UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON LEGON CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS AND DIPLOMACY (LECIAD) THE IMPLICATIONS OF MARITIME SECURITY IN THE GULF OF GUINEA FOR GHANA’S TRADE AND COMMERCE BY MARTIN ESSILFIE-OBENG (10939232) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LEGON APRIL 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of an original research conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Linda Darkwa and that apart from other works, which are duly acknowledged, no part of it has been submitted anywhere else for any purpose. MARTIN ESSILFIE-OBENG DR. LINDA DARKWA (STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR) 20 October 2023 20 October 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION I dedicate this work to God Almighty for his grace and mercy granted me throughout my study at the Legon Centre for International Affairs and Diplomacy (LECIAD). I also dedicate this work to all loved ones who encouraged me throughout the course, especially my mother, Mrs Adelaide Obeng, and Miss Veneranda Nyarko, a sister like no other. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was made possible as a result of the immense support and encouragement accorded me from the beginning to the end. I am particularly grateful for the support from Rev. Msgr. Martin Adriane Essilfie, and Rev. Fr. Samuel Ussher Homiah, Rev. Fr. Michael Quaicoe, and Rev. Fr. Justice Ebo Sarbah. I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Dr Linda Darkwa for the guidance throughout the various stages of the work. Lastly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all Services, Agencies and Individuals that accepted and actually helped me with all the information I needed to carry out this work. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AfCFTA - Africa Continental Free Trade Agreement AGOA - African Growth and Opportunity Act AIMS - Africa Integrated Maritime Strategy AIS - Automatic Identification System AU - African Union CEMLAWS - Centre for Maritime Law and Security ECCAS - Economic Community of Central African States ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States EPA - Economic Partnership Agreement EU - European Union FDI - Foreign Direct Investment G7++FOGG - G7 Group of friends of the Gulf of Guinea GATT - General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDP - Gross Domestic Product GGC - Gulf of Guinea Commission GMA - Ghana Maritime Authority University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi GoG - Gulf Of Guinea GoGIN - Gulf of Guinea Inter-regional Network GPHA - Ghana Ports and Harbour Authority GSP - Generalized System of Preferences ICC - International Chamber of Commerce IMB - International Maritime Bureau MDA - Maritime Domain Awareness MDAT–GoG - Maritime Domain Awareness for Trade – Gulf of Guinea MOCs - Maritime Operations Centres MOWCA - Maritime Organization for West and Central Africa NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization NIMS - National Integrated Maritime Strategy NTEs - Non-Traditional Exports PRC - Piracy Reporting Centre SIMSL - Steamship Insurance Management Service Limited TEs - Traditional Exports TIFA - Trade and Investment Framework Agreement UK - The United Kingdom University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii UN - United Nations UNCLOS - UN Convention on the Law of the Sea UNCTAD - UN Conference on Trade and Development US - United States of America VBSS - Visit, Board, Search and Seizure WTO - World Trade Organization YAMSS - Yaoundé Architecture for Maritime Safety and Security University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii TABLES Table 1: Annual export and import figures for Ghana …………………………………….. 29 Table 2: Annual International Trade to GDP ……………………………………………… 37 Table 3: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents …………………………………… 47 Table 4: Current Policy and Practices of Ghana toward the Fight against Maritime Insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea………………………….. 49 Table 5: Maritime Insecurities in the Gulf Guinea ………………………………………… 55 Table 6: The Impact of Maritime Insecurity in The Gulf of Guinea on Ghana‘s Trade and Commerce…………………………………………. 62 Table 7: How maritime insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea impact trade and commerce in Ghana………………………………………………..64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix FIGURES Figure 1: The Yaoundé Architecture ……………………………………………………… 34 Figure 2: The Yaoundé Organogram ……………………………………………………… 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION ………………………………………………………………. ii DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………… iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………….. iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………………… v TABLES ………………………………………………………………………… viii FIGURES ……………………………………………………………………….. ix TABLE OF CONTENT ………………………………………………………… x ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………. Xv CHAPTER ONE …………………………………………………....................... 1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………. 1 1.1 Background to the study …………………………………………………….. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………………. 3 1.3 Research Questions ……………………………………………………………. 7 1.4 Research Purpose ……………………………………………………………… 7 1.5 Research Objectives …………………………………………………………... 7 1.6 Scope of the Study …………………………………………………………… 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi 1.7 Rationale of the Study ………………………………………………………… 8 1.8 Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………………….. 9 1.9 Literature review …………………………………………………………….... 11 1.9.1 Definition Maritime Security ………………………………………. 11 1.9.2 Maritime security over the years ……………………………………. 12 1.9.3 The importance of Maritime Security ………………………………. 13 1.9.4 The state of maritime security ………………………………………. 14 1.9.5 Causes of Maritime insecurity on the Gulf of Guinea …………….. 15 1.10 Research Methodology ……………………………………………………… 17 1.11 Sources of data ……………………………………………………………… 18 1.12 Target Population …………………………………………………………... 18 1.13 Sampling Method and size …………………………………………………… 19 1.14 Data Collection Method and Instrument ……………………………………. 20 1.15 Data Analysis ………………………………………………………………... 20 1.16 Ethical Considerations ……………………………………………………… 20 1.17 Organisation of the Study …………………………………………………… 21 REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………… 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii CHAPTER TWO ………………………………………………………………… 27 THE GULF OF GUINEA IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND COMMERCE: THE IMPORTANCE OF GHANA IN THIS TRADE ……………………….... 27 2.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 27 2.1 Importance of the Gulf of Guinea to International Trade …………….……… 27 2.2 Overview of Ghana‘s international trade and Commerce ………………….. 28 2.3 Trade Associations and Ghana ……………………………………………… 31 2.3.1 Maritime Protection Associations and Ghana ……………………… 33 2.4 Ghana and the Gulf of Guinea ……………………………………………… 35 2.4.1 Importance of Ghana to the Gulf of Guinea Trade …………………. 36 2.4.2 Importance of Gulf of Guinea to Ghana‘s GDP ……………………. 36 2.4.3 Maritime Security and Ghana‘s trade and commerce ……………….. 38 2.4.4 The need for Maritime Security and Ghana‘s Action toward its Achievement …………………………………………… 38 CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………… 41 REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………. 42 CHAPTER THREE ……………………………………………………………… 46 MARITIME INSECURITY AND ITS IMPACT: DATA INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS ………………………………………………………………... 46 3.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii 3.1 Statistical Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ……………….. 46 3.2 Current Policy and Practices of Ghana toward the Fight Against Maritime Insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea …………………………….. 48 3.3 Maritime Insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea ……………………………… 54 3.4 The Impact of Maritime Insecurity in The Gulf of Guinea on Ghana‘s Trade and Commerce……………………………………………. 60 3.5 Recommendations on How Ghana Can Effectively Fight Maritime Crimes …………………………………………………. 69 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………….. 71 CHAPTER FOUR ………………………………………………………………. 76 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION … 76 4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 76 4.2 Summary of Findings ……………………………………………………. 76 4.2.1 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………. 78 4.2.2 Recommendation ………………………………………………………… 79 4.5 Future Research Agenda ………………………………………………… 80 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………….. 81 QUESTIONNAIRE ……………………………………………………………… 89 INTERVIEW GUIDE …………………………………………………………… 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiv ABSTRACT The Gulf of Guinea holds significant importance in the realm of international trade, particularly in relation to global economic endeavours involving Africa. Guarantees for the safe transportation of products and services, is therefore a matter of importance for all individuals who utilise its services. Although there have been efforts to ensure the safety of the Gulf of Guinea as a passage for trading and commercial activities, some insecurity still persists. The study therefore considers maritime security in the Gulf of Guinea and why it still persists, with focus on Ghana, and how these insecurities affect Ghana‘s Trade and Commerce. The study used the Mixed Method Research Design. The Theory of Right Realism was used: a theory that stipulates that crimes become attractive when there is inadequacy, or lack of sanctions to deter people from perpetuating it. The research revealed that the legal system to address maritime-related crimes is virtually absent in Ghana, and the institutions intended to fight maritime crimes are not well equipped. The study thus recommends that the legal system in relation to sea-borne activities be properly instituted, to help curtail maritime insecurities, as well as retooling of the institutions needed for the fight against sea borne crime. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study The Gulf of Guinea (GoG) is an economic hub of both the West and Central African states as it lies between West and Central Africa (Abiodun & Dahiru, 2020). The Gulf of Guinea is undoubtedly an important resource for international trade due to it being strategically located between West and Central Africa‖ (Abiodun & Dahiru, 2020; Aning & Frimpong, 2022). Nevertheless, a study by Abiodun & Dahiru (2020, P. 79), revealed that a number of insecurity concerns such as piracy, terrorism, hostage-taking, kidnapping, illegal oil bunkering, illegal fishing among others is common in the Gulf of Guinea. These insecurity challenges are threats to international trade, as investments in security provision to ensure a safe trade route have to increase, and likewise the cost of insurance for vessels and their goods has to increase due to these threats, thus impacting negatively on international trade. For instance in the case of when the Gulf of Aden was classified as a war risk area by the Lloyd‘s Market Association (LMA), the cost of war risk premiums increased significantly, from US$500 per ship, per voyage to up to US$150,000, also premiums paid on cargo transiting piracy regions increased from US$25 to US$100 in 2010. 1 According to the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) International Maritime Bureau (IMB) (2022), the Gulf of Guinea has been categorised as a ‗hotspot‖ for piracy in the world as it recorded 81 out of 195 incidents of piracy in the world. A report by the Stables Seas (2021) revealed that a total estimate of approximately $5 million is paid annually as ransom to a number of Gulf of Guinea pirate gangs, especially to those from the Niger Delta who operate along the whole stretch of the Gulf of Guinea. This has been said to present an 1 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD): Maritime piracy. Part I, 2014, no.1, pg. