UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES A ZOO-ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE NYARKO QUARTER OF BEGHO, BONO REGION, GHANA BY BENJAMIN OPOKU (10559974) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN ARCHAEOLOGY AT THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY JANUARY 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i Declaration I hereby declare that this work, with the exception of duly acknowledged quotes, ideas and references, represents my own research carried out at the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, under the meticulous supervision of Professor Fritz Biveridge and Professor Daniel K. Attuquayefio. This work has not been presented in part or in full to any other institution for examination. OPOKU BENJAMIN DATE (STUDENT) ………………………….. ……………………………… PROFESSOR FRITZ BIVERIDGE SUPERVISOR ………………………………….. …….. …………………………… PROFESSOR DANIEL K. ATTUQUAYEFIO CO- SUPERVISOR …………………………….. …………………………………….. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii Abstract The focus of this study is on the identification and documentation of faunal remains recovered from the Nyarko Quarter. It is one of six quarters of Begho discovered by Merrick Posnansky in the early 1970s. Begho was an ancient market town located in the Bono Region of Ghana, and noted to have had extensive trade links with Jenne, Timbucktu and Gao, located along the Niger River, as well as with several coastal polities during the era of the Trans Saharan and Atlantic trade respectively. Its importance has been documented in several early Arabic manuscripts, European records and ethno historical accounts of the Hani people, ancestors of the people of ancient Begho. The modern Hani settlement overlies parts of the ancient Begho settlement. The study revealed that the people of the Nyarko Quarter exploited and procured for themselves wide varieties of domesticated and undomesticated animal and plant species. Some of the recovered bones identified belonged to wild/undomesticated animals species and included grasscutter, duiker, squirrels and antelopes. Some of these animals were captured through various means such as hunting and the use of snares and pitfall traps. A few of the bones recovered also displayed charred marks and cut marks, indicating that smoking over open fire was probably an important mode of processing meat in the past. Other faunal material recovered from the Nyarko Quarter comprised mollusc shells, indication that the inhabitants of that quarter exploited these resources. The recovery of palm kernel and cowpea seeds is direct evidential data supporting the cultivation of these crops and may have served as important dietary complements during the period. Other notable non-faunal recoveries from the excavations included daub and lateritic stones, which could have been used for the construction of wattle and daub house structures. Veritable quantities of locally manufactured potsherds were also recovered. The settlers had University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii extensive socio-economic interactions with neighboring communities’ like Menji, Namasa, Debibi, Wenchi and Nsoko University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv Dedication This work is dedicated to my mother, Madam Eva Afia University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v Table Of Content A ZOO-ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE NYARKO QUARTER OF BEGHO, BONO REGION, GHANA ............................................................................................... Declaration ....................................................................................................................................... i Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowlegements ........................................................................................................................... x Chapter One .................................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Organization of Chapters ......................................................................................................... 4 1.2. Research Problem .................................................................................................................... 5 1.3. Aim of the Research................................................................................................................. 6 1.4. Research Objectives. ................................................................................................................ 6 1.5. Research Questions .................................................................................................................. 7 1.6. Research Approach and Methodology ..................................................................................... 7 1.7. Interpretative Framework....................................................................................................... 10 1.8. Major Limitations of the Study .............................................................................................. 12 Chapter Two.................................................................................................................................. 14 Review of Literature on Past Investigations at Begho/Hani ......................................................... 14 2.0. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 14 Chapter Three................................................................................................................................ 30 A Brief Historical Background of the People and Geographical Setting of the Study Area ........ 30 3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 30 3.1 Occupation .............................................................................................................................. 35 3.2. Language ................................................................................................................................ 37 3.3 Religion and Festivals ............................................................................................................. 38 3.4 The Geographical Setting of the Research Area ..................................................................... 40 3.4.1 Climate ................................................................................................................................. 40 3.4.2 Vegetation ............................................................................................................................ 40 3.4.3 Relief and Drainage ............................................................................................................. 41 3.4.4. Geology ............................................................................................................................... 42 3.4.5. Demographic Structure/Population of Begho ..................................................................... 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi Chapter Four ................................................................................................................................. 45 The Ethnographic Investigation at Hani ....................................................................................... 45 4.0. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 45 Chapter Five .................................................................................................................................. 52 The Archaeological Research ....................................................................................................... 52 5.0. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 52 5.1. Archaeological Research ...................................................................................................... 56 5.2 Trench 1: Description of the Stratigraphy .............................................................................. 61 5.3 Trench 2: Description of the Stratigraphy .............................................................................. 64 5.4. Trench 3: Description of the Stratigraphy ............................................................................. 66 5.5 Post Field Analysis ................................................................................................................. 69 5.6 Dating the Nyarko Quarter of Begho ...................................................................................... 70 Chapter Six.................................................................................................................................... 75 Analysis and Description of the Material Inventory from the Nyarko Quarter ............................ 75 6.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 75 6.1 The Finds ................................................................................................................................ 75 6.2 Faunal Remains ....................................................................................................................... 78 6.2.1 Ivory ..................................................................................................................................... 85 6.2.3 Mollusc Shells ...................................................................................................................... 87 6.2.4 Teeth .................................................................................................................................... 88 6.3 Analysis and Description of the Local Pottery ....................................................................... 89 6.3.1 Pottery Classification Based on Vessel Part ........................................................................ 90 6.3.2 Pottery Classification Based on Surface Treatment/Colouration ........................................ 91 6.3.3 Pottery Classification Based on Form and Shape ................................................................ 97 6.3.3.1 Vessel Form Type 1 .......................................................................................................... 97 6.3.3.2 Bowl Type 1 ...................................................................................................................... 97 6.3.3.3 Bowl Type 2 ...................................................................................................................... 98 6.4 Daub ........................................................................................................................................ 99 6.5 Lateritic stones ...................................................................................................................... 100 6.6 Palm Kernel Shells ................................................................................................................ 101 6.7 Cowpea Seeds ....................................................................................................................... 102 Chapter Seven ............................................................................................................................. 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii Discussion and Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 104 7.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 104 7.1 Research Findings and Discussion........................................................................................ 104 7.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 113 7.3 Recommendations for Future Researchers ........................................................................... 116 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 117 Appendix A. ............................................................................................................................... 125 Appendix B. ............................................................................................................................... 