University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCE EFFECT OF SOIL AMENDMENT AND SEED EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES ON SEED YIELD AND QUALITY OF PEPPER (Capsicum chinensis) IN SOUTHERN SENEGAL By Siméon BASSENE (ID N0: 10556853) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY WEST AFRICA CENTRE FOR CROP IMPROVEMENT (WACCI) JUNE 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby, declare that except for references to the work of other researchers which have been duly cited, this work is an original work and has not been submitted or presented in part or whole for any other degree. ………………………………… Siméon BASSENE (Student) Date……………………… ………………………………. Prof. Richard BANI (Supervisor) Date…………………………… ……………………………… Dr. Beatrice E. IFIE (Supervisor) Date...…………………….…. …………………………………. Dr. John S.Y. ELEBLU (Supervisor) Date………………………….. i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Vegetable production in general and pepper production in particular are of paramount importance in the economic life of rural and peri-urban farmers in Senegal. However, high input costs such as seeds and chemical fertilizers are a limitation to the sector's growth. In order to find technologies capable of producing quality seeds with cheaper inputs, this study was conducted at the Djibelor Agricultural Research Centre in the southern region of Senegal. Six treatments T1 (NPK 300 kg/ha and urea 200 kg/ha), T2 (NPK 150 kg/ha, urea 200 kg/ha and compost 10 tons/ha), T3 (NPK 100 kg/ha, urea 200 kg/ha and compost 15 kg/ha), T4 (NPK 50 kg/ha, urea 200 kg/ha and compost 20 tons/ha), T5 (compost 25 tons/ha) and T6 (control) made from the combination of compost and chemical fertilizer were tested in a randomized complete block with four replicates. The results of this study revealed a positive effect of the combined fertilizer at different rates on pepper growth and reproduction parameters. The height of the plants, the number of branches, the thickness of the stems, the size of the fruits and the biomass were significantly increased with the mixture of compost and chemical fertilizers. In addition, these fertilizers had the effect of shortening days of the reproductive stages (50% flowering, 50% fruiting and 50% ripening) of the Big Sun pepper variety (Capsicum chinensis) used for this study. Also, after harvest two seed extraction techniques were used (Fresh fruit extraction and dry fruit extraction). With the two extraction techniques used, fruit drying prior to seed extraction played an important role in seed quality. The seeds from the dried fruits showed germination rates and germination vigour well above that of seeds from fresh fruits. These results suggest that the mixt of compost and low rate of chemical fertilizers in the south region of Senegal should be encouraged for use as a substitute to the high level cost of chemical fertilizers for optimum pepper fruits production. Furthermore, dried pepper berries prior to seed extraction is the best technique that maintains seed quality. Keywords: Capsicum chinensis, compost, chemical fertilizer, growth, yield, seed extraction and quality. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To the soul of my mother Rest in the peace of Christ your Saviour. To my father source of inspiration To my wife Catherine To my sisters, brothers and friends iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGMENT I am thankful to my sponsor the WAAPP, to its coordinator in Senegal Mr Ndiaga CISSE for the financial support of my schooling. May, he find here, the expression of my deep gratitude. I thank ISRA's Executive Board for allowing me to study abroad for two years. I sincerely thank the staff of WACCI and especially its Director Prof E DANQUAH and the coordinator of the MPhil program Dr A. DANQUAH for selecting me. I thank all the teachers and researchers of Basic and Applied Sciences who for two years have given the best of themselves to help us acquire the necessary knowledge for any seed technician. I am grateful to my colleagues from the CRA of Djibélor, headed by the Centre Director for their moral support. I sincerely thank my supervisors Pr. J. BANI, Dr. B. E. IFIE and Dr. J. Y. ELIBLU for their invaluable contribution to the development of this document. I thank my promoters with whom I exchanged and received knowledge that allowed me to overcome many difficulties. I thank my parents, brothers and sisters, friends and acquaintances for their prayers and moral support. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENT ......................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLE ................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ ix ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ............................................................................... xi CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................... 1 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................... 4 2. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 4 2.1. The pepper plant ................................................................................................... 4 2.2. Climatic and edaphic factors for pepper cultivation .............................................. 5 2.3. Common diseases and pests of pepper ................................................................... 6 2.3.1. Insects .............................................................................................................. 6 2.4. Soil fertility and pepper production ....................................................................... 9 2.4.1. Organic fertilization effect on pepper production ........................................... 9 2.4.2. Mineral fertilization effect on pepper production .......................................... 10 2.4.3 Organomineral effect on pepper production .................................................. 11 2.5. Pepper production in tropical Africa ................................................................... 12 2.6. The use of pepper ................................................................................................ 13 2.7. Advantages of pepper “Big Sun” variety cropping in the south of Senegal ......... 14 2.8. Factors influencing seed quality .......................................................................... 15 2.8.1. Fertilisation ................................................................................................... 15 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.8.2. The harvest stage ........................................................................................... 15 2.6.3. Harvesting methods ....................................................................................... 15 2.8.4. Seed extraction techniques ............................................................................ 16 2.8.5. Seeds drying .................................................................................................. 17 2.8.6. Seed storage ................................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 18 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ....................................................................................... 18 3.1. Experimental site ................................................................................................. 18 3.2. Experimental materials and treatments ............................................................... 18 3.3. Experimental design, nursery practices and field planting .................................. 19 3.4. Seed extraction studies ......................................................................................... 20 3.5. Data collection ..................................................................................................... 20 3.5.1. Field data ....................................................................................................... 20 3.5.2. Laboratory data ............................................................................................ 21 3.5. Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 23 4. RESULTS ............................................................................................................................ 23 4.1. Chemical properties of compost and soil. ............................................................ 23 4.2. Height of pepper plants ....................................................................................... 24 4.3. Number of primary and secondary branches ...................................................... 25 4.4. Thickness of plant stems ...................................................................................... 26 4.5. The biomass ......................................................................................................... 27 4.6. Days to flowering, fruiting and red ripe fruits. .................................................... 27 4.7. Number of marketable and unmarketable fruits ................................................. 28 4.8. Length and width of the fruits ............................................................................. 29 4.9. Number of fruits by plant .................................................................................... 30 4.10. The fruit yield .................................................................................................... 30 4.11. Seed yield ........................................................................................................... 31 4.12. Bad quality seed weight ..................................................................................... 32 4.13. The weight of 1000 grains .................................................................................. 32 4.14. The percentage germination of seed ................................................................... 33 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.15. The seedling vigour ............................................................................................ 34 5. DISCUSION ........................................................................................................................ 36 5.1. Soil chemical properties as influenced by fertilizers ............................................ 36 5.2. Plant growth parameters as influenced by treatments ......................................... 36 5.3. Reproductive stages of pepper as influenced by treatments................................. 38 5.4. Yield and yield component of pepper as influenced by treatments ...................... 39 5.5. Pepper seeds quality as influenced by treatments ................................................ 40 CHAPTER SIX ....................................................................................................................... 43 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................... 43 6.1. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................. 43 6.2. RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................... 44 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 45 APPENDIX: ANOVA .......................................................................................................... 59 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLE Table 3.1: The different fertilizers and their rate of application .............................................. 19 Table 4 1: Chemical analysis of compost ................................................................................. 