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 indirect and direct cost of $1.925 billion every year for twelve (12) Gulf of Guinea states and thus impacts trade significantly (Gulf of Guinea Piracy: Security Council Report, 2022). A report by the ICC International Maritime Bureau (2022) on the incidence of piracy and armed robbery against ships globally shows an increase from 2017 (180 cases) to 2018 (201 cases), then a decline in 2019 (162 cases), a surge in 2020 (195 cases) and then a decline again in 2021 (132 cases). This clearly indicates that the fight against crimes at sea on the Gulf of Guinea has not seen sustainable improvement. Though reports from ICC International Maritime Bureau (2022) for 2022 shows a decline (115 cases), this was credited by the IMB to the presence of internal naval operations and cooperation with regional authorities. However, the Piracy Reporting Centre (PRC), has cautioned that threat to seafarers still exist as perpetrators remain violent and reports show evidence of many failed and successful kidnapping attempts in the last quarter of 2021 (ICC International Maritime Bureau, 2022). Insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea has been a concern for the international community for a long time. Concerns emanate from the fact that no country in trade with West and Central Africa is immune to the security concerns on the Gulf of Guinea (Aning & Frimpong, 2022). For instance, Abiodun & Dahiru (2020, P. 90) mentioned that ―more than 85 percent of the world‘s goods and products are transported by sea; hence a secure maritime environment remains highly essential for the free flow of global trade‖. Ukeje and Ela also assert that, ―Given that over 90% of global freight is by sea‖ (Ukeje & Ela, 2013), insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea will result in higher cost for traders and the final consumers (Abiodun & Dahiru, 2020). According to Abiodun & Dahiru, (2020, P. 80), ―poor leadership and governance in Africa, corruption, deficiency in social and economic developments, unhealthy strive and competition for the control of the marine resources by the states in the Gulf region, and super foreign University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 powers‖ account for the insecurity on the Gulf of Guinea as these create opportunities for citizens to have access to arms and weapons among other factors. Abiodun & Dahiru, (2020) mention that insecurity on the Gulf of Guinea leads to high cost of maritime insurance and hence affects the economy. Sackey et al, found out that various institutions provide Kidnap and Ransom coverage at varying premium rates. For example, Steamship Insurance Management Services Limited (SIMSL 2015) provides a Kidnap and Ransom premium up to a limit of 10 million US dollars. Similarly, the Swedish P&I Club set a limit of 30 million US dollars per incident or event. Another major negative impact of this issue is the fear it creates for shipping companies and seafarers. People who work on ships now have to live in constant fear of piracy, hijacking, robbery at sea, among others anytime they travel. For instance, the ICC International Maritime Bureau (2022) indicated that globally there were 14 kidnapping incidents at sea in 2018, 21 in 2019, 22 in 2020, 40 in 2021 and non in 2022 yet. 1.2 Statement of the Problem According to Bueger (2014, P.159), Maritime insecurity refers to threats among which are; maritime inter-state disputes, maritime terrorism, piracy, trafficking (such as narcotics, human, illicit goods, and arms/weapon), illegal fishing, environmental crimes, or maritime accidents and disasters. The argument then is, Maritime Security should be defined as the absence of these threats. Incidents of insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea have become a disturbing phenomenon not only for seafarers but also for shipping companies, exporters and importers, both at the national and the individual level. A review of extant literature shows that the international community became concerned about the increasing incidents of insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea since 2011 and concerns are yet to dwindle to date (Aning & University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Frimpong, 2021; Bell, Huggins, Joubert, Okafor-arwood, & Eblede, 2021). Aning and Frimpong (2022, P.2) mentioned that ―since the 1990s, the Gulf of Guinea states have focused their attention on mitigating land-based insecurities and have since the 1960s given minimum attention to maritime insecurities‖. Empirical literature on the subject today has revealed keen interest in Maritime security by academia and policymakers globally and in Africa lately. Germond (2015) posits that a number of studies have been devoted to some aspects of maritime insecurity. For instance, Barrios, in 2013 at the European Union Institute for security wrote a report on ―Fighting piracy in the Gulf of Guinea- offshore and onshore‖ and why the international community should be concerned about it and assist in fighting the menace. Abiodun and Dahiru (2020) researched maritime security in the Gulf of Guinea focusing on how security intelligence can be used to fight the menace in order to reduce its effects on the Gulf of Guinea states. Germond (2015) studied ―the geopolitical dimensions of maritime security‖ drawing attention to politics as a major cause of maritime security among other causes and explained how politics can also be used to reduce maritime insecurity. Other researchers such as Bell et al., (2021), Rubin and Eiran (2019), and Lukaszuk (2018) among others have also studied various aspects of maritime security at the global level, with less work having Ghana in focus. Aning and Frimpong (2022) who studied maritime (in)security in the Gulf of Guinea in relation to Ghana focused on the effects of the Covid-19 pandemic and its impact on maritime (in)security. The concern for maritime security in the Gulf of Guinea for Ghana cannot be overemphasized. This is because Ghana depends heavily on its Blue Economy for its economic sustenance, and for the reason that, the Gulf of Guinea is the only Sea Trade Route to Ghana. VanDyck and Vrey (2022) for instance indicate that 70% of Ghana‘s trade is carried out through the sea. According to Ghana Sea and Coastal Water Transport Market Report 2020, Ghana is a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 gateway to the Gulf of Guinea and an important sub-regional transit trade corridor, thus a strategically important maritime trading hub. Ghana's sea, coastal and inland water transport system facilitates trade and plays a crucial role in the movement of passengers and goods. It further states that, the Tema port contains the largest container terminal in West Africa. Ghana's commercial ports collectively receive more than 3,000 vessel calls annually and handle around 85% of the country's total trade volumes. Statistics by the Stable Seas Database (2020) on the incidents of piracy and armed robbery in the Gulf of Guinea indicate an increasing trend with a record high of 106 in 2020. Though these numbers reduced considerably in 2021 and 2022, which according to Aning and Frimpong (2022), could be attributed to the decline in trading activities due to Covid-19 Trade Restrictions; the impact of maritime insecurity on Ghana‘s trade and commerce may still be significant, since the Covid-19 trade restrictions have been lifted and more trading activities could be carried out in the immediate future. Ghana is a signatory to various policies such as the Yaoundé Code of Conduct, meant for member states to share information on sea activities and fight maritime crime as a team. The team comprising of the member states as Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cabo Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cote d‘Ivoire, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. Furthermore, the security operatives of countries along the Gulf of Guinea, together with other international operatives, have been embarking on exercises to fight maritime crimes in the sub-region, with exercises such as Exercise Obangame Express, Exercise Flintlock, and Exercise Grantnimo, however the menace of sea crimes still persist. A major challenge to addressing maritime insecurity in Ghana stems from the fact that significant attention is devoted to addressing insecurities occasioned by illegal actors who University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 engage in maritime crimes such as piracy, armed robbery at sea, kidnapping, illegal oil bunkering, illegal fishing, environmental crimes among others with little attention on the exploitation of loopholes by legal actors licensed to operate in the maritime domain – who may engage in illegal activities such as illegal oil bunkering, illegal fishing, and pollution of the sea. The researcher is of the view that inadequate laws or lack of its application (if they are adequate enough), inadequate surveillance on the Gulf of Guinea and a lack of severe punishment for perpetrators could be some of the reasons why maritime crimes still persist. Furthermore, there are reports of licensed vessels who connive with criminals to do illegal activities such as illegal oil bunkering so that they sell the oil later and share profits in order to evade taxes, with such connivance applicable also to fishing vessels involved in what is termed ―Saiko‖ in Ghana, (Fisheries Committee for West Central Gulf of Guinea, 2019). Another reason why maritime crimes still persist is because of tax evasion manoeuvrings by legal operators, and the human tendency of greed. Additionally, there are also reports of perpetrators who are caught but are left unpunished: For instance there was a report in June 2020 by Environmental Justice Foundation revealing that a fishing vessel, Lu Rong Yuan Yu 956, had been arrested again in May 2020 after previous arrest in June 2019. The report revealed that although the owners had been fined in October 2019, and had refused to pay, their license was still renewed for them to operate within the territory. This and other similar reports points to the problem of absence of exerting the necessary punishments to criminals, which if it were the case, could have served as deterrent to perpetrators and hence could have reduced these threats. This study therefore seeks to find out why the problem of maritime insecurity still persist in the Gulf of Guinea despite numerous efforts at the global, sub-regional and local level to fight maritime crime, with focus on both legal and illegal actors. Additionally, the study seeks to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 ascertain the impact of such maritime insecurity on trade and commerce in Ghana with the aim of proffering solutions that can reduce this insecurity, in order that Ghana may record improved benefits from trade over its seas with the rest of the world. 1.3 Research Questions 1. What policies and practices does Ghana use in mitigating crimes on the in the Gulf of Guinea? 2. Why is maritime insecurity still a major issue to be reckoned with in the Gulf of Guinea? 3. In what ways does maritime security on the Gulf of Guinea affect trade and commerce in Ghana? 1.4 Research Purpose The purpose of this study is to find out why maritime crimes still persists in the Gulf of Guinea and what are its implications on Ghana‘s trade and commerce, and what could be done to avert the situation. 