it stated that, “employees’ perception of Philanthropic CSR will significantly influence organisational citizenship behaviour”. The results obtained from the regression analysis showed that, the four dimensions of CSR significantly predicted organisational citizenship behaviour. In other words, employees’ perception of CSR based on the four dimensions of CSR by Carroll (2016) accounted for 58.3% of the total variance in organisational citizenship behaviour. 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.6: Hierarchical Regression Analysis of CSR As Predictors of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Variable Beta R2 R2 change Step 1 .038 .001 Gender -.025 Age .016 Academic .008 qualification Tenure of works -.365 Step 2 .618 .380 Economic CSR .621 Step 3 .664 .059 Economic CSR .260 Legal CSR .436 Step 4 .757 .133 Economic CSR .105 Legal CSR .150 Ethical CSR .561 Step 5 .765 .011 Economic CSR .058 Legal CSR .143 Ethical CSR .431 Philanthropic .204 CSR Source: Field Data (2020) The results from Table 4.6 showed a significant relationship between employees’ perceptions of CSR practices and OCB. Since a particular group of internal stakeholders was used, the results of this study were in accordance with Jones's (2010) study on the relationship between employees' active participation in CSR activities and some organisational behaviours. During his study, Jones (2010) explored the responses of employees perception of their organisation’s CSR programs. His results indicated a positively significant relationship between employees’ perceptions of CSR and OCB. It was also indicated that, employees felt they were part of the 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisation when they were highly involved in a socially responsible activity, therefore increasing organisational behaviours that were beneficial to their organisation. Also, to understand the banking sector of a developing country like that of Ghana, Farid et al. (2019) made use of four organisations within this valuable sector of every economy. With 350 employees as participants, they identified that, there was sufficient evidence to show that, the influence of an employees’ perception of their organisation’s CSR on their organisational citizenship behaviour was significant. The positive employees’ perception of CSR practices within the hotel made it possible to assume that, employees with a positive perception of CSR practices had a high level of organisational citizenship behaviour. This assumption can also be explained using the theory underpinning this study, the Social Identity Theory. The theory indicated that, when employees identify themselves as part of their organisation, they also identify themselves as a piece of the whole organisation, therefore involving themselves with activities that improve their image as well as the reputation and productivity of their organisation. The results from Table 4.6 made a way to identify the predictive effects of CSR on organisational citizenship behaviour. For instance, the predictive effect of economic CSR on OCB was not the same as legal, ethical, and philanthropic CSR. From this study, economic CSR had the most predictive effect on organisational citizenship behaviour. Meanwhile, philanthropic CSR had the least predictive effect on organisational citizenship behaviour. This helped confirm the nature and form of CSR by the hotel. It also made it possible to make academic assumptions to know where CSR practices are focused on in the hotel. Therefore, from this study, it could be assumed 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that, for employees to engage in OCB, organisations must be successful financially. The regression analysis results also confirmed the economic nature of the hotel’s CSR practices. 4.6 Objective 4: Examine the Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Examining the relationship between job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour was the fourth objective of this study. The hypothesis established based on the fourth objective was that, job satisfaction will significantly predict organisational citizenship behaviour. To achieve this objective, a simple linear regression analysis was computed using SPSS version 23. The linear regression output is displayed in Table 4.7 below. Table 4.7: Linear Regression of Job Satisfaction on Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig. Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 69.194 3.590 19.272 .000 Job .993 .090 .658 11.065 .000 Satisfaction R2= .494 Dependent Variable: Organisational Citizenship Behaviour From the above Table 4.7, It was revealed that there was a significant and positive correlation between job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour (β=.658, p>.000). Additional analysis from the output obtained from the linear regression showed that, job satisfaction significantly predicted organisational citizenship behaviour. The R2 and R2 change 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh values were 0.433. This indicated that, approximately 43% of the total variation in organisational citizenship behaviour could be explained on job satisfaction. This, therefore, indicated that, hypothesis two of this study was supported since it stated that, “job satisfaction will significantly predict organisational citizenship behaviour”. Therefore, it could be suggested that, when employees are highly satisfied with their responsibilities at work, they are likely to exhibit behaviours such as organisational citizenship behaviour. The findings above showed congruence with other studies. According to Zeinabadi (2010), employees of an educational institution in a developing country exhibited pro-social behaviours at work. The study contributed by indicating that, intrinsic job satisfaction of educational leaders had a direct influence on OCB. Again, according to Ngunia, Sleegers, and Denessen (2006), there is a significant influence of job satisfaction on OCB amongst primary school workers. Therefore, the job satisfaction level of service employees influenced organisational citizenship behaviour. When employees work in