23 Table 4 2 : Soil pH as influenced by treatments ...................................................................... 24 Table 4 3: Biweekly height growth of pepper plants as influenced by combined fertilizers. .. 25 Table 4. 4 : Number of primary and secondary branches of pepper plants as influenced by treatments ................................................................................................................................. 26 Table 4. 5 : Stem diameter of pepper plant as influenced by treatments. ................................ 26 Table 4. 6 : Days to 50% flowering, 50% fruiting and 50% ripening as influenced by treatments ................................................................................................................................. 28 Table 4 7 : The number of marketable and unmarketable fruits as influenced by treatments . 29 Table 4 8 : Number of fruits by plant as influenced by fertilizers ........................................... 30 Table 4 9 : Pepper fruit yield as influenced by treatment. ....................................................... 31 Table 4. 10: Pepper seed yield as influenced by the treatments. .............................................. 31 Table 4. 11 : Pepper bad seeds as influenced by treatment. ..................................................... 32 Table 4 12 : 1000 pepper seeds weight as affected by treatments and extraction techniques.. 33 Table 4. 13 : Germination percentage as influenced by treatments and seed extraction techniques. ................................................................................................................................ 34 Table 4 14 : Seedling vigour as influenced by treatments and seed extraction techniques. .... 35 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4 1 : Pepper root biomass (A) and shoot biomass (B) as influenced by treatments ..... 27 Figure 4 2 : Length and width of pepper fruits as influenced by treatments............................ 29 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS WACCI: West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement ANSD: Agence National pour la Statistique et la Démographie CEDEAO : Communauté Economique Des Etats De l’Afrique de l’Ouest ECOWAS: Economic Community Of West Africa States FAO: Food and Agriculture Organisation CORAAF: Conseil de l'Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre pour la Recherche et le Développement Agricoles IPI : International Potash Institute PADEN: Programme d'Aménagement et de Développement Economique des Niayes AVRDC: Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre ISRA : Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles UNEP : Union Nationale des Entrepreneurs du Paysage IFA : International Fertiliser Industry Association UNEP : United Nations Environnement Programme CDH : Centre de Développement Horticole xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1. INTRODUCTION Peppers (Capsicum spp.) belong to the family of Solanaceae and are grown widely in various part of the world (Ashilenje, 2013). The area cultivated for the production of pepper powder reaches 2 million hectare for 3.4 million tonnes (Mt) of dry product worldwide (Sage-Palloix and Palloix, 2016; Rey, 2005). The Asian continent is the biggest producer with 2.4 Mt followed by Africa (0.62 Mt), the Americas (0.25 Mt) and Europe (0.12 Mt). The top producers in the African continent are Ghana and Ethiopia with 0.1 Mt each (Sage-Palloix and Palloix, 2016). Chili peppers are commonly used as a condiment (Alabi, 2006) and also have a wide range of uses including pharmaceutical, natural colouring agents and cosmetics, as an ornamental plant and as the active ingredient in most defence repellents (Brito-Argáez et al., 2009; Palevitch and Cracker, 1995; Pérez-Gálvez et al., 2003). The varied uses of chili pepper fruits has made this plant economically importantis. In Senegal, pepper is the second vegetable crop in terms of the people involved in its production. During the cold off season vegetable crop mobilizes 53,004 households in which 35.5% grows pepper while the hot off season mobilizes 29,837 with 37.3% pepper growers (ANSD, 2013). Demand for chili pepper fruit is increasing year by year due to local population growth and increased exports. Therefore, it is urgent to increase the productivity of chili pepper to meet the increasing demand. Unfortunately, farmers involved in chili production are facing many problems. According to a survey carried out by CORAAF in 2008, the main constraints to productivity of vegetables range from inadequate access to the quality seeds and chemical fertilizers due to their high cost, the use of inappropriate production technologies, the declining soil fertility and climate change, and ultimately to the monopoly of the sector of vegetable seeds by foreign farms. The low soil fertility in sub-Saharan Africa farm has leaded to an increase of 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the use of inorganic fertilisers. However, the financial situation of small producers does not allow them to buy these large quantities of mineral fertilizers. Access to quality seeds and fertilizers remain definitively the two main challenges to vegetable production in Senegal. Indeed, it is recognized that quality seed would contribute up to 20 to 30% to the yield of a crop (Thompson, 1986). Increasing of production and productivity of chili is necessary for improving the incomes of small producers and to meet the local demand. This implies a total or partial reduction of the numerous constraints that undermine the sector, particularly the high cost of quality seeds and chemical fertilizers. Various authors have suggested technologies that can increase production or ensure quality seed production. Rahman et al. (2012) reported that the combination of compost and NPK played a important role in pepper growth and on reproductive parameters like; days required for first flower initiation, the number of fresh fruit, the weight of fruits, the number of seeds per fruit and the weight of 100 seed compare to the control. Abud et al. 2013; Dias et al., 2006; Vidigal et al., 2009; Dos Santos et al., 2016, suggested that harvesting pepper for seed should be done at physiological maturity. However there is some disagreement on period of seeds extraction after harvesting. Some authors recommended that seeds of Chilli pepper should be extracted soon after harvest. Nagaraja et al., (1998) and Sahoo (2014), on the other hand have reported that chili seed maintains higher germination value up to six month when retained in fruit and stored under ambient conditions before extraction. In order to reduce the cost production of pepper, this study aims to offer to small holder farmer and seeds producers affordable production technologies that are easily applicable in the farmer's environment. The overall objective of this study is to improve the availability of good quality pepper seeds for small scale producers. The specific objectives are to: 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i) determine an optimal combination of organic and chemical fertilizers for pepper seeds production; ii) assess the influence of extraction technique on the quality of pepper seeds; and iii) determine the interactive effect of soil amendment and seed extraction method toward good seeds quality. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. The pepper plant The pepper is a perennial shrub from 1 to 1.50m high, strongly branched. The stalk, with its cylindrical shape, branches easily to spread the many lateral branches and progressively becomes lignified, hence the tendency to a perennial mode (Chaux and Foury, 1994). The root system is characterized by the presence of a main root pivoting down to 50cm deep and numerous lateral secondary roots, relatively superficial with a radius of 0.30 to 0.50cm. Pepper is a hermaphrodite plant. Their flowers appear solitary at the top of a pedicel, starting at a node of the stem. And they only stay open for two to three days. Fruits from different species of pepper vary in colour, size, form and flavour, from very hot to mild or sweetly pungent. Pepper fruits are commonly green before maturity. After maturity, fruit colour can either be red, orange, and yellow or purple (Ashil3enje, 2013). The seed is borne on the placenta, mostly on the basal end of the fruit (McCormack, 2006). They are kidney-shaped, flat, with smooth integument and straw-yellow in colour. Their size is considered variable (Belletti and Quagliotti, 1988) according to the conditions under which they mature; the general environment of the mother plant, the position of the bay on it, their number by fruit, the time of harvest and the time of fruit extraction. One gram has about 140 to 150 (Chaux and Foury 1994; Purseglove, 1966), and can retain 50% viability for three (03) years when stored in a clean, dry, dark place (Ashworth, 1991). Being a perennial shrub, the life of the pepper can exceed more than 10 years. However, the decline of yield over the years requires producers to renew their plantations every one, two or three years depending on the specie or variety grown. Its vegetative cycle consists of four main phases: germination and vegetative phase, flowering, fruiting and ripening. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The duration of each phase of development of pepper, mentioned above, depends on several factors such as the variety chosen, temperature and humidity. But in general, the pepper cycle (from sowing to first harvesting) lasts between 130 days to 150 days (Tokiherinionja, 2007). The flowers are usually white or occasionally tinged with purple, and are borne in the axils of the leaves or branches. Pepper is a hermaphrodite plant. Their flowers appear solitary at the top of a pedicel, starting at a node of the stem. Pepper flowers continue to open for up to 2 hours after sunrise and reopen the following days two to three days (McCormack J., 2006). The fruit of the pepper is a berry (consisting of boxes). The shape of the fruit depend highly on the variety. 2.2. Climatic and edaphic factors for pepper cultivation Pepper is known for its great ease of adaptation. Indeed, its geographical area is between 50 ° N (Canada) and 30 ° South (South Africa). In addition, it is very common to meet it in the sub- tropical state in tropical countries. The three key ecological factors affecting production of pepper are rainfall, soil condition and temperature (Ashilenje, 2013). Pepper presents an optimum development with an altitude level of the sea at 2.000m. Cultivation of pepper in lower areas should be avoided during extremely hot periods. Soils composed of light-draining, well-drained, silty clay-silty alluvium, rich in limestone, humus, organic matter and mineral elements, neutral pH (between 6.5 to 7); better yield at the top of the crop. However, pepper can also tolerate a wider soil pH range of 4.5 (acidic) to 8.0 (slightly alkaline). Favourable climate for growing pepper range between 18°C and 25°C. During the growing season, hot and humid climate is required while dry wither is suitable for ripening. The temperature also affect the colour and the quality of pepper. Best fruit colour is realized at temperatures from 18°C to 24°C. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3. Common diseases and pests of pepper The extent of its geographical area of cultivation to five continents, under various types of climates (temperate, Mediterranean, subtropical and tropical) and the generalization of monovarietal intensive cultivation, are two essential factors that make the cultivation of pepper a target of choice for parasites and the development of epidemics. There are several references in the literature dealing with pepper diseases (Palloix et al., 1995, AVRDC 1990, Yoon et al., 1989). Pepper like most crops is affected by viruses, fungi, bacteria, nematodes, insects and mites. The principal diseases and pests that cause severe damages to fruits and chili pepper seeds are as follow: 2.3.1. Insects False codling moth: Cryptophlebia leucotreta The eggs are laid on the surface of the fruits. After hatching, the caterpillars penetrate directly into the fruit, lodge in its flesh and dig galleries that cause secondary rots due to bacteria and fungi. (Collingwood et al., 1984). Southern green stink bug (Nezara viridula) This insect is believed to have originated in Ethiopia. Now its distribution includes the tropical and subtropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas (Squitier, 1997). Its bug of 15 mm of long and 8 mm wide uniform green coloration, causes by its bites a wilting of the organs attacked (Collingwood et al., 1984). Attached shoots usually wither or, in extreme cases, may die. Dark sword-grass (Agrotis ipsilon) Agrotis ipsilon has a very wide host range, but seedling crop plants are most seriously damaged. The caterpillars cut young transplanted pepper plants. It cuts the stems flush with the ground. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh During the day it is found in the soil, coiled on itself at the foot of the severed plant (Collingwood et al., 1984). Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) The Mediterranean fruit fly, ceratitis capitata (wiedemann), is known to be a highly polyphagous tephritid that infests more than 300 species of fruit and vegetables throughout the world Cohen and Yuval, 2000. The female lays her eggs under the epidermis of the fruit. The maggots that come out undermine the interior by feeding on the flesh. The attacked fruits rot and fall prematurely. According to a study conducted in the south region of Senegal by Tendeng et al., this fruit fly is most damaged pest in pepper production. The cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) The cotton bollworm is a moth and it is one of the most destructive and widely distributed Lepidopteran pests of many important crops including pepper (Bhonwong et al., 2009). The caterpillars dig and empty the fruits of their contents. Their damage can cause significant losses in terms of fruit and seeds yield. The green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) Myzus persicae is a serious phytophagous pest of greenhouse and field. In addition to feeding directly on crop assimilates, this parasite also acts as a vector of virus to the infested plant (Kirchner et al., 2005). This specie is known to cause damages on pepper fruits (FAO, 1997). According to Collingwood et al., 1984; the Green peach aphid usually grow in large colonies on the underside of the leaves, on young shoots and flower buds. They can colonize a crop in a few days. They usually attack young organs. After their bites, the leaves and the growing terminal shoots are embossed, curled up and deformed, stopping growth, reducing the number and quality of the fruits. The number of fruit can be further diminished by the presence of a black fungus that develops on sugar substances secreted by aphids. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis and Thrips tabaci) The thrips cause winding of young leaves and deformations of the terminal bud. The damage caused by F. occidentalis on sweet pepper is typical of thrips, including discoloration of leaves and fruit, necrosis of the attacked area, and deformation (Tommasini M.G. et al 2002). The trips are also considered to be the vector of tospo viruses. 2.3.3. The diseases Damping off (Rhizoctoni solani). Damping off is caused by Rhizoctoni solani and Pythium fungal species. They are ubiquitous soilborne pathogens with a broad host range (Rivera et al., 2013). Infected seeds fail to germinate. They become soft and brown before decaying. Seedlings develop slightly darkened water soaked spots and they die before emerging. Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum) Bacterial wilt is caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum bacteria. It is a serious soil borne disease of many economically important crops, including pepper (Momol, 2001). Once it infects a crop it is difficult to control and it leads to total crop losses. Powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica Lev.) The first symptoms of this disease are chlorotic spots (5 to12 mm) poorly defined on the leaves. These spots are covered at the underside of a white down and necrosis in scattered spots. This may cause a significant drop in the leaves, decrease the yield and expose the fruits to sunburn. The disease is found during the entire growing season but mainly in fairly dry weather and a temperature of 20oC to 28oC (Collingwood et al,. 1984). This disease can cause severe damage to pepper plants and the pathogen is difficult to control, since a major part of its life cycle takes place inside the leaf (Elad et al., 2007). 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4. Soil fertility and pepper production In all crop productions, crops export mineral elements, leading to a gradual depletion of nutrients in soils. Chilli pepper cultivation is very demanding in terms of soil fertility. It requires deep, well-drained, warm, nutrient-rich soil and optimum pH around 6.5 to 7 (PAPSEN, 2015). Pepper grows very well in a sandy loam soil which holds moisture fairly well with liberal supply of organic matter (Ashilenje, 2013; Udoh et al., 2005). One of the reason that contribute to low yield in pepper production in the Africa tropical region is the low fertility of soil (Ogunsesin and Aiyelari, 2017). Chili is a very demanding crop from a pedological point of view. Its cultivation requires a deep, well-drained soil, warm and well provided with nutrients with an optimum pH around 6.5 to 7. To obtain good yields, soil moisture must remain between 80- 85% (PAPSEN, 2015). There is a need to maintain soil nutrients necessary for good pepper growth and therefore a good harvest. Fertilisers can be made in the form of humeral (organic) or mineral (chemical) amendments or the combination of organic and mineral fertilisers. 2.4.1. Organic fertilization effect on pepper production Organic manures have very beneficial effects on the physicochemical and biological properties of the soil; that is, its structure, drainage, aeration (gas exchange properties), its water retention and resistance to compaction (Heaton et al., 2010). The high particle size of the organic material plays an important role in the soil resistance to compaction by giving it some elasticity (Dragonet S. et Icard C., 2010). Many experience conduced on pepper production using various organic manure as fertiliser showed it benefit effect on vegetative growth and fruits production. The maintenance of soil fertility is considered a prerequisite for sustainable pepper production and for increasing yield (Jablonska, 1990; Ikeh et al 2013). The number and mass of the fruits of pepper plants were 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh considerably higher in plot under organic fertilisers. This high fruits production was attributed to the improvement of nutrition in the treated plants, which accelerated the growth and the accumulation of biomass of the photosynthesizing organ (Berova, 2010). Organic fertilization brings on the one hand the macro-elements (NPK) essential for the development of pepper and on the other hand it contributes to the maintenance of organic matter in the soil (Schöl, 1998). The application of organic amendments to agricultural soils may influence metal distribution in soil fractions and, in turn, can influence the availability of micronutrients (Mn, Mg, Ca, Al, Fe..) to plants (Herencia et al., 2008). However the most important role of organic fertiliser in soil is certainly the contribution of organic carbon which constitutes the major effect in the short, medium and long term on the soil. The contribution of carbon has an energetic role for microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) and macrofauna, of which the earthworm is the most important actor for the good functioning of the soil (drainage, aeration, rise and concentration in mineral elements) (RMT DevAB, 2009). According to Rahman (2012) the microorganisms contained in organic matter are important biological organisms helping nature to maintain nutrients flows from one system to another and also minimize environmental degradation. 2.4.2. Mineral fertilization effect on pepper production Mineral fertilizers are materials, either natural or manufactured (other than the liming material) (Abga, 2013; IFA-UNEP, 2000), containing nutrients essential for the normal growth and development of plants. Chili pepper is a crop that need a high amount of nutrients for its development. Inorganic fertilisers release easily their nutrients when incorporated and are generally used to allow pepper plants to have direct access to major nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus as well as other essential elements such as calcium (Ca), magnesium 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Mg), sulphur (S) and boron (B). Pepper plants strive well when sown in plots fertilised with inorganic fertiliser like NPK (Adeola et al., 2007). According to Alhrout, 2017; high yield per hectare and greater number of fruits of pepper by plant was obtained in field under NPK fertiliser compare to plot under organic manure. He attributed the result to the important role of nitrogen on synthesis of chlorophyll, protein and enzymes which increase photosynthesis and promote vegetative growth result in increasing assimilates which express into yield. However, to see the beneficial effect of mineral fertilizers in pepper production, a certain amount of organic matter is required (Bado, 2002). Continuous cultivation without fertilizer application leads to lower yields due to soil nutrient depletion (Segda et al., 2010). Chemical fertilizers. These elements are classified into three categories: major elements (N, P, and K), secondary elements (Ca, Mg and S) and trace elements (Fe, Cu, Mo, Zn, B and Mn). 2.4.3 Organomineral effect on pepper production In order to increase high growth and yield performance, the use of organic and chemical fertiliser in combination is suggested by various authors. The yield of dry white pepper berries was highly increased by the combination of compost and chemical fertiliser in a sandy and loam soil. This performance was attributed to the effect of the organic and chemical fertiliser on root growth that increases the surface for nutrient uptake. In fact, the increase of nutrients supply lead to a greater rate of assimilation that in turn increases root growth (Ann, 2012). Aliyu (2000) also reported an increase in fruit yield in sweet pepper as a result of poultry manure and supplementary mineral fertilizer application in Nigeria. Organic matter has the advantage of improving the water capacity holding while the mineral fertiliser give to plant the nutrients necessary for growth at the earlier stages soon after it 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh application. Organic fertilisers are slow realiser of nutrients and their benefits at while the season goes. Pepper generally has an indeterminate vegetative growth and a superficial root system and as long as it has a good water regime and sufficient nutrients in the root zone, it continues to flower and grow, giving higher yield (Guohua et al., 2001). 