1.5 Research Objectives This study will be guided by the following objectives; 1. To ascertain the current policy and practices of Ghana towards the fight against maritime insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea. 2. To comprehend why Maritime Insecurity still persist in the Gulf of Guinea despite the efforts globally, and locally to fight it. 3. To examine how maritime insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea affect trade and commerce in Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 1.6 Scope of the Study This study will be limited to security at sea and on the Gulf of Guinea excluding other waters used for transportation and trading purposes. There are different kinds of crimes at sea including piracy, terrorism, hostage-taking, kidnapping, illegal oil bunkering, robbery at sea, among others. The effects of these crimes extend beyond trade to cover safety of human life and political issues among others. This study will nevertheless place emphasis on the impact of these maritime crimes on trading activities in Ghana. This is because the study wants to single out Ghana and study the impact of insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea on Ghana‘s Trade and commerce in order that Ghana can ascertain the effects of this menace on its economy and do more to reduce insecurity in Ghana‘s waters. The study thus is limited to Ghana excluding other Countries bordered by the Gulf of Guinea. The scope would cover the effects of maritime insecurity and its effects in the last ten (10) years. 1.7 Rationale of the Study This study is important for a number of motives. First of all, security at sea is a major concern for all governments. This study seeks to address a problem that affects security of humans and goods. Hence, the results of this study could be useful for all heads of state concerned about the security of their territorial waters and nationals at sea. Secondly the study looks at how insecurity on the Gulf of Guinea affects trade and how it can be resolved. Therefore, the study‘s results will be of immediate benefit to all importers and exporters of all kinds of goods (i.e., pharmaceuticals, vehicles, chemicals, construction material etc.), shipping companies globally who use the Gulf of Guinea, oil companies who transport oil from one country to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 other as well as the Maritime institutions, such as the Navy, Marine Police and all institutions involved in ensuring security at sea. Furthermore, the study will expose the impact of maritime insecurity on trade in Ghana, which will be useful to the Ministry of trade for policy and decision making. Finally, the findings of this study will add to the body of knowledge on maritime security in the Gulf of Guinea and its impact on trade and commerce, hence serve as reference material for further studies. 1.8 Theoretical Framework This study would be based on the theory of Right Realism. The theory originated in the 1970s propounded by James Q. Wilson and Ernst van den Haag. It developed as a critique of sociological theory which had failed to solve the problem of crime. The basis of Right Realism is a negative view of human nature (that people are naturally selfish and greedy). This aspect of human nature therefore needs to be subject to social controls and socialised into appropriate behaviour. For Right Realists the solution to crime lies with Rational Choice Theory which has a lot in common with the 18 th century philosophy concept of utilitarianism associated with Jeremy Bentham. Rational Choice Theory was developed by Clarke and Coleman (1980), and argues criminals will engage in crime if the benefits outweigh the costs. The solution is simple: increase the costs of crime, i.e., the ease of being caught and given tougher punishments, even if it involves capital punishment, and this would make crimes not appealing. For the Right Realist, rising crime levels reflects ineffective and inadequate social control. This is because; Permissive attitudes allow self-indulgent and increase anti-social behaviour: Permissive attitudes includes negligence of duty, direct involvement of those with the power University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 of the whip, and a culture of indifference. For right realist, the result has been spiralling volumes of incivilities. This is best expressed in Wilson's 'Broken Window Thesis' in which he argues that minor incivilities, if unchecked, quickly lead to more serious crimes. For Wilson, society and its aspects are like ‗Windows,‘ and if an aspect breaks down and left unchecked, it would consequently lead to the breakdown of the others and eventually the collapse of the entire social structure. Another proponent of this theory is Charles Murray (1990), who argues that in every society there is the ―Underclass,‖ that is the few people who perpetuate crimes, and there comes an increase in the underclass when the law abiding citizens do not see the laws being implemented to the latter. In a sense, those crimes become attractive for them to engage in as well. Murray describes this as the driving out of the majority of law abiding citizens, and the confirmation of the behaviour of the Underclass. An aspect of the approach of this theory is its pragmatic slant to the resolution of crimes. Like pragmatism, it deals with the adaptation of what is workable in the curtailment of crimes: Thus, an adaptation of stringent measures to make crimes unattractive. Applying the Right Realism Theory to this research, one can assert that there seem to be effort globally as well as locally to curtail maritime crimes in the Gulf of Guinea, but the result does not seem to be efficient, as maritime crimes in the Gulf of Guinea seem to be on the increase. The researcher hold the view that, it appears that a lot of attention is given to criminals on the Gulf of Guinea with little to no attention given to legal actors who could be accomplices to the crimes on the Gulf of Guinea. This thus gives room for crime to thrive since the cost of the crime is to the good of the perpetuators. Furthermore it encourages others to get involved as the benefits outweigh the punishment. There is the need therefore for measures to evaluate why the existing attempts to fight these crimes have failed, and what necessary steps need to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 be adapted to make maritime crimes in the Gulf of Guinea less attractive and eventually reduce it, if not entirely eradicated. 1.9 Literature review The literature review analyses materials on the topic of maritime (in)security with its relation to Trade and Commerce on the Gulf of Guinea countries, with specific focus on Ghana. A comparison with other Gulfs, like the Gulf of Aden, shows that the Gulf of Guinea has become the hotspot for maritime crimes over the last decade. Although some allusions would be made from other regions, the aim is to find out how those situations are related or have an influence on the Gulf of Guinea situation. The review would be done along a thematic structure. 1.9.1 Definition of maritime Security According to Pichon and Pietsch (2019), there is no universally accepted definition of Maritime Security, however it is traditionally taken from national defence policy, where the concept of maritime security connotes the safeguarding of national territory from attacks. Similarly, the term addresses issues relating to illegal dumping of toxic waste in territorial waters, issues of human trafficking, and issues of illegal fishing and other illegal economic related activities. For Klein (2015), maritime security, could be considered as the ―protection of a state’s land and maritime territory, infrastructure, economy, environment and society from certain harmful acts occurring at sea‖. The above authors make it clear that there is no definitive definition, however the concept of maritime (in)security is quite clear, as it connotes an unsafe maritime domain, either as a result of sanitation related or crime related. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://jshippingandtrade.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41072-022-00121-w#ref-CR34 https://jshippingandtrade.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41072-022-00121-w#ref-CR26 12 1.9.2 Maritime Security over the years Beuger and Edmunds (2017, P. 1295), posit that ―throughout human history, the sea has been viewed as a zone of danger and insecurity. The sea tends to be understood as the stage for geopolitical power projection, interstate warfare or militarised disputes, as a source of specific threats such as piracy, or as a connector between states that enables various phenomena from colonialism to globalisation‖ (Beuger and Edmunds (2017, P. 1295). These authors hold the view that the sea becomes what their nations use them for. Thus if it is used for the good of trade and commerce, it would avail itself and likewise if it is allowed, criminals as well as legal actors could capitalize on it for their own selfish interest which would not be of benefit to the state. Mwagiru Makumi (2004) opines ―Globalization and its process have helped to dissolve the old borders; and it has opened up the international system in ways that were not earlier thought to be possible. Globalization has opened up new frontiers for international political relations and for the international political economy.‖ (Mwagiru, M, (2004, P. 134) Yadong Luo (2021) buttresses Makumi‘s point that Globalization and its process, especially ‗Digital Globalization,‘ have helped to dissolve the old borders; and it has opened up the international system in ways that were not earlier thought to be possible. I agree with these Beuger and Edmunds, and Makumi that the sea has served as the platform for various phenomena which had been and could still be used for good to improve human lives, and it is dependent on how the sea is managed, which could open up the door of globalization and other related activities to help local economies. Event of these abound in history with Ports likes Alexandria of Egypt, during the Roman Empire, and also the Gold Coast serving as a port during Trans-Atlantic Trade and its unfolding history, till the construction of the Takoradi Harbour between 1919 to 1930 initiated by Sir Gordon University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 Guggisberg in August 1919. The sea, therefore, whenever it was kept safe provided the avenue for development along its path, through the promotion of international trade. 1.9.3 The importance of Maritime security The importance of maritime security just like inland security cannot be overemphasized. Crimes such as ―piracy, armed robbery at sea, illegal fishing, smuggling and trafficking, pose a major threat to maritime security in the Gulf of Guinea and ultimately to the economic development of the entire region‖ (Bell et al., 2021). The success of internal trade and commerce, in Ghana particularly, rely heavily on the Gulf of Guinea as it is a major means of transporting imported and exported goods, which brings in a lot of revenue to the State. According to Sanz (2022) more than 90% of the imports and exports are transported by sea. From Sanz‘s point then, it could be deduced that the Gulf of Guinea is a vital resource in determining trade prospects not only for Ghana or Africa but the rest of the world. Putting Bell alongside Sanz then it could be said that a lack of proper security in the Gulf would go a long way to either reduce the volume of trade or increase the cost of conducting trade in the Gulf of Guinea, and consequentially affect Ghana‘s trade and commerce. Bueger and Edmunds (2017), also posit that ―a significant number of states and other international actors place maritime security on their agendas‖. A look at many governmental and intergovernmental strategies for maritime security published in the past decade reveals this priority according to Bueger and Edmunds (2017). These strategies consist of ―those of the United States, United Kingdom, France, India, NATO, The European Union (EU) and African Union (AU)- as well as in multilateral statements such as the G7 declaration on Maritime security, and in the work of the annual International Our Ocean Conference on the theme‖ (Bueger and Edmunds, 2017, P.160). These authors thus try to make real the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 importance of maritime security in the world as a whole, and in this case we can infer of its importance to Ghana. 1.9.4 The State of Maritime Security Piracy according to Chiotis, (2022, P. 49) ―is a global phenomenon that has been conducted for thousands of years.