SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH
COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
SEXTING AND RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA STUDENTS
BY
DOREENDA ENYONAM AHIATAKU
(10552607)
THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF
GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PUBLIC HEALTH DEGREE
JULY, 2016
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
i
DECLARATION
I, Doreenda Enyonam Ahiataku hereby state that, apart from other people’s work which have
been cited and duly acknowledged, this is entirely my own work done out of supervision.
…………………………………………… ………………………………..
Doreenda Enyonam Ahiataku Date
(Student)
…………………………………… ………………………………
Dr. Abubakar Manu Date
(Supervisor)
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this piece of work to the Almighty God and my wonderful family who have always
supported me with their prayers, support and love.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My profound gratitude goes to the Almighty God for making it possible to go through this
programme successfully.
My heartfelt thanks go to Dr. Abubakar Manu for supervising my work. I am grateful and
appreciate his advice, essential and fruitful comments, patience, essential and constructive
criticisms, patience and guidance throughout my research period. To my Head of Department,
Professor Augustine Ankomah, I say a big thank you for your countless advice and support.
I owe a special gratitude to, Dr.Fred Yao Gbagbo, for his encouragement and making time to go
through my work and offering constructive ideas and criticisms. I would forever be grateful.
To the CEO of the Cape Coast Teaching Hospital, Dr. Daniel Asare, the Director of Nursing,
Mrs. Sophia Blankson and my colleagues and friends at work. Thank you all for being
instrumental in the achievement of this dream. May the almighty God shower his blessings upon
you.
To my loving parents, Mr. &Mrs. Ahiataku, and my siblings. I say a big Thank you, for your
ceaseless prayers, support and encouragement.
To all my programme mates, research assistants and friends, I say a big Thank you to you all for
being there with your assistance and encouragement.
To all individuals who contributed in one way or the other. I say a big thank you all for making
this work a possibility.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
iv
ABSTRACT
Background: Youth sexuality is of paramount interest to many stakeholders, since potential
negative consequences may occur. These include HIV/AIDS, other STIs, and unintended
pregnancies. Studies elsewhere indicate that sexting increases risky sexual behaviour among the
youth.
In Ghana however, there is no empirical evidence about sexting behaviours among the youth
and the extent to which sexting influences risky sexual behaviours.
This study, sought to examine the influence of sexting on risky sexual behaviour among
University of Ghana students. Specifically, it determined the prevalence of sexting among
students of the University Of Ghana, the factors that motivate sexting and the relationships
between sexting and risky sexual behaviours.
Methodology: The study was a cross-sectional quantitative study using structured
questionnaires. A multistage cluster sampling technique with probability proportional to size was
used in the sampling process, to compute for the number of students to be used. The measure of
size was the number of students in each Hall. First, five (5) Halls out of the 11 mixed Halls were
randomly selected using the lottery method.
The second stage involved systematic selection of room numbers of the selected halls.
Respective sampling intervals were calculated for each Hall, and every nth room was selected.
In the third, one student was chosen at random from the selected rooms. In cases where a student
in the selected rooms refused to participate in the study, or didn’t meet the eligibility criteria, we
moved to the next room.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
v
At the end of the study the proportion of student sexters and their motivation for doing so was
known. The study also determined whether sexting influences sexual behaviour. Data were
analyzed using frequencies, Chi-square and logistic regressions in STATA version 13.0.
Results: The study found that most of the students use a smart phone for internet connectivity
and females were noted to sext more than males. Overall, 255(38%) of the students have ever
sent a sexually suggestive message, and 463(69.1%) have ever received a sexually suggestive
message. About 237 (51.2%) were engaged in two way sexting. The reasons given for sexting
included to get noticed 427(63.7%), 376(56.1%) to fish for compliments and as a sexy gift for
boyfriends/ girlfriends 398(59.4%).
About 160(24.9%) were involved in risky Sexual behaviours. A multivariate analysis showed
that there was no significant association between sexting and risky sexual behaviour.
Conclusion: The study showed that females sext more than males and about a quarter of the
students are involved in risky sexual behaviours. However there was no association between
sexting and risky sexual behaviour.
