INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT N SOURCES ON THE GROWTH, LEAF YIELD 
AND QUALITY OF MULBERRY (Morus alba) 
 
 
 
BY 
AMPPIAH ARNOLD SYLVESTER 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN 
PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF 
MPHIL CROP SCIENCE (AGRONOMY) DEGREE 
 
 
CROP SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
LEGON 
 
JUNE 2013. 
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DECLARATION 
1 hereby declare that, except for references to other researchers work which have been 
duly cited, this work is the result of my own original research and that this Thesis has 
neither in whole nor in parts been presented for any degree elsewhere.  
 
 
……………………………………… 
AMPPIAH ARNOLD SYLVESTER 
(STUDENT) 
 
DATE ……………………………… 
 
…………………………………. 
PROF. JOHN OFOSU-ANIM 
(SUPERVISOR) 
 
  
DATE …………………….…… 
 
…………………………………….. 
PROF. DANIEL OBENG-OFORI 
(CO-SUPERVISOR) 
 
 
DATE…………………………….. 
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ABSTRACT 
The influence of inorganic N sources on growth, leaf yield and quality of mulberry 
(Morus alba) was studied under field conditions before (Experiment 1) and after 
(experiment 2) pruning. The treatments consisted of three mulberry varieties (Kanva-2, 
S-36 and Mysore local) and three N sources (urea, Sulphate of Ammonia and NPK) and a 
control. The experimental design used was a split plot design. Varieties formed the main 
plot and N sources the sub-plot factors. The N sources had significant influence on 
growth, leaf yield and quality of mulberry. Plant height, number of leaves per plant, 
number of branches, leaf yield (leaf fresh weight) and leaf quality (moisture and crude 
protein) were significantly increased by SoA in experiment 1. However, NPK 
significantly increased plant height, number of leaves per plant, stem diameter, leaf yield 
(leaf fresh weight) and leaf quality (leaf moisture, leaf crude protein, mineral content and 
leaf N) after pruning (experiment 2). Among the varieties, S-36 was superior with regards 
to leaf protein and leaf moisture in both experiments. Mysore local on the other hand was 
superior in terms of leaf mineral content and protein. The status of sericulture was 
determined by conducting a survey using questionnaire and group discussions. It was 
revealed that 5.9% of sericulture farmers had no formal education. Brong-Ahafo Region 
had the highest (88.2%) number of sericulture farmers. The low patronage and low 
cocoon production was due to lack of market, price discrimination, lack of market and 
lack of knowledge on the existence of cocoon market outside Ghana.          
 
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DEDICATION 
I dedicate this work to God Almighty and my Dad, Mr. Amppiah Michael Edmund. 
 
 
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
I thank God Almighty for his grace and guidance throughout this study. I express my 
profound gratitude to Office of Research, Innovation and Development (ORID), 
University of Ghana for funding this study. I am also grateful to my supervisors Prof. 
John Ofosu-Anim and Prof. Daniel Obeng-Ofori for their suggestions and various 
contributions. I am grateful to Mr. Paul K. Ntaanu, Nana Kwadwo Gyau Kyeremeh, Mr. 
Owusu Kwarteng and all sericulture groups for their immense contributions and support 
during the survey. My appreciation also goes to the staff of the silk factory for their 
contributions. I sincerely appreciate the heads and the technical staffs of Ecological 
Laboratory, Soil Science Department, University of Ghana Farm, Legon and Crop 
Science Department, University of Ghana for space, laboratory analyses and support. I 
am grateful to all who helped in many ways to make this work a success. 
Glory to God Almighty. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
TITLE          PAGE 
DECLARATION i 
ABSTRACT ii 
DEDICATION iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS v 
LIST OF TABLES ix 
LIST OF FIGURES xi 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii 
 
CHAPTER ONE 1 
1.0 Introduction 1 
1.1 Problem statement 4 
1.2 Objectives of the Study 5 
 
CHAPTER TWO 6 
LITERATURE REVIEW 6 
2.0 The sericulture industry 6 
2.1 Importance of sericulture 6 
2.2 Global silk production 8 
2.2.1 Global Imports and Exports of Silk and Silk Products 9 
2.3 Raw Silk Cocoon Production in Ghana 11 
2.4 Description of mulberry plant 13 
2.4.1 Description of some Mulberry Varieties 14 
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2.4.2 Economic importance of mulberry 15 
2.5 Cultivation of mulberry 16 
Planting materials and planting 16 
Pests and diseases 17 
Harvesting and postharvest handling 20 
2.6 Influence of inorganic nitrogen on plant growth, leaf yield and leaf quality 21 
2.7 Influence of inorganic nitrogen on growth and leaf yield of mulberry 22 
2.7.1 Influence of inorganic nitrogen on leaf quality of mulberry 26 
 
CHAPTER THREE 28 
MATERIALS AND METHODS 28 
3.1 The Survey 28 
3.2 Field Experiments 31 
3.2.1Experiment 1: Influence of nitrogen on the growth and leaf quality of three 
mulberry varieties 32 
3.3 Soil Sampling and Analysis 32 
3.3.1 Soil pH 33 
3.3.2 Determination of soil total nitrogen 33 
3.3.4 Soil Phosphorus (P) 34 
3.4 Determination of Exchangeable Bases in Soil 34 
3.4.1 Soil available Potassium (K) 35 
3.4.2 Soil available Calcium (Ca) 35 
3.4.3 Soil available Magnesium (Mg) 35 
3.4.4 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) 36 
3.4.5 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 37 
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3.5 Soil Physical Properties 37 
3.5.1 Particle size analysis 37 
3.5.2 Experimental materials 38 
3.5.3 Experimental treatments and field layout 39 
3.6 Cultivation Practices 40 
3.6.1 Fertilizer application 40 
3.7 Data Collection 40 
3.7.1 Dry matter yield 41 
3.8 Experiment 2: Regeneration of Mulberry Plants 42 
3.9 Plant Analysis 42 
3.9.1 Moisture content (%) 43 
3.9.2 Digestion of plant sample 43 
3.9.3 Total Nitrogen 43 
3.9.4 Plant total Phosphorus (P) 44 
3.9.5 Plant Potassium (K) 44 
3.9.6 Calcium and Magnesium 44 
3.9.7 Leaf crude protein 45 
3.10 Statistical Analysis 45 
 
CHAPTER FOUR 46 
RESULTS 46 
4.0 Status of Sericulture in Ghana 46 
4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Sericulture Farmers 46 
4.2 Production and Marketing of Mulberry Grown in Ghana 49 
4.3 Rearing of Silkworm egg in Ghana 51 
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4.4 Sericulture Training Programmes 52 
4.5 Sources of Finance and Profitability of Mulberry 52 
4.6 Field Experiment 1: 53 
4.6.1 Soil physical and chemical properties 53 
4.6.2 Leaf quality parameters 69 
 
CHAPTER FIVE 92 
DISCUSSION 92 
5.0 The Status of Sericulture in Ghana 92 
5.1 Demographic Characteristics of Sericulture Farmers 92 
5.2 Influence of Inorganic N on Growth Parameters of Mulberry Varieties 93 
5.3 Leaf Yield of Mulberry 94 
5.4 Leaf Quality of Mulberry 94 
 
CHAPTER SIX 96 
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 96 
6.0 Conclusion 96 
6.1 Recommendations 96 
REFERENCES 98 
APPENDICES 112 
 
 
 
 
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LIST OF TABLES 
Table 2.1: World Mulberry Raw silk production 8 
Table 2.2: Imports and exports of raw silk and by-products of silk globally 10 
Table 2. 3: Annual Cocoon Production of Ghana 12 
Table 3. 1: Mean monthly temperature (0C), rainfall (mm) and relative humidity (%) 32 
Table 4. 1: Age of respondents 46 
Table 4. 2: Land distribution in the Regions 48 
Table 4.3: Varieties of mulberry grown in Ghana 49 
Table 4. 4: Profitability of Sericulture 53 
Table 4. 5: Soil Physical and chemical properties 53 
Table 4. 6: Influence of inorganic N on number of branches per plant at 21 WAP 1 62 
Table 4. 7: Influence of inorganic N on leaf fresh weight at 21 WAP 1 63 
Table 4. 8: Influence of inorganic nitrogen and mulberry variety on mulberry leaf dry 
weight (g/plant) 64 
 
Table 4. 9: Nitrogen influence on fresh leaf yield (kg/ha) of mulberry 65 
Table 4.10: Influence of N sources on leaf dry yield (kg/ha) of mulberry 65 
Table 4. 11: Influence of inorganic N on stem fresh weight of mulberry 66 
Table 4. 12: Influence of N sources on stem dry weight (g) of mulberry 67 
Table 4.13: Influence of inorganic N sources on total shoot yield at 21 WAP 1 67 
Table 4.14: Influence of N sources on stem fresh yield (kg/ha) of mulberry varieties 68 
Table 4. 15: Influence of N sources on stem dry yield (kg/ha) of mulberry 69 
Table 4. 16: Influence of N source and Variety on fresh leaf moisture (%) 69 
Table 4. 17: Leaf Crude protein (%) of fresh leaf 70 
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Table 4. 18: Influence of inorganic N on leaf mineral (%) composition 71 
Table 4. 19: Influence of N sources on N uptake into leaf 71 
Table 4. 20: Leaf fresh weight (g) 80 
Table 4. 21: Leaf dry weight (g) 81 
Table 4. 22: Influence of N sources on fresh leaf yield (kg/ha) 82 
Table 4. 23: Effect of N sources on leaf dry yield of mulberry 83 
Table 4. 24: Influence of inorganic N on stem fresh weight (g) at 8 weeks after pruning 84 
Table 4. 25: Influence of inorganic N on stem dry weight 85 
Table 4. 26: Influence of N sources on stem fresh yield (kg/ha) at 8 weeks after pruning86 
Table 4. 27: Influence of N sources on stem dry yield of mulberry varieties (kg/ha) at 8 
weeks after pruning 87 
 
Table 4. 28: Influence of N sources on total shoot yield (kg/ha) after pruning 88 
Table 4. 29: Influence of N sources on leaf moisture of mulberry varieties 89 
Table 4. 30: Influence of N on leaf protein content (%) 89 
Table 4. 31: Influence of inorganic N sources on mineral composition of mulberry leaf 90 
Table 4. 32: Influence of N sources on leaf N after pruning 91 
 
 
 
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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 3. 1: A Map of Ghana Showing Districts and Communities in which Sericulture is 
practiced in Ghana 30 
 
Figure 4.1: Level of Education of Respondents 47 
Figure 4.2: Household Size of Respondents 47 
Figure 4.3: Total land area cultivated to mulberry and other crops in Ghana 48 
Figure 4.4: Reasons why farmers grow particular mulberry varieties 50 
Figure 4. 5: Challenges in marketing of Cocoons 50 
Figure 4. 6: Sources of Silkworm egg supply to Ghana 51 
Figure 4. 7: Reasons for rearing Bivoltine Silkworm race 52 
Figure 4. 8a: Influence of Urea on plant height (cm) 54 
Figure 4. 8b: Influence of SoA on plant height (cm) 55 
Figure 4.8c: Influence of NPK on plant height (cm) 55 
Figure 4.8d: The height of control plants (cm) 56 
Figure 4.9 a: Influence of Urea on number of leaves (cm) 57 
Figure 4.9 b: Influence of SoA on number of leaves 57 
Figure 4.9 c: Influence of NPK on number of leaves 58 
Figure 4.9 d: Number of leaves per plant in the control 58 
 
Figure 4.10 a: Influence of Urea on stem diameter 59 
Figure 4.10 b: Influence of SoA on stem diameter 60 
Figure 4.10 c: Influence of NPK on stem diameter 60 
Figure 4.10 d: Stem diameter of control mulberry plants 61 
Figure 4.11: Influence of inorganic N on number of sprouts per plant after pruning       72  
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Figure 4.12 a: Influence of Urea on plant height after pruning 73 
Figure 4.12 b: Influence of SoA on plant height after pruning 73 
Figure 4.12 c: Influence of NPK on plant height after pruning 74 
Figure 4.12 d: Height of control plants after pruning 74 
Figure 4.13 a: Influence of Urea on number of leaves per plant after pruning 75 
Figure 4.13 b: Influence of SoA on number of leaves per plant after pruning 76 
Figure 4.13 c:Influence of NPK on number of leaves per plant in experiment 2 76 
Figure 4.13 d: Number of leaves per plant in the control  77 
Figure 4.14 a: Influence of Urea on stem diameter after pruning 78 
Figure 4.14 b: Influence of SoA on stem diameter after pruning 78 
Figure 4.14 c: Influence of NPK on stem diameter after pruning 79 
Figure 4.14 d: Control on stem diameter after pruning 79 
 
 
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 
B/A  Brong- Ahafo Region 
CSIR  Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research 
E/R  Eastern Region 
J H S  Junior High School 
M local  Mysore local 
N  Nitrogen 
N sources  Nitrogen sources 
N/R  Northern Region 
S H S/S S S  Senior High School/Senior Secondary School 
SoA  Sulphate of Ammonia 
SPDA  Sericulture Promotion and Development Association 
W AP 2  Weeks after pruning 
WAP 1  Weeks after planting 
 
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CHAPTER ONE 
1.0 Introduction 
Mulberry is a perennial woody plant which belongs to the family Moraceae and Genus 
Morus. The mulberry (Morus sp.) has about 100 known varieties and of these varieties 
only 10% are widely cultivated including Morus alba (Rajan et al. 2000). The mulberry 
tree is known as food for silkworm as well as an economic tree (Kasiviswanathan et al, 
1988; Jayeola and Adeduntan, 2002). It is a hard crop that can be grown in uplands and 
non-irrigated areas as a rain fed crop. Depending on cultivation conditions, the tree can 
be grown as a bush, shrub or a tree (Rangaswami et al, 1976).  
Mulberry is economically productive under rainfed conditions and is cultivated mainly 
for the sericulture industry, as the leaves are the only food of the silkworm, Bombyx mori 
(Rangaswami et al, 1976). It is estimated that 1tonne of mulberry leaves will produce 
approximately 25-30kg cocoons when fed to silkworms (Rangaswami et al, 1976).One 
hectare of fertile land yields about 15 - 40 tonnes of mulberry leaves per annum 
depending on the variety of mulberry, agronomic practices and climatic conditions.  
To increase the quantity and quality of mulberry leaves for commercial sericulture in 
Ghana, there is the need for the application of appropriate fertilizers, irrigation systems, 
breeding of mulberry and selection of high yielding varieties and adoption of appropriate 
planting distances (Rangaswami et al, 1976). 
Nitrogen application to plants improves the nutrition of plants and enhances plant growth. 
Nitrogen also enhances the resistance of plants to pests and diseases and improve yield of 
crops (Simpson and Simpson, 1990). Over application and injudicious use of nitrogen (N) 
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can result in plant lodging, vegetative growth at the expense of yield and vulnerability to 
pests and diseases (Imayavaramban et al., 2004). It is therefore important that this 
essential nutrient is supplied to crops in desirable quantities and at the right time during 
the growth period.  Nitrogen fertilizer is a major nutrient for mulberry production. 
Nitrogen management optimizes leaf yield and leaf quality, while it minimizes the 
potential for leaching of N beyond the crop rooting zone. 
The factors which influence the quantity and quality of mulberry leaves include the rate 
of fertiliser application and its use by the plant (Krishnaswami et al.,1971), season 
(Yamanouchi et al.,2001), cropping density (Krishnaswami et al.,1971; Yamanouchi et 
al.,2001;Reddy et al. 2002; Baksh et al., 2000), and water use. The average temperature 
for maximum yield and optimum growth is 23 – 27oC and rainfall of 600 - 2500 mm per 
year (Rangaswami et al, 1976). 
All measures taken to maximise leaf yield simultaneously help to improve the quality of 
leaves which automatically lead to the production of quality cocoons (Rangaswami et al, 
1976).Leaf yield and quality are significantly increased by adequate fertilisation (Wang et 
al., 2001).Mulberry varieties of higher leaf yields are therefore significant to sustainable 
profitability in sericulture (Das & Krishnaswami, 1965).The mulberry leaves are 
composed of the proteins, carbohydrates and minerals needed for growth and cocoon 
production.  
The mulberry is not only food for the silkworm but also used in many ways. Besides 
feeding silkworm, mulberry leaves, shoots and branches can be used as feed for other 
animals such as poultry, goats, sheep and cattle, the fruit is used to prepare fruit juice, 
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jams and liquors. The fruits are also useful in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries 
(Ercisli and Orhan, 2007) and as human food, the wood for firewood or for arts and craft 
purposes and for their medicinal properties.  
Sericulture thrives on the suitability of environmental factors, quality and high yielding 
mulberry varieties and on high yielding silkworm races. It is estimated that more than 
60% of the production cost of cocoon is incurred by mulberry leaf production. Sericulture 
is an industry which involves the production of cocoon and raw silk. It is composed of 
activities such as breeding and maintenance of silkworm races, mulberry breeding and 
cultivation, silkworm egg production, silkworm rearing and mounting, cocoon drying, 
silk reeling, raw silk testing, to the production of silk products by manufacturing and 
weaving, as well as the silk thread and silk fabric (Ntaanu, 2007). Silk farming is an eco-
friendly, agro-based venture with a great potential for environmental amelioration, 
employment and income generation, artisan‟s development, diversification of agriculture, 
and expansion of export earnings (Kioko et al., 2009; Ntaanu, 2007).Sericulture can be 
undertaken as rural micro-enterprise initiatives by resource-poor farming communities 
which depend on the forest. This will help to reduce the pressure on the natural forest and 
conserve biodiversity. Sericulture requires low investment for establishment. Small area 
of land and capital are needed for its start-up (FAO, 2001; Ntaanu, 2007). Farmers with 
low income and little area of land can undertake this venture to earn additional profit. 
Though some farmers engage in sericulture as a commercial enterprise, it is a subsidiary 
source of income for rural communities who are for most of their time engaged in other 
farming activities. This can be explored to increase the income of farmers in the rural 
communities in order to alleviate poverty in the larger society. Sericulture has three main 
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components and these are; Agriculture, Industry and Art. The agriculture component of 
sericulture involves the production of mulberry leaf for silkworm rearing and subsequent 
cocoon production.  The industry (sericulture) depends on the availability of quality 
cocoon which also depend on the type of mulberry produced and the rearing techniques 
used. This means that the production of silk fabric depend strongly on agriculture. 
In this study the current status of the sericulture industry in Ghana would be established 
and this would help in policy formulation and decision making about the sericulture 
industry in Ghana. It would also form the data base upon which investment in the 
industry would be based in order to attract investment into the industry and help 
government to use sericulture as a tool for alleviating poverty and also for conservation 
of forest and biodiversity. The selection of high yielding mulberry varieties would enable 
farmers to produce high quality and quantity of mulberry for high quality silk for both the 
local and global silk market. Awareness of the potential of silk farming in improving the 
livelihoods of rural communities would be created. This would in turn influence 
investment in the industry and also entice more rural folks and even urban dwellers to 
take up sericulture as a means of livelihood. 
 