a dynamic environment and perceive their organisation as socially responsible, they are mostly satisfied with their job, therefore engage in non-rewarding activities that benefit their organisation (Tekleab & Chiaburu, 2011). A group of employees working in a dynamic environment demonstrated a link between their job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour. In the banking sector in Malaysia, about 400 employees participated in a study conducted by Islam, Khan, Norulkamar, Ahmad, and Ahmed (2014). The group of researchers indicated that, when employees within this unstable industry perceived their organisation supported them socially, they exhibited behaviours such as helping colleagues and completing a task after working hours. These behaviours improved the overall success of the organisation. Also in the financial sector of Ghana, Baffoe (2018) indicated that, employees within 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the banking sector engaged in pro social activities when they are satisfied with the services they provide to their organisation. The findings of this current study also assert to the findings by Baffoe, 2018; Islam et al., 2014; and Tekleab and Chiaburu (2011) that, job satisfaction influences the organisational citizenship behaviour of employees in a hotel, a dynamic industry in Ghana. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Introduction This chapter summarises the study, concludes the study, and makes recommendations based on the findings obtained from the study. The chapter ends with limitations and recommendations for future research. 5.1 Summary The study aimed to examine the relationship between corporate social responsibility, organisational citizenship behaviour, and job satisfaction of a hotel in Ghana. To attain this aim, the study used employees of a four-star hotel operating within the heart of Accra-Ghana. The hotel used was a globally recognised hotel named Marriott International Hotel, Accra. Specifically, the study examined the nature and form of corporate social responsibility practices of the hotel, employees’ perception of CSR, the influence of CSR on organisational citizenship behaviour and the relationship between job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviour. 5.2 The Nature and Form of CSR Practices The first objective of the study was to examine the nature and form of CSR in a hotel in Ghana. This was to identify the CSR practices of Marriott international hotel, Accra. To achieve this objective, the 2018 report on Marriott international hotel and the 2019 report on Serve 360 was used to identify the nature and form of CSR of the hotel. Content analysis was employed to analyse the above-mentioned reports. The analysis showed that, the hotel’s CSR practices were 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh more economic. Most of the CSR practices of the hotel was targeted towards the internal environment of the hotel. Further examination of the reports indicated that, the CSR practices of the hotel were parallel with the daily operations of the hotel. However, the other dimensions of CSR were not neglected by the hotel. For instance, the philanthropic CSR of the hotel was strategically done. Thus, the hotel engaged in charitable activities that could improve its industry. In all, the nature and form of the hotel’s CSR were more internal and economic. 5.3 Employees’ Perception of CSR The second research objective was to examine employees’ perceptions of CSR practices engaged by the Marriott international hotel Accra. To attain this objective, questionnaires were distributed. The eligible questionnaires retrieved from participants were computed into SPSS version 23. The results showed that, employees had a positive perception of the hotel’s CSR practices. Further examination of the result, showed that, employees’ perception of legal CSR was highest amongst the various CSR dimensions established by Carroll (2016). 5.4 The Influence of Employees’ Perception of CSR on Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Understanding employees’ perception of CSR within the hotel made it possible to examine the third objective of the study. This was to find out if employees’ perception of their organisation’s CSR could affect their organisational citizenship behaviour. Using five-stage hierarchical regression analysis, it was revealed that, employees’ perception of economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic CSR positively influenced organisational citizenship behaviour. Meanwhile, further analysis of the regression result showed that, employees’ perception of 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh economic CSR had the highest influence on organisational citizenship behaviour. This meant that, employees with a positive perception of their organisation’s economic CSR were more likely to engage in pro-social behaviours that brought value to their organisation. 5.5 The Influence of Job Satisfaction on Organisational Citizenship Behaviour The last objective was to examine the influence of job satisfaction on organisational citizenship behaviour. Based on previous studies, the study hypothesized that, job satisfaction will significantly predict organisational citizenship behaviour. A linear regression analysis was employed through SPSS. The results obtained showed that, job satisfaction significantly predicted organisational citizenship behaviour. This meant that, employees with high levels of job satisfaction were more likely to exhibit organisational citizenship behaviours at the workplace. 5.6 Revisiting the Conceptual Framework Chapter Two of this study proposed a research framework for the study. This framework was to establish a graphical presentation of the relationship between corporate social responsibility, job satisfaction, and organisational citizenship behaviour. After analysis of the various variables, there were no differences from the proposed research framework in Chapter Two. Below is Figure 5.1, which shows the conceptual framework after analysis. The model indicated that, employees’ perception of CSR significantly predicted organisational citizenship behaviour. Meanwhile, job satisfaction also had a positive predictive effect on organisational citizenship behaviour. 