2.5. Pepper production in tropical Africa Vegetable production in general and that of pepper in particular have experienced spectacular growth in the peri-urban areas of most cities in West African countries in recent 30 years (Dugué, 2016). It has also developed in many villages, including arid Sahelian zones, as soon as surface water collection or groundwater drainage systems are put in place and allow to irrigate a few hectares. In most West African countries (Mali, Burkina Faso, Chad, Guinea, Niger and Senegal) chilli is grown alone or in combination with other vegetable or cereal crops. It is usually grown by small-scale producers in rural areas in small plots. They first supply households and surpluses are sold on local markets (Blein et al., 2008). In this sector, women are generally buyers, processors and resellers (Yaméogo et al 2002, AVRDC, 2008) The production of spices in the ECOWAS zone is clearly growing. It rose from 98 150 tonnes in 1986 to 326 930 tonnes in 2006, an increase of 2.3% (Blein et al., 2008). This feat is made possible thanks to several factors. According to the BAD (2016), the liberalization of input markets and the support of the horticultural sector through innovative financing contributes to the increase. Basquin et al., 2014 argued that the constant growth of the urban population and the emergence of a middle class have increased the demand for horticultural products such as pepper. The most popular varieties in the sub-region include among others Legon 18, Gbatakin, Bird’s eye, Safi, Cayenne, and Jaune du Burkina for hot pepper. According to a study 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conducted in 2013 in six countries (Burkina Faso, Benin, Togo, Niger, Gambia and Thiad), chilli varieties yields ranged from 0.14 to 21.91 tonnes per hectare, ie a sub-regional average of 6.78 tonnes per hectare (Dagnoko et al 2013). Countries such as Togo, Ghana and Senegal export substantial quantities of pepper to Europe. Ghana is the fifth largest exporter of pepper to the European Union where the demand for chilli grows by 17% each year since 2000. This is made possible to the introduction of the Legon 18 chili variety (Osafo, 2013). In Central Africa, and particularly in Cameroon, the production of pepper has become a flourishing in the locality of Foumbot thanks to the existence of a drying and molding unit of the pepper. On the other hand the demand for this product in Douala is 50 tons and 500 tons for neighboring Nigeria (FAO, 2018). The existence of these processing units has limited crop losses when large quantities are produced. 2.6. The use of pepper Based on the shape or size of the fruit, more than 20 varieties of hot or sweet pepper are known. Depending on their use, we can classify peppers in five market categories: fresh market (whole green, red, multicolored fruits), fresh processing (sauce, dough, canning, and brine), dried spices (whole fruit and powder) industrial extracts (paprika / oleoresin, capsaicinoids and carotenoids) and ornamentals (plants and / or fruits) (Valenzuela 2011, Poulos 1994). Chili is best known for its food use. Used as a spice or food additive, chili consumption is steadily increasing worldwide (Kouassi, 2012). Its fruits are highly prized for their tangy flavor by people around the world who use it as a staple of their cooking (Kollmannsberger et al., 2011). Capsaicin, a lipophilic alkaloid is the main compound responsible for the hot taste or pungency of chili pepper. In Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and most of the West African countries, pepper is an essential ingredient in culinary habits (Kouassi, 2012). 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chili is also known to be a source of vitamin A, C, B6, folic acid and beta-carotene, which are very important for human food (Saleh et al., 2018, Nadeem et al., 2011). They are considered a good source of various nutritional compounds, including carotenoids, flavonoids and essential minerals. Chili is used as medicinal plant, the fruits are used in traditional medicine for their antimicrobial properties due to the secondary metabolites they contain. It is used in various forms, the most frequent of which are enemas, followed by ingestion of decoctions, plasters and finally wound dressings (Rêgo et al., 2012; Kouassi et al., 2012). Aqueous, ethanolic and acetal extracts of chilli varieties (Antillean, Sudanese and chinense varieties) are known to have antifungal activity on Alternaria, Fusarium, Penicillium on Alternaria, Penicillium and Aspergillus flavus, which are responsible for some diseases (Koffi et al, 2014). 2.7. Advantages of pepper “Big Sun” variety cropping in the south of Senegal The Big Sun pepper variety belongs to the species Capsicum chinense L. It was created in Senegal by Tropicasem / Technisem. It is a very popular variety in the Caribbean and Africa. The Big sun variety has a number of advantages that have made it a favourite variety by producers in the southern region of Senegal. With a pendulous peduncle, the fruits are globular in shape, therefore wider than they are long. The shape and attractive colour of the fruit makes this variety ideal for the local market ant for export (TROPICASEM, 2013). Indeed, the globular form of the fruits and it pungency make this variety the favourite of women cooking in the restaurants. The BigSun variety, like all varieties of the Chinense species, has a better production during the hot raining season. Their cultivation requires good brightness and high temperatures. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (TROPICASEM, 2013). These climatic conditions are met in the southern zone of the country where the rainfall is relatively abundant compared to the rest of the country. It is a vigorous upright plant with shortened internodes at the top. The foliage is dark green. Suitable for growing in the open field, the size of plants can reach 70cm (PAPSEN, 2015). The fruits are scented and capsaicin in the placenta is very pungent. The first fruit of the “Big Sun” variety matures approximately 90 to 100 days after transplanting. 2.8. Factors influencing seed quality 2.8.1. Fertilisation The use of fertilisation and it management in any crop production is of crucial importance to sustain the plants establishment, the growth and a high yield (Ann, 2012). The use of compost improve the soil structure, it water capacity holding and therefor it nutrient supply to plants. The plants grown under plots with a good fertilizer management produce good yield and quality seeds. 2.8.2. The harvest stage According to Elise et al (1989), the period of harvesting has a direct influence on the future quality of seeds of a given variety. Therefore, it must be made to full maturity of the fruits or seeds. During the harvest time must also be taken into account the climate condition. For example harvesting in rainy weather will be avoided. 2.6.3. Harvesting methods Harvesting is done manually or mechanically. This is a very delicate step in the production of quality seeds and must be done in a way that preserves the integrity of the seeds. In fact, the 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh method of harvesting must take into account several parameters such as: the importance of production, the uniformity of maturation, the blow of labour and the importance of investments for appropriate machinery. Manual harvesting is preferable for small areas and maturing varieties over time. As for mechanized harvesting, it is preferable for large areas with uniformly matured varieties. According to Govindaraj et al., 2017, rice seedling vigour index values are known to be significantly influenced by different harvesting and threshing methods. And the maximum vigour index was recorded in seeds harvested and threshed manually. 2.8.4. Seed extraction techniques This is the stage of the seed production process that requires the most delicacy. In fact, improper handling can lead to a reduction in the germination capacity of seeds by mechanical injury. This will usually be referred to as wet seed extraction and threshing for dry seed. It can be done manually or mechanically depending on the volume of harvests or the means available to the seed grower. In the case of small fruits such as pepper, the crop can be mortared before separating the seeds from the pulp using water (FAO, 1978). Seed drying conditions and conservation Seed drying aims to reduce the natural moisture of seed after extraction to a percentage that ensures their viability for a medium and long term conservation. Excess of water on seed promotes respiration during storage and decreases seed viability and shelf life. According to Raymond et al., 1983, in a tropical environment, freshly harvested seeds can have water contents in the order of 18 to 35%, which must be reduced to an appropriate level depending on the type of seed storage. Drying is done naturally using solar radiation or by the use of appropriate equipment. Too high a drying temperature can kill the germ of the seed. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.8.5. Seeds drying The principal aim of seed drying is the reduction of their moisture content to appropriate levels for storage. Some seed must dry to a low moisture content so they can be able to germinate. Therefor drying is part of seed maturation process. According to Harrington, 1972, for each 10oF (5.6oC) decrease in temperature, longevity doubles. However, during this process, care have to be taken in the temperature to ovoid damage to the seeds (Filho et al 2016). A high level of moisture content in seeds increase seed respiration and temperature in a store and can damage the seeds faculty to germinate. Furthermore high level moisture content can results to mould and insects attack and therefore to seeds damage (Rakita and McCormack J., 2014). 2.8.6. Seed storage After drying and cleaning seeds must be kept in good conduction to maintain their viability in a short, medium or long time. So the local or container in witch seeds are to be stored must fulfil a certain conditions related mainly to the temperature and the relative humidity (Monira U.S., 2012). A local with a high level of air moisture contain and a high temperature increase seeds respiration and temperature and will be therefore an ideal factors for diseases and insects multiplication. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Experimental site The experiment was carried out in the region of Ziguinchor in the Centre of the Senegalese Institute of Agriculture Research localised in the village of Djibelor. In this region the climate is of sub-Guinean type with two seasons. A dry season of 7 to 8 months and a rainy season of 4 to 5 months with 1200mm of average rainfall. The soils are essentially of leached ferruginous tropical type. 3.2. Experimental materials and treatments Only one pepper variety “Big Sun” (Capsicum chinensis) was used as plant material for this test. Two types of fertilizer was used, a compost made of groundnut industry waste and chemical fertilizers (NPK 10-10-20 and urea 46%). Six treatments were compared for the test. An absolute control (without fertilizer), chemical fertilizers at the research recommended rate and four other treatments made of a mixtureure of compost and chemical fertiliser. Urea was applied at two times: at flowering and at the second harvest while the other fertiliser was applied at transplanting period. The detail of the application rate, the combination proportion and the period of application are presented in Table 3.1. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.1: The different fertilizers and their rate of application Treatments Periods of application Fertilizers and rate 1st (at transplantation) NPK (150kg / ha) T1 2nd (at flowering) NPK (150kg / ha)+urea 100 kg/ha 3rd (after the second harvest) NPK (0kg / ha)+urea 100 kg/ha 1st (at transplantation) Compost 10tons /ha + NPK 150kg / ha T2 2nd application(at flowering) Urea 100 kg/ha 3rd (after the second harvest) Urea 100 kg/ha 1st (at transplantation) Compost 15tons/ha + NPK 100kg/ha T3 2nd (at flowering) Urea 100 kg/ha 3rd (after the second harvest) Urea 100 kg/ha 1st (at transplantation) Compost 20 t/ha + NPK 50 kg/ha T4 2nd (at flowering) Urea 100 kg/ha 3rd (after the second harvest) Urea 100 kg/ha T5 1st (at transplantation) Compost 25t/ha T6(control) Zero fertilizer 3.3. Experimental design, nursery practices and field planting A Randomised Complete Block Design (RCBD) was used with six treatments per block and four replicates. An elementary plot was 2.2 m long by 1 m wide. The spacing between two plots was 1m and the blocks by 2 m. This makes a total area of 14.8 m in length by 11 m width that is a surface of 162.8 m². At the beginning and at the end of the experiment, chemical analyses were performed both on the soil and on the compost. Before application of fertilizer a composed sample was taken in each block at the deep of 30 cm. At the end of the test, each plot was sampled and the following elements was determined: the organic matter, the pH, the total nitrogen, the total content of the phosphorus and the total quantity of potassium. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A nursery was made in seed tray filled with potting soil and the seedlings were transplanted to the field. The transplanting was done at the stage of 12 true leaves. Two rows of pepper were planted at the spacing of 50 cm between two hole in the same row and 60 cm between two rows. Each plot had two rows of 5 plants which gives a set of 10 plants in each elementary plot. 3.4. Seed extraction studies Two techniques was used for the seeds extraction. The fruit harvested from the sample plants was divided in two batch. The seeds of the one batch were extracted immediately while the fruits remain wet and the fruit of the second batch was dried before extraction. The fruits was dried artificially using sun light in bulk for 15 days and the seeds being separated later by threshing. The seed extraction with wet fruit was done by cutting and splitting the fruit longitudinally and scratching out the seeds with a small knife or a similar tool. The seed was arranged so they do not touch each other. The plate is after put in a dry, well-ventilated area away from direct sunlight for two weeks. 3.5. Data collection 3.5.1. Field data The measurement was taken on 5 plants in each elementary plot. The following data were collected:  Plant height: The sample plant height was measured every two weeks.  Steam diameter: at the end of the trial the steam diameter of the sample plants was measured and the average recorded.  The primary and secondary branches: the number of primary and secondary branches of the sample plant was counted at the end of the trial and the average number of the branches produced by plant was recorded. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Days to flowering: when 50 percent of the plants in each treatment per replicate were in bloom, the number of days from planting until blooming was recorded and represents 50% flowering.  Days to fruiting: The number of days to 50% fruiting is determined by counting the days after transplanting until 50% of the plant of a given treatment in each replicate have fruits.  Days to ripening: Counting begins after transplanting until 50% of the fruits in each treatment per repetition red ripen.  Fruits number and fruits weight: After each harvest, all the fruits from the sample plants were separated between marketable and unmarketable fruits. The fruits was after counted for each plot and their weight determined with a digital scale balance. At the end of the experiment all weight from the same treatment were summed and the average calculated.  Length and width size of the harvested fruits: the length and the width of fruits from the sample plants were measured after each harvest using centimetre scale and the mean value was calculated and was expressed in centimetre (cm).  Fresh and dry biomass: The average weight of root and shoot biomass were considered for the five freshly harvested plants per replicate and then dried in an oven at 60°C for 72 hours. 3.5.2. Laboratory data  Seeds weight: the diseased, deformed or empty seed were separated from the good seeds then the weight of seeds of each treatment was determined. This weight have also been used to determine the seeds yield.  Percentage germination: the germination percentage of seeds from dried and fresh fruits have been determined separately. A number of 400 seed from each treatment 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh repeated four time have been performed. Each seed where there has been emergence of the radicle is counted as germinated.  Seedling vigour: The same number of seeds for the germination test was used for the seedling vigour. The Seedling vigour index rate was determined using this formula (Vigour index = [mean of root length (cm) + mean of shoot length (cm)] × percentage of seed germinations). 3.5. Data Analysis Data collected from the field and laboratory experiments were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using GenStat Twelfth Edition to determine significance differences among the various fertilizer and compost treatment for all variables sored. Fisher LSD (Last Significant Difference) test was used for mean separation at probability level of 0.05. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR 4. RESULTS 4.1. Chemical properties of compost and soil. The compost used in this test was submitted for chemical content analysis (Table 4.1). With a pH of 8 and C/N of 9.7, this compost can be considered as a mature one. The analysis has also revealed a high level in organic matter content with 209kg/Ton. The macroelements as Nitrogen (12.55kg/Ton) Phosphorus (6.61kg/Ton) and Potassium (13.14Kg/Ton) as well as the other microelement are present in good proportions. Table 4 1: Chemical analysis of compost Determinations Chemical composition Total organic matter 209kg/Ton Ammonia nitrogen (N-NH4 +) 0.05kg/Ton Total nitrogen (N) 12.55kg/Ton Phosphorus (P2O5) 6.61kg/Ton Potassium (K2O) 13.14Kg/Ton Calcium (CaO) 27,25kg/ton Magnesium (MgO) 6,96kg/Ton Sodium (Na2O) 5,79kg/Ton Iron (Fe) 2113mg/kg Manganese (Mn) 313mg/kg Copper (Cu) 9mg/kg Zinc (Zn) 81mg/kg pH 8.0 C/N 9.7 The statistical analysis of soil pH (Table 4.2) have revelled a significant increase of the pH in the plots where compost have been applied alone (T5) and all others plots under a mixture of compost and chemical fertilizers. However, the plots und chemical fertilizers alone (T1) does 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh not shows any significant difference compare to the control (T6) and that of the soil before fertilizers application (T0). Table 4 2 : Soil pH as influenced by treatments Treatments pH T6= control 5.60b T5= Compost (25tons/ha) 6.20a T4= NPK50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha 6.02a T3= NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha 6.05a T2= NPK150kg/ha +urea200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha 6.00a T1= NPK300kg/ha+ urea 200kg/ha 5.42bc T0=(Before fertilizers application) 5.22c LSD (P<005) 0.37 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test 4.2. Height of pepper plants Statistical analysis of the bi-weekly height of the big sun pepper variety showed significant differences from four (4) to 12 weeks after transplanting (Table 4.2). The plot under a mixture of compost and chemical fertilizer revealed a positive effect on plant growth. The tallest plant of pepper at 12 weeks after transplanting (35 to 36cm) was recorded in plot under a mixture of compost and chemical fertilisers followed by plant under plot fertilised by compost alone and chemical fertiliser alone. The control had the shortest plant at 12 weeks after transplanting. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4 3: Biweekly height growth of pepper plants as influenced by combined fertilizers. Week after transplanting height (cm) Treatment 2 4 6 8 10 12 T6(Control) 13.34a 14.46c 15.79c 17.57d 20.38c 23.94d T5 (Compost 25tons/ha) 14.34a 18.19a 22.71ab 26.27bc 29.03b 32.86b T4(NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha) 12.45a 17.33ab 24.06a 29.22a 32.39a 36.60a T3(NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha) 12.76a 17.09ab 24.20a 28.98ab 32.35a 35.32ab T2 (NPK150kg/ha +urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 13.49a 17.73ab 24.66a 29.79a 32.55a 35.66ab T1(NPK300kg/ha+ urea 200kg/ha) 12.52a 15.94bc 21.52b 25.77c 28.96b 32.00c LSD (P<0.05) 2.114 2.050 2.129 2.765 2.867 2.819 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test 4.3. Number of primary and secondary branches Statistical differences were observed in the number of primary and secondary branching (Table 4.3). The plants that received a mixture of compost and chemical fertilisers (T2, T3 and T4) produced the highest number of primary branches with an average of 5 branches. The lowest number of branches was recorded with the control (T6) with a number of two primary branches per plant. With regard to secondary ramifications, three significantly different groups stand out. The first group with the highest number of branches consist of treatments with a mixture of compost and chemical fertilisers with an average of 10 branches. The second group consist of plants from plot under chemical fertilisers alone (T1) with an average number of 6 branches per plant. However, the plant under compost only (T5) were not significantly different from under the combination fertiliser (T4 and T3). The third group consists of the plants from the control (T6) with the lowest number of branches per plant (3.9 branches). 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 4 : Number of primary and secondary branches of pepper plants as influenced by treatments Number of plant branching Treatment Primary branching Secondary branching T6 = Control 2.12c 3.95c T5 = Compost (25tons/ha) 4.77ab 8.80ab T4 = NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha 5.65a 10.40a T3 = NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha 5.37a 10.30a T2 = NPK150kg/ha +urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 5.27a 8.57ab T1= NPK300kg/ha+ urea 200kg/ha 3.60bc 6.90b LSD (P≤0.05) 1.567 2.814 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test 4.4. Thickness of plant stems The treatments were significantly different for the width of the stems (Table 4.4). Three significantly different groups appear. The widest stem diameter was obtained with the treatment where a mixture of compost and chemical fertilizer was combined at different rates. In this group the stems diameter range from 9.6 to 9.7 on average. The second group is represented by plant under organic fertiliser alone and chemical fertilisers alone with respectively 8.7 and 8.2 on average. The third group consist of the control that produces the smallest stems with an average of 5.487 mm. Table 4. 