1.1 Problem statement 
Mulberry has been growing in various parts of Ghana since 1994 (Ntaanu, 2012). 
Different varieties have been introduced into the country but the suitability of specific 
cultivars to the different ecological zones has not been studied and the influence of 
nitrogen on leaf yield and quality is also not established. In Ghana mulberry cultivation 
and cocoon production takes place in almost all the ten regions. The current number of 
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farmers engaged in sericulture need to be updated and also the size of land under 
mulberry cultivation is not known. The source of the silkworm eggs into the country is 
not established and also there is no reliable market for raw cocoon in the country. 
The low level of productivity in the sericulture industry in Ghana can among others be 
attributed to these factors.   
1.2 Objectives of the Study 
The study sought to establish the current status of sericulture industry in Ghana and to 
determine the influence of different sources of inorganic fertilizer on growth, leaf quality 
and regeneration of mulberry varieties. Specifically the study sought to achieve the 
following objectives:  
 Determine the number of farmers engaged in sericulture in Ghana. 
 Establish the land area under mulberry cultivation in each region of Ghana 
 Ascertain the constraints associated with Cocoon marketing/processing in Ghana 
 Determine the sources of silkworm egg supply in Ghana 
 Determine the influence of different sources of inorganic nitrogen on the growth, 
leaf quality and yield of mulberry varieties  
 
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.0 The sericulture industry 
Mulberry has been growing in Ghana since 1994 (Ntaanu, 2012) in various parts of the 
country. Different varieties have been introduced into the country but the suitability of 
specific cultivars to the different ecological zones has not been studied and the influence 
of nitrogen on leaf yield and quality is also not established. In Ghana mulberry 
cultivation and cocoon production takes place in almost all the ten regions. The current 
number of farmers engaged in sericulture is yet to be established and also the size of land 
under mulberry cultivation is not known. The source of the silkworm eggs into the 
country is not established and also there is no reliable market for raw cocoon in the 
country. 
The low level of productivity in the sericulture industry in Ghana can among others be 
attributed to these factors.   
2.1   Importance of sericulture 
Sericulture is a profitable rural activity which has the capacity to yield income in a short 
period of time.  It also requires minimal investment and has maximum employment 
potential and quick turnover for investment (Kasi, 2000, 2009a; 2009d). In India, 
sericulture is practised in about 69,000 villages (Central Silk Board, 2002; Geetha and 
Indira, 2011;   Lakshmanan et al., 2011).  Sericulture generates direct and indirect 
employment in various ways. First, mulberry cultivation creates employment on farms. 
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 Secondly, cocoon production, which uses mulberry leaves as an input, creates large-scale 
employment for family members of the mulberry growers.  There are even instances 
where non-mulberry growers take up cocoon production alone as a full-time occupation. 
They buy leaves from mulberry growers and then use them as raw material for cocoon 
production.  
Further, the reeling activity is also done locally, either in the rural areas or in semi urban 
areas and the employment generated by this activity certainly helps to reduce rural 
unemployment. 
Although sericulture has been considered as a secondary occupation in rural areas, recent 
technological advancements have pave way for the practice of sericulture on a 
commercial scale, yielding greater profits than most agricultural ventures and hence it 
can be assessed for its feasibility in developing countries such as Ghana (Dingle et al., 
2005). Due to the fact that it has the highest employment capacity and because most 
people who depend and engage in agriculture are poor and live in the rural areas, increase 
in agricultural income is more effective in reducing poverty in any country (Christiaensen 
and Demery, 2007; World Bank, 2008b). 
One sure way or strategy of achieving poverty reduction and sustainable forest 
conservation is through silk farming or sericulture.  This industry has the capacity to 
engage the unemployed youth, increase the income of farmers and provide an alternative 
source of livelihood for rural communities and this will reduce or totally remove 
dependence of rural population on the ever depleting forest which in turn will conserve 
biodiversity. The artisan industry in Ghana can also be developed and well expanded 
through silk farming. This is because the silk yarn produced can serve as the raw material 
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for these small scale industries which will also create more employment. Kente and 
Smock weavers import cotton yarns because what is produced is not enough to feed the 
industry. Silk yarns when locally produced can substitute for cotton.   
2.2 Global silk production 
Silk is produced across the length and breadth of the globe with China and India being 
the leading producers (Table 2.1).  The main silk-producing countries of the world 
include China, India, DPR Korea, Turkmenistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan, Thailand, Vietnam, 
Kyrgyzstan, Japan, Iran, Tajikistan, Romania and Indonesia (FAO, 2001).  
Table 2.1: World Mulberry Raw silk production 
Country 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 % Share 
China 87800 93100 78000 70980 84000 81.06 
India 15445 16526 16245 15610 16322 15.75 
Japan 150 150 105 95 90 0.09 
Brazil 1285 1387 1220 1177 811 0.78 
Korea Rep. 150 150 150 135 135 0.13 
Uzbekistan 950 950 950 865 750 0.72 
Thailand 1420 1080 760 1100 665 0.64 
Vietnam 750 750 750 680 550 0.53 
Others 1500 1000 500 350 304 0.29 
Total 109450 115092 98680 90992 103627 100.00 
  Note:Unit in Metric tonsSource: Silk industry in China; ISC web-site update as on 
January, 2010; SS: 11-05-2010 
Some African countries such as Kenya, Egypt, Nigeria and Madagascar have also made 
significant contributions to the production of silk globally. World silk production has 
almost doubled in the last decade and continues to increase despite the production of 
synthetic fibres to replace silk for some uses (Dingle et al., 2005). 
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China and India are the two main producers of silk worldwide, together manufacturing 
more than 50% of the world production each year. China since the 1970's has drastically 
increased its silk production and has become the world's leading producer of silk. China 
was the first country to develop sericulture and it is also the leading producer of silk of all 
kinds. In the year 2003-2004, India produced 16,319 MT of raw silk out of which 14,617 
MT is mulberry silk and India is the second largest producer of silk in the world next to 
China. Tasar, Eri and Muga silk contributes 284, 1316 and 102 MT respectively to the 
world total silk (Anon., 2003). Mulberry Silk is the most common type of silk and 
contributes to nearly 95% of world‟s silk production. It is produced from the cocoons of 
silkworms fed with mulberry leaves. 
2.2.1   Global Imports and Exports of Silk and Silk Products 
There has been a significant change in relation to silk market in the last decade. Silk is a 
raw material which is traded in the form of cocoons, raw silk, waste silk, silk noils (short, 
tangled fibres) and spun silk or yarn. 
Silk products are relatively less expensive compared to other fabrics and also silk has a 
unique property which makes it stand out among other fabrics. Some of the properties of 
silk are;  
 It can absorb moisture without feeling damp and its cool-in-summer, warm-in 
winter and this property is yet to be matched by other synthetics;  
 Durability (ability to withstand wear and decay) as a result used for suture 
materials; 
 Flame resistance, which makes it suitable for wall coverings and upholstery.   
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These and many others give silk a competitive advantage over other fabrics (Dingle, 
2000). Silk is widely used for producing various silk fabrics such as dresses, kimonos, 
quilt covers and ties. By-products of cocoons such as inferior cocoon, un-reelable 
cocoon, pupal shirt, cocoon floss and waste filaments are utilized as raw materials in 
cosmetics, foodstuffs and in the electric industry.  New developments in silk technology 
allow silk garments to be hand washed rather than dry-cleaned (Gongyin and Cui, 1996).   
World trade in silk is divided almost equally between raw silk, fabrics and finished goods 
(Dingle et al., 2005). India converts a high proportion of its raw silk into silk fabrics and 
exports about 20%. China produces over 81% of the world's raw silk and exports about 
40% of the world's silk fabric. Imports of raw silk to Europe has reduced and attention is 
been moved to the importation of fabrics and finished garments. Italian and Belgian 
companies handle about 85% of the European silk trade (FAO, 2001). 
Table 2.2: Shows the imports and exports of raw silk and by-products of silk 
globally 
Country  Exports in 1999(Mt) Imports in 1999(Mt) 
Bangladesh  2200 
China 12089 173 
Germany 590 963 
Hong Kong 1048 1059 
India 17 2743 
Italy 22 2695 
Japan 3 2596 
Korea(DPR) 1000 5 
Korea(South) 11 2107 
Kyrgyzstan 20 250 
Paraguay 224 - 
Singapore 157 120 
Tajikistan 150 - 
Thailand 8 75 
Turkey - 154 
Turkmenistan 4100 - 
Uzbekistan 240 - 
Vietnam 60 90 
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The data provided on silk production and demand for silk globally indicates that there is 
an opportunity for developing countries like Ghana to enter into silk production. The 
environmental conditions are suitable for the cultivation of mulberry and rearing of silk 
worm nationwide. There is good market for cocoons and raw silk in Africa and the 
continent has not been able to meet its demand for silk and silk products. Some African 
countries which have established market for cocoons include: Kenya, Egypt, South 
Africa, Madagascar and Ghana. 
Silk markets in Kenya include National Sericulture Station, Thika, International Centre 
for Insect Physiology and Entomology (ICIPE),  Kakamega Forest Silk Market Centre, in 
Kakamega,  Pendeza Weaving, in Kisumu,  Spin Weave, in Nairobi,  Gramwa, in 
Kiambu. Other cocoon markets across the length and breadth of Kenya are;  Mwingi Silk 
Market Place, in Mwingi, Arabuko Sokoke Silk Market Place, in Malindi,  Molo 
Weavers, in Elburgon, Rivatex, in Eldoret (Prospective large scale buyer), Kimahuri 
youth group in Nyeri county and Sarah Jane in Nairobi. This makes Kenya a better place 
in Africa to embark on commercial cocoon production as compared to the situation in 
Ghana. 
2.3 Raw Silk Cocoon Production in Ghana 
The production of cocoon in Ghana started with the establishment of the silk factory in 
Accra in 2004. The factory was established by the partnership between FAO, Ghana 
government and the government of India. The funding for the establishment was 
provided by FAO and Technical expertise was provided by the government of India. The 
major stakeholders are Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA), Institute of Industry 
Research (IIR-CSIR) and Sericulture Promotion and Development Association (SPDA). 
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The major areas of raw cocoon production are; Brong-Ahafo Region and Eastern Region 
and Kpaliga in the Northern Region. The quantities of cocoon produced for the operation 
of the factory was insufficient and could not meet the production capacity of the factory 
(Amoah, 2012). The table below shows the annual cocoon production of Ghana. 
Table 2. 3: Annual Cocoon Production of Ghana 
Year Quantity produced (kg) 
2004 112.4 
2005 65.5 
2006 154.5 
2007 134.2 
2008 326.6 
2009 146.5 
2010 50 
2011 50 
Source: Amoah, J. (2012). 
In spite of the great potential and environmental suitability of the country, the cocoons 
produced over the years are most of the times low quality with reference to reelability 
and the denier of the yarns. This can be attributed to the race of the silkworm reared, the 
quality of the mulberry leaf fed to the worms, the rearing technique used, climatic 
conditions and other factors.  
Ghana has not been able to explore its great potentials for the production of silk as a 
result of the challenges that beset the silk industry. These challenges include: 
 Unavailability of market for the cocoons and price discrimination; 
 Long distance to market; 
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 Inadequate information on market trend; 
 Lack of finance. 
2.4 Description of mulberry plant 
Mulberry (Morus, Moraceae) is a fast growing deciduous woody tree with alternate 
leaves, it has unisexual and bisexual flowers in the leaf axils, and fleshy fruits (sorosis). It 
is believed that mulberry first originated in the hills of Himalayas and later spread into 
Asia, Europe, Africa, and America (Sanchez, 2000a, b). 
 Currently, mulberry is grown in many parts of the world (Yokoyama 1962); and from 
sea level to altitudes as high as 4000 m (Tutin et al., 1996). Taxonomically, the genus, 
Morus, is divided into two sections, the Dolichostylae (long style) and the Macromorus 
(short style) and each section is further divided into two groups namely Papillosae and 
Pubescentae based on the nature of the stigmatic hairs. Further classification of mulberry 
is based on characters of leaf, inflorescence and sorosi (Koidzumi 1917 and Katsumata, 
1972).  
About 150 species and more of mulberry have been identified but most of them have 
been treated either as synonyms or as varieties rather than species, and some have also 
been transferred to allied genera (Sharma et al. 2000).  
A few prominent species of Morus, which have wide acceptance among mulberry 
taxonomists and geneticists, are M. alba, M. indica,M. serrata, M. laevigata, M. 
multicaulis, M. tartarica, M. nigra M. australia, M. cathyana, M. mierovra M. 
atropurpurea , M. mizuho, M. rubra, M. insgnis, M. mesozygia, and M. macroura. 
Mulberry has a deep-root system. The leaves are simple, alternate, stipulate, petiolate, 
entire or lobed. Number of lobes varies from 1 to 5. Plants are generally dioecious. 
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Inflorescence is catkin with pendent or drooping peduncle bearing unisexual flowers. The 
main pollinating agent in mulberry is wind. The fruit is a sorosis and the colour of the 
fruit is mainly violet black (Datta, 2007). The Chemical composition of mulberry leaf 
varies with variety, age of plant, nutrition and environmental conditions (Datta, 2007).  
However, the general chemical leaf composition is as follows: 
Moisture 65 - 78 % 
Protein 19 – 25 % 
Minerals 10 – 15 % 
Reducing sugars 1.2 – 1.9     
Sugars 10 – 15 %   
 
2.4.1 Description of some Mulberry Varieties 
Kanva-2 variety/ M-5:  
Belongs to Morus indica and it is a diploid. It is widely cultivated in the tropical areas of 
India. It was obtained by selections from natural population of Mysore Local variety. It 
has high rooting ability and wide adaptability and it is able to resist mulberry diseases. 
The leaves mature in a relatively short time with yields ranging between 30 - 35 
MT/ha/year under irrigation condition (Datta, 2007). 
Leaf composition  
 Leaf moisture content 70%, 
 Protein content 21% and  
Sugar content 11.5%  
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S-36:  
It was developed from Berhampore local and belongs to Morus indica. The leaves are 
heart shaped, thick, light green and shiny. It is tolerant to leaf spot and powdery mildew 
but susceptible to leaf rust and tukra infestation. Due to its high moisture content, it is 
more suitable for chawky rearing. It yields about 38-45 MT/ha/year under irrigation. 
Leaf composition 
Leaf moisture 76% 
Protein content 22% 
V-1:  
Belongs to Morus indica. It was developed as a cross between S-30 and Berc.776. It has 
high rooting and sprouting ability and highly recommended for cultivation under 
irrigation. The leaves are broad, thick, dark green and oval in shape. The leaf yield under 
irrigation is about 55-70 MT/ha /year. It is resistant to leaf spot, leaf rust and tukra 
infestation (Datta, 2007).  
 