‖ The author suggests that piracy in the Gulf of Guinea has been a concern since the 1980s, this means that for nearly forty years piracy has existed on the Gulf of Guinea without much improvement endangering the lives of Seafarers who are the main victims of these crimes (Chiotis, 2022). In the view of Chiotis (2022, P. 58), ―the ship-owners perspective is that seafarers are being treated as the sacrificial lamb of the systematic political and diplomatic failures that define counter piracy off the coast of West Africa‖. Sanz (2022) posit that the Gulf of Guinea was the world‘s most dangerous region for shipping in 2020 as according to the International Maritime Bureau‘s (IMB) annual report on piracy, 95% of all hijackings took place in the Gulf of Guinea. Again Sanz (2022) mentioned that statistics show that nearly ―half of the world‘s hijackings took place in the Gulf of Guinea and was the only region where crew members themselves were hijacked‖ with fifty-seven sailors kidnapped. The kidnappers usually attack ships (freighters, oil tankers, fishing boats) with the aim of demanding ransom money from victims. Thus, considering Sanz‘s information, trade within the region is mostly affected due to insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea. The kidnappings and ransom monies also mean huge cost of doing business for ships and freight forwarders. Sanz (2022, P. 1) mentioned that piracy in the Gulf of Guinea has evolved, turning a more dangerous turn from merely stealing goods to resell, to taking crew members hostage in order to demand ransom. This means high cost of insurance for businesses that either export or import their goods through the Gulf of Guinea. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 The increase and evolution of maritime crimes in the Gulf of Guinea, could be viewed in line with what John Eck considers as Crime displacement Theory, which is the relocation of crimes from one place, time, target, offense, or tactic to another as a result of some crime prevention initiatives. According to Eck, Spatial displacement is by far the most commonly recognized form, and this could be seen to be the case in the Gulf of Guinea, where there has been a shift of maritime crimes from the Gulf of Aden, especially piracy, to the Gulf of Guinea. Eck, agrees with Thomas Reppetto (1976) who identify five (5) crime displacements, namely: Temporal—offenders change the time at which they commit crime; Spatial— offenders switch from targets in one location to targets in another location; Target—offenders change from one type of target to another; Tactical—offenders alter the methods used to carry out crime; and Offense—offenders switch from one form of crime to another. Barr and Pease (1990) and Eck (1993) all agree to the fact that the shift usually is as a result of proper initiatives which makes the offenders adapt, either their ―modus operandi‖ or ―locus operandi.‖ This best explains what is happening in the Gulf of Guinea, with a shift from other regions. 1.9.5 Causes of Maritime insecurity on the Gulf of Guinea The Gulf of Guinea and its insecurity problems have been caused by varied reasons, some being historical and others contemporary (Aning and Frimpong, 2022). The authors are of the view that bad governance practices as well as weak law enforcement is one of the main causes of maritime insecurity. Another cause of maritime insecurity is corruption as well as the mismanagement of natural resources by the Gulf of Guinea states and poor governmental policies. (Aning and Frimpong, 2022). Osaretin (2011, P. 188), asserts that ―problems such as ethnic cleavages, social inequality and lack of patriotic culture are some of the root causes of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 violence and conflicts that characterise the Gulf of Guinea‖. A critical look at the causes of maritime insecurity indicates that if governments in the Gulf of Guinea states can better put policies and structures in place to provide jobs, better their economies and improve the standards of living of their populace, the problem of maritime security in the Gulf of Guinea and its effects on trade and commerce can be significantly reduced if not eradicated completely. According to Chiotis (2022, P.58), piracy is the consequence of instability, anarchy, and lack of political will to fight crime. Sometimes this lack of political will emerges from legitimate actors involvement, that which Sabrina Puglisi (2021) identify as the three (3) Different Criminal Actors, namely: Accomplices – In most crimes, there are both principal(s) and accomplices. The former is the main actor of the crime while the latter are those who assist in the crime; Accessories – Similar to accomplices in that they intentionally help the principal commit the crime. However, one key difference is that accessories are usually not present at the crime; Conspirators – Two or more people who commit a crime are legally known as conspirators. Even though conspiracy is related to aiding and abetting, the agreement between the two is enough to make each conspirator a principal in the crime. The Gulf of Guinea case could be said to be having some of such cases, as there has been cases of external involvements that renders the fight unsuccessful. From the above authors, it could be asserted that the security of the maritime domain is of much importance as it has numerous effects on the fortunes of a state, and in the case under consideration, the Gulf of Guinea as well as Ghana, thus the insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea has dire consequences on the trading activities of the states bounded by the Gulf of Guinea, especially Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://puglisicarames.com/author/spotlight_va/ 17 1.10 Research Methodology The researcher will use the mixed research approach, which involves the use of both the qualitative and quantitative methods. According to Caroline Bulsara (2015, p. 6), Mixed methods research is a methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analysing, and integrating (or mixing) quantitative and qualitative research (and data) in a single study or a longitudinal program of inquiry. Creswell and Creswell (2018, P. 12), define ―quantitative research is any form of research that relies on the usage of statistics as determination of research conclusion‖ whiles qualitative research ―is a form of social research that stresses on the way of people interpret, and make sense of their experiences to understand the social reality of individuals‖ (Mohajan, 2018, P.24). Using the mixed method allows the researcher to benefit from the merits of both methods whiles eliminating the weaknesses of the two methods as well. This method will involve the collection of quantitative and qualitative data, which would then be analysed to ascertain the causes of crimes in the Gulf of Guinea, its impact on trade and commerce in Ghana, and how this can be minimised. The study will employ the descriptive and cross-sectional research methods for conducting the study. The cross-sectional research design is a type of research where the researcher collects data only once (Seita, 2016). According to Nassaji (2015, P. 129), the aim of descriptive research ―is to describe a phenomenon and its characteristics‖. The descriptive study design is appropriate for this study because the aim of this study is to describe the implications of insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea on Ghana‘s trade and commerce. The researcher also utilised the cross-sectional research design because for this study the findings can be obtained by when data is collected once. Moreover, it is less time consuming and cost-effective to use the cross-sectional research design. Hence, the research design for the study will be the descriptive and cross-sectional research design. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 The reason for using this approach is because of the nature of the study in question, and the geographical stretch of the targeted population, spreading across three regions along the coast of Ghana, namely Volta, Greater Accra, and Western Regions of Ghana, the limitation of the time of the study, and how the data would be collected. This methodology is considered appropriate because using it does away with all the limitations associated with either the qualitative or the quantitative methodology used alone. 1.11 Sources of data Data sources for this study are of two forms- primary and secondary data. Primary data will be collected on the field from Naval Officers, Sea men, Captains of ships, and Marine Police who have either witnessed or are well resourced with the knowledge in relation to crimes on the Gulf of Guinea. Secondary data on the other hand, refers to already existing data which will be obtained from journal articles, reports, online- publications, books and websites of the organisations such as the Ghana Maritime Authority, Ministry of Trade and Industry, among others. Qualitative data will be collected using interview method, where an interview guide will be used to ask respondents questions. Answers to these questions will be recorded and transcribed. Quantitative data will be collected using self-made questionnaires. 1.12 Target Population The target population for the study includes Naval Officers, Captains of ships, and Marine Police in Ghana, who have either witnessed or are well resourced with the knowledge in relation to crimes in the Gulf of Guinea, as well as other agencies involved in the maintenance of serenity in Ghana‘s territorial waters. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 1.13 Sampling Method and Size Sampling in research is necessary to save time and cost as well as for populations that are large and practically impossible to use the entire population for the study. According to Majid (2018, P. 3), ―sampling is a process that entails the selection of statistically representative sample from the population of interest‖. Hence, a sample is a subset drawn from the population of interest to the researcher. Bhardwaj (2019), posit that there are two main types of sampling which are further divided into subtypes. These include probability sampling (Simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling), and non-probability sampling (purposive sampling, convenience sampling, snowball sampling and quota sampling) in the view of (Bhardwaj, 2019). For this study, Purposive sampling, which is a non-probability sampling method will be used. Purposive sampling also known as deliberate or judgemental sampling is a type of sampling that is done according to the purpose of the study (Bhardwaj, 2019). Therefore, members of the sample who have experienced some crimes at sea and those who are knowledgeable about it will be deliberately included in the study. The researcher will use this method to sample 45 Naval Officers, 25 Sea men, 15 Marine Police, 5 Ghana Maritime Authority Personnel and 10 Captains of ships. Therefore, the sample size of the study will be 100 respondents. Out of these 100 respondents 20 of them will be interviewed to obtain in-depth knowledge on the subject matter. The researcher will use 20 respondents for the interview because it may be impossible to interview all 100 participants due to time constraints and their availability for the interview: This is because some of the participants who will respond to the questionnaires, will do it from different locations as the researcher will be using Google forms. Moreover, the 20 respondents will include representation from all the security services included in the study, hence interviewing all 100 respondents may not be necessary to ascertain the findings. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 1.14 Data Collection Method and Instrument Data for this study will be collected using a self-made questionnaire and an interview guide. The questions that made up the questionnaire and interview guide questions were informed by the literature reviewed by the researcher and guided by the objectives of the study. The reason is for the researcher to guide the data collection to suit the objectives of this research. 