126 Appendix C ................................................................................................................................ 127 List Of Maps Map 1. 1 Modern map of Ghana showing Hani/Begho and some neighboring towns mentioned in the text. (Reproduced from Posnansky, 2015) ................................................................................ 2 Map 2. 1 Early Dutch map of the Gold Coast showing Begho (indicated as Insoco (1). (Source: Propheet, 1629) ............................................................................................................................. 18 Map 2. 2 Map showing the six quarters at ancient Begho (Source: Merrick Posnansky 1977, 1980) ............................................................................................................................................. 22 Map 3. 1 Map showing trade links between Begho and Djenne during the era of the Trans Saharan Trade (Source: McIntosh 1976) ...................................................................................... 31 List of Figures Figure 3. 1“Acheampong” (Chromolaena odorata) leaves. (Picture source: Google) .................. 37 Figure 3. 2 Aerial view of Hani (Photo: Author) .......................................................................... 44 Figure 4. 1. Graphical representation showing the age distribution of respondents ..................... 46 Figure 4. 2 Photo of a snare trap (Photo: Author)......................................................................... 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii Figure 4. 3 A long Wendel-Holub Rifle, one of several gun types used in hunting at Hani (Photo: Author) .......................................................................................................................................... 49 Figure 5. 1 The Okyeame of Hani (chief Lindquist) offering prayers to the ancestors and “gods” for successful research (Photo: Author) ........................................................................................ 53 Figure 5. 2 Fragments of locally made potsherds. (Photo: Author).............................................. 55 Figure 5. 3 Furnace remains at the Dwimfour Quarter (Photo: Author) ...................................... 55 Figure 5. 4 Iron slag at Atwetweboↄso (Photo: Author) ............................................................... 56 Figure 5. 5 Picture showing the Trench 1 (Photo: Author)........................................................... 58 Figure 5. 6 Picture showing Trench 2 (Photo: Author). ............................................................... 59 Figure 5. 7 Picture showing Trench 3. (Photo: Author). .............................................................. 60 Figure 5. 8 Stratigraphy profile of the north wall of Trench 1 ..................................................... 62 Figure 5. 9 Stratigraphy profile of the west wall of Trench 1 ....................................................... 63 Figure 5. 10 Stratigraphy profile of the north wall of Trench 2 ................................................... 65 Figure 5. 11 Stratigraphy profile of north wall of Trench 3 ......................................................... 67 Figure 5. 12 Stratigraphy profile of west wall of Trench 3 .......................................................... 68 Figure 5. 13 Radio carbon dating for trench 1 .............................................................................. 71 Figure 5. 14 conventional radiocarbon age (years in BP) for trench 1 ......................................... 72 Figure 5. 15 Radio carbon dating for trench 2 .............................................................................. 73 Figure 5. 16 conventional radiocarbon age (years in BP) for trench 2 ......................................... 74 Figure 6. 1 A few of the recovered bones with cut marks (Source: Author) ................................ 84 Figure 6. 2 Some animal bones retrieved from the Nyarko Quarter. (Source: Author) ............... 84 Figure 6. 3 Part of a turtle shell recovered from Trench 3 (Source: Author) ............................... 85 Figure 6. 4 Picture of fragments of ivories. (Source: Author). ..................................................... 86 Figure 6. 5 Photo of unworked ivory from the study area (Source: Author). ............................... 86 Figure 6. 6 Picture of the decorated ivory object (Source: Author). ............................................. 87 Figure 6. 7 Mollusc (snail) shells recovered from the Nyarko Quarter. (Source: Author) ........... 88 Figure 6. 8 Some animal teeth recovered during the excavations (Source: Author) .................... 89 Figure 6. 9 A fragment of a smudged vessel from the Nyarko Quarter (Source: Author) ........... 92 Figure 6. 10 Fragments of an unburnished vessel (Source: Author) ............................................ 93 Figure 6. 11 Some decorated sherds: (A) Carved roulette with groove, (B) wavy line with lugs and (C) groove on cord roulette. ................................................................................................... 94 Figure 6. 12 Multiple grooves with dot stamps (Source: Author) ................................................ 94 Figure 6. 13 Sherd with perforations (Source: Author) ................................................................ 96 Figure 6. 14 A Perforated sherd with multiple decorations: comb stamping, grooves and wavy lines (Source: Author) ................................................................................................................... 96 Figure 6. 15 Illustration of Bowl type 1 ........................................................................................ 98 Figure 6. 16 Illustration of Bowl Type 2. ..................................................................................... 99 Figure 6. 17 Fragments of daub from the Nyarko Quarter (Source: Author) ............................. 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix Figure 6. 18 Some lateritic stones recovered from the Nyarko Quarter. (Source: Author). ....... 101 Figure 6. 19 Remains of palm kernels from the Nyarko Quarter. (Source: Author). ................. 102 Figure 6. 20 The three cowpea seeds recovered from the Nyarko Quarter. (Source: Author). .. 103 Table 1. List of Tables Table 4. 1Table showing the number of active and retired hunters interviewed .......................... 46 Table 6. 1 Table showing types of cultural materials retrieved from Trench 1 according to stratigraphy levels and their percentage values ............................................................................ 76 Table 6. 2 Table showing types of cultural materials retrieved from Trench 2 according to stratigraphy levels and their percentage value .............................................................................. 76 Table 6. 3 Table showing types of cultural materials retrieved from Trench 3 according to stratigraphy levels and their percentage value .............................................................................. 77 Table 6. 4 Count of total cultural materials retrieved from all three trenches .............................. 77 Table 6. 5 Table showing the bone types, count, the species/genus/family of bones retrieved from Trenches 1 and 2 at the Nyarko Quarter ....................................................................................... 79 Table 6. 6 Table showing the body parts, count, species/genus/families/orders of bones retrieved from Trenches 1 and 2 at the Nyarko Quarter .............................................................................. 80 Table 6. 7 Table showing the body parts, count, the species and genus of bones retrieved from Trenches 3 at the Nyarko Quarter ................................................................................................. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x Acknowlegements I am indebted to all those who supported me in many ways to ensure the completion of this M.Phil thesis. My heartfelt appreciation goes first to God almighty for His grace and favor made abundant to me and for being my strength, source of courage from the start-to-finish of my master’s degree journey. My sincere gratitude to my supervisors; Professor Fritz Biveridge and Professor Daniel K. Attuquayefio for their competence, immense commitment, meticulous guidance and constructive criticisms in supervising this thesis leading to a successful completion of the work. I would like to say a very big thank you to Professor James Barrett for assisting me in analyzing the recovered faunal remains and to Professor Heidi Mjelva Breivik, Professor Martin Callanan, Professor Osei-Tutu and Professor Heidrun M.V. Steberglokken of the Department of Archaeology and Cultural History, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)for their assistance. I am also grateful to the National Laboratory for Age Determination in Trondheim, Norway. I will forever be grateful to Dr. Daniel Kumah and Mr. Gideon Agyare for their enormous care, assistance with field work and advice throughout my master’s program. I also appreciate the efforts of Dr. Mark Seyram Amenyo-Xa and Dr. Aba Eyifa-Dzidzienyo of the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies. Mr. Bossman M. Murey deserved to be acknowledged for assisting me in analyzing the recovered faunal remains. I would want to register my profound appreciation to the Chief and elders of Hani especially Nana Kyere Amaneapong I (chief of Hani), Mr. Anderson Darko, Mr. Barnabas Apaw, Mr. Koomson Darko, and Mr. Victor Gyamfi who gave me rich insights into the subject matter at hand. I thank my respondents at Hani who furnished me with information during my field research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi I would also want to thank Mr. Albert Labi, my colleague Emmanuel Nii Amui Amui, and the Final year Archaeology Students of the 2021 and 2022 batch. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 Chapter One 1.0 Introduction This research is a zoo-archaeological study of faunal remains recovered from the Nyarko Quarter, at Begho (Map 1.0) present day Hani. According early Arabic records dating to the 1650’s, until its collapse and final demise in the sixteenth century as a result of a bloody civil war, Begho was a prosperous and thriving metropolitan market center that connected the peoples of the heavily forested gold bearing regions to the south and the two Sahelian Empires of Mali and Songhai to the north. Oral traditional data gathered from some indigenous resource persons at Hani, the inhabitants of Begho fearing for their lives thereafter, fled and resettled at Debibi and Bondoku. According to these traditions, it was abandoned and lay decrepit for many years until a few of the town’s original settlers who fled the civil war returned to resettle there. Shocked and dismayed by the level of destruction, the returnees are reported to have exclaimed “ɛha nie?” which in the Bono dialect translates, “is this the place?” in English. With time, the term was corrupted to Hani which is the current name of the place. It is worth noting that a substantial portion of the new settlement of Hani overlies part of the ancient Begho settlement. Begho (70 50' 53' north, 20 28' 41') lies in the Tain District of the Bono Region, Ghana, and is approximately 434.5 kilometers north of Accra, the Capital City of Ghana. Some important neighbouring towns close to Hani (the research area) are Nsawkaw to the east, Kokoaa to the west, Debibi, to the north and Seikwa to the south. The current settlers of Hani intimate in their oral traditions that their progenitors are the people of Begho. Bones, mollusc shells, teeth, and horns recovered via surface surveys and excavations constituted the primary faunal remains used for the study. These remains oftentimes, are the commonest and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 most veritable faunal materials recovered for zoo-archaeological investigations at archaeological sites. Hair, chitin, and hoofs constitute other less notable faunal remains of interest to zoo- archaeologists. These however, were not recovered at Begho. Palm kernel shells constituted the only botanical remains recovered from the site and used for the study. Map 1. 