Leaf composition 
Leaf moisture 72.5-78.9% 
Protein 24.6%  
Total sugar 16.9% 
2.4.2 Economic importance of mulberry 
The economic importance of mulberry is primarily due to its leaves, which are being used 
for feeding the silkworm for silk production.  Mulberry is also utilised as forage for 
livestock due its high protein and mineral content and palatability (Sanchez, 2000b). The 
fruits are used as antiphlogistic, a diuretic and as expectorant and also for fruit juice and 
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jams (Koyuncu, 2004; Ercisli, 2004). Mulberry is also consumed as a delicious vegetable 
(young leaves and stems). It is used in the pharmaceuticals due its medicinal properties 
and traditionally as mulberry leaf tea. The mulberry plant has medicinal value and it is 
used traditionally for healing asthma, bronchitis, cachexia, cold, constipation, cough, 
diarrhoea, dropsy, dyspepsia, edema, epilepsy, fever, headache, hyperglycemia, 
hypertension, insomnia, melancholy, menorrhagia, snakebite, sore throat, stomatitis, 
tumors, and wounds including other kinds of diseases (Datta, 2007). 
The wood is used as firewood, building material, and in furniture making. It is also used 
for making stocks, spokes, poles, shafts of carriages and casts. The wood is suitable for 
making plywood, carving and making of toys and tea chests, tennis rackets, agricultural 
implements and cheap types of rifles and guns (Datta, 2007). The plant is used in 
landscaping (Tipton, 1994).  
2.5 Cultivation of mulberry 
Mulberry thrives well in deep, fertile, well drained soils with high organic matter content. 
It grows on sandy loam to black loam soil which has good water holding capacity with 
soil pH of 6.2-6.8. The average temperature for maximum yield and optimum growth is 
23 – 27 oC and rainfall of 600 - 2500 mm per year (Rangaswami et al. 1976; Datta, 
2007).  
Planting materials and planting 
Mulberry is planted using cuttings and seeds. The use of cuttings is the most common 
method of propagation. The cuttings can be planted directly in the field and can also be 
raised in the nursery and the saplings transplanted after 2-3 months. Cuttings are obtained 
from mature plants of 8-10 months at a length of 25-30cm with 4-6 healthy buds. 
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Establishment of mulberry farm starts at the beginning of the raining season. The planting 
distance adopted is 90cm x 90cm or 60cm x 60cm in single row or the double row system 
(Datta, 2007).  
Pests and diseases 
There are numerous pests and diseases of the mulberry plant. The pests are mostly insects 
and the major ones include;  
1. Pink mealy bug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus) and papaya mealy bug (Paracoccus 
marginatus). The mealybugs feed by sucking sap of apical and tender shoots. Their 
feeding activity leads to the spread of diseases. The pink mealybug is known for the 
transmission of the Tukra disease of mulberry.  
2. Thrips, Pseudodendrothrips mori; Bathrips melenicornis; Megalurothrips distalis and 
Scirtothrips dorsalis: Both adults and nymphs lacerate the leaf tissue and suck the 
oozing cell sap from young buds and leaves. The infested parts get hardened; leaves 
become brittle, malformed with reduced leaf area. In addition, sap extraction by the 
thrips results in necrosis and drying up of leaves. Due to thrips infestation, the epidermal 
cells get punctured, leaves and buds become rudimentary resulting in premature fall. 
During laceration, the thrips secrete saliva which coagulates with sap resulting in the 
formation of white streaks in early stage. 
3. Mites : mites belonging to Tetranychidae and Eriophyidae are known to infest 
mulberry. This include; Bud mites, Aceria morikcifes (Eriophydae); Tetranychus 
equitorius (Tetranychidae); and T. ludani (Tetranychidae).Mites are found on the leaves, 
bud scales, nodes and apical shoots. Both nymphs and adults insert their stylets in to leaf 
tissue and suck the sap. The affected portion of the plant turns grayish white and 
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ultimately withers. The leaves infested by T.ludani show white speckles at the place of 
feeding. With increase in intensity of feeding, the speckles increase in number and 
gradually coalesce with one another, finally producing large patches. Infested plants 
remain stunted for a longer period without any sign of growth. 
4. Bihar hairy caterpillar: Spilosoma (Diacrisia) oblique. The young caterpillars feed on the 
chlorophyll layer of the leaf exposing the veins which impart dried/dead appearance to 
the leaves (Skeletonization). The grown up larva feed on the entire leaf rendering the 
branches without leaves. 
5. Other insect pests of mulberry are; leaf webber (Diaphania pulverulentalis), 
grasshoppers, leaf miners and termites.  
Management of insect pests and Diseases of mulberry 
Effective weed control, pruning infested parts, appropriate planting distance, appropriate 
use of recommended insecticides and biological control. 
It is estimated that the incidence of pests can cause loss in mulberry leaf yield up to 
34.24% and 4500 kg/ha/year (Sakthivel, 2012). 
Diseases attack the foliage and stems and roots. Foliar diseases of mulberry reduce the 
yield and quality of leaf thereby affecting silkworm rearing and cocoon production. The 
yield loss due to foliar diseases is estimated to be around 15-18%, besides deteriorating 
the leaf quality. The diseases which infect the leaves include:  
1. Powdery mildew : It is caused by Phyllactinia corylea 
 Symptoms: White powdery patches appear on the lower surface of leaf which increases 
gradually and covers the whole leaf surface. Affected leaves turn yellowish and drop 
prematurely. The disease becomes more severe around October-November.  
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 Control measure: Foliar spray with the recommended fungicides and also the lower 
surface of the leaves should be thoroughly drenched. 
2. Leaf rust : The causal organism is called Peridiospora mori 
 Symptoms: Several small pin head shaped brown postules appear on the lower surface of 
mature leaves.  Reddish brown spot appear on the upper surface of the infected leaves.  
Severely infected leaves turn yellowish and margin of the leaves become dry.  
Control measure: Foliar spray with recommended fungicide 
3. Leaf spot : The causal organism is Cercospora moricola 
 Symptoms: circular light brown spots appear on both sides of the leaves. The adjacent 
spots unite together to form a larger spot. The necrotic tissues of such spots drop out and 
form the characteristic shot holes. Highly infected leaves defoliate prematurely. 
Control measure: Avoid dense planting and also collect and burn unused infected leaves 
after pruning. 
4. Root knot disease: The estimated yield loss due to the disease is 15-30%.  The 
organism that causes the root knot disease is a nematode called Meloidogyne 
incognita. It is an endoparasite which inhabits mulberry roots. The symptoms of the 
disease can be grouped into two, namely;  
Foliage symptoms: which is characterised by stunted growth, poor and delayed sprouting, 
reduced leaf size and yield, chlorosis and marginal necrosis of leaves, yellowing and 
wilting of leaves in spite of adequate soil moisture availability and death of plants in 
severe cases? 
Root symptoms: formation of galls on roots, reduced and stubby root system, retarded 
root growth, necrotic lesions on the root surfaces and death of active rootlets. 
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Control: Plant resistant varieties, recommended nematicide can be used in infested soils 
or farms. 
5. Tukra disease: it is caused by the pink mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus. The 
nymph and adult mealybug feed by sucking the sap of young and apical shoot. 
Symptoms: leaves become dark green and deformed, swelling and twisting of apices of 
internodes, leaf curl and crinkling of apical shoots, flattening and thickening of the 
affected part of shoot and presence of white mealybugs and crawlers at the base of leaves 
in the malformed regions of the shoot. 
Control: plant resistant varieties of mulberry, clear farm off weeds, clipping and 
destruction of affected apical shoots, biological control of mealybugs with Cryptolaemus 
montrouzeri beetle and also apply recommended insecticide.   
Yield: the leaf yield of mulberry depends on factors such as variety, cultivation practices 
and climatic conditions and plant density (Yamanouchi et al., 2001). The yield of some 
varieties are; Kanva-2 - 30-35Mt/ha/year; S-36 - 35-38Mt/ha/year; V-1 - 70Mt/ha/year; 
K-2 – 10-12 MT/ha/year; S-13 – 14-15 MT/ha/year and S-34 – 14-15 MT/ha/year (Datta, 
2007). 
Harvesting and postharvest handling 
Mulberry leaves will be ready for harvesting 6 months after planting. There are three 
methods of leaf harvesting. These are; individual leaf picking, branch cutting and whole 
shoot cutting. In individual leaf picking, individual leaves are picked together with leaf 
petiole whiles the other methods involve the cutting of branches and whole shoot. Young 
and succulent leaves should be harvested for chawky rearing and mature leaves for 
mature worms. The leaves should be harvested early in the morning or evening when 
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temperatures are cool. This is to reduce loss of moisture from fresh leaves. Moisture loss 
from leaves reduces the edibility and palatability of leaves for silkworms. 
 Leaf preservation after harvest is therefore important especially in situations where the 
rearing house is far from the mulberry farm. Fresh leaves should be stored in wet jute 
sacks or wooden baskets lined with moist jute sack or material.  Leaves preserved under 
wet cloth and jute sacks should be kept wet all the time by sprinkling water on it 
repeatedly at intervals. Leaves preserved as such remain fresh with high moisture and 
protein content and are easily digestible to worms (Sakthivel, 2012). 
2.6 Influence of inorganic nitrogen on plant growth, leaf yield and leaf quality 
Nitrogen (N) is often one of the most limiting nutrients in crop production. Hence, the 
application of nitrogenous fertilizers results in increased biomass production and protein 
yield. 
Nitrogen is an essential component of the cell membrane, chlorophyll molecule and many 
other compounds essential for plant growth processes.  
It is an essential component of proteins, amides, amino acids, nucleic acids and 
nucleotides which are critical for building plant tissues, cell nuclei and protoplasm. 
Nitrogen stimulates vegetative growth and induces the deep green colour of leaves. 
Nitrogen enhances roots and shoots development and influences the uptake of other 
macronutrients and micro nutrients.  It is known that Nitrogen fertilizer is an essential 
component of any system in which the primary objective is to maintain good yield (Law 
and Egharevba, 2009). 
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Increases in productivity of mulberry has been possible as a result of irrigation, fertilizer 
application particularly nitrogen and other agronomic practices.  It is estimated that 
mulberry production constitutes 60 per cent of the total cost of sericulture. Much research 
evidence has shown that fertilizer application increases the crop yields but without 
fertilizer high yielding varieties cannot perform better than the local varieties 
(Munireddy, 2005).  However, different varieties respond differently to nutrient 
application as a result of differences in their genetic composition and physiological 
processes (Chandra et al., 1992). 
2.7 Influence of inorganic nitrogen on growth and leaf yield of mulberry 
The use of fertilizer especially nitrogen fertilizers increases the growth and yield of crops. 
The application of nitrogen promotes leaf growth and expansion. Mulberry is a plant 
which responds well to the application of nitrogen fertilizers which result in higher leaf 
yield. This has been reported by many researchers.   
Pain (1965) reported lower leaf yields in mulberry when fertilizers other than nitrogen 
fertilizers were used. This report highlights the importance of nitrogen fertilizers in 
mulberry cultivation. Majumder et al. (2003) investigated the influence of nitrogen on 
mulberry and reported that the application of 200, 250 and 300 kg N/ha/year to S-1 
mulberry in spring season increased the leaf yield as compared to the control (150 kg 
N/ha/year). They also indicated that higher dosages of inorganic nitrogen are significant 
for leaf production in mulberry cultivation. Bose and Majumder (1998) conducted studies 
into the influence of nitrogen on mulberry and reported that the application of 
400:120:120 kg NPK/ ha/year to M-5 mulberry variety increased the leaf yield and other 
vegetative parameters more than the control.  
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The application of inorganic nitrogen and organic fertilizers also significantly increases 
leaf yield in mulberry cultivation. This has been confirmed by studies of many 
researchers.   
 Sinha et al. (2001) in their work on mulberry found that S-1 mulberry variety produced 
significant leaf yield when150:50:50 kg NPK/ha/year was combined with 10 tonnes of 
FarmYard Manure and applied compared to the control.  
Shankar et al. (2000) achieved higher yields when Farm Yard Manure at a rate of 20 
tonnes/ha in a year was applied in combination with 280:120:120 kg NPK/ha/year as 
compared to the application of only Farm Yard Manure. This implies that the presence of 
inorganic N is important in optimizing crop yield.  Also in the study of the effect of 
different spacing and nitrogen levels on different varieties of mulberry by Bongale et al. 
(2000), the S-36 variety produced significant leaf yield at 400kg N as compared to 
smaller levels of nitrogen. Regular irrigation, appropriate planting densities and judicious 
use of nitrogen result in higher leaf yield and leaf quality (nitrogen and protein). The 
study by Shivaprakash et al., (2000) revealed that at a spacing of 60cm × 60cm under 
irrigated condition, S-36 produced higher leaf yield and leaf quality (nitrogen) at 
300:120:120 kg NPK/ha/year.  
Singh et al. (2001) also conducted research on the response of mulberry varieties to 
different levels of NPK in different seasons and reported that at 250:120:110 kg 
NPK/ha/year, the M-5 variety produced maximum leaves per branch (24.7) in spring, 
46.8 in autumn). They also observed an increase in plant height and leaf yield. In the 
same way, 100 kg N /ha/year nitrogen increased the leaf yield of mulberry as compared 
to 50 kg/ha/year nitrogen in split applications (Anon, 1971). Kasiviswanathan and 
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Iyengar (1970) also reported higher leaf yield in 200 kg N /ha/year than was found in 100 
kg N per ha/year. 
Several authors have reported that the application of NPK increases number of leaves and 
leaf area of plants (Bijimol and Singh, 2001; Broschat and Moore , 2001; Hend ,2002; 
Kumar et al. 2002 and Dar et al. 2002). 
Improved varieties of crops especially mulberry require higher dosages of nitrogen 
fertilizers. Inadequate supply of this nutrient to improved varieties will hinder their 
ability to perform better than local varieties. Phukan et al. (2000) studied different 
improved varieties of mulberry and found out that cv. S-1635 was significant in terms of 
plant height and leaf yield in India. The application of higher dosage of nitrogen to 
improved mulberry varieties increased the leaf yield more than smaller dosages. 
Krishnaswami et al. (1971) realised significant improvement in economic characters 
including leaf yield of improved mulberry varieties when heavy dosage of Nitrogen (900 
kg/ha) was applied   as compared to local varieties given wider spacing and 100 kg/ha of 
nitrogen. 
Karic et al. (2005) reported maximum number of leaves per plant at 200kg N/ha but no 
significant effect was noticed on the number of leaves at 100 kg N/ha which is similar to 
that obtained by Shahbazi (2005) who recorded maximum number of leaves per plant at 
200kg N/ha when four nitrogen levels (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg N/ha) was used. 
Bhaskar et al. (2003) also studied M-5 mulberry under irrigated condition with varied 
levels of N (200-280 kg/ha/year), P (80-140 kg /ha/ year) and K (80-140 kg/ha/year) and 
reported that application of 280:80:80 kg NPK/ha/year significantly improved number of 
leaves per plant, leaf area and moisture content and other growth parameters as compared 
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to control. Rajegowda et al (1999) reported increased in plant growth, leaf yield and leaf 
quality parameters (moisture and chlorophyll) when N and K2SO4 was applied at a rate of 
400:180kg/ha/year in M-5 as compared to 300:120kg/ha/year (N and KCl).  
Studies have shown that the application of 75-100 kg N/ha/year increased the growth and 
leaf yield of mulberry. It has been observed that response to nitrogen increased with 
increased soil moisture (Kasiviswanathan and Iyengar, 1965). Anon (1969) reported that 
it was necessary to apply nitrogen to mulberry every year under irrigated conditions as 
the residual effect of nitrogen was not significant. Significantly higher yields were 
recorded in split applications of 200kg N/ha/year than split application of 100kg N 
/ha/year (Kasivishanathan and Iyengar, 1970).  
Paul and Qaiyyum (2009) also studied the effect of different levels of NPK fertilizers and 
irrigation on leaf yield and nutritive quality of mulberry leaf of three mulberry varieties. 
They found out that BM-1 had significant increase in plant height and leaf number per 
plant than the other varieties but number of branches and leaf yield were significantly 
higher in BM-3 than the rest. They also reported increased growth and higher leaf yield in 
fertilizer treated plants than the control.   
Bongale et al. (2000) studied the effect of different plant densities and nitrogen levels on 
Viswa (DD), S-36 and M-5 mulberry (Morus indica L.) varieties under irrigated 
condition and reported the highest leaf yield and leaf N uptake in S-36 with the 
application of 400kg N/ha. They reported significant increase in leaf number, plant 
height, leaf N content and uptake and leaf yield with the application of 400kg N/ha 
 