Key words: Sexting, risky sexual behaviours, two way sexting, University of Ghana
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... vi
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF FIGURE.......................................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF ACCRONYMS .............................................................................................................. xii
DEFINITION OF TERMS .......................................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem statement .......................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Conceptual framework. .................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Study Objectives ............................................................................................................ 8
1.5.1 General Objectives .................................................................................................... 8
1.5.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 9
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
vii
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Defining Sexting .............................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Prevalence of Sexting .......................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Motivations for Sexting .................................................................................................. 11
2.4 Gender and Sexting ............................................................................................................. 12
2.5 Consequences of Sexting ............................................................................................... 13
2.6 Risky Sexual Behaviours ............................................................................................... 14
2.6.1 Ever Had Sex ................................................................................................................ 14
2.6.2 Sex without a Condom and Multiple Sexual Partners .................................................. 15
2.6.3 Age at Sexual Debut ................................................................................................... 16
2.7 Peer Pressure............................................................................................................... 17
2.8 Risky Sexual Behaviours and Sexting ........................................................................... 18
2.9 Influence of Media ......................................................................................................... 19
2.10 Family Structure ............................................................................................................. 20
2.11 Religiosity ...................................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 23
3.0 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 23
3.1 Study Design ....................................................................................................................... 23
3.2 Study Site ............................................................................................................................ 23
3.3 Study Population ............................................................................................................ 24
3.3.1 Inclusion Criteria .................................................................................................... 24
3.3.2 Exclusion Criteria ................................................................................................... 24
3.4 Study variables ............................................................................................................... 25
3.4.1 Dependent Variable ................................................................................................ 25
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
viii
3.4.2 Independent Variables ............................................................................................ 25
3.5 Sample Size Estimation ....................................................................................................... 26
3.7 Sampling Procedure ............................................................................................................ 27
3.8 Training of research assistants ............................................................................................ 28
3.9 Pre-testing............................................................................................................................ 28
3.10. Data collection Technique and Procedure ........................................................................ 29
3.11 Data Processing ................................................................................................................. 29
3.12 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 29
3.13 Ethical Considerations....................................................................................................... 30
3.14 Quality Control .................................................................................................................. 31
3.15 Dissemination of findings ................................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 32
4.0 RESULTS ............................................................................................................................... 32
4.1 Background characteristics ................................................................................................. 32
4.2 Distribution of students .................................................................................................. 32
4.3 Prevalence of Sexting ..................................................................................................... 35
4.4 Motivations and attitudes for Sexting ................................................................................. 39
4.5 Risky sexual behaviours ................................................................................................. 42
4.6 Relationship between Sexting and Risky sexual behaviour ........................................... 44
4.7 Associations between risky sexual behaviour and other variables ................................ 48
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 50
5.0 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................... 50
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 50
5.2 Discussion of findings .................................................................................................... 50
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ix
5.3 Prevalence of Sexting ..................................................................................................... 50
5.4 Reasons and motivations for Sexting ............................................................................. 52
5.5 Proportion of students engaging in Risky Sexual behaviours ........................................ 53
5.6 Associations between sexting and Risky Sexual Behaviours ........................................ 54
5.7 Limitations of the study.................................................................................................. 56
CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................................. 57
6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................. 57
6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 57
6.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 58
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 59
APPENDIX I: INFORMED CONSENT FORM ........................................................................ 63
APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRES........................................................................................... 67
APPENDIX III: ETHICAL CLEARANCE LETTER .................................................................. 74
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Students ..................................................................... 34
Table 4.2 Gadgets used for internet connectivity ......................................................................... 35
Table 4. 3 Proportion of students who have ever engaged sexting related activities by sex ........ 37
Table 4. 4 Cross tabulation showing the proportion of students who have sent or received sext
messages by age groups ................................................................................................................ 38
Table 4. 5 Cross-tabulation showing the proportion of students who have ever sent and ever
received sext messages ................................................................................................................. 38
Table 4. 6 Motivations for sexting by sex..................................................................................... 40
Table 4. 7 Attitudes towards sexting............................................................................................. 41
Table 4. 8 Risky sexual behaviours by sex of students ................................................................ 43
Table 4. 9 Other Sexual Behaviours ............................................................................................. 44
Table 4. 10 Associations between risky sexual behaviour and other major variables. ................. 46
Table 4. 11 Results of Logistic Regression analyses .................................................................... 49
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
xi
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1.1 Conceptual framework, adapted from Netemeyer, Ryn, & Ajzen,( 1991). ................... 7
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
xii
LIST OF ACCRONYMS
AIDS Acquired Immune deficiency Syndrome
AP-MTV Associated Press-Music Television
GHS Ghana Health Service
GSS Ghana Statistical Service
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
SRS Simple Random Sampling
STIs Sexually transmitted infections
UNFPA United Nations population fund
USA United States of America
WHO World Health Organization
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
xiii
DEFINITION OF TERMS
RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR: Involvement in more than one of the following activities
1. Ever had sexual intercourse in exchange for cash
2. Ever had sexual intercourse in exchange for gift
3. Ever had sexual intercourse in exchange for favors?
4. Ever had sex when drunk?
5. Ever had sex with a person 10 years older or more?
6. Non condom use during last sexual intercourse
7. Multiple sexual partners within the last 3 months
SEXTING: Refers to sharing (sending or receiving) sexually suggestive photos or messages through
cell phones and any other mobile media.
YOUTH: Refers to persons aged between 15 years and 24 years.
YOUNG PEOPLE: Refers to people aged 10–24 years.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Youth sexuality is of paramount interest to many stakeholders, because of potential negative
consequences such as unintended pregnancies, acquisition of HIV/AIDS and other sexually
transmitted infections (Khanna, Singh, & Khas, 2015). Globally, it is an exciting milestone
that happens to anybody, as one is no longer considered as a child, neither is one an adult.
This stage is characterized by tremendous pace in physical growth and development, social
and psychological changes, sexual maturity, debut, development of adult mental processes
and a move from an earlier childhood socio-economic dependence towards relative
independence (Geary, Baumgartner, & Tucker, 2008; Khanna et al., 2015).
In 2011, the world's population reached the 7 billion mark (UNFPA, 2011). Young people
aged between 10-24 years represent about a quarter of the total world population.In
developing countries these young people between the ages of 10-24 years make up about
25% of the population, a grander percentage than in the developed countries because of the
high fertility rates (UNFPA, 2011).
The last population and housing census for Ghana in 2010 indicated that, like in most
developing countries the population of Ghana is largely youthful, with young people between
the ages of 15-24 making up about 30.2% of the total population of Ghana (Ghana Statistical
Service, 2013)
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2
Majority of students admitted to pursue various undergraduate programmes are directly from
the junior high school and anecdotally, 70% are young people.
The transition to adulthood is quite turbulent for young people. During the transition, young
people adopt various behaviours that may negatively affect their future health. Studies show
that over 70% of disease burden in adulthood is attributed to conditions that started in
adolescence (Gore et al., 2011).