1.15 Data Analysis After data is collected, quantitative data will be analysed using SSPS version 23.0 to establish findings whiles thematic analysis will be employed to analyse the qualitative data. The study findings will be presented using frequency tables, charts and percentages. 1.16 Ethical Considerations In conducting this study, the researcher will take steps to ensure the study is done in an ethical manner, not going contrary to any scholarly ethical issues required in academic researches. Permission for data collection will be obtained where necessary and consent of respondents, as well as the confidentiality of their information or responses, will be taken seriously, particularly as this border on security. Although the researcher is a Naval Officer, the researcher would try to minimize or avoid any biases and present information as obtained from data collected and avoid presenting personal opinions as findings for the study. The researcher‘s perceptions will be presented as assumptions or opinions and not that of respondents. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 1.17 Organisation of the Study This study will be systematized into four chapters. Chapter one comprises an introduction to the study. It is made up of the background to the study, the statement of the problem, research objectives, research questions, the scope of the study, the rationale of the study, theoretical framework, literature review, and research methodology. Chapter two: The Gulf of Guinea in international trade and commerce: The importance of Ghana in this trade. Chapter three: Maritime insecurity and its impact: Data interpretation and analysis. Chapter four entails a summary of the findings of the entire study, conclusion, and recommendations; for both implementation and for further research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 REFERENCES Abiodun, T. F., & Dahiru, C. M. Y. (2020), Maritime Insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea (GoG) and the quest for security intelligence deployment in combating the menace, International Journal of Advanced Academic Research 6(4), 79-99. African Union (2010), Africa‗s Strategy for Maritime Security: A SA Navy Perspective, Presentation by the South African Navy, Addis Ababa, April 6. Allen, F (2012). Oil and security in the Gulf of Guinea: reflections on the external and domestic linkages. Journal of Sustainable Development, 5(4), 132 – 140. Aning, K. & Frimpong, R. A. (2022), Maritime (in) security in the Gulf of Guinea during an era of pandemic; retrieved August 17 from file:///C:/Users/GODWIN/Downloads/MARITIMEINSECURITYANDINTHEGULF OFGUINEA.pdf Barr, R., and Pease K., Crime Placement, Displacement, and Deflection, The University of Chicago Press, Vol. 12 (1990), pp. 277-318 Barrios, C. (2013), Fighting piracy in the Gulf of Guinea; Offshore and onshore. Brief Issue- European Union for Security Studies: retrieved August 15, 2022, from https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/fighting-piracy-gulf-guinea-offshore-and-onshore Bell, C., Huggins, J., Joubert, L., Okafor-arwood, I., & Eblede, T. M. (2021), Pirates of the Gulf of Guinea. A cost analysis for coastal state; Stable Seas report: retrieved August 18, 2022 from https://www.unodc.org/documents/Maritime_crime/UNODC_Pirates_GoG_A_ Bhardwaj, P. (2019). Types of sampling in research. Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular Sciences, 5(3), 157-163. Bueger, C. (2015). What is maritime security? Marine Policy, 53(2015), 159-164. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh file:///C:/Users/GODWIN/Downloads/MARITIMEINSECURITYANDINTHEGULFOFGUINEA.pdf file:///C:/Users/GODWIN/Downloads/MARITIMEINSECURITYANDINTHEGULFOFGUINEA.pdf 23 Bueger, C., Edmunds, T. & Ryan, B. J. (2019). Maritime security: the uncharted politics of the global sea. International Affairs (95), 972-978. Bulsara, C. (2015). Using a mixed methods approach to enhance and validate your research. Brightwater group research centre, 16, 1-82. Chiotis, S. (2021). The grim realities of a ship hijacking in the Gulf of Guinea. International Journal of Maritime Crime and Security 2(1), 48—64. Coelho, J. P. B (2013). African Approaches to maritime security: South Africa. Retrieved August 20, 2022 from https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/mosambik/10671.pdf Cost_Analysis_for_Coastal_States.pdf Creswell, J.C & Creswell, J. D (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (5 th ed.) Sage Publication Inc. Retrieved March 6, 2019, from https://in.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upmbinaries/55588_Chapter_1_Sample_Cre swell_Research_Design_4e.pdf Eck, J. E. (1993). The threat of crime displacement. In Criminal justice abstracts (Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 527-546)] Environmental Justice Foundation, (2020) Trawler re-arrested in Ghana for repeated illegal fishing crimes after refusing to pay fine. Retrieved 20 March 2023 from https://ejfoundation.org/news-media/notorious-trawler-re-arrested-in-ghana-for- repeated-illegal-fishing-crimes-after-refusing-to-pay-fine Ezeozue, C. (2018). Sea piracy and maritime security challenge in the Gulf of Guinea. Journal of Management and Science and Science, 11(2), 46-51. Fiorelli, M (2014). Piracy in Africa: the case of the Gulf of Guinea. KAIPTC Occasional Paper, 37; retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.kaiptc.org/wp- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://in.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upmbinaries/55588_Chapter_1_Sample_Creswell_Research_Design_4e.pdf https://in.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upmbinaries/55588_Chapter_1_Sample_Creswell_Research_Design_4e.pdf 24 content/uploads/2017/03/New%20folder/FiorelliM.2014-PIRACY-IN-AFRICA- THE-CASE-OF-THE-GULF-OF-GUINEA.pdf Germond, B. (2015). The geopolitical dimension of maritime security; Marine Policy (54), 137-142 Ginga, D. F. (2020), Maritime insecurities in Sub-Saharan Africa and its effects in the economy of states; Brazilian Journal of Strategy and International Relations, 9(18), 196-218 Haruna, M. A. (2020). Nigeria‘s energy and maritime security interest in the Gulf of Guinea for regional integration: challenges and prospects. International Journal of Political Science and Development, 8(6), 209-221. ICC International Maritime Bureau (2022). Piracy and armed robbery against ships. Report for the period 1January-31 December 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2022 from https://maritime-professionals.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/2021-Annual-IMB- Piracy-Report.pdf International Maritime Organisation (2019). Port state control. Retrieved November 8, 2022 from https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/IIIS/Pages/Port%20State%20Control.aspx#:~: text=Port%20State%20Control%20(PSC)%20is,maritime%20safety%20and%20secu rity%20and Klein N (2015) Maritime security. In: Rothwell D, Oude Elferink A, Scott K, Stephens T (eds) The Oxford handbook of the law of the sea. Oxford University Press, Oxford Lawrence, R & Osofu, -Boateng, N. (2016). A game theoretic approach to maritime security in the Gulf of Guinea. International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research 4(2), 273-282. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 Lukaszuk, T. (2018). The concept of maritime governance in international relations. International Relations (54), 123 -144. Luo, Y., New OLI advantages in digital globalization, in International Business Review, Vol. 30, Issue 2, April 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2021.101797 retrieved 2nd January 2023 Maritime Insight (2022). What are flag states in the shipping industry and what’s their role? https://www.marineinsight.com/maritime-law/what-are-flag-states-in-the-shipping- industry-2/ Mohajan, H. K. (2018). Qualitative research methodology in social science and related subjects, Journal of Economic Development, Environment and People, 7(10), 23-48 Mwagiru, M, (2004) African Regional Security in the Age of Globalization. Nairobi: Heinrich Boll Foundation. Pp134 Nassaji, H. (2015). Qualitative and Descriptive Research: Data Type versus Data Analysis. Language Teaching Research, 19(2), 129-132 Nwokedi, T. C., Anyanwu, J., Eko-Rapheals, M., Obasi, C., Akpafu, I. D. & Ogola D. b (2022) Probability theory analysis of maritime security piracy and the implications for maritime security governance. Journal of ETA Maritime Science, 10(2), 133-143. Osaretin, I (2011) Energy Security in the Gulf of Guinea and the challenges of the great powers Journal of Social Science, 27(3), 187-191 Pichon E, Pietsch M (2019) Piracy and armed robbery off the coast of Africa—EU and global impact EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2019/635590/EPRS_IDA(20 19)635590_EN.pdf Puglisi, S., (2021) 3 Different Criminal Actors That Could Be Found Guilty of a Crime, Puglisi Caramés Law in Miami FL | Copyright 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2021.101797 https://www.marineinsight.com/maritime-law/what-are-flag-states-in-the-shipping-industry-2/ https://www.marineinsight.com/maritime-law/what-are-flag-states-in-the-shipping-industry-2/ https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2019/635590/EPRS_IDA(2019)635590_EN.pdf https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2019/635590/EPRS_IDA(2019)635590_EN.pdf https://puglisicarames.com/author/spotlight_va/ https://puglisicarames.com/ 26 Rubin, A. & Eiran, E. (2019) Regional maritime security in the eastern Mediterranean expectations and reality. International Affairs 95(5), 979- 997 Sackey et al. Journal of Shipping and Trade (2022) 7:20 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41072-022-00121-w Sanz, A. (2022). The Gulf of Guinea: the new hornet‘s nest for piracy. Retrieved October 10, 2022 from https://atalayar.com/en/content/gulf-guinea-new-hornets-nest-piracy Security Council Report (2022), Gulf of Guinea Piracy, November 2020 Monthly Forecast. Retrieved November 2, 2022 from https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly- forecast/2022-11/gulf-of-guinea-piracy.php Seita, M. S. (2016). Methodology series module 3: cross-sectional studies. International Journal of Dermatology, 61(3), 261-264. Turedi, O. & Ozer-Caylan, D. (2021) Developing a grounded theory of national maritime policies based on safety, security and environment Journal of International Maritime Security, Environmental Affairs and Shipping, 5(2), 84-97. Ukeje, C., Ela, W. M. (2013). African approaches to maritime security-The Gulf of Guinea. Retrieved August 19, 2022 from https://library.fes.de/pdf- files/bueros/nigeria/10398.pdf United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD): Maritime piracy. Part I, 2014, no.1, Van-Dyck, G.K. &Vrey, F. (2022). Ghana has developed a maritime policy. Here is what it means. Retrieved November 5, 2022 from https://theconversation.com/amp/ghana- has-developed-a-maritime-policy-here-is-what-it-means-188381. Wang, N., Liu, L., & Eck, J. E. (2014) Analysing crime displacement with a simulation approach; Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 41(2), 359-374 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/nigeria/10398.pdf https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/nigeria/10398.pdf https://theconversation.com/amp/ghana-has-developed-a-maritime-policy-here-is-what-it-means-188381 https://theconversation.com/amp/ghana-has-developed-a-maritime-policy-here-is-what-it-means-188381 27 CHAPTER TWO THE GULF OF GUINEA IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND COMMERCE: THE IMPORTANCE OF GHANA IN THIS TRADE 2.0 Introduction This chapter presents an overview of the role the Gulf of Guinea plays in international trade and the role Ghana plays in this Trade. It discusses in detail the benefits of international trade for Ghana, and the implications of maritime insecurity issues such as piracy, robbery at sea, terrorism, kidnapping, hostage-taking, and illegal oil bunkering on the Gulf of Guinea. 