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 5.1: Revised Conceptual Framework Source: Author, (2020) 5.7 Conclusion Organisations are now mindful of their responsibilities to their community. It is therefore important to observe corporate social responsibility as one of the core management concepts of an organisation. This is because studies have shown how beneficial corporate social responsibility could be when systematically practiced by an organisation. Corporate social responsibility improves the reputation of an organisation, it reduces the cost of solving environmental issues and it also increases profit and customer loyalty (Kurniaty et al., 2018; Trivellas et al., 2019) . This study examined the relationship between corporate social responsibility, organisational citizenship behaviour, and job satisfaction of a four-star hotel in Ghana. The study used the 2018 annual report of the hotel and the corporate social responsibility report of the hotel to achieve objective one. 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Using content analysis, the study revealed that, the nature and form of CSR by Marriott International hotel, Accra was more economic. Also, statistics were used in achieving the second, third and fourth objectives of the study. After analysis of the statistics results from SPSS version 23, it was revealed that, employees’ perception of their CSR practices was positive. Also, this positive perception of their CSR influenced their organisational citizenship behaviour. Lastly, it was revealed that, employees’ job satisfaction had a positive influence on their organisational citizenship behaviour. 5.8 Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the researcher made the following recommendations. The first recommendation was directed towards the management of the organisation. Management executives of the hotel must consider organisational citizenship behaviour and job satisfaction when formulating CSR practices for their organisation. To benefit from pro-social activities and still make employees satisfied, management must be able to formulate CSR practices that can impact the citizenship behaviour and satisfaction level of employees. This strategic activity can improve the overall satisfaction of an organisation. For an organisation to increase the satisfaction level of employees, management executives must actively involve employees during the formulation of CSR practices. Management should involve employees to further increase employees’ perception of the various dimensions of CSR. Involving employees about CSR practices increases their willingness to engage in them, therefore improving satisfaction level at the workplace. 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This research study can be viewed as a great document by management. This document can help improve the policies of the organisation and improve decision making by managers and supervisors. This document can specifically be used to make decisions towards employees’ perceptions of the CSR practices of an organisation, organisational citizenship behaviour, and job satisfaction. This document can also help create awareness of the importance of employees’ psychological make-up of the CSR practices of an organisation. Finaly, this document improves understanding and knowledge within research communities such as the CSR, OCB and job satisfaction research communities. The various communities mentioned can use this document to further future research. 5.9 Limitations Like other academic studies, this study also had its limitations. The study failed to take into consideration the total amount of funds invested in the organisation’s CSR program. The funds allocated to CSR programs play a role in determining the nature and form of CSR in an organisation. Also, the study only used the survey method in assessing employees’ perceptions of CSR on organisational citizenship behaviour and job satisfaction on organisational citizenship behaviour of the hotel used for this study. This method is liable to risks such as participants giving low attention to the item on a questionnaire before selecting a response. Also, the study made use of only one organisation in the hospitality industry. 5.10 Directions for Future Research For future studies, a more quantitative approach could be used to explore the meaning of an employee’s perception of CSR practices in their organisation. Future studies should consider 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the number of funds allocated to an organisation’s CSR program. This could help understand the importance of CSR in an organisation. 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(2014). “High-performance work systems, corporate social performance and employee outcomes: exploring the missing links”. Journal of Business Ethics, 120(3), 423– 435. 140 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Zhu, Q., Hang, Y., Liu, J., & Lai, K. (2012). “How is employee perception of organisational efforts in corporate social responsibility related to their satisfaction and loyalty towards developing harmonious society in Chinese enterprises?”. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 63-83. 141 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL Department of Organisation and Human Resource Management Dear Respondent, I am grateful to you in advance for helping me fill this questionnaire on a study I am conducting on “Corporate social responsibility, organisational citizenship behaviour and job satisfaction”. This questionnaire is designed to solicit your views on how your institution’s CSR activities influence your citizenship behaviour at work as well as your level of satisfaction on the job. The questionnaire is made up of four (4) sections. Kindly bear in mind that the responses provided in this questionnaire are for academic purposes only, thus all information gathered will be treated with the utmost confidentiality. Thank you. SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Instruction: Please answer by ticking “√” in the box beside your choice 1. Gender: Male Female 2. Age: 20-29; 30-39; 40-49; 50-59; 60+ Academic Qualification: SSCE/WASSCE/O’Level Diploma/HND First Degree Masters Professional 142 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Please state……………………... 