According to Lounsbury, Mitchell, & Finkelhor (2011), sexting is the exchange of sexually
suggestive pictures or messages, including nude or seminude photographs, through mobile
phones or other social networking sites. This phenomenon began with technological
advancement in the 21st century. Trends keep changing from country to country, hence
becoming a global issue, a study by Barker, Rizzo, Hancock, Norton, & Brown (2014)
indicate that teens and the youth around the world are engaging in this behaviour.
In Ghana sexting and its associated negative outcomes has received media attention
(Gadzekpo, 2014), for its prevalence among young people.
Young people who automatically have the obligation to lead the economy of the next
generations, face challenges which include cyber addiction, drinking, smoking, under age
sex, and teen pregnancy resulting in HIV and AIDS. Other challenges include peer pressure,
unhealthy competition and eating disorders (Van Ouytsel, Van Gool, Ponnet, & Walrave,
2014).
This burden if not handled adequately will lead to a world full of diseased persons with a
reduced work force and decreased productivity (Strasburger, Jordan, & Donnerstein, 2010).
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3
In a national survey of persons aged between 10 and 17 years old in the US, it was found
that, nearly half of the students had been exposed to online pornography in the previous year
(Walker, Sanci, & Temple-, 2011).
Though there is a widespread incidence in other countries including sub-Saharan Africa and
Ghana, young people are unaware about the legal ramifications that this practice may cause.
Media affect the youth not only by shifting time they employ doing homework, active
learning or sleeping but it also impacts beliefs and behaviours as they imitate what they see
on screen and deem it correct behaviour. The youth of this generation are very creative and
are able to turn around the benefits of media to their benefits, by downloading violent videos,
sending sexually suggestive text messages or explicit self-photographs to their friends
(Strasburger, Jordan, & Donnerstein, 2010).
This study seeks to understand the technological needs of young people and their
technological communication methods; it is also to ascertain what drives them to use
technology to their benefit and what motivates them to sext. It also seeks to examine the
association between sexting and risky sexual behaviour among University of Ghana students.
1.2 Problem statement
About one third of the total population of persons living in Ghana as at 2010, were young
people between the ages of 10 and 24 years (Ghana Statistical Service, 2013). This portrays
that the population of Ghana is largely youthful, and these group of individuals are the
persons who will be driving the affairs of the homeland in the next generation.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4
Sexual debut in the country has been quite early. Median age at first sex was reported to be
18.4 years in Ghana and varies between the rural (17.9 years) and the urban (18.8 years)
areas. This means that first sex tends to take place among the Ghanaian population when they
are in their youth (Ghana Statistical Service, 2013).
In the University of Ghana, the picture is no different. It is evident that almost every student
uses a mobile phone. Technology is useful in discussing health problems among students.
Smart phones in particular, enable the youth to connect to one another, and to the world
through a range of social and visual media, shopping and surfing for information. Alongside
the perceived benefits of advancing online and mobile technologies, there are public
concerns relating to young people’s changing social communication. One inappropriate
use is sexting (Lennart et al, 2008; Cooper et al, 2005).
Studies show that close to 20% of teens have sexted. Collins, Elliot and Berry, 2010) were
also of the opinion that exposure to sexual media content, enhances a rapid progression to
sexual activity and early coital behaviour, which leads to unplanned pregnancies and sexually
transmitted infections.
Sexting also affects sexual behaviour in the same way i.e. early sexual initiation, rapid
progression to sexual activity and unprotected sex with multiple sexual partners (Benotsch et
al., 2013; National campaign to Prevent Teen pregnancy, 2005).
Sexting has received media attention in other countries including Ghana for its perceived
prevalence and associated outcomes, but there is no empirical evidence in Ghana to back
these claims. Therefore policies and programmes targeting issues on young people are silent
on this emerging social challenge, making it difficult to design social interventions to address
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
5
the motivations of sexting, risky sexual behaviours, or risk factors and outcomes of sexting
behaviours.
Research work done among students and the youth in Ghana are uncountable but majority
focuses on needs of young people, contraceptive use, knowledge about sexually transmitted
infections and sexual debut. Little is known about sexting and how it influences risky sexual
behaviour in Ghana. This research is relevant to address the influence of sexting and social
media on risky adolescent behaviours.
1.3 Conceptual framework.
The study adapted the theory of planned behaviour, proposed by (Ajzen, 1991), as the
conceptual framework (Figure 1.1). The theory describes attitudes toward behaviours. It
states that, the most important determinant of a person's behaviour is behaviour intent. The
individual's intention to perform behaviour is a combination of attitude toward performing
the behaviour and perceived behavioural control and subjective norm.
The constructs are: individual's attitude toward the behaviour, behavioural belief, evaluations
of behavioural outcome, subjective norm, normative beliefs, and the motivation to comply.
If a person perceives that the outcome of performing a behaviour is positive (e.g. sexting or
engaging in risky sexual behaviours), she/he will have a positive attitude toward performing
that behaviour. The opposite can also be stated if the behaviour is thought to be negative.
The theory also posits that if relevant others see engaging in sexting behaviour as positive
and the individual is motivated to meet the expectations of relevant others, then a positive
subjective norm is expected. If relevant others see sexting behaviour as negative and the
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
6
individual wants to meet the expectations of these "others", then the experience is likely to be
a negative subjective norm for the individual.
Perceived behavioural control is determined by two factors; Control Beliefs and Perceived
Power. Perceived behavioural control indicates that a person's motivation to sext is
influenced by how difficult sexting is perceived to be, as well as the perception of how
successfully the individual can, or cannot sext.