2.1 Importance of the Gulf of Guinea to International Trade. Recent studies indicate that the oceans contribute more than a quarter (US$24 trillion) of the world economy (US$94 trillion), (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2015; OECD, 2016; Bax et al., 2021). The Gulf of Guinea is a crucial hub for shipping and transporting various products, such as oil, gas, and goods, to and from other parts of Africa (European Union, 2021). The Gulf of Guinea is an important resource for international trade for all Gulf of Guinea states and for countries that trade with the Gulf of Guinea states, as well as landlocked countries that rely on the Gulf of Guinea to get some trade activities done. Ali (2015, p 48) indicates that the landlocked States of the Gulf of Guinea also depend on the Gulf of Guinea for international trade and shipping activities which aids the economic growth and development of those countries. He further pointed out that the ports of Abidjan in Cote d‘Ivoire, the Port of Duala in Cameroon, Lome in Togo, and Tema in Ghana, are the main ports for the landlocked countries. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpos.2023.1070508/full#B58 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpos.2023.1070508/full#B89 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpos.2023.1070508/full#B18 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpos.2023.1070508/full#B18 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpos.2023.1070508/full#B37 28 2.2 Overview of Ghana’s international trade and Commerce International trade is an important requirement for economic development for any nation, Ghana being no exception (Yennu, 2018). Ibrahim and Haiyun (2019, P. 149) are of the view that ―no particular country can produce all of the goods its citizenry needs‖, hence, trading provides a variety of goods and services that a country needs and which when traded in would help increase the standard of living of the citizenry. In Ghana, exports of commodities are divided into traditional (TEs) and non-traditional exports (NTEs). Traditional exports consist mainly of primary commodities or raw materials, including cocoa beans, minerals (gold, diamond, bauxite, and manganese), wood and fresh fish. Many other exports, such as handicrafts, aluminium products, and horticultural products (GEPC, 1986), are non-traditional exports (NTE) (Okyere, I., & Jilu, L. (2020). On the other hand, Ghana imports vehicles, cement, oil, medicines, medical equipment, rice, canned foods, wine, capital goods, just to mention but a few (Lloyds Bank, 2022). It will be noted that some of these imported items are not produced in Ghana hence trading in them becomes a necessity for Ghana, as these items are necessary for the daily activities of the citizens. It is a known fact that most of Ghana‘s international trade are done through the seas. According to the Ghana Sea and Coastal Water Transport Market Report 2020, Ghana's commercial ports collectively receive more than 3,000 vessel calls annually and handle around 85% of the country's total trade volume. Ghana thus, relies heavily on the Gulf of Guinea for transporting its imports and exports making the Gulf of Guinea an important element for Ghana‘s trade. According to Lloyds Bank, (2022, P. 1), Ghana‘s main clients for international trade are China, Switzerland, India, South Africa and the Netherlands‖. Ghana buys largely from China, the United States, the United Kingdom, India and Belgium. 2022 Trade figures from World Trade Organization (WTO) and World Bank indicate that Ghana gained in excess of USD 23 billion dollars from its export while imports were valued at USD 22.13 billion, an University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 indication that Ghana‘s trade economy relies heavily on international trade, with over 48.8% in importation. Macrotrends 2023 presents export and import figures for Ghana from the year 2012 to 2021 as in the table below; Table 1: Annual export and import figures for Ghana YEAR EXPORT IMPORT Billions of US $ Billions of US $ 2021 $23.21B $22.13B 2020 $14.51B $12.46B 2019 $25.59B $26.91B 2018 $22.51B $23.22B 2017 $20.46B $22.15B 2016 $17.52B $20.60B 2015 $16.72B $21.09B 2014 $15.47B $19.51B 2013 $15.98B $22.19B 2012 $16.66B $21.79B Data Source: World Bank: World Development Indicators (2022) International trade in the view of Ibrahim and Haiyun (2019), promotes specialization and efficiency in production which benefits both the country in question and the world. Investments from foreign countries to Ghana that bring about production for local consumption are also benefits obtained from international trade which well up to impact Ghana‘s GDP positively. For instance, some companies that source their raw materials from Ghana and export finished products to Ghana, actually set up companies in Ghana to avoid the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 export and import charges and duties and take advantage of labour which is mostly cheaper in Ghana due to the exchange rate. Unilever, Blue Skies, Olam, just to mention but a few, are some of the companies that utilize this avenue. To add to that, international trade has brought about the adoption of best practice for businesses and the automation of manufacturing and some services such as banking, and insurance; the increased use of technology and improvement in the general way of doing business. International trade has aided the development of emerging economies and promoted trade between them and developed economies, and likewise helped developed economies with market avenues. Boakye and Gyamfi (2017), assert that an increase in export will lead to an increase in economic growth mostly in developing countries. They hold that, in Ghana a 1% increase in export will lead to a 20.8% increase in economic growth. Yennu (2018), posit that some of the merits of international trade for Ghana has been faster economic growth, reduction in poverty, promotion of good governance and improved product qualities due to foreign competition (Yennu, 2018. P, 1). Another advantage of international trade worthy of note is the creation of jobs. A report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) shows that the most stable components of globalization have created over 53 million jobs worldwide which has beneficial effects on Ghana‘s economy as well as the economies of other developing countries. Though it is difficult to estimate the number of jobs created by international trade in Ghana, it can be said that a considerable number of Ghanaians work with organisations that produce for export, or import products for distribution. Again, the export of minerals such as gold, bauxite, diamonds oil, and food produce among others bring in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in these sectors, creating numerous jobs for Ghanaians. As Yennu (2018, P. 1), puts it ―the relationship between international trade, globalization and poverty reduction comes predominantly from job opportunities created by foreign investment which create a considerable number of job University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 opportunities.‖ Multinational Corporations, who source for raw materials from Ghana for their industries abroad, sometimes take the initiatives to establish their companies in Ghana due to the advantages associated with establishing companies near sources of raw materials. These tend to create jobs for the indigenes as well as the country as a whole. In fact, it can be said that international trade has impacted virtually every facet of the Ghanaian‘s life and nearly all sectors of the economy, from medicine to agriculture, education to banking, just to mention but a few. The effects of international trade also have financial benefits for the economy in the form of import duties, taxes on goods to be sold among others, and these account for a major part of revenue for the Ghanaian economy. 2.3 Trade Associations and Ghana Ghana has various Trade Agreements that guide her trading activities with several countries. The International Trade Administration (ITA)(2022) presents that ―Ghana has bilateral Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) with the European Union (EU) and an Interim Trade Partnership Agreement with the United Kingdom (UK) and Northern Ireland.‖ Ghana also has the Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA), Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) and African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) with the United States (US). Ghana has been a member of the World Trade Organization since 1 st January 1995, and a member of GATT since 17 th October 1957. The goals of these trade agreements, which are beneficial to Ghana, cannot materialize if goods cannot be transported safely through the major international trade route, that is, on the Gulf of Guinea. Lately, Ghana joined the treaty of the African Union to be a part of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). The AfCFTA was launched on January 1, 2021 with its secretariat in Ghana. It brings together 54 of the 55 member states of the Africa Union with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 one of its goals to create a single market for goods and services whiles working on reducing tariffs on 90 percent of goods produced within the zone. Being a member of the AfCFTA has ―some positive implications for Ghana as the country is well-positioned to take advantage of growth opportunities in the global market‖ and increase its GDP (U.S Chamber of Commerce, 2021, P.1). Trade however, within African states also highlight the importance of the Gulf of Guinea and its security concerns. This is because most of the Central and Western African states such as ―Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Cote d‘Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, Guinea, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea- Bissau, Gabon, Nigeria, Ghana, Sao Tome, and Principe, Togo and Sierra Leone‖ (Ghosh, 2021) are all situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the main means of transporting goods to these countries would be through the Gulf of Guinea. The AfCFTA is meant to increase the volume of trade between these countries, however an insecure sea trading route would be a challenge to such trades. Kamal Deen Ali (2015, p 48) asserts the landlocked States of the Gulf of Guinea are equally dependent on the Gulf of Guinea for international trade and shipping which helps the economic growth and development of those countries. The main ports which are used to transfer goods to and from landlocked States are the Port of Abidjan in Cote d‘Ivoire, the Port of Duala in Cameroon, the Port of Lome in Togo, and the Port of Tema in Ghana. It is as a result of such dependency on the Gulf of Guinea by its landlocked states that some agreements are entered into for easy movement of goods from the ports to these landlocked states. Example is Ghana and Burkina Faso‘s agreement in 2017 to construct a railway line that will connect the major towns and cities along the corridor from the Tema Port in Ghana to Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 2.3.1 Maritime Protection Associations and Ghana Chiotis (2021, P. 57) postulate that there are six organisations designed to counter maritime crime in the Gulf of Guinea which includes ―Maritime Organization for the West and Central Africa (MOWCA), Maritime Domain Awareness for Trade – Gulf of Guinea (MDATGoG), G7 2 Group of friends of the Gulf of Guinea (G7++FOGG), Inter-Regional Network for the Gulf of Guinea (GoGIN) 3 , Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) organizations‖. Chiotis is of the view that the combined efforts of these organisations has resulted in impressive initiatives and plans to fight insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea and hence trade protections for the Gulf of Guinea member states, Ghana inclusive. Besides what Chiotis has mentioned, there is also the Gulf of Guinea Commission, established by a Treaty signed in Libreville, Gabon, on 