1 Modern map of Ghana showing Hani/Begho and some neighboring towns mentioned in the text. (Reproduced from Posnansky, 2015) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Locally manufactured pottery constituted the most ubiquitous non-faunal artifact retrieved from the Begho excavations and also played a central role in facilitating the archaeological reconstruction of past lifeways of the people who settled ancient Begho. Other artifacts retrieved there comprised body beautification accessories like beads. The study spanned two seasons in 2021 and 2022 with each season spanning two months. The researcher was assisted in the field by several final year students of the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies, University of Ghana, Legon. Zoo-archaeology is one of several sub-disciplines of archaeology and can be defined as the study of biological remains (including human) in archaeological context for purposes of reconstructing aspects of the human past. Most people in the remote past considered varieties of recovered fauna including human skeletal remains as just bones with no connection to the past. In recent times however, scholars like Larsen (1997, 2000, 2002), Posnansky (1984), White and Folkens (2005) and Killgrove (2013) have shown via their focused scientific researches that they constitute impressive storehouses of knowledge, thanks to advances in forensic zoo-archaeology. Bones and teeth for example, record circumstances of growth and development as evidenced by factors such as stress, activity, injury, environment, disease, diet, and nutrition (Larsen, 2000). Fauna can also speak volumes about issues relating to human genetics and physiological reactions to the environment, past dietary patterns, vegetation types, and paleo environmental conditions among many others. The study of micro plant remains (archaeobotany) like pollen grains, fossil cuticles, and diatoms; and fossilized macro plant remains like seeds, charcoal, grains and fruits recovered from archaeological contexts have also helped shed to light on how varieties of plant species were utilized in the past. It also facilitates comparative environmental studies. Larsen (2000) for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 example, has noted that it can shed light on what species were exploited for food, house construction, fuel, and medicines. In recent times, they have helped archaeologists and anthropologists to recreate past vegetation types, explain how humans interacted with their surroundings, and past inter-societal trade relations between different societies. Zoo-archaeology and Archaeobotany have thus, contributed immensely to our understanding of when and why early humans switched from a hunter-gatherer subsistence strategy to agriculture, human impact on the natural environment, and the dynamic interrelationships between humans and animals. 1.1. Organization of Chapters The thesis is made up of seven chapters. The main constituents of Chapter One comprised an introduction which briefly outlines the thrust and focus of the study. It states the research problem, the aim and objectives of the study, the research methods and approaches employed by the researcher to derive data and the interpretative framework used. Other topical issues discussed include the main challenges encountered by the researcher during the course of the research and the significance of the research. Chapter Two provides an extensive literature review of the research area. This aspect critically examined the historical and archaeological works of previous researchers at Begho/Hani and some of the existing knowledge gaps in their studies. Chapter Three is divided into two parts. The first part discussed the historical background of Begho/Hani and its environs, and the second outlined the geographical setting of the study area. Chapter Four discusses the results of the ethnographic research at Hani. Animal husbandry, hunting and trapping were the main subsistence strategies researched. Chapter Five discusses the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 archaeological fieldwork conducted in the study region. Chapter Six is devoted to a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the archaeological finds recovered from the Nyarko Quarter. Chapter Seven is divided into two sections. The first attempts a comprehensive reconstruction of the past socio-economic and cultural lifeways of the ancient settlers of the Nyarko Quarter of Begho, based on the cumulative evidence. Topics covered in this section included ethnicity, their early migration and settlement history, past dietary patterns, past subsistence strategies, vocations and adaptive strategies, exchange, and early demography. The second section detailed the salient conclusions gauged from the study and some recommendations for future research at the Nyarko Quarter of Begho. 1.2. Research Problem It's worth noting that Merrick Posnansky who was the first to uncover and discuss the archaeological significance of Begho in the 1970’s undertook eight separate missions to the place under the "West African Trade Project." The missions occurred in 1970, 1971, 1972 (twice), 1975 (twice), 1975 – 76, and 1979 with the technical staff and students of the Department of Archaeology (now Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies). Unlike the previous missions, the 1979 mission was a mixed one and included students and faculty of the University of California, Los Angeles, and students and faculty of the Department of Archaeology, University of Ghana, Legon. The “Project's main goal was to unearth the origins and evolution of long- distance trade between the Middle Niger Bend area in Mali and the forest regions of Ghana from an archaeological and ethno-historical standpoint. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Despite these comprehensive and extensive archaeological investigations by Merrick Posnansky, and later Leonard Brighton Crossland, James Anquandah, and lately Daniel Kumah; significant gaps still exist regarding our understanding of the archaeology of the Nyarko Quarter. This is partly due to the fact that very few of the investigations focused on that quarter of Begho, which incidentally was the first to be settled by the people. Furthermore, the bulk of the faunal and botanical remains of these part research works were cursorily examined and no comprehensive reports were issued. Presently, unlike the other quarters, little is known about the settlers of the Nyarko quarter and the types of resources its inhabitants exploited and subsisted on. The above problem necessitated my investigation of the Nyarko Quarter from an archaeological perspective to shed light on its past. 1.3. Aim of the Research The research focused on identifying and documenting the faunal remains recovered from Begho’s Nyarko Quarter 1.4. Research Objectives. The study had three overarching objectives. These were to: 1. Identify and document the different body parts, animal species and genus that constituted the faunal assemblage recovered at the Nyarko Quarter of Begho 2. Determine the predominant animal species exploited by the native population in the past. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 3. Determine using the Radio-carbon dating method to date the occupation period of the Nyarko Quarter of Begho. 1.5. Research Questions A number of questions guided this research. They included: 1. What animal/faunal species were recovered? 2. What animal species dominated the faunal assemblage? 3. What part of animal remains (i.e., bone, shell, ivory, etc.) was recovered? 4. Did the natives use traps to capture some animals recovered from the excavations at the Nyarko Quarter of Begho in the past? 5. Were all the animals retrieved from the archaeological record exploited for food or were they used for other purposes? 6. Which of the animals discovered in the archaeological record were endemic to the Begho area and which were procured from external origins? 7. Were all parts consumed or were they used for other purposes? 8. If some were procured externally, how were they procured? 1.6. Research Approach and Methodology The study employed multidisciplinary approaches and methods to derive data. These can be categorized broadly into two namely; non-field and field investigations. The former constituted the first phase of the research and involved library and archival investigations. The purpose was University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 to derive as much information about Begho’s great past from historical and archaeological perspectives, and from the earliest to contemporary times. It was also to shed light on Begho’s past geographical condition such as its topography, climate, drainage systems, faunal and floral resources and other environmental conditions which prevailed during the period. This aspect of the study spanned eight weeks and involved several visits to the Libraries of the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies and University of Ghana (Balme). Other libraries visited to derive data were The African Library at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology and the Library of Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway. All of the archival investigations were conducted at the Public Records and Archival Administration (PRAAD), Accra, Ghana. Documents perused comprised both primary and secondary historical sources relating to Begho and its neighbourhoods, as well as early Arabic records and European records. The Arabic authors included Al Bakri, Al Iddris and Tarikh es-Sudan while the European writers include William Bosman, Pieter De Marees, John Barbot and Olfert Dapper among others. The relevance of these records cannot be overemphasized for three reasons. First, the writers provided very excellent depictions of customary and cultural lifeways of the local peoples they encountered. Second, many provided a wealth of information on the botanical and faunal resources of the coastal and hinterland regions of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) and third, they documented important events and occurrences of the period. Despite their relevance, many aspects of their writings were problematic, mainly for the following reasons. First, the writers did not comprehend the local languages of the people they interacted with. They thus, lacked the capacity to fully understand the meanings of some of the things they heard and recorded. Second, several of them depended on local interpreters who themselves did not fully understand European languages. Other documents University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 perused comprised almost all the contemporary historical archaeology reports on Begho. The bulk covered the period from 1970 to 2019 (Posnansky, Crossland, Anquandah and Kumah). The field research constituted the next phase of the study and involved ethnographic investigations at Hani and its environs. Like the non-field research, it covered four weeks of group-focused discussions with the indigenes to derive information. Areas covered during this phase comprised their main subsistence strategies which included farming practices, charcoal production, animal husbandry practices and hunting. The above activities involved the majority of the working adult populace and constituted the mainstays of the local economy. Other less notable subsistence strategies investigated included potting, trapping, basketry and traditional medical practices. Another aspect of the ethnographic research involved direct observation of the indigenes undertaking some of the above practices, and my occasional participation in the activities. The ethnographic study was undertaken to facilitate scientifically interpretation and reconstruction of the archaeological materials recovered. A total of five surface surveys and the opening of three trenches at different locations at the Nyarko Quarter constituted the focus of the archaeological investigations this was the last data acquisition method used, and immediately followed the ethnographic research. It must be emphasized here that though the surface survey covered all six quarters of Begho, the Nyarko Quarter was the principal geographical focus of this aspect of the investigation. The purpose of the surface survey was four-fold: First, it was to delineate/note the borderlines of the six quarters, and by implication, determine their geographical extents. Second was to document the spatial distribution and density of surface artifact scatters at the Nyarko Quarter, and the third involved noting the principal geographical and cultural features unique to the Nyarko Quarter such as the topography, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 vegetation, mounds (probably collapsed houses) and soils to help determine which locations to sink my trenches. The last data derivation method employed involved the collection of varieties of soil samples from the various stratigraphy levels to facilitate flotation analysis in the laboratory. This was purposed to aid recovery of macro\micro-faunal remains whose analysis could illuminate past animal resources which may have been exploited by the people for food and other activities. 