 
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2.7.1 Influence of inorganic nitrogen on leaf quality of mulberry 
Manchashetty (1979) observed that when nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are applied 
at 0.5% as soil and foliar spray the leaf quality with reference to crude protein and 
mineral content of mulberry increased. Sarkar et al. (2000) reported high leaf quality in 
V-1 mulberry variety with the application of NPK in combination with Farm Yard 
Manure as compared to Mysore local, M-5, S-54 and S-36 under irrigation. According to 
Sengupta et al. (1972) the application of 600 and 900 kg N increased leaf yield of M-5 
mulberry variety which also resulted in increased high leaf quality (high leaf protein, 
reducing sugar and total sugar content of leaves).   
The application of different sources of inorganic nitrogen influences the leaf quality of 
mulberry differently. This has been confirmed by Subbarayappa et al. (1994) who 
reported that the application of ammonium sulphate increased leaf quality of mulberry as 
compared with the control (no fertilizer), ammonium nitrate and urea. Subbaswamy etal. 
(1999) also studied the influence of different sources of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers on 
leaf quality of mulberry and reported higher leaf yield and high leaf protein content in 
plants fertilised with ammonium sulphate as compared with plants fertilised with calcium 
ammonium nitrate and urea. 
Ushioda (1954) reported that nitrogen has the highest influence on leaf quality, leaf 
protein content and moisture content of leaves when supplied through fertilizers. Ray et 
al. (1973) reported increased leaf yield and leaf quality in terms of protein and mineral 
content in M-5 mulberry variety with the application of NPK in combination with Farm 
Yard Manure. 
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Yokayama (1962); Kasivishwanathan and Iyengar (1965 and 1966) have reported that 
fertilization of mulberry with nitrogen increased the leaf yield and leaf quality. Many 
authors also agree that the application of nitrogen fertilizer result in increased protein 
content of crops and hence increased crop quality (Abu-Rayyan and Al-Hadidi, 2005; 
Balemi et al., 2007; Shaheen et al., 2010; Imtiaz et al., 1995). It has been observed by El 
Hassan (2010) that the application of different sources of nitrogen has different effects on 
the quality of leaves. He observed that the application of NPK and Ammonium sulphate 
significantly increased the crude protein of leaves except urea. His result agrees with the 
findings of Singh et al., (1992) and Koul (1997) who also reported increased leaf protein 
with the application of nitrogen. Paul and Qaiyyum (2009) reported that the leaf quality 
of BM-3 mulberry variety was higher than BM-1 and BM-2 varieties except for leaf 
moisture. They added that the application of NPK fertilizers significantly increased the 
leaf quality of mulberry more than the control. They observed that increasing NPK 
reduces the mineral content of mulberry leaf. Marzouk and Kassem (2011) reported the 
application of inorganic fertilizers reduces the protein and the carbohydrate content of 
crops. Also, Anon (1994a) reported that the application of 300:120:120 kg NPK/ha/year 
had no influence on the water use efficiency and the leaf quality of V-1 and S-36 
mulberry varieties except the chlorophyll content of leaves. This implies that the 
application of inorganic fertilizers do not always improve the quality of mulberry leaves.  
 
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CHAPTER THREE 
MATERIALS AND METHODS 
3.1 The Survey 
A survey was conducted in January and February, 2012 starting with identification of 
regions and districts in which sericulture is practiced in Ghana. This was done with the 
help of Mr. Ntaanu, the Founder and Technical Director of Sericulture Promotion and 
Development Association of Ghana (SPDA). After the preliminary observations the 
following communities were selected for in-depth study: Kpaliga, in the Tolon-
Kumbungu District in the northern Region, Odumase and Kwatre in the Sunyani West 
District in the Brong – Ahafo Region, and Pukrom in the Akuapim South District of the 
Eastern Region. Sixteen (16) sericulture farmers were interviewed and out of the 16 
farmers, five (5) were female and eleven (11) were male. The Sericulture Associations 
interviewed were Community Based Rural Project (Sericulture) at Kwatre and Kpaliga 
Tree Growers Association. There was only one farm at Pukrom and that was also visited. 
The issues discussed centered on the variety of mulberry cultivated, land area for 
mulberry cultivation, Race of silkworm reared, rearing technique used, source of 
silkworm egg supply and constraints associated with rearing and marketing of cocoons in 
Ghana.   
The silk factory at CSIR compound was visited and informal interviews and discussions 
were held with staff of the factory to assess the status of the factory in terms of 
production level and constraints. The Asuansi Farm Institute was also visited to assess the 
progress of work by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture in multiplying some varieties 
of mulberry and also establishment of a sericulture training center. Informal discussions 
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were also held with staff to obtain information on sericulture.   This approach was 
adopted to get an in-depth understanding of the issues discussed with farmer groups and 
other relevant stakeholders. 
The Tolon-Kumbungu District lies between latitude 10-200 North and Longitude 10- 500 
West, shares border with West Mamprusi District in the North, West Gonja District in the 
West and South and the East with Savelugu/Nanton District and the Tamale Municipal 
Assembly. The District covers an area of about 2,741 square kilometres (Ghana 
districts.com). 
The Sunyani West District lies between latitude 7º 19´N and 7º 35´N and longitudes 2º 
08´ W and 2º 31´ W.  It shares boundaries with Wenchi Municipality to the North - East, 
Tain District to the North, Berekum and Dormaa East to the West, Sunyani Municipal to 
the South East and to the Eastern boundaries of the District are the Tano North and 
Ofinso North Districts. Sunyani West District has a total land area of 1658.7 square 
kilometers.  The district enjoys two rainy seasons in the year and the abundance of 
rainfall offers the district a favourable climate for agricultural production (Ghana 
districts.com). The Akuapim-South District covers a land area of 403 square kilometres. 
The total arable land under cultivation is about 20,000 hectares. The district shares 
boundaries with Ga West Municipal and and Tema Metropolis to the south, Suhum-
Kraboa-Coaltar, Akuapim North and West Akim Municipal to the North-West 
respectively. About 60% of the population is engaged in subsistence and commercial 
farming. The district enjoys bimodal rainfall which creates favourable climatic conditions 
for agricultural activities (mofa.gov.gh). 
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Figure 3.1: A Map of Ghana Showing Districts and Communities in which 
Sericulture is practiced in Ghana 
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Semi-structured questionnaires were administered and also interviews and group 
discussions were held with farmers and Sericulture Associations in the various 
communities. At Pukrom, in the Akuapim – South District, only one sericulture farmer 
was interviewed. This is because only one farmer was into sericulture at the time of visit. 
In Odumase and Kwatre, the farmers were thirty (30) and they have five rearing houses. 
The Kpaliga Tree Growers Association which happens to be the sericulture group was 
also interviewed. It was observed that the farmers have one farm land and a rearing 
house. They cultivate mulberry and also do rearing together.    
3.2 Field Experiments 
A field study was carried out from June, 2012 to February, 2013 to investigate the 
influence of three sources of fertilizer on the growth, leaf quality and regeneration of 
three varieties of mulberry under rain fed conditions at the University farm, Legon. The 
University farm is located in the coastal savannah zone of Ghana and situated at latitude 
5039‟N and 0011‟W at an altitude of 97.24m above sea level. The soil of the experimental 
site belongs to the Adentan series and it is a savannah acrisol (FAO/UNESEO, 1999). 
The soil is dark-brown to reddish-brown sandy –clay loam and it is well drained and 
slightly sticky. The climatic data of the experimental area during the experiment is 
represented in table 3 below. 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 3: Mean monthly temperature (oC), rainfall (mm) and relative humidity (%) 
Month Temperature (oC) 
       Minimum       Maximum 
Rainfall 
(mm) 
Relative humidity (%) 
Minimum         Maximum  
June 23.7 30.3 173.2 78 89 
July 23.1 28.8 20.9 68 86 
August  22.4 28.2 11.5 67 86 
September  23.2 30.0 42.5 67 86 
October  23.8 31.2 88.3 67 89 
November  
December 
January 
February 
24.6 
24.9 
25.5 
25.4 
32.4 
32.6 
33.4 
33.7 
14.0 
41.9 
34.0 
0.0 
63 
66 
88 
66 
88 
91 
90 
93 
Source: Ghana Meteorological Agency, Mempehuasem, Legon, 2012.  
 
Two field experiments were conducted in the farm. 
3.2.1Experiment 1: Influence of nitrogen on the growth and leaf quality of three 
mulberry varieties 
A field experiment was carried out to investigate the influence of different inorganic 
fertilizers on growth, leaf quality and regeneration of mulberry varieties from June to 
December, 2012. 
3.3Soil Sampling and Analysis 
Soil samples were collected from a depth of 0-45cm and mixed thoroughly to give a 
composite soil, air dried, powdered and sieved through a 2.0mm mesh sieve. This was 
done before planting. The soil sample was  preserved in labeled polythene bag and later 
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analysed for various parameters such as pH, Cation Exchange Capacity, organic carbon 
and mineral composition such as N, P, K, Ca and Mg. 
3.3.1 Soil pH 
Twenty grams (20g) of the composite soil sample was weighed into a 50ml beaker. An 
amount of 20ml distilled water was then added to make the ratio (1:1). The soil 
suspension was then stirred for 30 minutes. The suspension was allowed to stand for an 
hour to allow the entire suspended particles to settle. A glass electrode pH meter was 
standardized with two aqueous solutions of pH 4 and 7. The pH of the prepared 
suspension was measured by carefully and gently placing the glass electrode into the 
supernatant and the pH read.  
3.3.2 Determination of soil total nitrogen 
Two (2) grams of air-dried soil sample was weighed into a 250mls Kjeldahl flask 
followed by addition of digestion accelerator, selenium catalyst and 5mls of concentrated 
sulphuric acid (H2SO4). The mixture was allowed to digest for at least two (2) hours until 
the digest became clear. It was allowed to cool and then transferred with distilled water 
into a 50 ml volumetric flask and made up to the volume. A 5 ml aliquot was pipetted 
from the digest into a distillation flask and 5 ml of 40% sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) was 
added with 100 ml distilled water. The sample was then distilled and collected in 5 ml of 
2% boric acid to which about 2 drops of methylene blue indicator had been added. The 
distillate was then titrated against 0.01 N HCl (Bremner, 1965) from green to a reddish 
end point. 
The amount of N (%) was calculated using the formula: 
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3.3.4 Soil Phosphorus (P) 
Available phosphorus was determined from soil sample by Bray 1 method. The 
ultraviolet visible spectrophotometer was used to read the amount of P in the soil sample. 
Available phosphorus was determined by the formula below. 
P (g / Kg)  
Where, 
 A is the spectrophotometer reading in gP  
 B is the blank reading  
 C is the total volume of extract 
 ais the volume of aliquot  
 b is the weight of soil sample  
3.4 Determination of Exchangeable Bases in Soil 
Ten (10) grams of soil was weighed into an extraction bottle and 100ml of 1N 
ammonium acetate solution (NH4OAc) buffered at pH 7.0 was added. The bottle and its 
contents were placed on a mechanical shaker and shaken for an hour after which it was 
centrifuged for 20 minutes. The supernatant solution was then filtered through No.42 
Whatman filter paper. The filtered solutions (aliquot) were used for the determination of 
Ca, Mg and K. 
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3.4.1 Soil available Potassium (K) 
The flame photometer was used to determine the concentration of potassium in the 
aliquot. The amount of potassium present in the soil as shown in the formula below. 
K (Cmol/Kg) =  
                      Where, 
                                R is the flame photometer reading (ppm) 
                                39.1 is the atomic weight of K2 
3.4.2 Soil available Calcium (Ca) 
To a 10ml aliquot of the sample solution 10ml of 10% KOH and 1ml triethanolamine 
(TEA) were added. Three drops of 1M KCN solution and a few crystals of cal-red 
indicator were then added after which the mixture was titrated against 0.02N EDTA 
solution from red to blue end point. The titre value was used in the calculation of calcium 
as shown below.  
 
Ca (Cmol/Kg) =  
3.4.3 Soil available Magnesium (Mg) 
To a 10ml aliquot of the sample solution, 5ml of ammonium chloride – ammonium 
hydroxide buffer solution was added followed by 1ml of triethanolamine. Three drops of 
1M KCN solution and a few drops of Eriochrome black T solution were then added after 
which the mixture was titrated with 0.02N EDTA solution from red to blue end point. 
This end point titre value determines the amount of calcium and magnesium in the 
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solution. The titre value of magnesium was then determined by subtracting the value 
obtained for calcium above. This titre value of magnesium was then used for the 
calculation of the concentration of magnesium (Mg) as shown below.    
 