3. Number of years worked in the organisation: < 2 years 2-5years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years 20+ years SECTION B: CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY The following are a number of statements that could be used to describe a variety of factors relating to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in an organisation. Please read each statement carefully and indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement by checking or ticking the box under your response option. Use the following scale: 1= Strongly disagree, 2= Disagree, 3 = Moderately disagree, 4 = Neutral, 5 = Moderately agree, 6 = Agree, 7= Strongly agree. ECONOMIC CSR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 Our institution has a procedure in place to respond to every customer complaint. 2 We continually improve the quality of our services. 3 We use customer satisfaction as an indicator of our business performance. 4 We have been successful at maximizing our profits. 5 We strive to lower our operating costs. 6 We closely monitor employee productivity. 7 Top management establishes long-term strategies for our business. LEGAL CSR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 Managers are informed about relevant environmental laws. 2 All our products and services meet legal standards. 3 Our contractual obligations are always honoured. 4 The managers of this institution try to comply with the law. 5 Our institution seeks to comply with all laws regulating hiring and employee benefits. 6 We have programs that encourage the diversity of our workplace (in terms of age, gender, or race). 7 We have internal policies that prevent discrimination in employees’ compensation and promotion. 143 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ETHICAL CSR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 Our business has a comprehensive code of conduct. 2 Members of our organisation follow professional standards. 3 Top managers monitor the potential negative impacts of our activities on our community. 4 We are recognized as a trustworthy company. 5 Fairness toward co-workers and business partners is an integral part of our employee evaluation process. 6 A confidential procedure is in place for employees to report any misconduct at work (such as stealing or sexual harassment). 7 Our salespersons and employees are required to provide full and accurate information to all customers. PHILANTROPIC CSR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 The institution tries to improve the image of its product and services. 2 The institution tries to improve perception of its business conduct. 3 The institution tries to improve its corporate image. 4 The institution tries to help the poor. 5 The institution tries to contribute toward bettering the local community. 6 The institution tries to fulfil its social responsibility. 7 The institution tries to accommodate requests form NGOs. 8 The institution tries to accommodate governmental request. SECTION C: ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR The following are a number of statements that could be used to describe a variety of factors relating to Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) in an organisation. Please read each statement carefully and indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement by checking or ticking the box under your response option. Use the following scale: 144 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1= Strongly disagree, 2= Disagree, 3 = Moderately disagree, 4 = Neutral, 5 = Moderately agree, 6 = Agree, 7= Strongly agree. OCB towards the individuals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 I help others who have been absent. 2 I willingly give my time to help others who have work related problems. 3 I adjust my work schedule to accommodate other employees’ requests for time off. 4 I go out of the way to make newer employees feel welcome in the work group. 5 I show genuine concern and courtesy towards co- workers, even under the most trying business or personal situations. 6 I give up time to help others who have work or non- work problems. 7 I assist others with their duties. 8 I have personal help others with their work. 9 I always show consideration for others, even when busy or stressed. 10 I go out of others’ way to congratulate others for their achievements. OCB towards the organisation 11 I attend functions that are not required but help organisational image. 12 I keep up with developments in the organisation. 13 I defend the organisation when other employees criticize it. 14 I show pride when representing the organisation in public. 15 I offer ideas to improve the functioning of the organisation. 16 I express loyalty toward the organisation. 17 I take action to protect the organisation from potential problems. 18 I demonstrate concern about the image of the organisation. SECTION D: JOB SATISFACTION The following are a number of statements that could be used to describe a variety of factors relating to job satisfaction in an organisation. Please read each statement carefully and indicate 145 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement by checking or ticking the box under your response option. Use the following scale: 1= Strongly disagree, 2= Disagree, 3 = Moderately disagree, 4 = Neutral, 5 = Moderately agree, 6 = Agree, 7= Strongly agree. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 In comparison with most jobs, mine is very interesting. 2 I am satisfied with the work climate where I work. 3 I am satisfied with my professional activities. 4 I am satisfied with my working conditions. 5 I am satisfied with the understanding that I have with my colleagues. 6 I am satisfied with the responsibilities entrusted to me. 7 I am satisfied with the understanding that I have with my line manager. 146