5 : Stem diameter of pepper plant as influenced by treatments. Treatments Stem diameter (mm) T6 = Control 5.48c T5 = Compost (25tons/ha) 8.22b T4 = NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha 9.64a T3 = NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha 9.78a T2 = NPK150kg/ha +urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 9.70a T1 = NPK300kg/ha+ urea 200kg/ha 8.74b LSD (P≤0.05) 0.706 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5. The biomass The treatment had significant positive effect on plant root biomass and above ground biomass respectively (Figures 4.1a & b). The treatments with a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser (T2, T3 and T4) and organic fertilizer alone (T5) produced the highest fresh root biomass. However, the greatest fresh above biomass was obtained with plant under a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser. For the dry biomass, except the control (T6), all other treatments (T1 to T5) produced non- significant differences in weight for both the root and above ground biomass. Root biomass A Above ground biomass B 300 a ab 1500 ab a ab 200 ab bc 1000 abc bc c Fresh c100 500 Fresha a a a a a a a a b a d Dry b Dry 0 0 T4 T3 T2 T5 T1 T6 T4 T3 T2 T5 T1 T6 Treatments Treatments T1=NPK300kg/ha+urea200kg/ha; T2=NPK150kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha; T3=NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha; T4= NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha; T5= Compost (25tons/ha); T6= Control Figure 4 1 : Pepper root biomass (A) and shoot biomass (B) as influenced by treatments The means assigned to the same letter on bars of the same colour are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher’s test 4.6. Days to flowering, fruiting and red ripe fruits. Days to 50% flowering, 50% fruiting and 50% ripening were significantly different (Table 4.5) among the treatments. For flowering, fruiting and ripening, two significantly different groups were observed. The control (T6) had the greatest number of days to all three reproductive stages; 58 days for 50% flowering, 67 days for 50% fruiting and 111 days for 50% ripening. All other treatments (Compost only, chemical fertiliser only and a mixture of compost and 27 Biomass average (g) biomass average (g) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh chemical fertiliser) had the effect of shortening the different reproductive stages and did not differ significantly from one another for all three stages. Table 4. 6 : Days to 50% flowering, 50% fruiting and 50% ripening as influenced by treatments Development stages (days) Treatments 50% flowering 50% fruiting 50% red ripe T1 = NPK300kg/ha+ urea 200kg/ha 39.25b 48.50b 73.25b T2= NPK150kg/ha +urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 35.75b 45.00b 78.50b T3 = NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha 34.25b 48.00b 85.50b T4 = NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha 37.50b 47.50b 86.50b T5=Compost (25tons/ha) 37.50b 49.00b 81.25b T6= Control 58.50a 67.25a 111.5a LSD (P<0.05) 7.35 7.645 16.798 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test. 4.7. Number of marketable and unmarketable fruits The number of marketable and unmarketable fruits is highly influenced by the type of treatment used. The lowest number of marketable fruits (30.749 fruits) was recorded in the control (T6) (Table 4.6). The plot under a mix of compost and chemical fertilisers. The number of unmarketable fruit by treatment does not follow the same trend as the marketable fruit. The lowest number of unmarketable fruit (1.75 fruits) was observed in the control while the highest was obtained in plot under a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4 7 : The number of marketable and unmarketable fruits as influenced by treatments Number of fruits Treatments Marketable fruits Unmarketable fruits T1 = NPK300kg/ha+ urea 200kg/ha 110.75c 4.25ab T2= NPK150kg/ha+urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 181.75ab 9.00ab T3 = NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha 210.50a 6.75ab T4 = NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha 148.75bc 11.25a T5= Compost (25tons/ha) 114.00c 8.50ab T6 = Control 30.74d 1.75b LSD (P<0.05) 48.97 7.31 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test. 4.8. Length and width of the fruits The result of statistical analysis of the length and width of the pepper fruits by treatment is represented in Figure 4.2. The figure shows a positive effect of the use of organic and chemical fertilizer on the size of pepper fruits. The plants from plots under chemical fertilisers alone and compost alone as well as those under a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser produced the greatest length and width of fruits and was significantly different from the control T6. Fruits size 40 a ab ab ab ab b 30 a a ab ab ab b 20 Length 10 Width 0 T4 T3 T5 T1 T2 T6 Treatments LSD (P≤0.05) = (fruit length: 2,783); (Fruits width: 4,495) Figure 4 2 : Length and width of pepper fruits as influenced by treatments. The means assigned to the same letter on bars of the same colour are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test. 29 Dimensions (mm) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.9. Number of fruits by plant The number of fruits produced by each plant is significantly influenced by the type of fertilizer used (Table 4.9). The greatest number of fruits by plant (21.05 fruits) was obtained with plant under a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser followed by plants under compost alone (11.04) and chemical fertiliser alone. The lowest number of fruits was recorded with the control with 3.07 fruits by plants. Table 4 8 : Number of fruits by plant as influenced by fertilizers Treatments Fruits by plant T1(NPK 300kg/ha and urea 200kg/ha) 11.07c T2 (NPK150kg/ha +urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 18.17ab T3 (NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha) 21.05a T4 (NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha) 14.87bc T5 (Compost 25 tons/ha) 11.40c T6(Control) 3.07d LSD (P<0,05) The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test. 4.10. The fruit yield The combination of compost and chemical fertilizer at different rates has shown significant effect on yield of pepper fruits (Table 4.6). Three statistically different group in fruit yield appear. The first group with plant under a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser present the highest yield by plant of approximatively 6 tons/ha. The second group is composed by plants under compost alone and chemical fertiliser alone with respectively 3.24 and 3.95 tons/ha. The control (T6) with 0.653 tons/ha presented the third group with the lowest yield (0.65 tons/ha). 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4 9 : Pepper fruit yield as influenced by treatment. Treatments Fruits yield(tons/ha) T1= NPK 300kg/ha + urea 00kg/ha 3.95b T2= NPK150kg/ha + urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 6.31a T3 = NPK100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha 6.30a T4 = NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha 6.65a T5=Compost (25tons/ha) 3.24b T6 = Control 0.65c LSD (P<0.05) 1,743 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test. 4.11. Seed yield The combination of organic manure (compost) and inorganic fertilizer (NPK and urea) have shown a significant effect on pepper seed yield (Table 4.9). As observed for fruit yield, the seed yield was highest on plots under a mixture of compost and chemical fertilizer with a minimum mean of 135.4 kg/ha. The plot under compost alone and chemical fertiliser alone was not statistically different from those under a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser. The lower yield was recorded on the control with 18.4 kg/ha. Table 4. 10: Pepper seed yield as influenced by the treatments. Treatments Good seed yield (kg/ha) T1 = NPK 300kg/ha + urea 200kg/ha 91.30b T2= NPK150kg/ha +urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 140.10ab T3 = NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha 135.40ab T4 = NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha 146.10a T5=Compost (25tons/ha) 91.80b T6 = Control 18.40c LSD (P<0.05) 53.14 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.12. Bad quality seed weight The bad seed weight (Table 4.8) didn’t follow the same tendency as the good seed. Two statistically different groups appear. On one hand the first group composed by the control with the lowest weight (0.432 g) and on the second hand composed by the rest of the treatments (T1 to T5) with the greatest weight. Table 4. 11 : Pepper bad seeds as influenced by treatment. Treatments Bad seed weight (g) T1 = NPK 300kg/ha + urea 200kg/ha 1.611a T2= NPK150kg/ha+ urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 2.119a T3 = NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha 1.694a T4 = NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha 1.997a T5=Compost (25tons/ha) 2.047a T6 = Control 0.432b LSD (P<0.05) 0.909 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the5% threshold according to Fisher's test 4.13. The weight of 1000 grains Significant differences were observed among the different treatments for 1000 seeds weight only where the pepper fruits were dried prior to extraction (Table 4.10). Treatments made of a mixture of compost and chemical fertilisers, followed by treatment with chemical fertiliser alone and compost alone gave the heaviest weight for 1000 seeds. The control T6 (no fertilizer) had the lowest weight of 0.0206 g. The seeds from fresh fruits didn’t show any significance differences among all treatments. The analysis of these results revel that an interactive effect exist between the type of fertiliser and extraction technic used. Fruit drying have a positive effect on seeds weight. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4 12 : 1000 pepper seeds weight as affected by treatments and extraction techniques 1000 seed weight (g) Treatments Dry fruits Fresh fruits T1 (NPK 300kg/ha + 200kg/ha) 0.0386a 0.0351a T2 (NPK150kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 0.0339b 0.0324a T3 (NPK100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha) 0.0380ab 0.0341a T4 (NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha) 0.0406a 0.0371a T5 (Compost (25tons/ha) 0.0366ab 0.0567a T6(Control) 0.0290c 0.0325a LSD (<0.05) 0.0043 0.029 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test 4.14. The percentage germination of seed The results of seeds germination percentage (Table 4.11) depend highly on the technique of seeds extraction used. Fruits dried prior to seed extraction showed significant differences for germination percentage (The seeds from plants under a mixture of compost and fertiliser (T2, T3 and T4) and those from plants under chemical fertiliser alone (T1) was statistically similar and sowed better germination percentage. The seeds from the control and those from compost only gave the lowest germination percentage for dried fruits. However, only T1 and T3 reach the requirement for seed germination with respectively 81% and 73%. The germination percentage of seed extracted from fresh fruit was not significantly different for all treatments. These results show a positive interaction effect between drying fruits extraction method and chemical fertiliser or a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser that enhance seeds germination. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 13 : Germination percentage as influenced by treatments and seed extraction techniques. Germination percentage (%) Treatments Dry fruits Fresh fruits T1 = NPK 300 kg/ha + urea 200kg/ha 81.25a 67.50a T2= NPK150kg/ha +urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 60.25ab 54.50a T3 = NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha 73.00ab 56.00a T4 = NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha 70.25ab 58.00a T5=Compost (25tons/ha) 55.50bc 63.20a T6 = Control 34.00c 63.20a LSD (<0.05) 22.51 21.44 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test. 4.15. The seedling vigour The seedling vigour of pepper as influenced by the type of fertilizer used on one hand and on the second hand by the technique of seed extraction have shown significant differences only where fruits was dried prior to seed extraction (Table 4.12). Furthermore, the seedling vigour of seeds extracted from dried fruits shown the greatest seedling vigour over those from fresh fruits. The seed extracted from dry fruits have shown three different groups significantly different. The first group with the greatest sidling vigour (370.1) was recorded with the seeds from plant under chemical fertilisers only (T1). The second group is composed by seeds from plant under a mixture of compost and chemical fertilisers (T2, T3 and T4). The lowest vigour index was recorded with the control (T6) with 108.1 and was statistically similar with T5. As the weight of 1000 seeds and the germination percentage, the seedling vigour has been increased by the interactive effect of drying fruit prior to seeds extraction and the use of chemical fertiliser alone or the mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4 14 : Seedling vigour as influenced by treatments and seed extraction techniques. Seedling vigour Treatments Dry fruits Fresh fruits T1 = NPK 300kg/ha + urea 200kg/ha 370.1a 242a T2 = NPK150kg/ha +urea 200kg/ha+compost10tons/ha) 222.4b 225a T3 = NPK 100kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha 244.9b 197a T4 = NPK 50kg/ha+urea200kg/ha+compost20tons/ha 258.7b 212a T5 = Compost (25tons/ha) 194.0bc 152a T6 = Control 108.1c 208a LSD (<0.05) 105.3 94.1 The averages assigned to the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to Fisher's test 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. DISCUSION 5.1. Soil chemical properties as influenced by fertilizers The use of compost at different rate (10 tons/ha, 15 tons/ha, 20 tons/ha and 25tons/ha) have increased the soil pH that was 5.22 at the beginning of the test to 6.0, 6.05 and 6.02 respectively. The soil pH is known to be one of the most decisive factor affecting soil ability to provide plant nutrient (Garcia -Gil et al 2004). The increase of soil pH might be due to the increase of organic matter in the soil that in turn have changed the initial chemical and physical properties of the soil. Similar results was found by Haute (2014), investigating the effect of compost on soil properties in Kenya. He found and increase of soil pH after compost application and attributed this phenomenon on one hand to the increase of exchangeable bases level like Ca, K and Mg and on the second hand to the reduction of the exchangeable rate of Al through Al precipitation or chelation of organic colloids. Organic manure application is known to increase soil pH of acidic soil through base-forming cations (Erhart & Hartl, 2010). Hubbard et al., 2008, cited by Duong 2013, attributed the increase of soil pH following compost application to the addition of basic cation, ammonification and the production of NH3 during the compost decomposition. 5.2. Plant growth parameters as influenced by treatments The combination of organic manure (compost) and inorganic fertilizer (NPK and urea) gave better growth in plant height than those that received only inorganic or organic fertilizer. According to Badiane (1984), Djibelor soils are sandy with high permeability (between 3 and 11 cm / h) and have poor fertility with a marked deficiency of phosphorus, a low organic matter content. This explains the low growth observed in the plants from the control plots. This also explains the lower agronomic performance of plots that have been fertilized with mineral fertilizer or compost solely. The good development of chilli pepper in height can be explained by the advantage given both by the organic and inorganic fertilizer combination. The inorganic fertilizer provides to the plants the principal macronutrients (N, P and K) necessary for their 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh growth in their usable form and stimulates growth in the earlier time after transplanting. On the other hand, compost supply nutrient slowly as the season goes and improve other chemical, physical and biological properties of the soil. The compost application is also known to increase soil level of other nutrients like: calcium, potassium and magnesium (Nanik et al., 2014). Rosen and Bierman (2005) reported that the application of compost improves soil structure and increases its water holding capacity. Pepper fertilized with inorganic fertilizer alone only provides nitrogen without significant improvement of other soil properties and may suffer nutrients deficiency as the season goes due to the sandy and high level of permeability aspect of the soil. Furthermore, the plants fertilized by combined fertilizer, i.e NPK, urea and compost ⦋T2 (NPK 150kg/ha, urea 200kg/ha and compost 10tons/ha), T3 (NPK 100kg/ha, urea 200kg/ha+compost15tons/ha) and T4 (NPK 50kg/ha, urea 200kg/ha and compost 20tons/ha) ⦌ revealed an increase in primary branching number. However, T5 (compost 25tons/ha) was not statistically different from those that received the combined fertilizer. This increase in number of stem branching might be due to the supply of urea at the flowering time for the plant fertilized with combined fertilizer and for those treated with organic manure (T5) by the high level of phosphorus in compost. These results are in accordance with Segnou et al., 2013 and Islam et al, 2017, on pepper (Capsicum annum L.) who reported a greater number of branches by plant in plots fertilised by combined fertilizers. The production of both above and underground biomass followed approximatively the same trend both for fresh and dry matter. The more important weight was recorded in plant fertilised with combination of organic and inorganic manure as a result of an increase in plant branching and stem diameter. The highest fresh and dry biomass was observed for T4. The same results was found by Ann (2012) on black pepper (Piper Nigrum L.) and Wang et al (1999) on chinensis cabbages (B. chinensis). They reported that the application of organic fertilizer improves soil physical properties and its water holding capacity that provide a good supply of 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh nutrients to pepper plants. According to Arisha et al. (2013) and Segnou et al. (2013), the organic fertilizer activates soil living microflora and microfauna organisms that in turn release the micronutrients necessary for plant shoot and root growth. Atiyeh et al.2002, cited by Duong (2013), reported that humic substances that constitutes the major component of compost organic matter, can increase shoot biomass by simulating hormonal elongation of root and plant development. 5.3. Reproductive stages of pepper as influenced by treatments The use of fertilizer, whether mineral (NPK), organic (compost) or the combination of the two (compost and NPK) at different rate had the effect of shortening the time to reproductive stages (50%flowering, 50%fruiting and 50%ripening) in comparison with the control. The plants from fertilized plot reached their 50% flowering before 40 days after transplanting. They also reached their 50% fruiting before 50 days after transplanting and their 50% ripening before 87 days. In opposite the plants from the control reached these three reproductive stages 58 days, 67 days and 111 days after transplanting. According to TROPICASEM (2013), the Big Sun variety reach its ripening time about 90 to 100 days after transplanting when grown in Senegal condition and fertilizer using the research recommended rate. The effect of shortening the different reproductive stages can be explained by the good establishment of plants after transplanting and the rapid uptake of the essential macronutrients (NPK) provided by the different fertilizer that accelerates their growth. These results are in agreement with findings of Abu-zahra (2012). They observed that the use of compost have accelerated the days of blooming of the pepper plant and attributed this phenomena to an increase of the temperature around plant rhizosphere due to the continued decomposition of organic manure. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4. Yield and yield component of pepper as influenced by treatments The use of compost in combination with chemical fertilizer have shown a positive effect on the number of fruits by treatment, the fruits size (Figure 4.2), the fruits yield (Table 4.7) and the seed yield (Table 4.9). The highest number of fruits by treatment was recorded with T3 (NPK 100 kg/ha, urea 100kg/ha and compost 15tons/ha) (210.5 fruits) and was statistically similar to treatments T2 (NPK 150kg/ha, urea 100kg/ha and compost 10tons/ha), T4 (NPK 50kg/ha, urea 100kg/ha and compost 20tons/ha) and T5 (compost 25kg/ha). The lowest number of fruit was recorded with the control (30.749 fruits). Furthermore, the fruits yield (kg/ha) from the plant fertilised with combined fertilizer was higher than those of control (the lowest) and those grown under chemical fertilizers (T1) and compost (T5) solely. The differences observed between these treatments might be due the greatest number of branches (Table 4.3) recorded from plant fertilised with combined treatment. On the second hand by the improvement of soil properties that increase in turn the availability of nutrient supply from compost, NPK and urea. Segnou et al., (2013) and Ann (2012), in an earlier study observed greater fruit number with plants grown in plot fertilised with combined fertilizer compared to the plant from the control and those fertilised with inorganic fertilizer or compost solely. The low yield observed on plant fertilised only with compost is attributed to the low availability of nutrient and their slow release to the plant (Abu-Zahra, 2012). Similar results was found by Ayoola, 2016 who observed a low productivity in maize plants grown under plot fertilised with organic manure and attributed that to a low nutrient availability in organic manure compared to the chemical fertilizer. However, these results contradict with the earlier finding of Abu-Zahra (2012), on sweet pepper fruit number as influenced by different fertilizers. He found low and non-significant differences between fruit production from plant fertilized by combination of organic and inorganic manure compared to those under chemical fertilizer. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The seed yield follows the same trend with the other yield component. Better yield in seeds was recorded from plants grown under plot fertilised with combined compost and NPK. The highest yield was recorded with treatment T4 with 146 kg/ha and was statistically similar with T3 (135.4 kg/ha) and T2 (140.1 kg/ha) which in turn was statistically similar with plant from T5 (91.8 kg/ha) and T1 (91.3 kg/ha). The lowest yield was recorded with the control with 18.4 kg/ha. The good seed yield recorded is a result of high fruits production (Table.4.6) in plant under combined fertilisation. These results are in accordance with those of Pascual et al., 2010, who attributed the increase of yield to the fruit production rather to the fruit size as a result of nutrient availability to plants. Aliyu 2000, attributed this increase in yield to the improvement of the soil properties and to the supply of supplementary Nitrogen by the NPK. 5.5. Pepper seeds quality as influenced by treatments The seeds quality of the pepper have been improved by the interactive effect of the use on one hand of a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser as an amendment and on the other hand the fruits drying prior to seeds extraction. Among the three parameters (germination percentage, 1000 seeds weigh and seedling vigour) that was used to measure the quality of pepper seeds significant differences was record only where fruits was dried prior to seed extraction. Concerning the weight of 1000 seed, the greatest weight was recorded with plant under a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser (0.04061) and with plant under chemical fertiliser alone while the lowest seed weight was observed in the control (T6) with 0.02906 g. The application of chemical fertilizer was favourable for the rapid uptake of the essential macronutrient (NPK) in their usable form while compost improved soil physical properties like water holding capacity and therefore nutrient availability and their adsorption (Ann, 2012 ). 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This favourable soil properties have ultimately improved the seed filling during seed formation and maturation stage. The seed germination percentage and the seedling vigour follow approximately the same tendency with the weight of 1000 seeds weight. The highest germination percentage and seedling vigour was recorded with plants under chemical fertiliser alone (81.25% and 370.1) and was not significantly different from plant under a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser According to FAO (2006), the minimum germination percentage for sweet and hot pepper seeds germination range between 70 and 80%. From this assertion, it can be affirmed that only the seeds from plant under chemical fertiliser alone (both seeds from fresh and dried fruits) and plant under a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser (T3 and T4) have fulfil the requirement for seed germination quality. The better germination percentage obtained from dried fruit might be due to the best conditions in which they dried. Indeed, when seed drying occur under fruit bay they slowly release their moisture content. However, the seed extracted from fresh fruits and dried soon after, may suffer from an excessive release of water in a shorter time that may harms their embryo grains. Vidigal et al., (2009) reported that seed extracted from pepper fruits harvested at maturity stage and stored at least for 15 days prior to the extraction, had better germination percentage and seedling vigour index compared to those extracted after a short time of storage. He attributed this observation to the involvement of the LEA-protein in physiological quality improvement of pepper seeds. The LEA (late embryogenesis abundant) is a protein known to play a role in cellular dehydration tolerance by protecting the other proteins to aggregation due to stress associated with low temperature (Hundertmark et al., 2008). Dos Santos et al. (2016) working on habanero pepper (Capsicum chinenses) found that seeds obtained from fruits harvested and stored up to 9 days showed a greater germination percentage. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For Da Sylva et al. (2018), the low germination percentage of seeds from fresh fruit may be due to the higher removal rate of water from seeds dried at higher temperature that caused damage to the seeds reducing their quality. Indeed, the extraction seeds study occur in April and the maximum monthly average in the study area is (37 °C) (ANSD, 2014). The interactive effect of a mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser on one hand, the drying fruits prior to seed extraction have improve the quality of the seed. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1. CONCLUSIONS This study has shown that chilli cultivation can be promoted and supported by the provision of appropriate technologies that can boost production to small producers. Indeed, the combination of compost and small rate of chemical fertiliser used as amendment have highly increase vegetative and reproductive capacities of pepper plants studied in this trial. Since organic manure is available to famers, it will be useful for famers to produce pepper at a low cost by combining organic and chemical fertiliser. The mixture of compost and chemical fertiliser in the proportion of 50 kg/ha NPK and 200 kg/ha of urea and 20 tons/ha of compost is the optimum for pepper fruits and seeds production. Furthermore, the interactive effect of this combination on one hand and fruit drying prior to seeds extraction on the other hand gave high germination rate and seedling vigour. Therefore, this result indicates that quality seeds can be produced with a mixture of compost and small rate of chemical fertiliser and rendered available with cheaper prise to small producers. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2. RECOMMENDATIONS To overcome the various constraints related to the high production cost of chilli pepper among small producers; the following recommendations may be proposed:  the mixture of compost and chemical fertilisers for soil fertilization;  the seeds to be produced must be extracted from previously dried fruits. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Abga P.T. 2013. Détermination des options de fertilisation organo-minérale et de densité de semis pour une intensification de la production du maïs dans la région de l'Est du Burkina Faso. Mémoire de Master II en Science du sol, Institut du Développement Rural (IDR), Université Polytechnique de Bobo-Dioulasso (UPB), Burkina Faso. 85 p. 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Pepper improvement for tropics-problems and the AVRDC approach in tomato and pepper production in the tropics. Int. Symp. on Integrated Management Practices, pp. 86-98. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX: ANOVA Combined ANOVA for soil pH Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 0.10679 0.0356 0.56 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 6 3.29429 0.54905 8.63 <.001 Residual 18 1.14571 0.06365 Total 27 4.54679 s.e. 0.2523 cv% 4.4 Combined ANOVA for plant height at 2 weeks after transplanting Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 31.803 10.601 5.39 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 10.379 2.076 1.06 0.423 Residual 15 29.513 1.968 Total 23 71.695 s.e. 1.403 cv% 10.7 Combined ANOVA for plant height at 4 weeks after transplanting Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 11.723 3.908 2.11 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 37.432 7.486 4.05 0.016 Residual 15 27.74 1.849 Total 23 76.895 s.e. 1.360 cv% 8.1 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Combined ANOVA for plant height at 6 weeks after transplanting Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 5.685 1.895 0.95 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 221.421 44.284 22.18 <.001 Residual 15 29.945 1.996 Total 23 257.051 s.e. 1.413 cv% 6.4 Combined ANOVA for plant height at 8 weeks after transplanting Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 4.054 1.351 0.4 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 417.401 83.48 24.8 <.001 Residual 15 50.489 3.366 Total 23 471.943 s.e. 1.835 cv% 7.0 Combined ANOVA for plant height at 10 weeks after transplanting Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 4.105 1.368 0.38 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 436.586 87.317 24.13 <.001 Residual 15 54.274 3.618 Total 23 494.966 s.e. 1.902 cv% 6.5 Combined ANOVA for plant height at 12 weeks after transplanting Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 10.263 3.421 0.98 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 432.427 86.485 24.72 <.001 Residual 15 52.479 3.499 Total 23 495.169 s.e. 1.870 cv% 5.7 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Combined ANOVA for number of primary branching Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 23.781 7.927 7.33 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 36.886 7.377 6.82 0.002 Residual 15 16.219 1.081 Total 23 76.886 s.e. 1.040 cv% 23.3 Combined ANOVA for number of secondary branching Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 46.477 15.492 4.44 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 118.062 23.612 6.77 0.002 Residual 15 52.287 3.486 Total 23 216.827 s.e. 1.867 cv% 22.9 Combined ANOVA for stem diameter Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 1.978 0.6593 3 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 54.1728 10.8346 49.28 <.001 Residual 15 3.2979 0.2199 Total 23 59.4488 s.e. 0.4689 cv% 5.5 Combined ANOVA for root biomass Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 1999 666 0.48 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 90873 18175 13.06 <.001 Residual 15 20874 1392 Total 23 113747 s.e. 37.30 cv% 20.6 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Combined ANOVA for shoot biomass Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 61494 20498 0.79 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 1974845 394969 15.13 <.001 Residual 15 391585 26106 Total 23 2427924 s.e. 161.6 cv% 24.9 Combined ANOVA for number of fruits by plant Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 1.82 0.61 0.05 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 797.66 159.53 12.35 <.001 Residual 15 193.84 12.92 Total 23 993.33 s.e. 3.595 cv% 27.1 Combined ANOVA for 1000 seed weight of fresh fruits seed extraction Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 0.0006131 0.0002044 0.53 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 0.0017438 0.0003488 0.91 0.5 Residual 15 0.00574 0.0003827 Total 23 0.0080968 s.e. 0.01956 cv% 51.5 Combined ANOVA for 1000 seed weight of dry fruits seed extraction Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 7.85E-05 2.62E-05 3.2 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 3.40E-04 6.80E-05 8.32 <.001 Residual 15 1.23E-04 8.17E-06 Total 23 5.41E-04 s.e. 0.002859 cv% 7.9 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Combined ANOVA for germination % of fresh fruits seed extraction Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 304.5 101.5 0.5 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 506.3 101.3 0.5 0.771 Residual 15 3035 202.3 Total 23 3845.8 s.e. 14.22 cv% 23.5 Combined ANOVA for germination % of dry fruits seed extraction Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 2075.1 691.7 3.1 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 5552.4 1110.5 4.98 0.007 Residual 15 3346.1 223.1 Total 23 10973.6 s.e. 14.94 cv% 23.9 Combined ANOVA for Seedling vigour of fresh fruits seed extraction Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 2001 667 0.17 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 18718 3744 0.96 0.472 Residual 15 58440 3896 Total 23 79160 s.e. 62.4 cv% 30.3 Combined ANOVA for Seedling vigour of dry fruits seed extraction Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocs stratum 3 26326 8775 1.8 Blocs.*Units* stratum Treatments 5 147301 29460 6.04 0.003 Residual 15 73161 4877 Total 23 246788 s.e. 69.8 cv% 30 63