Mg (Cmol/ Kg) =  
3.4.4 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) 
Organic carbon was determined by the wet combustion method of Walkley and Black 
(1934). This method involves the reduction of the Cr2O7
2- ion by the organic matter and 
the unreduced Cr2O7
2- measured by titration with ammonium sulphate. The quantity of 
organic matter oxidized is calculated from the amount of Cr2O7
2- reduced. A 10ml of 1M 
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) solution and 20ml of concentrated sulphuric acid 
(H2SO4) were added to 0.5g of soil in a conical flask and digested for 2 hours. The 
K2CrO7 remaining in solution after the digestion was titrated against 0.2M ferrous 
ammonium sulphate using barium diphenylamine sulphonate as the indicator to a green 
end point. The titre values were used to calculate the % C from the formula below:  
 
                 Where, 
X = titre value of ferrous ammonium sulphate 
  N = normality of ferrous ammonium sulphate 
  W = weight of soil.  
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3.4.5 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 
Ten (10) gramme of soil sample was weighed into an extraction bottle and 100 mls of 1 
M ammonium acetate solution added. The bottle with its content was shaken for 30 
minutes on a mechanical shaker. The content was filtered through a No. 42 Whatman 
filter paper and the sample leached four times with 25 mls of methanol to wash off excess 
ammonium. Thereafter 25 mls of 1 M acidified potassium chloride was used to leach the 
soil four times. A 5 mL aliquot of the leachate was taken into a Markham distillation 
apparatus and 5 mls of 40% NaOH solution was added and distilled. The distillate was 
collected into 5 mls of 2% boric acid to which three drops of methyl red and methylene 
blue indicator were added. The distillate was back titrated against 0.01 M HCl to purplish 
end point. The cation exchange capacity in Cmolc/Kg soil was calculated from the 
number of moles of HCl consumed in the back titration.  
3.5 Soil Physical Properties 
3.5.1 Particle size analysis 
The particle size distribution was determined by the modified Bouyoucous hydrometer 
method described by Day (1965). Soils from 0 – 15 cm, 15 – 30 cm and 30 – 45 cm depth 
were analysed for clay, sand and silt content. Forty grams (40 g) of the 2 mm sieved soil 
was weighed into a beaker and 60 ml of 6% H2O2 was added to oxidize the organic 
matter. The content was transferred into a dispersion cup and mixed with 100 ml of 5% 
Calgon solution (Sodium hexametaphosphate). The suspension was shaken and 
transferred into a settling cylinder and was made up to the 1000 ml mark with distilled 
water. The suspension was agitated vigorously with a plunger and the time noted 
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immediately shaking was stopped. The temperature of the suspension was recorded after 
equilibration. The hydrometer was placed into the suspension and the first and second 
readings noted after 5 minutes and 5 hours, respectively. The suspension was then poured 
directly onto a 47 µm sieve and the particles retained on the sieve washed thoroughly 
with water and dried in an oven at 105 °C for 24 hours. The dried samples were weighed 
to represent the sand fraction. The particle size distribution was then determined using the 
following formulae: 
 
 
 
 
 
3.5.2 Experimental materials 
The mulberry cuttings for planting were obtained from already established farms which 
were five (5) years old or more. The cuttings with 4-5 buds and 30-45cm long were used. 
The Mysore local and S-36 varieties were obtained from Pukrom near Nsawam in the 
Akuapim South District and the Kanva-2 variety was obtained from Kwatre near Sunyani 
in the Sunyani West District. 
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The inorganic nitrogen fertilizers were obtained from Agricultural materials shop at 
Madina-Accra. The fertilizers consisted of Urea, Sulphate of ammonia and NPK 
(15:15:15). 
3.5.3 Experimental treatments and field layout 
A factorial experiment involving three inorganic nitrogen sources and three mulberry 
varieties and a control was conducted in a split-plot design with three replicates. There 
were three replications with each replication having twelve (12) plots. The land area for 
the experiment was 747.96m2 (54.2m × 13.8m). The blocks were 1.5m apart and the plots 
were spaced 1.0m. Each block was divided into three main plots and each main plot was 
split into four sub-plots making 12 plots per replication. The size per plot was 3.6m × 
3.6m (12.96m2) with plant spacing of 0.9m × 0.9m. The treatments tested were as 
follows:  
Main plots – Varieties 
V1, (Kanva-2) 
V 2, (S-36) 
V 3, (Mysore Local) 
Sub-plots – Nitrogen sources 
Control (N0) 
Urea: 100 kg N/ ha (N1) 
Sulphate of ammonia: 250kg N/ha (N2) 
NPK (15:15:15): 300kg N/ha (N3). 
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3.6 Cultivation Practices 
The cuttings were obtained from existing farms which were five and more years old. The 
length of the cuttings were 30-45cm with about 4-5 buds. A spacing of 0.9m × 0.9m was 
adopted. Each plot had twenty five (25) plants per plot. The planting was done in June, 
2012 which was the mid of the major rainy season in coastal Ghana. Weeds were 
controlled by hoeing as and when necessary. The incidence of pests such as termites was 
controlled using Hercules insecticide. This was applied at a rate of 50mls per 15Litres of 
water into the planting holes before planting. The incidence of mealybugs in the dry 
season was controlled using Cydim super (cypermethrin and dimethoate) at a rate of 
35mls in 15L of water. 
Supplementary water was applied using watering cans during periods of low soil 
moisture. 
3.6.1 Fertilizer application 
Three different sources of inorganic nitrogen (fertilizer) were applied in the form of urea, 
sulphate of ammonia and NPK 15:15:15. The fertilizer was applied at 8 and ten (10) 
weeks after planting in two equal splits using the ring method. The fertilizer was applied 
at rate of 100kg N/ha, 250kg N/ha and 300kg N/ha in the form of urea, Sulphate of 
ammonia and NPK (15:15:15).  
3.7 Data Collection 
Different growth parameters such as plant height, number of leaves per plant, stem 
diameter, number of branches per plant and leaf area were recorded. Other parameters 
taken included fresh and dry weight of leaves, fresh and dry weight of stems.  The 
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moisture and protein content of leaves at harvest was determined and the N, P, K, Ca and 
Mg content of the leaves and stems were determined. The growth parameters were taken 
at two weeks interval after first fertilizer application and fresh and dry weight of leaves 
were taken at 24 weeks of growth at the end of the first experiment. 
The height of plant in centimetres was measured from the base of the plant to the base of 
the fully opened leaves. The height of five randomly selected plants was measured using 
the meter rule and tape measure and the average values were recorded.  
The number of leaves per plant of five randomly selected plants per treatment was 
counted and the average values recorded. 
The diameter of five record plants per treatment was measured at 15cm from the base and 
recorded in millimetres (mm) and the average calculated and recorded. The diameter of 
new shoots was also recorded using venier calipers. 
The number of branches per plant was recorded from each record plant in a plot and the 
mean number of branches calculated as follows 
Number of branches per plant =   total number of branches 
                                               Number of plants     
 
3.7.1 Dry matter yield 
Two plants from each plot at random were selected. The plants were cut at 30cm above 
ground. The shoot was separated into leaves and stems and the fresh weight recorded. 
The samples were chopped into pieces and oven dried at 70 0 C for 72 hours to constant 
weight. The dry weight of leaves and stems were recorded and calculated in gram per 
plant. The weights were then computed in kilogram per plant.  
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3.8 Experiment 2: Regeneration of Mulberry Plants 
The experiment two investigated the influence of different sources of inorganic nitrogen 
on the growth and leaf quality of regenerated mulberry after bottom pruning. The six (6) 
months old plants were bottom pruned at a height of 30cm above ground with a sharp 
cutlass in December, 2012. The plants were allowed to regrow from January – February, 
2013 which was in the middle of the dry season in coastal Ghana.  
Three different inorganic fertilizers were applied in two equal dose to the pruned 
mulberry plants at a rate of 100kg N/ha, 250kg N/ha and 300kg N/ha in the form of urea, 
Sulphate of ammonia and NPK (15:15:15). 
The data collected on growth parameters were number of sprouts per plant, number of 
leaves, plant height, stem diameter and leaf area at two weeks interval after fertilizer 
application.  Other parameters measured were fresh and dry weight of leaves and fresh 
and dry weight of stems.  The moisture and protein content of leaves at harvest was 
determined and the N, P, K, Ca and Mg content of the leaves and stems were determined. 
Nutrients uptake by the crop was also determined by multiplying the dry weight of the 
plant parts by the nutrients concentration of the respective plant parts.  
3.9 Plant Analysis 
The parameters measured for leaf quality are moisture content (%), % crude protein, 
minerals and total sugars. The nutrient composition of the leaves and stems were also 
determined. The nutrients determined were; Nitrogen (%), phosphorus (%), potassium 
(%), magnesium (%) and calcium (%) at the end of each experiment. For the 
determination of N, P, K, Ca and Mg, the plant samples (leaves and stems) were 
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grounded into powder using a Willy type cutting mill, DIK-2900 (Daiki Rika Kogyo Co. 
Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) and passed through a 0.5mm sieve. 
3.9.1 Moisture content (%) 
Leaves were harvested from each treatment and preserved in polythene bags of which the 
fresh weight was taken. The leaves were oven dried at 700C for 48hrs and the dry weight 
recorded. The moisture content of the fresh leaves was computed as  
% moisture = fresh leaf weight (g) ˗ dry leaf weight (g) 
dry leaf weight (g)                               × 100 
3.9.2 Digestion of plant sample 
 0.1g of milled, oven-dried plant sample was weighed into a khedjal flask. Fifty (50) ml 
of concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) was added and the sample digested till it became 
clear on addition of drops of hydrogen peroxide
2 2H O
. The solution was then allowed 
to cool. The mixture was filtered into a 100mls volumetric flask and topped with distilled 
water to the mark. 
The determination of N, P, K, Ca and Mg was done by measuring specific volumes of the 
aliquot.  
3.9.3 Total Nitrogen 
The total nitrogen was estimated by Khedjal method (Jackson, 1973). 
Percent nitrogen was calculated as shown below:  
 
% N =  
 
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Where, 0.014 = milliequivalent of nitrogen  
 
3.9.4 Plant total Phosphorus (P) 
The P content in the extract was read using the ultraviolet visible spectrophotometer at a 
wavelength of 719 and calculated as below; 
Total P (%) = 
1000000aliquot x  x sample ofweight 
 x100 volumeextraction x readingmeter  
3.9.5 Plant Potassium (K) 
The K was determined using the flame photometer. The K was then calculated using the 
formula:  
   sample in the (%)K 
1000 x  x w1000
100 x f x V xb)-(a     
Where a  = concentration of potassium in the digest; b = concentration of flask of the 
blank digest; w = the weight of sample; v = volume of the digest solution and f = dilution 
factor 
3.9.6 Calcium and Magnesium 
Ca and Mg in the extract were determined using the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer 
(AAS). The concentration of calcium and magnesium in the plant sample expressed in 
percentage was calculated as follows: 
 
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3.9.7 Leaf crude protein 
The crude protein was calculated from the %N in leaf using the formula 
(%) Crude protein = % N (leaf) × 6.25.  
3.10 Statistical Analysis 
Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Genstat (version 
9.0) and descriptive statistics. Means were separated using L.S.D at p= 0.05. Graphs were 
drawn using Microsoft Excel 2010. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER FOUR 
RESULTS 
 
4.0 Status of Sericulture in Ghana  
4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Sericulture Farmers 
About 62.5% of the sericulture farmers were within the age group of 40-49 years old 
(Table 4.1). 
 
Table 4.1: Age of respondents in a sericulture farmer survey 
Age of respondent                            Frequency                                    Percentage (%) 
30-39      1 6.25 
40-49      10 62.5 
50-59      2 12.5 
60-69      1 6.25 
70-79       2 12.5 
 
About 52.9% and 23.5% of the sericulture farmers were Junior High School and Senior 
High School graduates, respectively (Fig. 4.1). Only 5.9% of the farmers had no formal 
education.  
 
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Figure 4.1: Level of Education of Respondents in a sericulture farmer survey 
Figure 4.2 shows the household size of the sericulture farmers. The household size of 1-5 
persons per family and 6-10 persons per family were 44% each.  
 
 
Figure 4.2: Household Size of Respondents 
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It was observed that sericulture was practiced in the Eastern, Western, Ashanti, Central, 
Volta, Brong-Ahafo and Northern Regions. However, in the process of identification, it 
was revealed that most farmers have abandoned mulberry cultivation. On the distribution 
of sericulture farmers, the results showed that 88.2%, 5.9% and 5.9% of them were found 
in Brong-Ahafo, Eastern and Northern Regions, respectively. 
The total farm land for the respondents in all the regions is 132.6 hectares of which 56 
hectares are used for mulberry cultivation. Table 4.2 shows the land distribution of the 
respondents in the regions and the land area cultivated to mulberry. 
 
Table 4. 2: Total land area and area cultivated to mulberry 
Region Total farm land (ha) Land area cultivated to mulberry (ha) 
B/A 119.8 43.2 
E/R 12 12 
N/R 0.8 0.8 
 
About 21% of the total land available to sericulture farmers in Ghana was used for 
mulberry cultivation. 
 
Figure 4.3: Total land area cultivated to mulberry and other crops in Ghana 
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4.2 Production and Marketing of Mulberry Grown in Ghana 
The common mulberry varieties grown in Ghana are Kanva-2, S-36 and Mysore local. 
About 83.3% of the farmers grew Kanva-2, 5.6% grew Mysore local whiles 11.1% grew 
S-36 and Mysore local (Table 4.3). The Kanva-2 is widely grown in the Brong-Ahafo 
Region. 
 
Table 4.3: Varieties of mulberry grown in Ghana 
Region Mulberry variety cultivated Frequency Percentage (%) 
B/A Kanva-2 15 83.3 
E/R S-36, Mysore local 2 11.1 
N/R Mysore local 1 5.6 
 
Out of the seventeen (17) respondents who cultivated mulberry, 8 said the variety they 
grew was the one available to them and 5 said it was high yielding. Three said it was the 
only variety they knew whiles 1 person said it was well adapted to the local climate. 
Figure 4.5 represents the frequencies and reasons why farmers grew particular mulberry 
varieties. 
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Figure 4.4: Reasons why farmers grow particular mulberry varieties 
 
Figure 4.5 below shows that lack of markets for cocoon, price discrimination and 
fluctuation, Lack of knowledge of farmers on the existence of market outside Ghana for 
cocoons and lack of reeling centres accounted for 59%, 22%, 15% and 4% of the 
constraints.  
   
 
  
  
  
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4. 5: Challenges in marketing of Cocoons 
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4.3 Rearing of Silkworm egg in Ghana 
Silkworm egg imported into the country was from India, Sericulture Promotion and 
Development Association (SPDA) Ghana, Kenya and Belgium in the percentages of 
38%, 33%, 24% and 5% respectively. 
 
 
Figure 4.6: Sources of Silkworm egg supply to Ghana 
 
The race of silkworm reared in Ghana is the Bivoltine. 29.4% reared the bivoltine 
because it was the race available, 23.53% reared the race because it spins good quality 
cocoons, 11.76% reared bivoltine because it was commercially viable. Also, 5.88% of the 
sericulture farmers in Ghana reared the bivoltine because it was recommended to them by 
SPDA because it was adapted to the climatic conditions of the country (Figure 4.7).  
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Figure 4.7: Reasons for rearing Bivoltine Silkworm race 
4.4 Sericulture Training Programmes 
It was observed that 71% of the farmers did not attend training programme in sericulture 
whiles 29% of the farmers attended training programmes in sericulture.  
4.5 Sources of Finance and Profitability of Mulberry 
Only 17.6% of the sericulture farmers interviewed had access to credit. In general, 
majority of the farmers indicated that the sericulture business was profitable (Table 4.4). 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4. 4: Profitability of Sericulture 
Item Frequency Percentage 
Not profitable 1 
 
5.9 
Profitable 12 
 
70.6 
Very profitable 1 
 
5.9 
Not very profitable 3 
 
17.6 
 
4.6 Field Experiment 1: 
4.6.1 Soil physical and chemical properties 
The result of the initial soil analysis showed that the soil used for the cultivation was 
acidic, had low organic matter content and was low in nutrients especially nitrogen (N) 
and K (Table 4.5). The soil was sandy (59.7%) which meant that water retention was low 
and nutrient leaching was high. 
Table 4. 5: Soil Physical and chemical properties 
    % Sand    % Silt     % Clay    pH(1:1 H2O)   OC      N            P             K           Na         Ca         Mg     CEC 
    59.7          16.04      24.2        4.51                 0.46     0.085      13.94      0.544     1.202     3.22      2.5      34.731 
 
 
Plant height 
The influence of inorganic N sources on plant height of mulberry is shown in Figs 4.8a- 
d. Plant height was significantly increased (p< 0.05) by urea followed by SoA. NPK 
recorded lower heights than the other sources. S-36 and Mysore local produced 
significantly (P< 0.05) taller plants compared to Kanva-2 in the urea and SoA treated 
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plots (Figs. 4.8a & b). However, Mysore local was significantly shorter than S-36 and 
Kanva-2 in the NPK treated plants (Fig. 4.8c). Plants were significantly taller in Kanva-2 
by Mysore local in the control. On the other hand, S-36 recorded significantly lower 
heights in the control plots compared to the other varieties (Fig. 4.8d).  
 
 
Figure 4. 8a: Influence of Urea on plant height (cm) 
 
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Figure 4.8b: Influence of SoA on plant height (cm) 
 
Figure 4.8c: Influence of NPK on plant height (cm) 
 
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Figure 4.8d: The height of control plants (cm) 
 
Number of leaves per plant 
Significant increase (P< 0.05) in number of leaves was observed among the nitrogen 
sources. Nitrogen significantly increased the number of leaves in Mysore local more than 
S-36. The lowest number of leaves was produced by Kanva-2 in the N treated plots 
(Figures 4.9a-c). However, more leaves were produced by Kanva-2 in the control plots 
compared to the other varieties. On the average, application of urea resulted in the 
production of more leaves than SoA and NPK. NPK treated mulberry produced the 
lowest number of leaves among the N sources.  
 