1.7. Interpretative Framework Archaeologists use material remains discarded by past societies/cultures to analyze and reconstruct past cultural lifeways of the societies that made and used them. To further understand and facilitate the reconstruction process, archaeologists oftentimes rely on anthropological and paleontological models and theories to achieve this objective (Kankpeyeng, et al 2011: 205). Material Culture Studies was the interpretive framework used for this study. The phrase 'interpretive framework' as used in this work refers to a set of assumptions, concepts, and principles that establish a specific, theoretically informed perspective and a set of relevant practices for the interpretation process, thereby allowing different interpretations to be made of the facts (Moisander and Valtonen, 2006, Patnaik, 1995) All human societies, via their activities leave tangible material traces in the form of artifacts and ecofacts, modified and unmodified, which eventually ends up in the archaeological record. In other words, the presence of man-made objects in the archaeological record provides tangible evidence/proof of the presence of a human intelligence acting at the period of production" which is central to the study of material culture (Prown 1982: 1 - 2). Their recovery by archaeologists, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 sometimes after several millennia, analysis, and interpretations can oftentimes provide insightful glimpses about peculiar events, occurrences, and activities undertaken at those occupation sites. As noted by Leone (1981: 7), material culture studies can also "give knowledge about a component of a culture unknown to the individuals who made and utilized the artifacts." As a result, artifacts provide a way for us to give shape to and comprehend ourselves (Miller 1994: 397). Overall, discarded cultural items provide invaluable information about a society's unconscious characteristics that underpin their use as well as past socio-economic and cultural lifeways of those societies (Patnaik 1995: 59). Material Culture Studies thus, reveal very valuable and fascinating insights about prehistoric and historical societies and communities, as well as how people used to live and think, even though items may have diverse meanings for different individuals (Elmer & Harrison, 2016). Furthermore, the "Object-Centered Approach" and the "Object-Driven Approach" to researching material culture, as advocated by Herman (1992), was applied in the analysis of the retrieved archaeological data. When it comes to researching material culture, the "Object-Centered Approach" focuses on the object itself. This method pays close attention to the object's physical characteristics. As a result, "the capacity to characterize the thing by engaging it with a set of descriptive criteria by replying to a checklist of questions such as how the object was constructed, the media used, its form, size, texture, weight, colour, design/style and/or decoration constitute pertinent questions which can facilitate the reconstruction of the past. What necessitated the manufacture of an artifact and when it happened constitute other relevant questions often asked in material culture studies (Apoh and Gavua, 2010:217). These concerns are at the heart of the "Object-Centered Approach". The "Object-Driven Approach" on the other hand focuses on understanding how items connect to people, cultures and the societies that created and utilized University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 them (Elmer and Harrison, 2016). In other words, the concepts concerning contextualization and function are very important. It is also worth noting that material culture studies as a paradigm for interpretation has flaws. Such limitations can be data misinterpretation or over interpretation. According to Patnaik (1995: 64), this “can be avoided by taking into account the fact that activity areas may occur horizontally or vertically across or over a site. Further, the distinction between the three types of material cultural objects – technomic, socio technique and ideotechnic – along with their stylistic or formal aspect can guard against sweeping generalizations” The Nyarko Quarter at Begho, like other sites which have been previously settled has concrete material evidence in the archaeological record that can enlightened researchers on issues pertaining to trade interactions, space utilization, and identity in the past. Such evidence can aid reconstruction of their past lifeways, chronology, and the nature of cultural affinities that may have existed between the Nyarko Quarter residents and the other quarters. 1.8. Major Limitations of the Study Perhaps, the most outstanding problem encountered during the course of the study was gaining access to the original Arabic documents. Some of these primary records in storage at the national archives of Mali and Niger were unavailable at the time of writing this thesis because they had recently been destroyed by Islamists jihadists. I therefore had to refer to the works of earlier authors who had perused them for information. It was also difficult understanding some of the early Arabic records because I was not fluent in Arabic and so required the services of a translator. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 Another limitation was that the majority of both the Arabic and European records focused almost entirely on trade and Islam which were not the primary focus of this study. The few that described trade relations at the research areas aside their difficult interpretation, were also not exhaustive enough as there was a dearth of information on the faunal and floral resources of the research area. They were thus, only partly valuable as source materials. A third limitation was that there were many time gaps in these records which did not allow for proper correlation and appreciation of the comprehensive history of Begho. For example, there were documented records of events and commercial transactions for particular months followed by gaps in subsequent months for that same year. The long distance of Hani from my resident location at the University of Ghana campus which was over 358 kilometers was yet another debilitating factor. The original budgetary allocation for the study was thus, inconsequential and I had to seek additional funding which raised the cost of the study. Trips to the study area had to be undertaken over three seasons, as and when funds became available. Many of the respondents, clan heads and notable resource persons interviewed during the ethnographic study also did not keep to their time schedules even though this had been communicated and settled with them earlier. This raised cost of the research because I had to continuously follow up, hoping to meet them to enable me derive information. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 Chapter Two Review of Literature on Past Investigations at Begho/Hani 2.0. Introduction Chapter two provides an extensive review of literature of past investigations undertaken in the research area. It examined extant archaeological, historical and ethnographic research conducted at the various quarters of Begho and its environs, including the Nyarko Quarter by some scholars over the last forty years. An integral aspect of the study was that it also outlined and brought to the fore some existing gaps in these investigations. Among the Akan, Begho was called as 'Bew' and 'Nsokↄ' (Konadu, 2010, Posnansky 2015: 95). In early Arabic and Islamic literature, Begho was referred to variously as 'Bicu' or 'Begho,' while on a 1629 Dutch map of the Gold Coast, the name 'Nsokↄ' and 'Insoco' was recorded (Propheet, 1629). In the early Twentieth Century, numerous scholars were clearly undecided as to its true geographical location and this culminated in several of them proffering and pinning different sites, sometimes many kilometers apart from each other. For example, one school of thought asserted that it was near Bondoukou, in Ivory Coast (Anquandah, 1981). Another argued that it was located on the northeast borderline of present-day Namasa settlement (Wilks, 1993). He used historical sources, oral traditions, and cultural anthropological data to assign this area as the site where ancient Begho was located. Prior to the early 1970’s, this controversy persisted until Bravemann and Mathewson (1970) discovered the ancient site of Begho near Hani. They named a 40 - 50 km² region in the Hani- Namasa area 'Bicu,' noting that the oral histories of Hani and Nsawkaw is fairly specific, inputting 'Bicu' or Begho at a site known to the indigenous peoples as Amanfokeseeso. According to Lamptey (2019), the controversy arose mainly because the ancestors of the current settlers of Hani University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 had long since replaced the name Begho with Hani. The modern township of Hani is located about 6 kilometers south of Namasa, and 51 kilometers north of Wenchi. Kwabena Ameyaw (1965) was one of the earliest scholars to have undertaken research on Begho in the 1940s and 1950s. The unique aspect of his research was that he derived much of his data from oral account narratives, not just on Begho but also on other Akan peoples in Ghana. According to these traditions, the Begho peoples were said to have originally come from a sacred hole called Bonkeseso (literally translated means a large hole), near Nsesrekeseso, which is located 4.8 kilometers from the modern town of Hani. Nsesrekeseso according to Hani/Begho and Nsawkaw traditions and legends was situated on a wide grassy plain. The legends further asserted that in its heyday, ancient Begho was the capital of the Old Banda Kingdom and a fierce competitor of Bono-Manso of the Bono Kingdom, especially in the trading of gold and kola nuts. The main limitation of Kwabena Ameyaw’s research was three-fold. First, all the data he derived from his research were based solely on oral traditions. Second, he did not make any concerted effort to identify and establish the various quarters/suburbs of Begho, or establish their geographical parameters, and third, he did not undertake any archaeological investigations (excavations and surface surveys) to facilitate the recovery of cultural materials (notable charcoal) or the use of stratigraphy to generate a chronological sequence for the site. A number of written sources, mainly Arabic and European, make reference