Also, if a person holds strong control beliefs about the existence of factors that will facilitate
risky sexual behaviour, then the individual will have high perceived control over the
behaviour. Conversely, the person will have a low perception of control if she holds strong
control beliefs that impede the behaviour. This perception can reflect past experiences,
anticipation of upcoming circumstances, and the attitudes of the influential norms that
surround the individual. (Ajzen, 1991).
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
7
Figure 1.1 Conceptual framework, adapted from (Ajzen, 1991).
1.4 Justification of the study
Global reports show that, to a greater extent the youth begin sexual activity while still
attending elementary school. The problem of sexual knowledge is a point of interest for
psychologists, doctors, sociologists, and most importantly young people entering adult life.
The progressing change of life conditions, submission of one’s sexual drive to the common
expectations of society, results in greater changes in the sexual behaviour of youth.
Sexting is a relatively new phenomenon arising in social media circles. Studies done in other
countries reveal that sexting influences risky sexual behaviours resulting in unintended
pregnancies, HIV/AIDS, other STIs and unsafe abortions.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
8
This study will serve as a baseline data for future studies about sexting in Ghana. It will also
help head of institutions to formulate policies and programs to reduce the prevalence of
Sexting, and measures put in place to reduce the coercive motivations of Sexting.
It will also serve as a form of information for the youth in this country and enable them to
avoid harmful sexual practices.
1.5 Study Objectives
1.5.1 General Objectives
The general objective of the study was to determine the influence of sexting on risky sexual
behaviours among University of Ghana students.
1.5.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives are to:
1. Assess the prevalence of sexting among students of the University of Ghana.
2. Determine the attitudes and motivating factors for sexting behaviours.
3. Determine the proportion of students who engage in risky sexual behaviours.
4. Examine the relationships between sexting and risky sexual behaviour.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
9
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Being youthful is one of the exciting milestones that can happen to anybody the world over,
as one is no longer considered as a child, neither is one an adult. It is a stage of life
characterized by tremendous pace in physical growth and development, physical, social and
psychological changes and maturity, sexual maturity, debut, development of adult mental
processes and a move from childhood socio-economic dependence towards relative
independence (Khanna et al., 2015).The WHO however defines the youth as the period in
human growth and development that occurs after childhood and before adulthood, from ages
10 to 24 years.
This is the stage where most persons make primary decisions that mainly affect their
sexuality, and one may not know if that is the best decision to be taken. Interestingly enough,
people make decisions in this phase of life based on their own judgement, irrespective of the
opinions older adults may have.
2.5 Defining Sexting
Sexting is a relatively new emerging concept in social media circles. It has been defined
variously by different authors, but in all, there is a general consensus that it involves
exchange of sexually suggestive pictures or messages, including nude or seminude
photographs, through mobile phones to the opposite sex. For example Lenhart (2009),
defined “sexting as the creating, sharing and forwarding of sexually suggestive nude or
nearly nude images by minor teens.” Ybarra & Mitchell (2014),also defined Sexting as
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
10
“sending and sharing sexual photos online, via text messaging, and in person”. Other authors
also define Sexting as “sending or receiving sexually explicit messages, photographs and
videos through cell phones, computers and other social media” (Van Ouytsel, Van Gool,
Ponnet, & Walrave, 2014 ). These messages and images can be created by one person, or
another person receiving it directly from a producer, or forwarding images received by other
people.
For the purposes of this study, emphasis of sexting will be mainly through mobile phones,
but it could apply to other social networking sites such as electronic mails, instant messaging
and social networking sites(Lounsbury et al., 2011).
2.6 2.2 Prevalence of Sexting
Most studies on sexting have generally been conducted in the United States of America
(USA), and these studies have reported different prevalent rates. For example, the National
Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy conducted one of the first studies to
determine the prevalence of sexting behaviours among young adults using a non-probability
sample (n=1,280), comprising 653 teens aged 13-19 years (49% male and 51% female); and
627 young adults aged 20-26 years (51% male and 49% female). The study found that
prevalence of sexting was 20% among teenagers, and 33% among young adults (National
Campaign to prevent teen and unplanned pregnancy, 2008). Similarly, Gordon-Messer and
colleagues using a respondent-driven sample of 3,447 U.S young adults aged 18-24 years
found a sexting prevalence of 43% (Bauermeister,Arturo,Gordon-Messer, & Grodzinski,
2014). The same study revealed 28% of the respondents were two-way sexters, while 12.6%
and 2% received and sent sext messages respectively. In another U.S based online survey
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
11
among young adults, Henderson and Morgan (2011),found a sexting prevalence of 60%
among the sample (Henderson & Morgan, 2011).
Another study conducted in the USA by Ybarra & Mitchell, (2014), indicated that sexting
was prevalent among the youth and that females sext more than males similar to findings of
an online study conducted in two public universities by Delevi & Weisskirch,(2013).The
different sexting prevalence rates reported in the various studies may be due to the different
samples and methodologies used.
2.3 Motivations for Sexting
A lot of factors have been linked to sexting behaviours. Temple et al. (2014) gave the opinion
that; sexting was associated with impulsive behaviours, depression and substance use. Other
researchers believe that young people sext as a prelude to sexual activity between partners
i.e. in a consensual sexual relationship and to view the other partners’ opinion on a possible
impending sexual activity (Lenhart, 2009; West et al., 2014). They went ahead to state that
sexting was a form of flirtatious behaviour, or gaining romantic attention from ones’ partner,
whether endorsement will be given to initiate, improve or sustain sexual activity. They
further stated that, in relationships where partners live far away from each other, sexting was
a means of sustaining the relationship and communication gap.