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Figure 4.9 a: Influence of Urea on number of leaves (cm) 
 
 
Figure 4.9 b: Influence of SoA on number of leaves 
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Figure 4.9 c: Influence of NPK on number of leaves 
 
 
Figure 4.9 d: Number of leaves per plant in the control 
 
 
 
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Stem diameter 
Figures 4.10a-d shows the stem diameter of mulberry as affected by the N sources. No 
significant difference was observed among the N sources with reference to stem 
diameter. However, SoA treated plants had the largest stem diameter. Among the 
mulberry varieties, Mysore local was observed to have the highest stem diameter in urea, 
NPK and control plots. S-36 had the highest stem diameter in SoA treated plants. No 
significant interaction was recorded. 
 
 
Figure 4.10 a: Influence of Urea on stem diameter 
 
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Figure 4.10 b: Influence of SoA on stem diameter 
 
 
Figure 4.10 c: Influence of NPK on stem diameter 
 
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Figure 4.10 d: Stem diameter of control mulberry plants 
 
 
Number of branches per plant 
Table 4.6 shows the influence of inorganic N on the number of branches per plant at 21 
WAP 1. No significant (P< 0.05) difference was recorded among the varieties, N sources 
and the interactions. However, the maximum number of branches (7.0) was produced by 
plants that were fertilized with NPK compared to the control (6.0). Similarly, no 
significant difference occurred among the varieties in the number of branches noticed. 
However, the highest number of branches (9.0) was produced by Mysore local. S-36 and 
Kanva-2 produced similar number of branches (Table 4.6). 
 
 
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Table 4.6: Influence of inorganic N on number of branches per plant at 21 WAP 1 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 5.0 5.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 
 
S-36  
 
5.0 
 
4.0 
 
6.0 
 
6.0 
 
5.0 
 
Mysore local  
 
9.0 
 
9.0 
 
9.0 
 
10.0 
 
9.0 
 
Mean 
 
6.0 
 
6.0 
 
6.0 
 
7.0 
 
LSD (0.05): V= NS;    V= NS;    V x N= NS. 
 
Leaf fresh weight (g) 
Leaf fresh weight was significantly (P< 0.05) increased with the application of N. In table 
4.7 significant differences exists between leaf fresh weight of plants that received SoA 
and urea. Urea, SoA and NPK increased leaf fresh weight by 6.4%, 8.3% and 8.1%, 
respectively more than the control. Similarly, S-36 produced higher leaf fresh weight than 
Kanva-2 and Mysore local. Also, no significant interaction was recorded between the 
varieties and the N sources.  
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.7: Influence of inorganic N on leaf fresh weight at 21 WAP 1 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 125.6 178.4 192.2 183.1 169.8 
 
S-36  
 
135.8 
 
169.1 
 
198.1 
 
188.7 
 
172.9 
 
Mysore local  
 
128.8 
 
171.1 
 
167.1 
 
183.1 
 
162.5 
 
Mean 
 
130.1 
 
172.9 
 
185.8 
 
185.0 
 
Lsd (0.05): V= 11.9;      N= 10.8;     V x N= 18.2. 
 
Leaf dry weight (g) 
The production and partitioning of dry matter to plant parts was significantly (P< 0.05) 
influenced by the application of different sources of inorganic nitrogen. The highest leaf 
dry weight (69.4g) was obtained in NPK treated plots and the lowest dry weight (49.4g) 
was produced in control plots (Table 4.8). There was no varietal difference in terms of 
leaf dry weight, however, the highest leaf dry weight (66.2g) was produced by Mysore 
local. Significant interaction was noticed.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.8: Influence of inorganic nitrogen and mulberry variety on mulberry leaf 
dry weight (g/plant) 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 47.7 69.5 66.6 64.0 61.9 
 
S-36  
 
49.5 
 
58.3 
 
53.3 
 
73.4 
 
58.6 
 
Mysore local  
 
50.9 
 
68.5 
 
74.3 
 
70.8 
 
66.2 
 
Mean 
 
49.4 
 
65.4 
 
64.8 
 
69.4 
 
LSD (0.05): V= NS;         N= 4.526;            V x N= 9.897       
 
Leaf fresh yield (kg/ha) 
Significant (P< 0.05) increase in fresh leaf yield was observed due to the application of 
the different N sources. SoA and NPK application resulted in higher leaf yield. However, 
SoA and NPK did not produce significant increase. Although varietal effect was non-
significant, S-36 produced significantly (P< 0.05) higher yield (2135kg/ha) compared to 
Kanva-2 (2097kg/ha) and Mysore local (2007kg/ha) (Table 4.9). Also, the application of 
SoA to S-36 produced higher leaf fresh yield compared to other N sources. N treated 
plants performed better than the control. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.9: Nitrogen influence on fresh leaf yield (kg/ha) of mulberry 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 1550 2203 2373 2261 2097 
 
S-36  
 
1677 
 
2088 
 
2446 
 
2330 
 
2135 
 
Mysore local  
 
1677 
 
2112 
 
2063 
 
2260 
 
2007 
 
Mean 
 
1606 
 
2135 
 
2294 
 
2284 
 
Lsd (0.05): V= 146.6;          N= 132.7;         V x N= 225.2.      
 
Leaf dry yield (kg/ha) 
Inorganic N produced significant increase (P< 0.05) in dry leaf yield at 21 WAP 1 (Table 
4.10). NPK had the highest dry leaf yield and this was followed by urea. SoA and urea 
did not produce any significant effect. The N treated plants had higher leaf yield than the 
control. No significant varietal influence was observed. However, Mysore local recorded 
the highest (817.3kg/ha) leaf dry yield (Table 4.10). There was significant interaction 
among between nitrogen and mulberry varieties. 
 
Table 4.10: Influence of Nitrogen on dry leaf yield (kg/ha) of mulberry 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 589.3 858.5 823.1 790.6 765.3 
 
S-36  
 
611.3 
 
720.4 
 
658.9 
 
906.4 
 
724.2 
 
Mysore local  
 
629.2 
 
846.5 
 
918.3 
 
875.1 
 
817.3 
 
Mean 
 
610.0 
 
808.5 
 
800.1 
 
857.4 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 111.3;           N= 55.88;          V x N= 122.19. 
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Stem fresh weight (g) 
Table 4.11 shows that stem fresh weight was significantly (P< 0.05) influenced by N 
sources at 21 WAP 1 more than the control. The effect urea was significantly different 
from NPK. No Significant variety and interaction was recorded at 21 WAP 1.  However, 
the highest stem fresh weight (186.4g) was produced by S-36.  
Table 4. 11: Influence of inorganic N on stem fresh weight of mulberry 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 98.9 173.8 169.7 160.4 150.7 
 
S-36  
 
119.8 
 
217.7 
 
186.0 
 
222.3 
 
186.4 
 
Mysore local  
 
103.0 
 
232.1 
 
230.6 
 
159.4 
 
181.3 
 
Mean 
 
107.2 
 
207.9 
 
195.4 
 
180.7 
 
Lsd (0.05): V= 37.5;      N= 27.08;     V x N= 49.3. 
Stem dry weight (g) 
Significant (P< 0.05) impact of N sources on stem dry weight was observed. Urea 
recorded the highest (83.7g/plant) stem dry weight. Table 4.12 shows no significant 
difference between stem dry weight of plants fertilized with urea and SoA and also 
between SoA and NPK. The N treated plants had greater stem dry weights than the 
control. No significant variety and nitrogen source interaction was observed. However, 
Mysore local produced significantly (P< 0.05) higher dry weight (82.9g/plant) than 
Kanva-2 (61.1g/plant) and S-36 (71.3g/plant). 
 
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Table 4. 12: Influence of N sources on stem dry weight (g) of mulberry 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 44.1 70.5 66.1 63.9 61.1 
 
S-36 
 
59.4 
 
78.1 
 
67.7 
 
80.0 
 
71.3 
 
Mysore local  
 
62.2 
 
102.6 
 
103.5 
 
63.0 
 
82.9 
 
Mean 
 
55.2 
 
83.7 
 
79.1 
 
69.0 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 28.4;         N= 12.9;         V x N= 30.1.  
Total Shoot Yield (kg/ha) 
Total shoot yield which comprising of leaves and stems was significantly influenced by 
the N sources. The N sources significantly (P< 0.05) increased the total shoot yield of the 
varieties more than the control (Table 4.13). NPK treated plots recorded the lowest shoot 
yield (1713kg/ha) among the N sources. Mysore local had significantly larger shoot yield 
(1993kg/ha) than Kanva-2 and S-36. Significant interaction was observed between 
nitrogen source and varieties of mulberry. 
Table 4.13: Influence of inorganic N sources on total shoot yield at 21 WAP 1 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 1190 1717 1875 1580 1590 
 
S-36  
 
1243 
 
1725 
 
1495 
 
1893 
 
1589 
 
Mysore local  
 
1397 
 
2312 
 
2599 
 
1665 
 
1993 
 
Mean 
 
1277 
 
1918 
 
1990 
 
1713 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 172.6;           N= 164.7;          V x N= 276.0.     
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Fresh stem yield (kg/ha) 
Table 4.14 shows significant increase in fresh stem yield due to application of N sources. 
Urea treated plants recorded the highest stem yield (2566kg/ha) followed by SoA 
(2413kg/ha) treated plants. The application of urea and SoA to Mysore local produced 
higher fresh stem yield than the application of NPK to Mysore local. Control plots 
recorded the lowest yield. 
 
Table 4.14: Influence of N sources on fresh stem yield (kg/ha) of mulberry varieties 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 1221 2146 2096 1981 1861 
 
S-36  
 
1479 
 
2688 
 
2296 
 
2744 
 
2302 
 
Mysore local  
 
1272 
 
2865 
 
2847 
 
1968 
 
2238 
 
Mean 
 
1324 
 
2566 
 
2413 
 
2231 
 
Lsd (0.05): V= 463.2;       N= 334.4;     V x N= 609.1 
Dry stem yield (kg/ha) 
There was significant (P< 0.05) increase in dry stem yield with the application of 
inorganic N (Table 4.15). SoA produced the highest yield followed by Urea. There was a 
significant difference between SoA and NPK in dry stem productivity.  The lowest yield 
was observed in control plots. Influence of variety was non-significant. However, Mysore 
local yielded better than Kanva-2 and S-36. Significant interaction was observed between 
varieties and nitrogen sources. 
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Table 4.15: Influence of N sources on stem dry yield (kg/ha) of mulberry 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 524 858 865 789 759 
 
S-36 
 
631 
 
876 
 
836 
 
987 
 
833 
 
Mysore local  
 
768 
 
1267 
 
1454 
 
778 
 
1067 
 
Mean 
 
641 
 
1001 
 
1052 
 
851 
 
Lsd (0.05): V= 306.7;           N= 168.0;       V x N= 348.6 
4.6.2 Leaf quality parameters 
Leaf moisture (%) 
The leaf moisture content was significantly (P< 0.05) increased due to application of 
Nitrogen.  The highest moisture content of fresh leaves was obtained with the application 
of SoA (85.5%) followed by NPK (85%) and urea (72.9%). Varieties effect on leaf 
moisture content was non-significant. However, S-36 recorded the highest (73%) leaf 
moisture content.  
Table 4.16: Influence of N source and Variety on fresh leaf moisture (%) 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 25.6 78.4 92.2 83.1 69.8 
 
S-36  
 
35.8 
 
69.2 
 
98.1 
 
88.7 
 
73.0 
 
Mysore local  
 
28.8 
 
71.1 
 
67.1 
 
83.1 
 
62.5 
 
Mean 
 
30.1 
 
72.9 
 
85.8 
 
85.0 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 11.9;      N= 10.8;     V x N= 18.2 
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Crude Protein (%)  
Application of Nitrogen from different sources significantly (P< 0.05) increased the crude 
protein of mulberry leaf. SoA and NPK greatly improved the protein content (36.58% 
and 35.43%) of mulberry leaves (Table 4.17) more than urea. No significant (P< 0.05) 
difference was obtained among the varieties. However, S-36 recorded the highest leaf 
protein (34.87%). The application of SoA to S-36 produced the highest leaf moisture 
(39.0%) content. 
Table 4.17: Leaf Crude protein (%) of fresh leaf 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 31.3 32.4 35.0 33.8 33.1 
 
S-36  
 
32.5 
 
32.9 
 
39.0 
 
35.3 
 
34.9 
 
Mysore local  
 
32.6 
 
33.2 
 
35.7 
 
37.1 
 
34.7 
 
Mean 
 
32.1 
 
32.8 
 
36.6 
 
35.4 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 1.5;        N= 0.8;       V x N= 1.7 
 
Leaf mineral content (%) 
The mean leaf mineral content of N treated plots was significantly higher (P< 0.05) than 
the control plots. The highest mineral content (6.602%) was achieved due to NPK 
application. There was significant interaction between varieties and N sources (Table 
4.18). The highest (7.328%) interaction effect was produced by NPK and Mysore local 
interaction. The highest mineral (6.669%) composition was measured in Mysore local.  
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Table 4.18: Influence of inorganic N on leaf mineral (%) composition 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 6.225 5.895 6.561 5.815 6.124 
 
S-36 
 
5.852 
 
6.899 
 
6.943 
 
6.662 
 
6.589 
 
Mysore local 
 
6.535 
 
6.951 
 
5.861 
 
7.328 
 
6.669 
 
Mean 
 
6.204 
 
6.582 
 
6.455 
 
6.602 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 0.0860;       N= 0.1435;         V x N= 0.2229.  
Nitrogen uptake into leaf  
Uptake of N into leaf was significantly (P< 0.05) enhanced by the application of N 
sources. The uptake of N into leaf increased with the application NPK followed by urea 
(Table 4.19). Nitrogen uptake as a result of application of SoA and urea were not 
significantly different from each other. There was no significant varietal effect but 
interaction between variety and nitrogen source was significant. Mysore local recorded 
the highest N uptake when NPK was applied. This was the same for S-36. 
 
Table 4.19: Influence of N sources on N uptake into leaf 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 245.2 352.1 339.3 344.1 320.2 
 
S-36  
 
251.9 
 
301.9 
 
301.0 
 
438.6 
 
323.3 
 
Mysore local  
 
294.3 
 
437.0 
 
399.2 
 
492.5 
 
405.7 
 
Mean 
 
263.8 
 
363.7 
 
346.5 
 
425.1 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 70.0;      N= 28.9;       V x N= 72.5. 
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4.7 Field Experiment 2: 
4.7.1 Influence of inorganic nitrogen on regeneration, growth and leaf quality of 
mulberry varieties after pruning 
Number of sprouts per plant 
The number of sprouts after pruning was significantly (P< 0.05) influenced by the 
application of inorganic N sources. There was significant difference among the varieties 
with reference to the number of sprouts after pruning (Figure 4.11). S-36 had the highest 
number of sprouts followed by Kanva-2. The number of sprouts in Mysore local 
decreased at week 6 after pruning. 
 
 
Figure 4.11: Influence of inorganic N on number of sprouts per plant after pruning 
 
Plant height (cm) 
Plant height of mulberry as influenced by N sources is indicated in (Figures 4.12a-d). 
Significant influence of inorganic N sources was observed. Mysore local had the highest 
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plant height. S-36 had the highest plant height in the control. Among the N sources, NPK 
had taller plants as compared to the other N sources.  
 
 
 
Figure 4.12 a: Influence of Urea on plant height after pruning 
 
 
Figure 4.12 b: Influence of SoA on plant height after pruning 
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Figure 4.12 c: Influence of NPK on plant height after pruning 
 
 
Figure 4.12 d: Height of control plants after pruning 
 
 
 
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Number of leaves  
 The number of leaves increased significantly (P< 0.05) at application of inorganic N.  
The number of leaves of Mysore local was significantly more than any of the varieties in 
the treated plots. However, S-36 had more leaves in the control than Mysore local. The 
increase in number of leaves was in the order of NPK > Urea > SoA. The control plots 
had the lowest number of leaves in all the varieties. 
 