to Begho, Bicu, Bighu, or Insoco in several ways. For example, much of what is known about the textile, gold and kola nut trade, and wars fought in the region were sourced from these documents. The Tarikh es-Sudan, a manuscript written in the 1650s by Abderrahman al Sadi of Timbuktu noted that Begho supplied goods to Jenne and made it prosperous. The Tarikh said a pioneer of Islamic learners, Mohammed University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 Saghanughu lived at Begho before assuming the post of First Qadi of Jenne under the 16th century Songhai Emperor, Askia Mohammad (Wilks, 1962). Also, both the manuscript Wusul Bighu and the manuscript Isnad Sudan, an Arabic record written by the Bondonkou's Karamoko Muslims, are based on Begho Khabar, or Oral Traditions. The Isnad and Wusul both discussed how Mande and Dyula immigrants contributed to the growth of the Begho Township and its people, and how, following a civil war, the people of Begho scattered to establish new towns at Bondunku, Kong, Bouna (Ivory Coast), Namasa, Menji, and New Nsoko. According to two other manuscripts based on Gonja oral traditions titled the Kitab Ghunja and Umur Adajdina al Ghunjawiyyin, the Mali Emperor between the years 1550 and 1580, dispatched two Malinke Princes called Naba and Umar to conquer Begho in retaliation for failing to constantly maintain Mali's gold supply. Both manuscripts reported that Shenu Wangara was taken prisoner by the invaders, who also appointed Umar as the new governor of the Dyula settlement in Begho. A vibrant kola trade between Begho and Jenne was also attested to by the notable Arabic physician Said el Gafiki, before his passing in AD 1116 (Adu Boahen, 1977). Kola nuts were initially brought to Hausa land during the 1421–1438 reign of Dauda, King of Kano, according to the Kano Chronicles, from Gonja, which is northeast of Begho. The same chronicle mentions the monarch of Nupe offering Zaria a tribute consisting of 10,000 kola nuts and 40 eunuchs. It appears that kola nuts were traded from the Begho region to the north as early as the 12th century (Kumah, 2021). The main limitation of the Arabic sources are that much of the information documented were not first-hand but derived from second and sometimes, third parties. The writers thus, did not witness many of the incidents they recorded. Many were also untrained in historiography. Their writing University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 thus, were more of myths and legends than true historical events and happenings. These records notwithstanding, have proved very useful because the majority aptly described in a comprehensive manner the people, the commodities traded, their origins, and the nature of the various trade networks that linked ancient Begho to the northern Sahelian empires of Mali and Songhai. The significance of Begho as an important urban center has also been highlighted by European sources. The European sources which included the Dutch Map of the Gold Coast in the 17th and 18th Centuries make reference to Begho as (Insoco) a major gold trade route prior to the 1720s. This trade route connected the Begho region with the gold fields of the Rivers Tano, Ankobra, Ofin, and Pra and their basins, as well as the coastal parts of Assini, Axim, Elmina, and Komenda (Kea, 1982). Tradition has it that "Insoco" or "Nsoko" in the past referred to the Kramo Quarter ((Muslim Quarter) and this name has persisted into contemporary times. The earliest European account (map) of Begho (‘Insoco’) drawn by the Dutch writer Hans Propheet in 1629 is shown below in figure 2.1. Like the Arabic documents, the European writings were recorded by traders and explorers and not trained historians. The bulk of the information they recorded were also derived from native second and third parties, who themselves did not understand the languages of the Europeans with whom they interacted. It is worth noting that no European ever made any trip to the Begho hinterland to describe the things they recorded. Also, the maps (eg. Map 2.1) generated were all not drawn to scale and were guesstimates. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Map 2. 1 Early Dutch map of the Gold Coast showing Begho (indicated as Insoco (1). (Source: Propheet, 1629) Oliver Davies was the first archaeologist to conduct archaeological investigations at Begho. This was in the late 1950’s. His work did not involve any excavations but it focused primarily on reconnaissance surveys. His objective was mainly to discover sites of archaeological significance for future investigations. He however, collected and documented several surface finds mainly University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 potsherds, faunal remains (bones and mollusc shells), iron slag, and metal objects at Begho (Davies 1970). The main limitation of Oliver Davies work was that he did not undertake excavations which would have enabled him recover cultural materials below ground level to facilitate reconstruction of Begho’s great past as well as establish a chronological sequence of the site. He also merely collected finds from the surface which he did not analyze. Merrick Posnansky was the first to uncover the archaeological significance of Begho in 1970. The project titled "The West African Trade Project" Spanned 28 years (1970 – 1998) and involved eight separate missions to Begho. Seven of those missions were by faculty and staff of the University of Ghana’s Department of Archaeology in 1970 (two trips), 1971 (two trips), 1972 (two trips), 1975 (two trips), and 1975–76 (one trip). The eighth mission was a joint one and involved teams from University of California, Los Angeles and University of Ghana’s Department of Archaeology in 1979. The project's broad goal was to look into the origins and evolution of long- distance trade between the Middle Niger bend (Mali) and Ghana from an archaeological and ethno historical standpoints. Unlike Davis, Posnansky employed a multi-disciplinary approach to derive data. For example, aside his archaeological research, his seven missions also involved extensive ethno-archaeological studies and the collection of ethno-historical narratives/oral information from the people of Hani, Nsawkaw, and Debibi (Posnansky 1972, 1976, 2015) and (Anquandah 1975). He also conducted extensive ethnographic studies and perused historical data of Arabic and European origins. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Prior to the archaeological excavations, Posnansky undertook a series of surface surveys and identified between 1,000 and 1,500 low lying mounds within the occupation zone at ancient Begho, and 26 significant iron slag mounds, at about seven kilometers west of Begho. He intimated in his report which followed the surface surveys and excavations that the low lying mounds, the majority of which were L-shaped were collapsed/demolished house structures and middens. The slag mounds which he dated to the 1300’s - 1650’s, indicated the existence of a sizable and specialized iron smelting industry in the past at Begho (Posnansky 1977, 1980). The major cultural materials recovered by Posnansky from his excavations at the six quarters comprised varieties of pottery (bowls and jars), worked and unworked ivory objects, glass beads (only from the Brong Quarter), varieties of metal artifacts (remains of knives, mattocks, cutlasses), clay crucibles, iron slag, fragments of tuyeres, animal and human remains (bones). Other material remains found included profuse quantities of palm kernel nuts, mollusc shells, fragments of daub and spindle whorls. Perhaps, the most notable and eventful result of his work was that he was able to identify, delineate, and name the six major quarters/suburbs of ancient Begho. The suburbs comprised: the Brong Quarter (excavated in 1970, 1972 and 1975), the Kramo Quarter (excavated in 1971 and 1979), the Dwabirim Quarter (excavated in 1972), the Dwimfour (excavated in 1975), the Dapaa Quarter (excavated in 1971 and 1979), and the Nyarko Quarter (excavated in 1971 and 1979). Evidence from his investigations established that Afua Nyarko founded the Nyarko Quarter which was the first suburb at Begho to be occupied. According to Posnansky, the Brong Quarter was the residential quarter for the chief of Begho and also home to the Akan royals, the dominant ethnic group at Begho (Posnansky, 1976). The Kramo Quarter was home to the Moslem Mande, most of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 who were of Mali origin who came to trade at Begho. The Dwabirim Quarter (also called Gyetu Quarter) was the market center where much of the exchange and trade at Begho was conducted. The Dwimfour Quarter was settled by various artisanal groups, and the Dapaa Quarter was the iron smelting factory site of Begho (Posnansky 1972, 1976, 2015; Anquandah 1975). Other notable outcomes of Posnansky’s work was that it marked out the chronological parameters of the ancient Begho, between the 11th and 18th century AD. This was based on a number of radio- carbon dates which he obtained from dating several charcoal samples he recovered from the various suburbs at Begho. They included the following: Nami (Atwetweboↄso iron slag mound) - A.D. 1820 ±75. Nyarko Quarter - A.D. 1045 ± 80 and A.D. 1120 ± 80. Brong Quarter I - A.D. 1450 ± 100 and A.D 1565 ± 100. Brong Quarter II - A.D. 1450 ± 100 and A.D.1550 ± 95. Dwimfour Quarter - III A.D. 1520 ± 75 and A.D. 1595 ± 60 and Dapaa Quarter slag mound I and II - A.D.1400 ± 100, A.D.1480 ± 65 and A.D.1650 ± 95. The status differences of the occupants of the six dominant quarters of Begho was clearly gleaned from the recovered material inventory. The Brong Quarter for example, was occupied by a wealthy elitists’ class, this was evidenced by the recovery from archaeological contexts of side-blown ivory trumpets, several ivory combs and bangles and other worked ivory objects connected to Akan royalty and political power (Posnansky, 1977). It is imperative to note also that relative to the other quarters, the quantum of bones of domesticated animals (notably goats, sheep and cattle) found at University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 the Brong Quarter far exceeded those from the others, and the element were also bigger in size. The Brong quarter was occupied by royalty appears to receive support from Hani oral traditional narratives which intimate that there existed several domestic slaves and a well-functioning clan structure at the Brong Quarter (Posnansky 1980). Map 2. 