Young people, who may not be in any form of relationship whatsoever, may sext to attract
the attention of someone they are interested in or to spice up current sexual relationship; by
once a while sending a sext as a present to their partners. A lady may also send a sext
message to her partner to get attention from him and a guy could do it for fun, to feel sexy,
excited or coquettish.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
12
Apart from these some young people see the ability to sext as a form of bravery to achieve
what some of their peers are not able to do (Lennart et al 2008; Henderson & Morgan, 2011).
Whilst most young people especially females are pressured to sext, a lot more of sext;
whether sending or receiving takes place in a consensual relationship, or as a youthful
experimental phase of life, to gain attention from peers (Collins, Martino, & Shaw, 2011).
Another study by Gordon-Messer, Bauermeister, Grodzinski, & Zimmerman, (2013),
revealed that sexting is most often a reciprocal behaviour between romantic partners. Among
the participants who had ever sent or received a sext, 66% reported both sending and
receiving sexts. Most young men and women report sharing sexts within a dating
relationship.
2.7 2.4 Gender and Sexting
Studies on gender and sexting are different in their reports. Females have been shown to be
avid primary sexters than males (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2014).This could be explained as most
young females may be compelled to send sext messages to males they are sexually attracted
to, or to initiate sexual activity. The compulsion to sext is greater among females, as most
young females’ sext as a reward to their partners, to gain favors from them. They are usually
the senders unlike males who are almost always at the recipient side (Cooper, Quayle,
Jonsson, & Svedin, 2014) ; Benotsch, Snipes, Martin, & Bull, 2013).
Other studies from the USA revealed that female have higher incidence of sending images of
themselves and receiving these types of images compared to male students(Ybarra &
Mitchell, 2014; Martinez-Prather & Vandiver, 2014). The same study also reported that
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
13
students send sexually explicit images more often to their boyfriends (37%; n =73), followed
by someone they were interested in dating (23%; n = 45). Rarely did students report sending
images (3%; n = 6) to an adults. Images were also most likely to be received by a friend
(26%; n =88), followed by someone they were interested in dating (23%; n = 78), and to a
lesser extent by an adult (4%; n = 14).
On the contrary, other studies also revealed that males were avid primary sexters than
females (Henderson & Morgan, 2011; Gordon-Messer, Bauermeister, Grodzinski, &
Zimmerman, 2013; West et al., 2014). However, this finding contradicts findings by studies
which reported that females sext more than males. (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2014;Martinez-
prather & Vandiver, 2014; Benotsch, Snipes, Martin, & Bull, 2013; Barker, Rizzo, Hancock,
Norton, & Brown, 2014).
Other studies however show no differences in sexting behaviours among the different sex
categories. (Temple et al., 2014;Lenhart, 2009).These variations could be due to the various
geographic locations and methodologies and definitions of Sexting employed in the studies.
2.8 Consequences of Sexting
Research examining young people’s attitudes to sexting, reveals that most people are aware
of the consequences of sexting, but they engage in it anyway. This may include public
disgrace if the images get out in the open, psychological and social harms, stigma due to
permanence of the image, and stigma attached to having a naked picture of you out in the
public domain. This could be very embarrassing and emotionally tormenting (Mitchel et al,
2012; Henderson & Morgan, 2011).
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
14
2.9 Risky Sexual Behaviours
Risky sexual behaviour is commonly said to be behaviours that increases one’s risk of
contracting sexually transmitted infections and experiencing unintended pregnancies. They
include ever having sex especially at an early age, having multiple sexual partners, having
sex while under the influence of alcohol or drugs (Oluwatoyin & Oyetunde, 2014).
Eaton et al.( 2010), defined risky sexual behaviours as the kinds of sexual behaviours that
the youth are involved in; they include having sexual intercourse without a condom, multiple
sexual partners and sexual intercourse for reward. It is influenced by values mores, religiosity
and cultural orientations of the person sending or receiving the sext. Studies show that
persons who sext have a high risk of initiating and engaging in sexual behaviours than
persons who do not sext (Barker, Rizzo, Hancock, Norton, & Brown, 2014; Ybarra et al,
2012; Benotsch et al, 2012).
2.6.1 Ever Had Sex
Sex for young people, despite any changes of morals, is still an expression of their emotions.
It is these emotions that give this act a moral rank. First sexual involvement is a major event,
having an enormous impact on a young individual’s psyche. As such, it cannot be misplaced
in consideration of human development. According to the Alan Guttmacher Institute (2004),
4 in 10 Ghanaian women and two in 10 men aged 15–19 years have ever had sex by age 20,
and 83% of women and 56% of men have had sex. The median age at first intercourse is
17.4 years for women and 19.5 years for men. Among those who have had sex, four in 10
women and six in 10 men aged 12–24 years have had more than one sexual partner. The
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
15
proportion of 15–19-year-olds who have had sex declined substantially between 1993 and
1998, from 59% to38% among women and from 33% to 19% among men.
Sexual coercion is a common occurrence: One in four sexually experienced young women
has ever been forced against their will to have sexual intercourse (8% of sexually
experienced young men report the same). Also, twelve percent of women and 2% of men
were forced into their first sexual experience (The Alan Guttmacher Institute, 2004).