 
 
Figure 4.13 a: Influence of Urea on number of leaves per plant after pruning 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Figure 4.13 b: Influence of SoA on number of leaves per plant after pruning 
 
 
Figure 4.13 c: Influence of NPK on number of leaves per plant in experiment 2 
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Figure 4.13 d: Number of leaves per plant in the control treatment 
 
Stem diameter 
The stem diameter per plant was significantly influenced by the application of inorganic 
N sources (Figures 4.14a-d). The application of urea and NPK increased the stem 
diameter of Mysore local more than the other varieties. SoA on the other hand, increased 
the stem diameter of S-36 more than Kanva-2 and Mysore local. The control favoured 
Kanva-2 in terms of diameter growth. The influence of NPK and SoA on stem diameter 
was non-significant.     
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Figure 4.14 a: Influence of Urea on stem diameter after pruning 
 
 
Figure 4.14 b: Influence of SoA on stem diameter after pruning 
 
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Figure 4.14 c: Influence of NPK on stem diameter after pruning 
 
Figure 4.14 d: Influence of Control on stem diameter after pruning 
 
 
 
 
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Leaf fresh weight (g) 
N sources had significant (P< 0.05) effect on fresh leaf weight. The highest leaf fresh 
weight (457.1 g/plant) was produced in NPK treated plots followed by Urea 
(401.1g/plant) and SoA (335.3g/plant). The control produced the lowest leaf fresh 
weight. Significant difference was observed among the N sources (Table 4.20). There 
was no varietal effect on leaf fresh weight. However, S-36 recorded higher leaf yield than 
Kanva-2 and Mysore local. There was significant interaction between variety and 
nitrogen source. 
 
Table 4.20: Influence of nitrogen on leaf fresh weight (g) at 8 weeks after pruning 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 219.8 361.4 353.5 394.3 332.2 
 
S-36  
 
269.3 
 
468.1 
 
355.2 
 
484.7 
 
394.3 
 
Mysore local  
 
229.2 
 
373.8 
 
297.4 
 
492.2 
 
348.1 
 
Mean 
 
219.0 
 
401.1 
 
335.3 
 
457.1 
 
LSD (0.05):   V= 50.2;         N= 36.7;      V x N = 66.5.  
 
Leaf dry weight (g/plant) 
Leaf dry weight was significantly (P< 0.05) influenced by inorganic N sources. 
Differences among N sources were significant (Table 4.21). Urea treated plants produced 
significantly higher leaf dry weight (123.2g/plant) than NPK (108.4g/plant) and SoA 
(106.0g/plant). No significant difference was observed between plants that were fertilized 
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with SoA and NPK. Also, no significant varietal influence was observed. However, S-36 
produced higher leaf weight than Kanva-2 and Mysore (Table 4.21). There was no 
significant interaction between the varieties and N sources. 
 
Table 4.21: Influence of nitrogen source on leaf dry weight (g) of mulberry at 8 
weeks after pruning 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 67.3 99.8 95.5 98.4 90.3 
 
S-36 
 
76.9 
 
144.3 
 
135.9 
 
138.0 
 
123.8 
 
Mysore local  
 
69.1 
 
125.4 
 
86.5 
 
88.8 
 
92.5 
 
Mean 
 
71.1 
 
123.2 
 
106.0 
 
108.4 
 
LSD (0.05):  V= 31.0;          N= 17.1;           V x N = 35.4. 
 
Fresh leaf weight (kg/ha) 
There was significant (P< 0.05) impact of N sources on fresh leaf yield of mulberry 
varieties. There was also significant difference among N sources with respect to leaf fresh 
weight (Table 4.22). The highest fresh leaf weight (2821kg/ha) was obtained in NPK 
treated plants and the least(1478kg/ha) in the control plants. No significant varietal 
influence was recorded. However, S-36 performed better than Kanva-2 and Mysore local. 
Significant interaction was observed among varieties and nitrogen sources. 
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Table 4.22: Influence of N sources on leaf fresh weight (kg/ha) 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 1357 2231 2182 2434 2051 
 
S-36  
 
1663 
 
2890 
 
2192 
 
2992 
 
2434 
 
Mysore local  
 
1415 
 
2307 
 
1836 
 
3039 
 
2149 
 
Mean 
 
1478 
 
2476 
 
2070 
 
2821 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 310.0;        N= 226.4;         V x N= 410.6  
Dry leaf weight (kg/ha) 
The leaf dry weight of mulberry was significantly (P< 0.05) influenced by N sources 
applied. Urea application significantly increased leaf dry weight of mulberry varieties 
more than SoA and NPK. NPK and urea treated plots were non-significant. Variety had 
no significant impact on leaf dry weight. However, S-36 yielded (764kg/ha) more than 
Kanva-2 (557kg/ha) and Mysore local (571kg/ha). Similarly, interaction effect was non-
significant but the highest interaction effect (891kg/ha) was between S-36 and urea 
(Table 4.23). 
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Table 4.2314: Effect of N sources on leaf dry yield of mulberry 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 416 616 590 607 557 
 
S-36  
 
474 
 
891 
 
839 
 
852 
 
764 
 
Mysore local  
 
427 
 
774 
 
534 
 
548 
 
571 
 
Mean 
 
439 
 
760 
 
654 
 
669 
 
Lsd (0.05): V= 191.4;        N= 105.8;      V x N= 218.4. 
Stem fresh weight (g/plant) 
The stem fresh weight of mulberry varieties after pruning was significantly (P< 0.05) 
influenced by the application of inorganic sources of N. Table 4.31 shows significant 
differences among the N sources. Stem fresh weight as a result of NPK and urea 
application were significantly different from each other. However, NPK and urea 
increased stem fresh weight by 18.3% and 11.8%, respectively more than the control 
(Table 4.24). Mysore local had higher stem fresh weight (284g/plant) than Kanva-2 
(204g/plant) and S-36 (264g/plant). Mysore local and S-36 were not significantly 
different from each other. 
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Table 4.25: Influence of inorganic N on stem fresh weight (g) at 8 weeks after 
pruning 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 131 233 222 230 204 
 
S-36  
 
175 
 
261 
 
263 
 
357 
 
264 
 
Mysore local  
 
158 
 
324 
 
226 
 
428 
 
284 
 
Mean 
 
154 
 
273 
 
237 
 
338 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 61.5;       N= 72.6;    V x N= 116.9. 
 
Stem dry weight (g/plant) 
Table 4.26 indicates N sources significantly (P< 0.05) influenced the stem dry weight of 
mulberry. Significant difference was observed between the application of NPK and SoA. 
The highest stem dry weight (121.5g/plant) was recorded at the application of NPK 
followed by urea (101.8g/plant). Table 4.32 shows Mysore local had significantly (P< 
0.05) higher stem dry weight followed by S-36. However, no significant difference was 
observed between Mysore local and S-36. 
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Table 4.26: Influence of inorganic N on stem dry weight 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 47.5 85.0 78.1 79.3 72.4 
 
S-36  
 
62.0 
 
103.0 
 
88.9 
 
127.8 
 
95.4 
 
Mysore local  
 
64.0 
 
117.3 
 
88.8 
 
157.3 
 
  106.9 
 
Mean 
 
57.8 
 
101.8 
 
85.3 
 
121.5 
 
LSD (0.05): V = 15.3;        N= 24.9;         V x N= 38.7. 
 
Stem fresh weight (kg/ha) 
N sources significantly (P< 0.05) impacted stem fresh weight of mulberry varieties. Table 
4.33 indicates significant difference among varieties and N sources. The highest stem 
fresh yield (2089kg/ha) was obtained in NPK treated plots and the lowest (953kg/ha) in 
the control plots (Table 4.27). Stem fresh yield was highest (1754kh/ha) in Mysore local 
than the other varieties. Stem fresh weight of S-36 and Mysore local were not 
significantly different from each other. 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.27: Influence of N sources on stem fresh weight (kg/ha) at 8 weeks after 
pruning 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 807 1439 1371 1421 1259 
 
S-36  
 
1078 
 
1608 
 
1621 
 
2201 
 
1627 
 
Mysore local  
 
974 
 
2002 
 
1396 
 
2644 
 
1754 
 
Mean 
 
953 
 
1683 
 
1463 
 
2089 
 
LSD (P0.05): V= 379.5;         N= 448.0;       V x N= 721.6 
 
Stem dry weight (kg/ha) 
The difference in stem dry weight of mulberry was significantly different (P< 0.05) 
among N sources. The lowest stem dry weight (357kg/ha) was produced in control plots. 
NPK and urea increased stem dry yield more than SoA. NPK and urea were not 
significantly different from each other. In the same way, Mysore local yielded 
significantly better than Kanva-2 and S-36. However, S-36 and Mysore local had no 
significant difference (Table 4.28). 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.28: Influence of N sources on stem dry weight of mulberry varieties (kg/ha) 
at 8 weeks after pruning 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 292 525 482 490 447 
 
S-36  
 
383 
 
636 
 
549 
 
789 
 
589 
 
Mysore local  
 
395 
 
724 
 
548 
 
971 
 
660 
 
Mean 
 
357 
 
628 
 
526 
 
750 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 94.2;         N= 153.6;       V x N= 238.9. 
 
Total shoot yield (kg/ha) 
The total shoot yield (leaves and stems) was significantly (P< 0.05) influenced by N 
sources. The N treated plants had significantly higher shoot yield than the control. Urea 
and NPK treated plots were not significantly different from each other. No significant 
difference was observed between S-36 and Mysore local. However, Kanva-2 had 
significantly lower shoot yield (1004kg/ha) across N sources compared to S-36 
(1353kg/ha) and Mysore local (1231kg/ha) (Table 4.29).  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.29: Influence of N sources on total shoot yield (kg/ha) after pruning 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 708 1141 1072 1097 1004 
 
S-36  
 
857 
 
1526 
 
1387 
 
1641 
 
1353 
 
Mysore local  
 
822 
 
1499 
 
1083 
 
1519 
 
1231 
 
Mean 
 
796 
 
1389 
 
1181 
 
1419 
 
LSD (P< 0.05): V= 197.9;         N= 213.8;      V x N= 349.4.  
 
4.7.2 Leaf quality parameters 
Leaf moisture content (%) 
Table 4.30 shows the mean values for moisture content of fresh leaves. There was 
significant (P< 0.05) influence of inorganic N sources on leaf moisture content. The 
highest leaf moisture (76.2%) was obtained in NPK treated plots and the least (69.33%) 
obtained from urea treated plots. However, no significant difference in leaf moisture 
content existed between urea and SoA. Influence of variety on moisture content of leaves 
was not significant. However, Kanva-2 recorded the highest moisture content (72.4%). 
The application of NPK to Mysore local produced the highest (81.95%) leaf moisture 
content. 
 
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Table 4.30: Influence of N sources on leaf moisture content of mulberry varieties 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 69.4 72.4 73.0 75.1 72.4 
 
S-36  
 
71.0 
 
69.2 
 
61.8 
 
71.5 
 
68.4 
 
Mysore local  
 
68.8 
 
66.4 
 
71.0 
 
82.0 
 
72.0 
 
Mean 
 
69.7 
 
69.3 
 
68.5 
 
76.2 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 3.6;    N= 4.4;    V x N = 7.0 
 
Crude protein (%) 
The protein content of the leaves was positively influenced by the application of 
inorganic N. Application of urea recorded significantly (P< 0.05) higher (34.6%) protein 
content than NPK (28.1%) and SoA (27.2%). No significant difference was observed 
between Urea and SoA. No significant varietal effect was observed. However, S-36 had 
the highest protein (26.8%) followed by Mysore local (26.3) (Tale 4.31). 
Table 4.31: Influence of N on leaf protein content (%) 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 14.6 35.1 26.3 27.7 25.9 
 
S-36  
 
16.3 
 
34.4 
 
27.1 
 
29.2 
 
26.8 
 
Mysore local  
 
15.2 
 
34.4 
 
28.3 
 
27.4 
 
       26.3  
 
Mean 
 
15.4 
 
34.6 
 
27.2 
 
28.1 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 3.5;     N= 2.3;     V x N= 4.4. 
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Leaf mineral content (%)   
Significant (P< 0.05) influence of inorganic N sources on the mineral content of mulberry 
leaf was observed. The highest mineral content (9.2%) was recorded by the application of 
urea followed by NPK and the lowest was recorded in the control. No significant 
difference was observed between urea and NPK (Table 4.32). Mysore local recorded the 
highest mineral content and the lowest by Kanva-2. No significant difference existed 
between S-36 and Mysore local. 
 
Table 4.32: Influence of inorganic N sources on mineral composition of mulberry 
leaf 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 5.7 8.6 8.2 8.7 7.8 
 
S-36  
 
5.8 
 
9.6 
 
8.6 
 
9.1 
 
8.3 
 
Mysore local 
 
6.1 
 
9.4 
 
8.9 
 
9.7 
 
8.5 
 
Mean 
 
5.9 
 
9.2 
 
8.5 
 
9.2 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 0.3376;       N= 0.3485;      V x N= NS 
 
Nitrogen uptake into leaf (g/plant) 
N sources significantly (P< 0.05) influenced the uptake of N into the leaf. There was 
significant increase in the uptake of N into the leaf in the N treated plots compared to the 
control. Urea, SoA and NPK increased the uptake of N into leaf by 27.9%, 16% and 
17.3% folds, respectively compared to the control. There was no significant difference 
between SoA and NPK in N uptake. S-36 had higher leaf N than Kanva-2 and Mysore 
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local. There was no significant difference between Mysore local and Kanva-2 (Table 
4.33).    
 
Table 4.33: Influence of N sources on leaf N after pruning 
Variety Nitrogen source Mean 
Control Urea SoA NPK 
Kanva-2 157 560 407 431 389 
 
S-36  
 
202 
 
783 
 
589 
 
644 
 
555 
 
Mysore local 
 
166 
 
691 
 
391 
 
386 
 
408 
 
Mean 
 
175 
 
678 
 
463 
 
487 
 
LSD (0.05): V= 88.5;     N= 87.4;      V x N= 145.3. 
 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
DISCUSSION 
5.0 The Status of Sericulture in Ghana 
5.1 Demographic Characteristics of Sericulture Farmers 
The results indicate that economically active labour force is engaged in sericulture. More 
males are engaged in silk farming in Ghana than females. Olaleye (2000) reported that 
there are more males into rural agriculture than females in Nigeria. It was also observed 
that the majority of sericulture farmers are educated and this directly linked with 
technology adoption and productivity. The educated farmers are likely to be more 
productive as compared than uneducated farmers. Sericulture is a venture which requires 
specialized skills and this may be attributed to the high level of education among the 
farmers.   
The study revealed that the household size of sericulture farmers in Ghana is large. The 
large family sizes serve as sources of family labour, since large households will pay less 
for labour and reduce the cost of production thereby increasing the income of farmers.   
The Brong-Ahafo Region has the highest number of sericulture farmers. This may be 
attributed to the favourable climatic and environmental factors for the growth of mulberry 
and rearing of the silkworm. The climatic and environmental factors prevailing in the 
Northern Region may not be conducive for the production of cocoons throughout the 
year. Hence, the fewer number of silk farmers in that Region. 
The challenges which beset the sericulture industry may have contributed to the low 
cocoon production and low patronage of the industry by farmers. It may be the same 
reason why farmers cultivate other crops other than mulberry and also why farmers use it 
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as subsidiary instead of full time occupation. Savithri et al. (2013) has reported similar 
challenges in India.  
The results show that most of the silkworm eggs were imported from India indicating the 
keen interest of India in promoting sericulture in Ghana. Kenya has similar climatic and 
environmental conditions as Ghana. Due to these factors, worms from Kenya would be 
better adapted to the Ghanaian conditions than those from other countries.  
5.2 Influence of Inorganic N on Growth Parameters of Mulberry Varieties 
The results of the study revealed that inorganic N sources enhanced the growth, leaf yield 
and quality of mulberry. Growth parameters such as plant height stem girth, number of 
leaves and dry matter production increased with the application of N than the control. 
The results obtained in this study agree with the report that nitrogen is essential for plant 
growth (Chiroma et al., 2006; Adamtey et al., 2009). Results of experiment 1 indicated 
high growth with the application of SoA whiles in experiment 2, plants responded to 
NPK more than the other fertilizers. The difference in response to the N sources by 
mulberry varieties may be due to genetic variability and physiological processes among 
the varieties (Chandra et al., 1992). Also, it may be attributed to residual effect by the 
compound fertilizer (NPK). The results also showed that nitrogen application increased 
nutrients uptake leading to enhanced carbohydrate synthesis thereby resulting in 
increased cell division and enlargement with resultant increase in plant height and stem 
diameter (Prabhu et al., 2003). Application of nitrogen also promotes plant growth by 
increasing the number and length of internodes which results in increased plant height 
and stem girth. The increased number of leaves could be attributed to enhanced cell 
division and growth as well as availability of nutrients for leaf initiation. Bongale et al. 
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(2000) and Shahbazi (2005) had also reported that N application increased the number of 
leaves in mulberry. 
5.3 Leaf Yield of Mulberry 
Increased leaf yield may be due to increased number of leaves and leaf area which may 
be due to the application of inorganic nitrogen. The application of inorganic N led to the 
release and enhanced uptake of nitrogen and other plant nutrients which resulted in leaf 
initiation, cell division and leaf expansion, increased light interception, increased 
photosynthesis and dry matter production and partitioning into leaves (Bose and 
Majumder, 1998)). The results obtained in this study showed high leaf yield in S-36 at 
the application of SoA (250kg N/ha) and NPK (300kg N/ha). This confirms earlier report 
that application of 200, 250 and 300kg N/ha significantly increased leaf yield more than 
control in mulberry (Majumder et al., 2003). Shivaprakash et al. (2000) and Ghosh et al. 
(1997) reported higher leaf yield in S-36 at the application of 300kg N/ha/year but at a 
spacing of 60cm x 60cm.  Islam et al. (1982) also reported significant increase in leaf 
yield of mulberry as a result of N application compared to the control. Bose and 
Majumder (1998) also investigated the influence of nitrogen on mulberry and reported 
that the application of fertilizer nitrogen increased the leaf yield and other vegetative 
parameters more than the control.     
 