3 July 2001, and the Yaoundé Architecture for Maritime Safety and Security (YAMSS), all aimed at ensuring security at sea, especially in the Gulf of Guinea. Exercise Obangame Express and Operation Flintlock, are some of the exercises and operations put in place to fight maritime crime in the region. Exercise Obangame Express for instance ―focuses on building capacities in Benin, Cote d‘Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Togo to counter more effectively all forms of maritime-based crime in the Gulf of Guinea (United States Africa Command, 2023). Operation Flintlock ―intends to strengthen the ability of key partner nations in the region to counter violent extremist organisations, collaborate across borders, and provide security for their people, while respecting human rights and building trust with civilian populations (United Nations Africa Command, 2023, p. 1). Operation 2 G7 (Great Seven) countries are, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK, and USA 3 This is made up of Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://expertisefrance.fr/cameroun https://expertisefrance.fr/republique-du-congo https://expertisefrance.fr/cote-d-ivoire https://expertisefrance.fr/republique-democratique-du-congo https://expertisefrance.fr/republique-democratique-du-congo https://expertisefrance.fr/guinee https://expertisefrance.fr/senegal 34 Flintlock is conducted by U.S special Operations Command Africa with one scheduled for Ghana and Cote d‘Ivoire from March 1-15, 2023 (United Nations Africa Command, 2023). The Yaoundé Architecture for Maritime Safety and Security (YAMSS) has its aim to ―inform, coordinate action, strengthen laws and close down areas of vulnerability‖ in the Gulf of Guinea and reports show that their activities are yielding some progress as some crimes are being avoided due to this exercise (Dryad Global, 2020, P. 1). Since the YAMSS came in force in 2013, there has been some level of reduction in crimes like piracy and armed robbery; however, other crimes like illegal fishing, human trafficking, maritime pollution, illegal arms and drug trafficking, illegal oil bunkering amongst other still persist in the Gulf of Guinea. The nature of some of such crimes is that it takes more than surveillance machines to detect, and so if legal vessels are involved, they go unnoticed. Figure 1: The Yaoundé Architecture Source: EU: GoGIN University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 Figure 2. The Yaoundé Organogram Source: EU: GoGIN 2.4 Ghana and the Gulf of Guinea Ghana is a coastal country along the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa. The land has a total area of 238,540 km² (92,101 mi²) and a total coastline of 539 km (334.9 mi). Van Dyck and Vrey are of the view that like many other coastal African countries, Ghana depends significantly on its blue economy for income, employment and food. (Very and VanDyck 2022) The proceeding sub-topics would expose us to the relationship, especially economic, that exist between Ghana and the Gulf of Guinea. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 2.4.1 Importance of Ghana to the Gulf of Guinea Trade Given the importance of the Gulf of Guinea to the maritime trade with Sub-Saharan African countries, by Africa and even the rest of the world, all countries along its path would be considered important to the success of the International trade on the gulf of Guinea. Ghana as one of the coastal countries along the Gulf of Guinea is thus important as well. Information from the Ghana Ports and Harbour Authority shows that on regular basis, Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger use the Tema, GPHA Transit Terminal for their sea borne trades. The Southern Africa Freights News Agency on 1 st December 2020, named the Tema harbour in Ghana as the largest in West and Central Africa by its volume of trade, an assertion which is confirmed by Van-Dyck and Very (2022). Again with the expansion of the Takoradi Port, a project partly funded by African Development Bank Group, and IBISTEK GHANA LIMITED (IbisTek), with concessions agreement (2017), Ghana could in future become the sea port hub for the entire West Africa sub-region. 2.4.2 Importance of Gulf of Guinea to Ghana’s GDP Ali (2015) stated that the case for many other developing economies of the Gulf of Guinea States derive a substantial part of their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from the export of cash crops and mineral resources, and in recent time an increase in the trade of non-traditional products like pineapples, pawpaw, mangoes and others For Ghana, a 2019 report by the Gulf of Guinea Institute in International Maritime Working group revealed that ―the maritime industry is the backbone of the Ghanaian economy‖ (Gulf of Guinea Maritime Institute, 2019). The report emphasized the importance of the maritime economy and mentions the oil University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 and gas industries and fishing industry as major contributors to Ghana‘s GDP whose resources are obtained from the Gulf of Guinea and transported for trade through same. VanDyck and Vrey (2022) states that ―the oil and gas sector has generated over $4 billion in revenue since commercial operations began in 2010‖ whiles about 10% of Ghana‘s workforce is employed in the fishing sector, which also accounts for 4.5% of the country‘s GDP. Microtrends(2022) in their report mentioned that Ghana‘s international trades contributed significantly to the country‘s GDP. The table below indicates international trades‘ contribution to Ghana‘s GDP Table 2: Annual International Trade to GDP Ghana Trade to GDP Year Trade (% of GDP) Annual Change 2021 58.43% 19.91% 2020 38.52% -38.31% 2019 76.82% 8.87% 2018 67.96% -2.59% 2017 70.55% 2.67% 2016 67.88% -8.64% 2015 76.52% 12.68% 2014 63.84% 3.08% 2013 60.76% -32.41% 2012 93.17% 6.87% Data Source: World Bank: World Development Indicators (2022) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 2.4.3 Maritime Security and Ghana’s trade and commerce Maritime security according to Haruna, (2020, P. 211) ―is the process of maintaining stability in the international system on, over, under and from the sea‖. It is the combination of preventive and responsive measures to protect the maritime domain against threats and international unlawful acts (Haruna, 2020). Maritime security ―includes the protection of maritime trade resources, utilization, environmental protection and jurisdiction of accountable authorities‖ (Haruna, 2020, P. 210). In the view of Haruna, (2020), the need for maritime security and development in Africa has grown over the past decade, especially after records of crimes indicate an increasing trend in attacks on vessels in the Gulf of Guinea. According to Bell et al., (2021), the estimates of financial impact of piracy and armed robbery in the Gulf of Guinea have revealed high cost to maritime transportation. One of such cost related to this is the high cost charged by insurers due to the security issues on the Gulf of Guinea (Bell et al., 2021). The cost of anti-piracy measures also increases trade cost as well as security measures such as the hiring of armed guards or security escorts which also translate into higher freight rates and additional security fees (Bell et al., 2021). Bell et al., (2021, P.1) suggest that ―piracy-related business expenses impact government revenue earned through transoceanic trade. They also indirectly raise the cost of goods imported to the Gulf of Guinea and make the Gulf of Guinea exports less competitive in the global market‖. 2.4.4 The need for Maritime Security and Ghana’s Action toward its Achievement Maritime security is necessary because it affects every facet of the economy: Trade, health, agriculture, mobility, education, manufacturing, job creation, among others. According to Haruna, (2020, P. 210) maritime security ―is essential for maintaining the flow of revenues from oil and gas which have the potential to contribute significantly to development in the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 livelihoods of many African people‖. A review of literature reveals that African countries particularly the Gulf of Guinea states like Ghana benefit immensely from the Gulf of Guinea, not only as a means of transportation but also from fishing and oil reserves. Scholars like Ali, Haruna, and Chiotis, all agree to this assertion. The need for securing the Gulf of Guinea is therefore a necessity as its contribution to the economy of African states and other continents that trade with Africa cannot be overemphasized. For trade with Gulf of Guinea states to be successful maritime security is vital because it borders on safety of crew members as well. A report by the Internal Maritime Bureau (2022) on global maritime crimes indicates that between January to September 2022, 85 vessels were boarded globally, 4 of them were attacked and one was hijacked in a year that the Bureau recorded the lowest number of attacks in a decade. Out of this number, 27 crew members were taken hostage, 6 were assaulted and 5 threatened (Internal Maritime Bureau, 2022). The report also shows that globally 40 bulk carriers, 23 tankers, 10 container ships and 16 others were attacked, an indication that bulk carriers and tankers (oil) are the main targets for maritime crime perpetrators. Out of the total incidents reported, 13 of them were reported for the Gulf of Guinea which comes after South Eastern Asia (48 incidents), and South America (18 incidents). Though the Bureau said incidents report for the 2022 show significant improvement in the fight against maritime insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea in the last 10 years, there is still room for a lot of improvement as the lives of Seafarers, and goods being transported ought to be safe and the crime perpetrators are likely to increase their activities once the fight against these crimes dwindles. It is quite obvious that given the importance and size of the Gulf of Guinea, it is beyond the capacity of any country or even the Gulf of Guinea countries alone to solely ensure the security of the Gulf of Guinea. Kamal Deen Ali (2017) holds the view that cooperation with neighbouring countries as well as other international bodies is essential to the maintenance of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 the security of the Gulf of Guinea. The crimes in the Gulf of Guinea are varied and costly; hence a number of regional organisations are working on ensuring maritime security. These include ―Economic Community of West African State (ECOWAS), the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), the Maritime Organization of West and Central Africa (MOWCA), International Maritime Bureau (IMB), International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the Gulf of Guinea Commission (GGC)‖ (Haruna,2020, P. 210). Van-Dyck and Vrey (2022, P. 1), posit that like other Gulf of Guinea states, Ghana faces significant challenges in the Gulf of Guinea which includes ―ocean dumping, piracy, stowing away, drug and human trafficking, smuggling of arms, blue cyber threats and illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing‖ however, piracy and oil bunkering is key amongst the list. These crimes are also known as blue crimes (Van-Dyck &Very, 2022). To fight this menace, Ghana has developed a comprehensive National Integrated Maritime Strategy 2040 (NIMS) which is couched out of the Africa Integrated Maritime Strategy 2050(AIMS). The aim of this strategy is to ensure that by 2040, Ghana‘s maritime space will be safe and secure with a thriving blue economy that benefit every Ghanaian. The National Integrated Maritime Strategy (NIMS) entails six strategy objectives that put emphasis on Safety, Security, Maritime environmental protection, Blue economy development, Capacity building and Cooperation, provides a Framework for Implementation and Sustainability. The implementation includes calls for the allocation of resources funded from the national budget. The strategy has been in operation since 2016. It was drafted after consultations with state agencies and departments; local private entities, including those with fisheries and environmental interests; commercial and non-commercial maritime actors; experts and international partners; among others. It was developed with support from the Centre for Maritime Law and Security (CEMLAWS) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime with funding from Denmark. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 CONCLUSION From the above it could be asserted that the Gulf of Guinea is very important to the economies not only of the African States bounded by it, but all countries that trade in one commodity or the order on the Gulf of Guinea, either by bringing in goods or taking goods away. Major international trading powers like China, US, UK, Frances, and others use that sea route either for importation or exportation. Also, given the strategic position of the Gulf of Guinea it would be vital to the success of the AfCFTA when the AfCFTA becomes fully operational. It is therefore important that the Gulf of Guinea become very safe for trade, commercial, and other important activities. Although efforts are being made, reports indicate that more need to be down, not only focusing on criminals but legal operators who involve in illegal or criminal activities. This paper thus seeks to unearth the causes of the persistence of the crime, with focus on legal operators involved in illegal activities, thus proffer likely solutions to them. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 REFERENCES Ali, K. D. (2015). Maritime security cooperation in the Gulf of Guinea: Prospects and challenges. AllAfrica (2022). West Africa: Troubled West Africa waters and new conversation on coastal security. Retrieved November 1, 2022 from https://allafrica.com/stories/202106130051 .html Allison, E., Kurien, J., Ota, Y., Adhuri, D., Bavinck, J., and Cisneros-Montemayor, A. (2020). The Human Relationship with Our Ocean Planet. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute Bashiru- Dine. Maritime security threats in the Gulf of Guinea. Ghana‘s Experience Shipping Review, 23(2), 2-7. file:///C:/Users/GODWIN/Downloads/SR-2nd-Qtr-min.pdf Bax, N., Novaglio, C., Maxwell, K. H., Meyers, K., McCann, J., and Jennings, S. (2021). Ocean resource use: building the coastal blue economy. Rev. Fish Biol. Fisheries 32, 1–9. doi: 10.22541/au.160391057.79751584/v Bell, C., Huggins, J., Joubert, L., Okafor-Yarwood, I., & Eblede, T. M. (2021). Pirates of the Gulf of Guinea. A cost analysis for coastal states. Stable Seas report. Retrieved August 18, 2022 from https://www.unodc.org/documents/Maritime_crime/UNODC_Pirates_GoG_A_ Cost_Analysis_for_Coastal_States.pdf Boakye, R. N. and Gyamfi E., (2017), The Impact of Foreign Trade on the Economic Growth of Ghana, in, International Journal of Business Marketing and Management (IJBMM) Volume 2 Issue 3 March 2017, P.P.20-26 ISSN : 2456-4559 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh file:///C:/Users/GODWIN/Downloads/SR-2nd-Qtr-min.pdf 43 Brafu-Insaidoo (2017). The impact of trade on employment in Ghana. Retrieved October 28, 2022 from https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/--- ifp_skills/documents/ publication/wcms_673464.pdf Bueger, C. Edmunds, T. and Ryan, B. J. (2019). Maritime security: the uncharted politics of the global sea. International Affairs 95(5), 971-978. Dryad Global (2020). Yaoundé Code of Conduct taking shape in the Gulf of Guinea. Retrieved February 12, 2023 from https://channel16.dryadglobal.com/yaounde-code- of-conduct-taking-shape-in-the-gulf-of-guinea European Commission (2021). The economic cost of socio-economic impacts of maritime threats in the Gulf of Guinea. Retrieved November 10, 2022 from https://criticalmaritimeroutes.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/CRIMSON-III- Economic-Costs-of-maritime-threats-in-the-GoG-new-cover.pdf Ghosh, D. (2021). Gulf of Guinea. Retrieved February 1, 2023 from https://www.worldatlas.com/seas/gulf-of-guinea.html Gulf of Guinea Maritime Institute (2019). International Maritime Security Working Group First Meeting Report. Retrieved November 14, 2022 from https://www.gogmi.org.gh/_files/ugd/fd54bd_4ddd84c3400e41f8bfcb1d644ab287f7.p df?index=true Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Beal, D., Chaudhry, T., Elhaj, H., Abdullat, A., Etessy, P., and Smits, M. (2015). Reviving the Ocean Economy: The Case for Action - 2015. Geneva: WWF International, 1–60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://www.gogmi.org.gh/_files/ugd/fd54bd_4ddd84c3400e41f8bfcb1d644ab287f7.pdf?index=true https://www.gogmi.org.gh/_files/ugd/fd54bd_4ddd84c3400e41f8bfcb1d644ab287f7.pdf?index=true 44 Ighobor, K. (2020). AfCFTA Secretariat commissioned in Accra as free trade is set to begin in January 2021. African Renewal, Retrieved February 3, 2023 from https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/august-2020/arz/afcfta-secretariat- commissioned-accra-free-trade-set-begin-january-2021 Ibrahim, I. & Haiyun, L. (2019). Ghana‘s export and import trade: an empirical review. International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, 7(3), 149-157. International Trade Administration (2022). Ghana Trade Agreements. Retrieved October 24, 2022 from https://www.trade.gov/market-intelligence/ghana-trade- agreements#:~:text=Ghana%20has%20a%20bilateral%20Economic,United%20Kingd om%20and%20Northern%20Ireland. Lloyds Bank (2022) Foreign trade figures for Ghana. Retrieved November 9, 2022 from https://www.lloydsbanktrade.com/en/market-potential/ghana/trade-profile Mustapha, A. H. (2020). Nigeria‘s energy and maritime security interest in the Gulf of Guinea for regional integration: challenges and prospects. International Journal of Political Science and Development, 8(6), 209- 221. Ministry of Trade and Industry, Republic of Ghana (2022). Ministry of Trade and Industry- About us. Retrieve November 18, 2022 from https://moti.gov.gh/v2/about-us/. Okyere, I., & Jilu, L. (2020). The impact of export and import to economic growth of Ghana: European Journal of Business and Management, 12(21), 130-138 Oxford Business Group (2022). How will the AfCFTA boost Ghana‘s free zone exports? Retrieved November 19, 2022 from https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/news/how-will- afcfta-boost-ghana-free-zone-exports Trend Economy (2022). Annual International trade by country. Retrieved February 3, 20223 from https://trendeconomy.com/data/h2/Ghana/TOTAL University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://moti.gov.gh/v2/about-us/ 45 U.S Chamber of Commerce (2021). How the AfCFTA impacts U.S-Ghana trade business opportunities. Retrieved November 1, 2022 from https://www.uschamber.com/on- demand/international/how-the-afcta-is-impacting-ghana-business-relations-and- opportunities United Nations Africa Command (2023) Exercise Obangame Express 23 aids maritime security and prosecution in the Gulf of Guinea. Retrieved February 12, 2023 FROM https://www.africom.mil/article/35132/exercise-obangame-express-23-aids-maritime- security-and-prosecution-in-the-gulf-of-guinea Van Dyck, G.K. &Vrey, F. (2022). Ghana has developed a maritime policy. Here is what it means. Retrieved November 5, 2022 from https://theconversation.com/amp/ghana-has- developed-a-maritime-policy-here-is-what-it-means-188381. Yennu A.T. (2018). International trade and economic growth in Ghana- benefits, constraints and impacts. International Journal of Economic Management Sciences 7(4), 2-4. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 CHAPTER THREE MARITIME INSECURITY AND ITS IMPACT: DATA INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS 3.0 Introduction This chapter examines why maritime crimes still persists in the Gulf of Guinea and its implications on Ghana‘s trade and commerce. The study‘s objective is broken down in great depth in this chapter. It focuses on the analyses of data, as well as the discussions and interpretation of the findings. The demographic characteristics of participants are well presented in this chapter to give the scope of the respondents. In all a total of 99 out of a 100 targeted respondents responded to the self-made questionnaire, and 15 out 20 people targeted were interviewed. The respondents were from the Ghana Fisheries Commission, Ghana Maritime Authority, Ghana Navy, Marine Police Unit of the Ghana Police Service, Captains and Sea-men of shipping and fishing vessels. Thorough discussions have been made using the numerical data as well as the interview information gathered. 3.1 Statistical Demographic Characteristics of Respondents The data was obtained from questionnaires administered to one hundred (100) respondents consisting of 49 Naval Officers, 31 Sea Men, 10 Marine Police, 5 Ghana Maritime Authority Personnel and 9 Captains of Ship. Out of the 100 respondents involved, the study had a rate 99% of response. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS V.23) version was used to produce the data. The following analysis displays and uncovers the replies received from the field survey's recovered questions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 The age, sex, educational level and number of years of service of respondents is presented in Table 3 below. Table 3: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Indication Frequency Percentage Sex Male 90 90.9 Female 9 9.1 Total 99 100.0 Age 20 – 29 years 9 9.1 30 – 39 years 82 82.8 40 – 49 years 8 8.1 Total 99 100.0 Highest Educational level SSCE/WASSCE 7 7.1 Diploma/HND 22 22.2 First Degree 61 61.6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 Masters 9 9.1 Total 99 100.0 Number of Years at Service Less than a year 5 5.1 1-5 years 32 32.3 6-10 years 33 33.3 Over 10 years 29 29.3 Total 99 100.0 Field Survey: April, 2023 3.2 Current Policy and Practices of Ghana towards the Fight Against Maritime Insecurity in The Gulf of Guinea As expressed in chapter (1) One, Ghana together with its international partners has attempted to combat maritime crimes. The Table 5 below provides summary statistics for a survey of individuals' opinions on policies and practices used by Ghana to fight insecurity and crimes in the Gulf of Guinea. The survey asked two questions, on a dichotomous questionnaire with a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 Yes or No answer. The table below shows the number of respondents (N), the mean, and the percentages. Table 4: Current Policy and Practices of Ghana Toward the Fight Against Maritime Insecurity in The Gulf of Guinea Characteristics N Yes No % % Are there any policies in place (in Ghana) to fight insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea 99 57.6 42.4 Are there any practices to fight insecurity (crimes) in the Gulf of Guinea? 99 90.9 9.1 Total 99 100 100 Field Survey: April, 2023 The Table 4 above points to the fact that with regards to the practices much is being done but an average effort is put in with regards to policies. This goes to confirm what was identified in the interviews. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 An operative from the Ghana Navy Special Boat Squadron asserted, ―Ghana has developed many strategies, both at the international and local levels, to prevent crimes in the Gulf of Guinea. Some of the policies and efforts include International cooperation, Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) and Coastal and Maritime Security Task Force. Ghana is a signatory to a number of international treaties and efforts targeted at combating crimes in the Gulf of Guinea. The Yaoundé Code of Conduct, the African Union's Maritime Security and Safety Agenda for Africa, and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) are, but a few examples”. A personnel of the Ghana Maritime Authority also informed, “The Ghana Maritime Authority (GMA) has also built an MDA system to improve the country's maritime domain surveillance and monitoring. The system employs a number of technologies, including Radar, Automatic Identification System (AIS), and Satellites in this surveillance and monitoring activities. Gh