2.6.2 Sex without a Condom and Multiple Sexual Partners
Unsafe sex occurs if a vulnerable person has sex with at least one partner who has an STI,
without taking precautions to inhibit infection. Susceptible people are not yet infected, either
because the infectious agent has not been successfully transmitted, or because the agent has
been transmitted but infection has not yet been established. Such susceptible people form a
group which is truly exposed to infection and they are at a very high risk of becoming
infected.
Engaging in hazardous sex are those persons who either engage in unprotected sex but who
have not yet met a partner who has an STI, or who have had sex with at least one partner who
has an STI, but have taken measures to prevent transmission.
These people have the potential to be exposed to infection, either by having sex with an
infected partner, or if the measures taken to prevent transmission are ineffective (e.g. condom
failure).
Having risky sex could be defined as having more than one sexual partners and not using
condoms during sexual intercourse (Slaymaker, Walker, & Zaba, 2004).
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
16
2.6.3 Age at Sexual Debut
Globally, more youthful persons initiate sexual activity while still in elementary school
(Krauss et al., 2012). The age at which young people commence sexual initiation varies
widely in countries. Sexual debut depends on the cultural and sexual norms which prevail in
that country, and the influences of sexual behaviours in a person’s locality (Geary et al.,
2008).
A study on sexual initiation among the youth in selected European countries revealed that
initiation of sexual intercourse during adolescence is statistically normative among developed
nations. Among young adults who participated in the study in eleven European nations, the
prevalence of sexual initiation before the age of 20 years for males ranged from 73% in the
Netherlands to 88% in Iceland. For females, the lowest was reported in Portugal at 51% and
the highest in Denmark at 90%. Using data from the mid-1990s, researchers at the
Guttmacher Institute found that differences in prevalence of adolescent sexual debut were
minimal between the United States, Sweden, France, Canada and the UK; although
adolescents in the United States were slightly more likely to initiate sexual intercourse before
the age of 15 (Darroch, Frost & Singh, 2001).
In Ghana, the median age at sexual debut for women and men between the ages of 20 - 24
years is 18.4 years and 20 years respectively (GDHS, 2014). According to Krauss, et al,
(2012), reasons for sexual initiation vary from person to person. In their study, reasons for
sexual initiation given by participants were love (50.4%), curiosity (22.4%), accident
(17.8%) and to sustain a relationship (6%). The most common reason for sexual initiation in
Belarus, Ukraine, Poland and France was love. In the United Kingdom curiosity was mainly
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
17
reported and in Germany by accident. Students of age of 15-16 years more often asserted to
have initiated sex by accident. The main sources of sexual education given by the students
were friends (76.0%), then school (66.0%), television/internet (65.0%), parents (61.2%), the
press (42.4%).
The consequences of early sexual debut without contraception include unintended
pregnancies, early child birth, unplanned abortions, STIs and HIV/AIDs. Others include
suicide, and premature death from unsafe abortion.
For most youth their first sexual encounter is coerced; therefore they didn’t actually have a
choice in the timing of their sexual encounter, it could be likened to a verbal pressure.
(Geary et al., 2008).Since sexual initiation increases with age once it is started, the frequency
increases with age (Cubbin, Santelli, Brindis, & Braveman, 2005).
2.7 Peer Pressure
This could mean social pressure by members of one's peer group to take a certain action,
stance or adopt certain values, or otherwise conform in order to be accepted. Conforming to a
certain kind of behaviour, is very important to the youth as it makes them have some sense of
belongingness or acceptability among their friends.
Someone in the youthful bracket will join a particular peer group, because he or she is
attracted to the group’s norms, values or activities. The group may probably be the popular
group around the school, or vicinity and being part of that group is certainly what it takes to
feel accepted or gain respect from peers. By being allowed to join the group, you would have
to in one way or another justify your inclusion by willy-nilly participating in the activities
that the group deems appropriate.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
18
Youth risky behaviours are influenced by the perceptions of what their peers do. In effect if
they believe that their peers engage in risky sexual behaviours it is a yardstick for them to do
so as well, and if they believe their peers are engaged in healthy behaviours they are likely to
do so as well (Black, Schmiege, & Bull, 2013). Being in the youthful bracket is a stage where
one is always willing to try new things, especially what is in vogue at that particular instance.
2.8 Risky Sexual Behaviours and Sexting
Various studies suggest that sexting is highly associated with risky sexual behaviours. Most
young people don’t just sext for the fun of it but are also involved with other risky sexual
behaviours including aggression, having unprotected sex and sexual intercourse with
multiple sexual partners. Most young people do not sext to anybody, but rather to their long
term sexual partners. This to them is a form of commitment and a way of showing affection
(Benotsch, Snipes, Martin, & Bull, 2013 ; Barker, Rizzo, Hancock, Norton, & Brown, 2014).
In an Associated Press - Music Television (AP-MTV) sponsored study revealed that 45% of
youth (aged 14–24 years) who reported having sex in the past week, also reported sending at
least one sext. They also found that sexually active youth were twice as likely to share naked
photos compared with their non–sexually active peers (AP-MTV, 2009). Although useful,
these findings do not explicate whether sexting is related to self-reported sexual risk
behaviours. Researchers have proposed three perspectives regarding the relationship between
sexting and sexual behaviour: sexting may lead to risky sexual behaviours such as early
sexual initiation and less contraceptive use (Temple et al., 2014) sexting may be a safer sex
behaviour if it is used in lieu of physical contact (Lenhart, 2009). Sexting may replicate a
new medium for the long-standing practice of photo sharing in romantic and sexual
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
19
relationships and have no association with safer or riskier sex behaviours. (Bauermeister,
Jose Arturo,Gordon-Messer Deborah,Grodzinski Alison, 2014). It is vital to understand how
sexting is related to sexual behaviours, as it could be promoted as safer sex behaviour or
become a focus of intervention to prevent risky sexual behaviour.