5.4 Leaf Quality of Mulberry 
The present study showed increase leaf quality of mulberry following the application of 
N. The results revealed high leaf moisture and crude protein in S-36 and high mineral 
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content and crude protein in Mysore local. The increase in leaf moisture, leaf crude 
protein, leaf mineral content (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) and leaf N by SoA and NPK may be 
due to the presence of more than one nutrient in the compound fertilizers. The current 
results corroborate the report of Subbaswamy et al. (1999) who studied the influence of 
different sources of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers on leaf quality of mulberry and reported 
higher leaf yield and high leaf protein content in plants fertilized with ammonium 
sulphate compared with plants fertilized with calcium ammonium nitrate and urea. Also, 
Manchashetty (1979) observed that application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium 
(NPK) to mulberry increased leaf quality with reference to crude protein and mineral 
content of the leaves. The application of NPK and other compound fertilizers enhances 
the uptake of nutrients by plants and the presence of minerals other than N increases 
plants access to minerals. This increases the mineral nutrition of plants, hence high 
quality crops. Subbarayappa et al. (1994) also reported that the application of ammonium 
sulphate increased leaf quality of mulberry compared with the control (no fertilizer), 
ammonium nitrate and urea. 
 
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CHAPTER SIX 
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
6.0 Conclusion 
It can be concluded that the numerous challenges that beset the industry is a contributing 
factor to the low patronage of sericulture and production of cocoon in Ghana.   
From the study, it can be concluded that the application NPK and SoA increased growth, 
leaf yield and quality of mulberry than urea and control (no fertilizer application) before 
pruning. However, in the regrowth, urea application resulted in the highest moisture and 
protein content of leaves compared to the application of NPK and SoA. 
Among the varieties, S-36 gave the highest leaf yield and quality (moisture and protein 
content of leaves).High protein content and fast growth was observed in Mysore local. 
These results have important agronomic and nutritional implications for sericulture in 
Ghana. The combined application of SoA and NPK would results the production of 
quality mulberry leaves for sericulture. It can be concluded from the results that S-36 and 
Mysore local are more productive in the coastal savannah zone than Kanva-2. 
6.1 Recommendations 
Based on the results obtained, the following recommendations are made: 
 From the study, S-36 is recommended for chawky rearing due to its high moisture 
and high protein content. 
 Due to its high mineral and protein content, Mysore local is recommended for late 
instar rearing of silkworm. 
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 The government and non-governmental agencies in the field of agriculture should 
embark on awareness campaign to promote sericulture production in Ghana 
 The government should support the establishment of reeling centres to add value 
to cocoons produced 
 Training programmes should be organized for farmers to equip farmers with the 
necessary skills for quality cocoon production 
 Further studies should be conducted in different ecological zones to determine the 
suitability of the different varieties to the different ecological zones of Ghana. 
 Further research should be carried out using organic and inorganic fertilizers to 
assess the response of the different mulberry varieties to integrated fertilizer 
management 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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APPENDICES 
Appendix 1: Interview Schedule 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND CONSUMER SCIENCES 
CROP SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 
STATUS OF SERICULTURE IN GHANA 
The impact of the sericulture industry has not been fully realised. Therefore the need to 
assess its current status in Ghana and the way forward for the industry.  I would be very 
grateful if you could provide information on the current status of Sericulture in Ghana for 
my graduate studies at the Department of Crop Science, University of Ghana. You are 
assured that the information given would be treated as strictly confidential and that no 
reference would be made to you in presenting the results.  
Thank you. 
 
 
Demographic Information 
 
Region ……………………….  District ……………………….................... 
 
Town/Village/community ………………     Date of Interview …………………............... 
 
Name of enumerator ………………………………………………….. 
 
Name and telephone number of the farmer………………………………………………. 
 
Socio-economic characteristics 
 
Please tick [√ ] where appropriate. 
 
1. Age of respondent:…………………..years. 
 
2. Gender of respondent:  1. Male [  ] 2. Female [  ]   
 
3. Marital status:  
1. Single.    2. Married.  3. Divorced. 4. Separated 
 
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4. Are you the head of household?     1. Yes  2. No 
 
5. Religion of respondent: 
1. Christian 2. Muslim. 3. Traditional religion  4. Other, specify, … 
 
6. Native of community?  1. Yes  2. No 
If no, indicate where you come from …………………………………. 
 
7. For how long have you been resident here?.........……………. Years 
 
8. Level of education of farmer 
1. No schooling.   3. JSS.       5. SSS          7. O /A Level  9. Tertiary 
2. Primary   4. MSLC. 6. Voc/Tech 8. Training college 10. Informal 
 
9. Household size of the respondent. ………………………………………. 
 
 
Cultivation and sources of mulberry varieties and silkworm races in Ghana 
 
10. Ownership of land:  (1) Personal property  (2) Family property   (3) Lease   (4) 
Others, if others, specify: ......................................... 
 
11. What is the total acreage of all your farmlands?......................................................... 
 
 
12. What is the size of your mulberry farm/total land area cultivated to mulberry??  
...................................................................................................... 
 
13. Apart from mulberry, what other crops do you cultivate? 
.................................................................................................................................... 
 
14. What variety(s) of mulberry do you cultivate?............................................................ 
 
15. Why do you grow this variety(s)?................................................................................. 
 
............................................................................................................................................... 
 
16. Where do you normally get your planting materials?................................................. 
 
17. How many cuttings do you plant per plot?................................................................. 
 
18. Indicate the planting distance ……………………………………………………………….. 
 
19. How long have you been into sericulture?.................................................................. 
 
 
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20. What are some of the major constraints/challenges to mulberry production in this area? 
 
................................................................................................................................................ 
 
................................................................................................................................................ 
 
................................................................................................................................................ 
 
................................................................................................................................................ 
 
21. On the average, what is the quantity of mulberry you produce in a year?................... 
 
22. Do you have the wild mulberry variety in this area?    (1) Yes              (2) No 
 
23. Apart from mulberry, is there any other plant that can be fed to silkworm? 
(1). Yes                   (2).  No 
 
If yes, mention the plant or any two of such plants........................................................... 
 
24. What race(s) of silkworm do you rear?.................................................................... 
 
25. Why do you rear this race(s) of the silkworm?....................................................................... 
 
.................................................................................................................................................. 
 
26. Where do you get the silkworm eggs?...................................................................... 
 
27. Do you have the wild silkworm race in this area?      (1). Yes              (2). No 
 
28. Have you noticed people who harvest cocoon from the wild in this area?   (1). Yes            
(2). No 
 
 
29. What rearing techniques do you use in producing the silkworms? 
 
.................................................................................................................................................. 
 
30. On the average, what is the total quantity of silkworms you produce in a year?.................... 
 
31. What are some of the major constraints/challenges to silkworm production in this area? 
 
.................................................................................................................................................. 
 
.................................................................................................................................................. 
 
.................................................................................................................................................. 
 
32. Do you attend training programmes on sericulture?     (1). Yes               (2). No  
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33. If yes, how often do you attend such training programmes?  (1). Very often   (2). 
Often          (3). Not very often    
 
34. Which organization(s) offers such training programmes?........................................... 
 
................................................................................................................................................ 
 
35. Do you pay for the trainings programmes?      (1). Yes         (2).  No 
 
 
 
Marketing of cocoons in Ghana  
 
 
36. On the average, what is the quantity of cocoon you produce per season?................... 
 
37. Do you have access to ready markets for the produce?  (1). Yes    (2). No 
 
38. How are your cocoons marketed?............................................................................. 
 
............................................................................................................................................................. 
 
39. How much do you sell 1kg of cocoon?....................................................................... 
 
40. How do you determine the price of the cocoon?....................................................... 
 
.................................................................................................................................................. 
 
41. In which form do you normally sell the cocoon?........................................................ 
 
42. What are some of the major challenges/constraints associated with the marketing of the 
cocoons? 
 
.................................................................................................................................................. 
 
.................................................................................................................................................. 
 
..................................................................................................................................................
. 
 
 
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Profitability of sericulture in Ghana 
 
 
43. How would you rate the sericulture industry in Ghana in terms of profitability?  (1). 
Not profitable       (2).  Profitable    (3).  Not very profitable    (4). Very profitable 
 
44. Would you encourage other farmers to take up this venture?  (1). Yes              (2).  
No  
 
45. What other work do you do apart from sericulture?..................................................... 
 
46. Do you cultivate mulberry in the dry season?      (1). Yes              (2).  No 
 
47. Do you use irrigation on your mulberry farm?        (1). Yes              (2).  No 
 
48. If yes, what type of irrigation facility do you use?  (1). Sprinkler   (2). Water pump   (3) 
Drip/irrigation pipes   (4). Use of bucket 
 
49. What is the source of your irrigation water?     (1). Well      (2).  Dam/stream   (3). Pond  (4). 
Others, please specify…………………………………………………………… 
 
50. Do you always have access to labour for production? (1). Yes         (2).   No 
 
51. If yes, what type of labour:  (1). Family labour    (2). Hired labour  (3) Cooperative        
(4). Both family and hired (5). Others, please specify......................................... 
 
52. In one season, how many labourers do you employ?.................................................... 
 
53.  Do you usually have access to credit facilities for production?  (1). Yes    (2).  No 
 
54. If yes, what are your main sources of credit: (1). Banks    (2).Money lenders  
(3). Family and friends (4) Others, please specify...................................................... 
 
55. Do you use fertilizer in your mulberry farm?  (1). Yes              (2). No 
 
56. If yes, what type of fertilizer do you use?   (1). Organic fertilizer    (2). Inorganic 
fertilizer 
 
57. What type organic or inorganic fertilizer do you apply in your farm? 
……………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
58. What quantity of the fertilizer do you use? 
....................................................................................................................................... 
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59. Kindly outline some of the key things that you would like the government and/or 
other organizations to do about the sericulture industry in Ghana? 
............................................................................................................................................................. 
 
............................................................................................................................................................. 
 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Appendix 2: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for experiment 1 
ANOVA for leaf fresh weight (g/plant) 
 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
Replication 2  100.9  50.4  0.46  
Variety 2  686.5  343.2  3.13  0.152 
Residual 4  439.2  109.8  0.93  
Nitrogen source 3  18598.8  6199.6  52.63 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  1308.4  218.1  1.85  0.145 
Residual 18  2120.1  117.8   
Total 35  23253.8   
ANOVA for Leaf dry weight (g/plant) 
 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
replication 2  81.89  40.94  0.65  
variety 2  342.43  171.21  2.71  0.181 
Residual 4  253.13  63.28  3.03  
Nitrogen source 3  2103.48  701.16  33.57 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  723.21  120.54  5.77  0.002 
Residual 18  375.96  20.89   
Total 35  3880.11 
 
 
ANOVA for fresh leaf yield (kg/ha) 
 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
Replication 2  15372.  7686.  0.46  
Variety 2  104633.  52317.  3.13  0.152 
Residual 4  66944.  16736.  0.93  
Nitrogen source 3  2834896.  944965.  52.63 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  199429.  33238.  1.85  0.145 
Residual 18  323160.  17953.   
Total 35  3544435.    
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ANOVA for leaf dry yield (kg/ha) 
 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
Replication 2  12482.  6241.  0.65  
Variety 2  52194.  26097.  2.71  0.181 
Residual 4  38583.  9646.  3.03  
 Nitrogen source 3  320621.  106874.  33.57 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  110235.  18372.  5.77  0.002 
Residual 18  57305.  3184.   
Total 35  591421.     
 
ANOVA for leaf moisture (%) 
 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
Replication 2  100.9  50.4  0.46  
Variety 2  686.5  343.2  3.13  0.152 
Residual 4  439.2  109.8  0.93  
Nitrogen source 3  18598.8  6199.6  52.63 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  1308.4  218.1  1.85  0.145 
Residual 18  2120.1  117.8   
Total 35  23253.8    
 
ANOVA for leaf crude protein (%) 
 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
Replication 2  2.0835  1.0418  0.56  
Variety 2  21.5238  10.7619  5.82  0.065 
Residual 4  7.4024  1.8506  2.83  
Nitrogen source 3  123.3340  41.1113  62.97 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  25.6085  4.2681  6.54 <.001 
Residual 18  11.7508  0.6528   
Total    35 191.7031 
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Appendix 3: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for experiment 2  
 
ANOVA for leaf fresh weight (g/plant) 
 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
Replication 2  185.  93.  0.05  
Variety 2  24969.  12485.  6.36  0.057 
Residual 4  7852.  1963.  1.43  
Nitrogen source 3  236186.  78729.  57.42 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  23962.  3994.  2.91  0.036 
Residual 18  24680.  1371.   
Total    35 317835.  
 
ANOVA for dry leaf weight (g/plant) 
 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
Replication 2  590.3  295.2  0.39  
Variety 2  8418.9  4209.5  5.63  0.069 
Residual 4  2991.9  748.0  2.50  
Nitrogen source 3  13128.2  4376.1  14.62 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  2948.6  491.4  1.64  0.193 
Residual 18  5387.8  299.3   
Total          35         33465.7  
ANOVA for leaf fresh yield (kg/ha) 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
Replication 2  7050.  3525.  0.05  
Variety 2  951484.  475742.  6.36  0.057 
Residual 4  299190.  74797.  1.43  
Nitrogen source 3  9000098.  3000033.  57.42 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  913101.  152184.  2.91  0.036 
Residual 18  940465.  52248.   
Total          35     12111387.  
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ANOVA for dry leaf yield (kg/ha) 
 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
Replication 2  22494.  11247.  0.39  
Variety 2  320811.  160405.  5.63  0.069 
Residual 4  114010.  28503.  2.50  
Nitrogen source 3  500262.  166754.  14.62 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  112358.  18726.  1.64  0.193 
Residual 18  205308.  11406.   
Total    35 1275243. 
ANOVA for leaf moisture (%) 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
 
Replication 2  25.93  12.96  1.29  
Variety 2  121.10  60.55  6.03  0.062 
Residual 4  40.15  10.04  0.51  
Nitrogen source 3  334.95  111.65  5.73  0.006 
Variety x Nitrogen source 6  322.10  53.68  2.75  0.045 
Residual 18  351.01  19.50   
Total 35  1195.25    
 
ANOVA for leaf crude protein (%) 
 
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 
Replication 2  23.280  11.640  1.19  
Variety 2  4.594  2.297  0.23  0.801 
Residual 4  39.226  9.806  1.81  
Nitrogen source 3  1737.597  579.199  106.75 <.001 
Variety x Nitrogen 6  12.706  2.118  0.39  0.876 
Residual 18  97.663  5.426   
Total 35  1915.065    
 
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