2 Map showing the six quarters at ancient Begho (Source: Merrick Posnansky 1977, 1980) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 Posnansky (1970, 1972, 1976 and 1979) and Insoll (2003) have noted that the Kramo Quarter was not only inhabited by Muslims but was also under Muslim rule. The archaeological evidence supports this motion that the settlement was occupied by Muslims. For example, two graves found there had the heads of the buried corpses fully extended and directionally oriented towards Mecca as is the Islamic tradition (Posnansky, 1987). In contrast, graves at the Brong and Dwinfour Quarters were bent and oriented inconsistently. The animal bones recovered from the Kramo Quarter significantly varied in terms of species types, from those recovered from the other quarters is yet another archaeological evidence supporting the notion that the quarter was settled by Muslims. Though plentiful as those from the other quarters, there was clear absence of rodents (Order: Rodentia) like Grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus) and Giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus) bones. The assemblage comprised only bones of bovids (Family: Bovidae) like cattle (Bos sp.), sheep and goats. Comparatively, the other quarters had all three bovid types heavily represented (Posnansky 1976). Ethno-historical narratives of the indigenes of Hani posit that the Dwinfour Quarter was settled by craftsmen and artisans. Archaeological evidence in the form of furnace fragments, over 500 copper crucibles and fragments of daub believed to be the structural remains of what appeared to be iron smelting workshops were discovered (Posnansky 1980: 22). According to Anquandah (1981: 134), iron implements like knives, blades, arrowheads and rings may have been manufactured there and exported to neighbouring states. Other cultural materials discovered comprised several spindle whorls, worked ivory objects like combs and remains of a trumpet and some hallowed pits which Posnansky 1987: 10) and Agorsah (1973: 38) have postulated may have been utilized as dye pits University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 to colour cloth. Ethno-archaeological investigations by a team led by Schildkrout (1987: 51) revealed that the spindle whorls from the Dwinfour Quarter had very similar morphological dimensions and shape akin to those from Jenne Jeno. According to Posnansky (1987: 17-18) their abundance at the Dwinfour Quarter strongly suggests that they may have existed vibrant and innovative textile weaving, spinning and dyeing industries there during the period. It is worthy to note that early Dutch documents such as the map by (Propheet,1629) intimated that Begho was an important commercial hub in the interior center noted for its weaving and dying industries. Debibi which is close to Begho is a residential community where men still use looms with wooden frames to weave cloth while women spin cotton. According to Fante legends documented by Anquadah (1981: 140), salt and fish were transported from the shore to the Begho region in exchange for Begho cloth. Begho may also have had a vibrant ivory carving industry evidenced with the recovery of remains of a side-blown trumpet (Posnansky, 1975, 1979a). According to Posnansky (1973), Schildkrout (1987) and York (1973), traditional architecture at Begho probably consisted of flat-roofed buildings, similar to those of the Middle Niger area. This is because several ceramic drain pipes were recovered from archaeological context. These pipes were used to drain rainwater from the flat roofs (Posnansky 1987). The technology may have been disseminated through socio-cultural interactions with peoples of the northern Sudanic Empires and the Begho area. The archaeological excavations by Posnansky revealed several fragments of iron slag of no identifiable size or shape littering the Dapaa Quarter. Occasionally, a few scatter of iron slag mounds extending about a metre above ground surface were also found at the quarter. Other cultural materials discovered there and associated with iron smelting included 31 fragments of tuyeres, a fractured hammer stone with width measuring 15 centimeters and a few remains of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 furnaces measuring averagely about 10 centimeters along their longest axis (Posnansky, 1975: 21- 23). The recovery of small quantities of animal bones identified as belonging to horses, fragments of tobacco pipes, and a metal spurs according to Posnansky (1980) and Stahl (1999) point to interactions with the northern Islamic Sudanic Kingdomsss. According to Posnansky (1980), tobacco was probably available at Begho after the 1590’s Posnansky followed the archaeological research with ethnographic investigations at Hani and Bonakyere. Bonakyere is located approximately 18 kilometers northwest of Hani and the purpose was to identify the major vocations and traditional life-ways of the people of ancient Begho. The study indicated that potting, farming, hunting, gold mining, iron smiting, textile weaving and dyeing constituted the primary subsistence strategies of the people of the two communities. The Nyarko Quarter, located north of the Dwinfuor Quarter was archaeologically investigated by Leonard Crossland in 1975. Like Posnansky, he conducted extensive surface surveys primarily to determine the geographical extent of the site, additional to excavations undertaken to the north and east, along a farm road that runs to the northeast. According to tradition, the village was established by a woman called Afua Nyarko and was an integral part of the ancient Begho settlement. Crossland’s excavations revealed ubiquitous quantities of locally manufactured potsherds (mostly bowls), several unidentified metal objects, and bones belonging to a variety of animal species. A date of 1120 +/- 75 A.D. was acquired from charcoal samples taken from a thick black layer, while another date of 1045 +/- 80 A.D. was obtained from the top of the sterile layer (Crossland, 1975). After exploring the Nyarko Quarter, Crossland followed-up with smaller archaeological exploratory work at the Dwinfour Quarter. The site yielded cultural materials similar to those recovered from the Nyarko Quarter. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 The main advantage of Crossland’s investigations was that through the use of radiocarbon dates he was able to establish that the Nyarko Quarter was the oldest and first to be settled at ancient Begho. By using data from ceramic analysis, he also categorized the occupation period at Begho into two distinct phases/eras. He named these the Nyarko Phase and the Begho Phase. Pottery belonging to the Nyarko Phase on one hand had thick body fabrics measuring approximately 2 – 2.2 centimeters thick, and were largely unburnished. The Begho Phase pottery was found at all the other quarters. It was characterized on the other hand with thin body fabrics which measured approximately 1 – 2 centimeters thick. They also came in a variety of decorative embossments, mostly found below the neck area and extending lower onto the main body of the vessels. According to him, the Nyarko Phase had occurred earlier and was distinct from the other pottery types recovered from the other quarters. Based on the close similarities between pots manufactured at Mo country and those from the Begho Quarter, Crossland postulated that the latter probably procured the bulk of their pottery from the Mo-speaking people of Bondakile, located about 20 kilometers north-west of Begho and who still have a thriving and vibrant local pottery manufacturing industry (Crossland (1975). This assertion has been supported by (Stahl 1994a), (Posnansky 1976, 1978). The main limitation of his work was that he focused primarily on classification and analysis of the pottery. The bulk of the other cultural materials recovered were not analyzed and have remained so to-date. The Begho site lay fallow archaeological for over forty years after Crossland’s investigations until 2016 when Mr. Daniel Kumah, an Assistant Lecturer at the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies initiated archaeological investigations there as part of his Doctoral research which was completed in 2020. His study spanned four seasons and his team included seven persons who University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 had in the early to mid-1970’s worked with Merrick Posnansky and Mr. Leonard Crossland at Begho. For his study, Kumah derived data/information from multiple sources aside the archaeological data which constituted the principal material data used. The other major data sources he perused included primary sources (early Arabic writers), early European sources, geographical information relating to the research area and ethnographic research. He also gathered oral accounts and oral histories from some prominent indigenes and resource persons at Hani and its neighbourhoods. The main objectives of Kumah’s study was three-fold. The first was to establish the geographical parameters of all the six quarters of Begho. The second was to document using a GPS the surface configurations of all notable geographical and archaeological features at the six quarters, and the third was to discover if any existed, new quarters/archaeological sites in the region which Posnansky’s team may have overlooked. The archaeological research involved several comprehensive surface surveys undertaken on foot across all the six suburbs earlier identified by Posnansky. It also included excavations and analysis of over 26,000 finds, of which 20,000 were potsherds. Other finds comprised bones belonging to a variety of animals (mainly mammals), carved ivory objects, mollusc shells, iron slag, furnace remains, tuyeres, bead polishers and crucibles believed to have been used to smelt bronze. Other finds included clay drain pipes, remains of metal objects such as arrow heads, nails, bangles, knives, cutlasses and mattocks, glass beads, spindle whorls, several locally manufactured smoking pipes and ceramic plates believed to have been used to weigh gold dust. At the Nyarko Quarter, Kumah discovered all the Temporary Bench Marks earlier established by Posnansky and Crossland which enabled him to locate where previous excavations had been University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 undertaken. During his surface survey there, he also discovered 3 middens, 24 mounds, and several scatter of locally manufactured pottery at the North West end of Nyarko Quarter which the two earlier investigators missed. Aside discovering the above, he documented their GPS coordinates in his field notebook Kumah confirmed from his investigations that the Dwinfour Quarter which Posnansky had earlier asserted in his reports was an artisan quarter was indeed so. He supported his assertion with veritable recoveries of iron objects like arrowheads, knives, iron slag, furnace and tuyere remains among others which was unprecedented and non-existent at the other quarters (Kumah 2022). Using a GPS, he also discovered and documented 18 new mounds, three iron-smelting sites, and a midden. At The Brong and Kramo Quarters which were believed to have been settled by Akan royals and Muslims respectively (Posnansky 1973, 1975 and 1989), hundreds of acres of land and their overlying vegetation had been cleared and cultivated with cashew which had destroyed the archaeological significance of the sites. Kumah discovered and documented the GPS locations of several artifacts including imported and locally made ceramics, locally manufactured smoking pipes and clay pedestals believed to have been used to vertically support illuminants and other lighting systems during the surface survey. He also discovered features such as large compound house mounds. At the Brong Quarter, he opened a large Trench measuring 10 x 2 metres which yielded copious quantities of artifacts of which pottery constituted over 80% of the total. Other notable finds from the Brong Quarter comprised several tubular whitish drawn glass beads, a ceramic gold weight, bead polisher and drain pipes (Kumah 2022). Kumah’s study chalked several achievements. Some of the main ones include the following: he confirmed earlier oral traditional accounts gathered by Posnansky that the Nyarko Quarter was University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 created/first settled by a woman called Afua Nyarko, hence the name Nyarko. Interestingly, this assertion that it is the earliest quarter to have been settled is supported archaeologically because the dates generated from charcoal samples retrieved from that quarter are the oldest, namely 855+/- 80 B.P., 830+/- 75 B.P., and 905+/- 8- B.P (Kumah, 2022). Another notable achievement was that he discovered two new quarters which he named Donkotire and Nkokramu Quarters. In the Twi language, Donkotire literally means “slaves assembling point” while the latter literally translates “the place of the elderly.” The former site was believed to have served as a slave market center. The main shortcoming of Kumah’s research was that he did not undertake any mineralogical analysis of the pottery he recovered. This would have enabled him identify the mineral constituents of the clays used to make them, which in turn would have establish their source areas, and possibly reconstruct/establish Begho’s past trade links with the neighbouring communities. Additionally, even though he recovered over 4,532 faunal remains, he failed to comprehensively analyze them to establish their genus, species types, the purposes for which they were caught, and how they were caught. Similarly, the lack of chemical analysis of the iron slag was a setback. This would have enabled him establish trace elements in them which can shed light on past iron smelting processes of the people. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 Chapter Three A Brief Historical Background of the People and Geographical Setting of the Study Area 3.0 Introduction This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part discussed the historical background of Begho and its environs. Early trade and exchanges, early relations with neighbouring polities and some conflicts that occurred between the indigenes and neighbouring states are some sub topics discussed. Data for this aspect of the study was derived from written sources documented by early European traders/explorers on the Gold Coast and Arabic scholars/traders. Some of the former writers visited ancient Begho and interacted with the indigenous population there. The second outlined the geographical setting of the study area. The climate, vegetation, relief and drainage and geology, demographic structure and population, linguistics of ancient Begho are some topics comprehensively discussed under this section. Begho in ancient times was referred to in Islamic literature and by Arabic scholars and traders as ‘Bicu’ and ‘Begho’ (Tarikh es-Sudan 1650, Abderrahman al Sadi 1720, Naba and Omar 1580). The Akans however referred to Begho as 'Bew' and 'Nsokↄ' (Konadu, 2010). A 1629 Dutch map of the Gold Coast also referred to Begho variously as ‘Nsokↄ' and 'Insoco' (Propheet, 1629). All of the above-named writers intimated that Begho was an ancient trading town located south of the Black Volta River, along the transitional zone between the forest and savanna of the north-western part of the Bono Region. Merrick Posnansky (2005) noted that it was probably the largest town and market center in the interior of present-day Ghana around the time of the Portuguese arrival on the Gold Coast in 1471. It lay along a major trade route running from the middle Niger River bend to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Akan-land (Posnansky 2005). The main trade routes in the region with connections to Begho were the north-south Djene – Bolo – Doulasso – Kong route, and the east-west Bondoku - Begho route. According to Anquandah (1995), Begho may have existed between the 11th and 15th centuries A.D. Map 3. 1 Map showing trade links between Begho and Djenne during the era of the Trans Saharan Trade (Source: McIntosh 1976) Ethno-historical narratives gathered from some indigenous resource persons and clan heads at Hani, the current decendants of the people of Begho assert that sometime in the early sixteenth century, a civil war broke out between residents of the Brong and Kramo Quarters, and that this University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 led to the weakening and final collapse of Begho. According to these narratives, several homes located within the two quarters were raided, burnt and destroyed by the protagonists, leaving both settlements in ruins (Kumah, 2021). Consequently, members of the two communities fled to the surrounding towns and villages. For example, many of the Muslim residents of the Kramo Quarter fled and resettled at Bonduku and Kong, located in Ivory Coast, while the local Brong refugees dispersed to notable nearby Akan settlements like Nsawkaw and Debibi (Anquandah, 1981). There are currently two schools of thought regarding the cause of the civil war. The first reason was that a royal from the ruling Brong Quarter whose name and rank was not divulged to me was reported to have gone to the Begho market to purchase salt. Other narratives posit that it was a piece of cloth. The trader selling the commodity, a Muslim from the Kramo Quarter however, refused to sell the product to him. Infuriated and feeling belittled by the attitude of the trader, the angry royal assisted by other royals and the Akan people from the Brong Quarter attacked the trader and destroyed his salt/cloth. News of the occurrence reached other Muslim residents at the Kramo Quarter who are reported to have rallied and came to the aid of the trader. The subsequent infraction led to a conflagration and civil war. The second account intimates that the Brong rulers of Begho were politically autocratic and tyrannical in their dealings with residents of the other quarters. They are reported to have been generally unresponsive, especially to complaints from residents of the Kramo Quarter, a situation which strained relations between the two groups. The general discontent is reported to have been the underlying factor which started the civil war and the subsequent destruction of Begho. According to these narratives, trading activities later resumed at Begho a few years after the civil war. Its strategic geographical location; nearness to agricultural and mineral resources from the forested south, such as kola nuts and gold, according to Anquandah (1981), was primarily University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 responsible for this development. Kumah, (2021) has also postulated that their desire to return to their ancestral home could have been another contributing factor. Prior to commencement of the first archaeological investigations at Begho in the 1970’s, scholars were undecided as to its real geographical location. Various sites were initially proffered by researchers and this was primarily because the town’s name had changed from Begho to Hani (Lamptey, 2019). Until its discovery by Posnansky within the modern township of Hani, it was the view of some scholars at that time that Begho was situated at Bondoukou in Ivory Coast (Bravemann and Mathewson 1970). Yet others like Wilks (1993) and Anquandah (1981) using historical sources, oral traditions, and cultural anthropological data held that it was located northeast of the present- day Namasa settlement. Hani lies approximately 6 kilometers south of Namasa, and 51 kilometers north of Wenchi. The current settlers posit in their oral traditions that they migrated from a large hole called Bonkeseso (literally meaning a large hole) at Amanfokeseeso which is located 4.8 kilometers from Hani (Ameyaw, 1965) and (Posnansky, 1970). During its heyday, ancient Begho was the capital of the Old Banda Kingdom and was a fierce competitor in the gold and kola nut trade with Bono-Manso, the Capital of the Bono Kingdom (Stahl 2016: 51). At its zenith, Begho and its neighborhoods experienced an economic boom, primarily because of its vibrant commercial relations with the northern Sudanic Empires of Mali and Songhai, and the heavily forested Akan polities lying south of it. The main commodities produced and traded by the people of Begho during the period comprised gold, ivory, slaves, pottery and kola nuts which were all sourced from the south. The above-named commodities were exchanged for finished metal products, Islamic books, brassware, blankets, glass beads, horses, textiles, cattle, and leather products from the north (Anquandah 1982, 1995, Posnansky 2005, 2015, Kumah 2021). Stahl (2016) noted that this all important exchange network did not only facilitate and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 establish Begho as one of the most important metropolitan trading/market center in Sahel/savanna region but also facilitated and propelled the economic growth and development of nearby polities like Old Banda, Ahwene Koko and Techiman. She intimated that these towns flourished to also become important but ancillary trading centers primarily because they lay along the north-south trade route. Camels and donkeys were the main beasts of burdens used to transport commodities along the trade routes. The traders mostly travelled in caravans, purposely for security reasons while exchange was undertaken using cowries which served as the main medium of exchanging. Occasionally however, goods were bartered (Stahl 2016). According to Posnansky (2015: 98), ancient Begho was also central in facilitating the development of trade relations/networks with various Mo settlements such as Bondakyire, Brawhani, and Debibi which were located west of it. Pottery, finished iron products, and hand-crafted narrow-stripped indigo-coloured fabrics from the Mo villages were among the notable commodities derived via exchange with the neighbouring Mo states. Numerous spindle whorls, many of which were painted, and which closely resemble spindle whorls from the significant trade town of Jenne Jeno located along the Niger River attests to textile manufacture in ancient times (Posnansky, 1987:17- 18). Posnansky using archaeological, ethno-historical and historical data identified the five major quarters that constituted Begho. They comprised the Nyarko Quarter, founded by Afua Nyarko which was the earliest to be settled in ancient Begho. The others were the Kramo, Brong, Dwinfuor, Dwabrim and Dapaa Quarters. Using the above-named data sources, he was also able to pin-point the integrating roles the various quarters played in the development and growth of ancient Begho. The ruling Akan class for example, occupied the Brong Quarter and the Kramo Quarter was settled primarily by Mande Moslem traders, mostly of Mali origin. The Dwabirim University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 Quarter (also called Gyetu) was the market center where much of the business undertaken at Begho was conducted while the Dwimfour Quarter was settled by artisans. The Dapaa Quarter was the iron smelting factory site of Begho and is presently littered with vast heaps of slag, some extending beyond three metres in height. Ethnographic investigations by Posnansky at Hani and Bonakyere, located approximately 18 kilometers northwest of Hani, specifically to identify some major traditional life-ways of the people of ancient Begho, established that potting was a notable commercial enterprise of the past settlers. The industry is still vibrant at the present-day community where the skills associated with the industry have passed down from mother to daughter over several generations. It is noteworthy that their pottery have been recovered from archaeological contexts at distant sites like Bondoukou (Anquandah 1981). Other notable past subsistence strategies of the people of Begho were farming, hunting, blacksmithing, gold mining, iron working and smiting, textile weaving, and dyeing (Kumah 2021). 3.1 Occupation of the people of Hani The current population of Hani are principally farmers. Crops such as yam (Dioscorea alata), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), millet (Pennisetum glaucum), dry rice (Oryza glabberima), and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) are the main crops cultivated. A significant number are also into commercial cashew (Anacardium occidentale) production and animal husbandry, purposely to supplement their incomes. Sheep (Ovis aries) and chickens (Gallus gallus) are reared on the sidelines by most families at Hani, primarily for food. During hard times however, some of these animals are exchanged for money and for ritual/sacrificial purposes. It is a taboo to rear goats in the community because the town’s deity forbids it. Goats brought in by residents die mysteriously and residents who flout this law are required to make sacrificial offerings to appease the deity. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 Other less notable vocations undertaken by the current population of Hani are hunting using metal entrapments, mat weaving/basketry using the bark of the kyenkyen tree (Antiaris toxicaria), the collection/gathering of wild herbs and roots for food/medicinal purposes, and petty trading constitute other vocations of the people. Grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus), Hares (Lepus), and Giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus) are among the commonest animals hunted by the people (Posnansky, 1984b, 2004: .38 - 40). The leaves of the Acheampong plant (Chromolaena odorata) is the most important herb in the research area. A mixture of its freshly grounded leaves for example, is applied to fresh wounds to stop bleeding. According to some notable resource persons in the community (pers. comm. Darko Anderson, Victor Gyamfi, Boamah Koomson, June 2022), prior to the introduction of modern mortuaries, the leaves of the Acheampong plant were also used for preservation of human corpses. Families who did not have the financial means to pay for a spot at a morgue for their departed ones continue to use it in the community (Lamptey, 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 Figure 3. 1“Acheampong” (Chromolaena odorata) leaves. (Picture source: Google) 3.2. Language The people of the research area speak the Bono language. Their forebears at Begho existed at the frontier of many linguistic groups, including the Akan Brong, the Voltaic peoples to the north, Hausa-land to the north-east, and the Mande-speaking peoples to the west (Posnansky 2015). The letter ‘b' or the phrase 'bԑ’' appears at the beginning of most words in this language. This diversity of languages reflects the area's historical importance as a meeting site for many people. The majority of the people in the community can read and write both the Bono dialect, and English. Studies undertaken in the 1970s by the linguist Mary Kropp Dakabu, revealed that Old Begho was a cosmopolitan commercial entrepot that attracted individuals of many languages, faiths, cultures, and economic practices. Kumah (2021: 23) who recently conducted archaeological investigations at Hani confirmed this assertion when he stated that “the economic attractiveness of trading goods like gold, ivory, and kola nuts boosted commercial activity in the Begho region. According to Stahl University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 (2016), this exchange not only aided in the establishment of Begho as a major commercial center, but also aided in the establishment of other trade towns in Ghana's Brong Region, such as Old Banda and Ahwene Koko, Techiman, and Bono-Manso all of which are located in the Bono-East Region. 3.3 Religion and Festivals There are three main religious groupings at Hani. They are Christianity which is the predominant sect, followed by Islam and Traditional African religion. The Catholics, Presbyterians, and Methodists constitute the main Christian denominations there. The people of the research area celebrate the Apoo and Kwafie festivals. The two festivals are generally purposed to honour their ancestors and to seek spiritual purification and blessings from them. The cycle of the two festivals are linked to their history and structure of the society and each clan at Hani have specific roles and function to play. The Apoo festival is an annual festival of the Bono People. The word 'apoo' is derived from the Bono word 'po,' which means “to reject”. It lasts a week and begins in March or April every year. Several rituals and cleansing rites, all undertaken in secret by the elders are practiced during the first two or three days of the festival to primarily ward off evil, and ritually cleanse and protect the people. The festival also serves as a uniting “force” as it brings indigenes from all walks of life and vocations together during the celebrations. Prior to the start of the “Apoo” festival of the people of Hani, the entire populace, especially the women clean their house surroundings, utensils, and link roads in preparation for the festival. The belief is that it prevents/dissipates evil from coming to their homes and the town. Another important preliminary tradition observed during the initial phase of the festival is 'Hyereko' which University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 literally means 'the collection of white clay”. White clay is collected by women from the nearby Aponkosu River and is used to decorate the local shrines before the festival begins. The various priests and priestesses also use some of the clay to decorate their bodies The Apoo festival starts with a procession led by the Paramount Chief of Hani, the town’s elders, secondary chiefs, and palace/court officials. All priests in the town also participate in this procession march through all the principal streets in the town to spiritually eliminate malevolent spirit beings and spells advanced by demonic spirits on the people. The procession team then converge at the grave of the last Bonohene (traditional leader of the Bono people). The priests sacrifice a sheep and pour libation while the rest of the procession team stay a distance away and wait. Traditionally, the ordinary town-folks are not allowed or made privy to the rites performed. Thereafter, the 'Banmuhene', custodian of the Royal Graveyard, prepares a dish of oiled, mashed yam, called 'eto'; which is then offered to the ancestral spirits. Thereafter, the secondary chiefs also pour libations on the Black Stool and place “eto”on the grave while the Banmuhene asks the ancestral spirits for prosperity and peace. The Kwafie festival is also celebrated annually to commemorate the introduction of fire to the area by their ancestors. The festival spans three days and is generally observed in November, December or January, after consultations between the traditional priests and the principal deities of the area. The celebration begins with a torchlight parade in the evening, beginning from the chief’s palace to particular homes where the town’s sacred stools are kept. After prayer offerings and the pouring of libations to the ancestors, the procession returns to the palace. The next morning, the indigenous town folks assemble at the chief’s palace to deposit firewood which they had collected the day before. The chief assisted by the town’s elders/family heads presides over the meeting and the highest-ranking official among them selects three logs out of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 lot to light a fire which is central to the commencement of the rituals associated with the festival. After the rituals, the fire is used to prepare the ritual meal which was not divulged to me. An even bigger procession follows later in the day and it involves the carrying of the ancestral stools to a nearby river for ritual cleaning. The stool cleansing also involves the observation of several other secret religious rituals which were also not divulged to me because I am not an indigene of the area. The celebration ends on the third day with displays of exuberant dancing, singing and feasting around the environs of the palace grounds. During the period of the festival, each clan at Hani have specific roles and function to play which are linked to their history and structure of the society. 3.4 The Geographical Setting of the Research Area 3.4.1 Climate The average annual temperature of the research area is 26.5 ºC. The average maximum is 32.9 °C and the minimum is 23.2 °C. The warmest months are February through to April. The seasonality of the rainfall in the area is a limiting factor for agriculture. There are two primary seasons in the district: the wet (rainy) season, and the dry season. The former lasts from mid-April to late October, with a brief respite in August. The average annual rainfall is between 1,140 and 1,270 millimeters annually (Ghana Statistical Service 2012), and spans four months every year in the research area. 3.4.2 Vegetation Two primary vegetation zones can be found in the Bono Region. These are the moist Semi- Deciduous Forests and the Guinea Savannah woodlands (Dickson & Benneh, 1970). These vegetation zones are home to major tree species such as Odum (Milicia excelsa), Sapele University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 (Entandrophragma cylindricum), Wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon) and Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni). The Guinea Savannah and the Semi-deciduous Forest vegetation zones are ideal for cultivation of crops and animal husbandry. Cash crops such as cashew, maize, cassava, plantain, cocoyam, tomatoes, and a variety of other crops are also cultivated annually. Several trees that survive annual bush burning are commonly found there, and are interspersed with continuous grass covers of varying heights, some of which grow to heights of three metres in moist places. Human actions in the form of controlled brush fires, deliberately set annually, have undoubtedly and directly impacted on the natural vegetative cover of the research area which have also been extensively farmed over the last century. Controlled burning decreases the possibility of uncontrolled brush fires, makes hunting easier, and encourages the growth of new savanna grasses, which is advantageous to grazing wildlife. 3.4.3 Relief and Drainage This terrain in the study area is relatively flat and generally below 152 metres above sea level. A few hills, with modest slopes of less than 1% inclination, and composed of high resistance metamorphosed greenstone from the upper Birrimian Rock Series can be found there. The hill rise to a little over 140 metres above sea level (Ghana Statistical Service 2010). There are two major rivers that flow through the research area. They are the Nimpene and Masa Musu Rivers. They are joined by several small streams, especially in the wet season and are utilized for both domestic and irrigation purposes throughout the year. The indigenes of the area also exploit its aquatic resources, primarily mudfish (Clarias anguillaris), tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and a variety of crustaceans can also be found in them. During the wet season, the two rivers overflow their banks but reduce significantly in volume during the dry season. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 3.4.4. Geology Geologically, the research area is underlain with the Birimian Rock Series of West Africa which is known to hold abundant mineral resources, the most notable being gold. Another commercially viable resource in the area is iron (Kesse, 1985). This important geological zone in the Bono Region runs in a north-south direction and directly influences the three major economic activities undertaken in the region which are agriculture, gold mining and potting. The forest and savannah ochrosols are composed principally of quartzite, granite, and gneiss. These soils have a reddish- brown colour because of the many coarse particles and ironstone concretions they contain. The most significant soils in Ghana, from an agricultural standpoint, are ochrosols because they are less leached, better drained, productive, and have excellent drainage qualities (Salifu and Meyer, 1998: 92). 3.4.5. Demographic Structure/Population of Hani Determining the current population of a community like Hani/Begho can be challenging and deceptive at times since there was often little distinction between houses/rooms/spaces intended for sleeping and those used for cooking (Lamptey, 2019). Oftentimes, the indigenes build on top of collapsed houses and utilize the old bases as foundations for the new houses. Rectangular buildings made with sun-dried mud bricks, plastered with mortar and roofed with aluminum roofing sheets define the Hani town today. Despite the fact that the town's layout has altered significantly over time, there has also been a remarkable amount of consistency. For example, soils utilized for house construction are still taken from dug-out pits which are often located very close to the house. After the soil has been puddled and used for the walls, the pits are used as garbage dumps. The new mud walls are constructed using whatever is on the ground, including broken ceramic and wood fragments as well as daub University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 remnants of old walls of collapsed houses. The structure housing the kitchen walls are made with palm frond