Media reports and scholars have also proposed a relationship between sexting and
psychological well-being. Some researchers suggest that mental health is connected to
youth’s motivation to sext. People with social anxiety may prefer texting to voice calls as a
medium for intimate contact, and may also prefer sexting as a medium for sexual contact
(Ringrose, Gill, Livingstone, & Harvey, 2012).
2.9 Influence of Media
In this era of increased technological expansion, there is a wide development and availability
of information on different media such as magazines, radio, television, internet, mobile
phones and other social media.
Young people are the earliest adopters of information communication technology, such as
mobile phones, the internet, instant Messaging, and other social networking sites including
Facebook, Twitter, My space etc. These advancements in technology is almost always
everywhere irrespective of ones geographic location (Chandra et al., 2015; Collins, Martino,
& Shaw, 2011). The easy accessibility to all these forms of information makes the youth to
be readily prone to the positive and negative influence of the media (Lenhart, Ling,
Campbell, & Purcell, 2010; West et al., 2014).
The youth spend about 7 hours a day using media. They usually use more time on media than
any other activity except time spent to sleep. This is mainly because they have access to
internet and technology either at home or outside the home. The media has also become a
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
20
self-styled teacher for the youth as they replicate whatever they see in the media either via
television, internet, computer or mobile phone, irrespective of whether it is right or wrong.
According to social learning theory, young people learn by observing especially when these
behaviours are deemed to be rewarding (Strasburger et al., 2010).
Several mediums have been identified as a means of transferring nude, seminude pictures and
sexually suggestive text messages. Research indicates that cell phone use within the United
States has increased remarkably among young people since 2004 (Lenhart, 2009). With the
increase in cell phone usage there seems to be a rise in the number of sext messages being
sent. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy (2008), report indicated that 26% of
those surveyed had posted/sent nude or semi-nude pictures of themselves and 48% had sent
sexually suggestive text messages on a cell phone. Other mediums reported in sending nude
or seminude pictures included 27% on the internet and 5% on social networking sites (i.e.,
Facebook, Myspace, or a blog). Other avenues reported in sending sexually suggestive text
messages include 49% via the internet and 14% on social networking sites (i.e., Facebook,
Myspace, or a blog). Overall, cell phones appear to be the main method of sending sexually
suggestive text messages, which coincides with the idea that many cell phones are equipped
with immediate access to cameras, video, and internet access; making the transmission of
nude or semi-nude photos or sexually suggestive text messages easier and faster than ever
(Lenhart, 2009).
2.10 Family Structure
Studies have shown that living with ones parents or a guardian gives some kind of protection
against risky sexual behaviours since at least one becomes conscious of oneself and tend to
do the right thing at all times. Other studies suggest that living with at least one parent is
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
21
equally enough i.e. a girl living with a single parent especially the mother is more likely to
engage in premarital sex than one who is living with both parents. Living with a single parent
predisposes a young person to risky sexual behaviours(Lenhart, 2009; Walker et al., 2011).
A unified family atmosphere and affirmative peer networks, contribute to reduced levels of
risky sexual behaviour among adolescents from religious families. Parents who monitor their
children’s activities and peer environments, engage their families in regular activities and
foster strong parent-child relationships can help reduce risky sexual behaviour, regardless of
family religiosity. Parental involvement in prevention programs may help reduce rates of
teenage pregnancy and STDs (Rostosky, Wilcox, Laurie, Wright, & Randall, 2004).
2.11 Religiosity
Past research that has examined the influence of religiosity on adolescent sex finds that
religious individuals have first sex at a later age than their less religious peers. Studies
indicate that the number of sex partners decreases as religiosity increases (Jones et al. 2005).
Family, schools, and religion are examples of institutions that use socialization control
because they socialize members to adopt the norms and values of the institution. Individuals
abide by these norms and values because they are bonded to the agents of socialization and
they do not want to jeopardize the bonds or to risk being sanctioned by the group.
Over time those norms and values become a part of the individual and the social control
mechanism is self-sustaining. Thus, the impact of religion on sexual behaviour is largely a
function of the values that it imparts. From a religious perspective, values include the view
that sex is reserved for marriage and should take place within the context of a loving,
committed relationship. From the perspective of most religions, these principles are seen as
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
22
divinely ordained while behaviour that violates them is considered immoral (Farmer,
Trapnell, & Meston, 2008; Logan, Moore, Logan, & Moore, 2003; Rostosky et al., 2004).
In conclusion, previous studies in other countries have shown that sexting is an emerging
concept that influences risky sexual behaviours of young adults. However, there is no general
consensus on practices that are considered sexting behaviours among young adults, and the
relationship between sexting and risky sexual behaviours. Technology has come to stay with
tremendous benefits, but young people seemingly abuse it to their own advantage.
For the purposes of this study, emphasis on sexting will be mainly through mobile phones,
but it could apply to other social networking sites such as electronic mails, instant messaging
and social networking sites. This study seeks to describe the reasons that motivate sexting
behaviour, and examine the relationships between sexting and risky sexual behaviours.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
23
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
This chapter outlines the various methods used for the study; giving descriptions of the study
area, study design, sampling methods, study procedures, data collection tools and data
analysis, as well as ethical considerations.
3.1 Study Design
The study was a cross-sectional quantitative design. It was conducted in May/June 2016,
among students of the University of Ghana, to explore Sexting and risky Sexual behaviour.
3.2 Study Site
The study site was the University of Ghana. It is the premier and largest University in Ghana,
with a student population of about 40,000. It was founded in 1948 as the University College
of the Gold Coast, and was originally an affiliate College of the University of London, which
supervised its academic programs and awarded degrees. It gained full University status in
1961. (University of Ghana,2016).
The original emphasis of the University was on liberal arts, social sciences, Basic Science,
Agriculture, and Medicine, but (partly as the result of a national educational reform
programme) the curriculum was expanded to provide more technology-based and vocational
courses and postgraduate training. The university is composed of 4 colleges, 19 schools, 5
institutes and 11 centers of learning.
The University awards Diploma, Bachelors, Masters and PhD degrees. Apart from the main
Campus, the University has other Campuses in Accra, Korle-Bu and Kpong. For the purposes
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
24
of this study, only students in the main campus were considered. (University of Ghana,
2016).
3.3 Study Population
The study universe was all undergraduate students of the University of Ghana. For the
purposes of this study, the study population was limited to students of the University who are
unmarried.
3.3.1 Inclusion Criteria
Students included in the study were all undergraduate students in the main campus of the
University of Ghana who are unmarried.
3.3.2 Exclusion Criteria
Persons that were excluded in the study were,
Students in the University, who are married
Students who did not give their voluntary consent to participate in the study
Students in other campuses of the University
Graduate students in the University, since majority are married and more than 25
years
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
25
3.4 Study variables
3.4.1 Dependent Variable
The dependent variable for this study was Risky Sexual Behaviour. This is a created
composite variable comprising the following items:
Ever had sexual intercourse in exchange for cash?
Ever had sexual intercourse in exchange for gift?
Ever had sexual intercourse in exchange for favors?
Ever had sex when drunk?
Ever had sex with a person 10 years older or more?
Condom use during last sexual intercourse
Multiple sexual partners within the last 12 months.
These seven questions were originally coded as Yes = 1 and No = 2. Condom use at last sex
was reverse-coded. During the analyses, these 7 variables were recoded as No = 0 and Yes
=1. A new variable was therefore created by summing them up. The scale was thereafter
categorized into two, where anyone who scored from 1 to 7 in any of the behaviours was said
to be engaged in risky sexual behaviours while all those who scored 0 (zero) were considered
not to engage in risky sexual behaviours.
3.4.2 Independent Variables
The independent variables included the following; Sexting, socio-demographic
characteristics such as age, sex, ethnicity, religion, guardian and programme of study. It was
directly measured in the questionnaire.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
26
3.5 Sample Size Estimation
The formula below proposed by Cochran, (1977), was used to calculate the sample size.
Where,
n =required sample size
Z =confidence level at 95% (standard value of 1.96)
P = estimated prevalence of sexting which is unknown so will be presumed to be 50%.
e =margin of error to be determined by the researcher (5% will be used)
The sample size will therefore be:
Giving a sample size, of approximately 384.
3.6 Sample Size Adjustment
Giving that, there is loss of precision under cluster sampling; the computed sample size was
multiplied by a design effect1 of 1.5 in order to improve precision. As has been used in
previous studies.(Kaiser, Woodruff, Bilukha, Spiegel, & Salama, 2006)
1 Under cluster sampling there is a loss of precision thus, the design effect, which is an adjustment factor is
multiplied by the computed sample size from SRS to improve sampling effectiveness or precision
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
27
Thus
384 x 1.5 = 576. Furthermore, a 25% upwards adjustment was made to account for non-
response and recording errors, resulting in a final sample size of 720.
3.7 Sampling Procedure
A multistage cluster sampling technique, with probability proportional to size was used in the
sampling process. The measure of size was the number of students in each Hall. First, five
(5) Halls out of the 11 mixed Halls were randomly selected using the lottery method. The
sample size for each of the five Halls was computed as follows:
HALL A:
HALL B:
HALL C:
HALL D:
HALL E:
The second stage involved systematic selection of room numbers of the selected halls.
Respective sampling intervals were calculated for each Hall, and every nth room was
selected. In the third, one student was chosen at random from the selected rooms. In cases
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
28
where a student in the selected rooms refused to participate in the study, or didn’t meet the
eligibility criteria, we moved to the next room.
3.8 Training of research assistants
A day training session was held for the research assistants to ensure that they understood the
context of the research topic. The training also ensured they were adequately equipped for
the field work. The trainees were educated on the following aspects of the study:
The objectives of the study and the sensitivity of the topic;
The sampling procedures, sampling techniques, as well as other methods to be used in
the study;
The need to ensure confidentiality at all times;
How to obtain informed consent.
3.9 Pre-testing
The interviewer administered questionnaire was pretested in the University of Professional
Studies. A total of 25 students, selected randomly were used for this study. Data was
collected from all the sections to be covered by this study. This was done to help test the
feasibility of the sampling procedure, reliability of the data collection tools, reaction of the
students and the ability of the research team to carry out the study. Necessary corrections
were then made before the questionnaire was finalized.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
29
3.10. Data collection Technique and Procedure
The study used structured questionnaires in collecting data. The questionnaire contained
mostly closed ended questions, and was organized into three sections namely (A)
demographic characteristics (B) sexting behaviors, and (C) sexual behaviour. The
questionnaire was designed and administered in the English Language.
The questionnaires were self-administered, Research assistants distributed the questionnaires
to the selected students and they were required to complete the questionnaires. The research
assistants later followed-up and collected the completed questionnaires.
3.11 Data Processing
At the end of the self-administered questionnaire, the questionnaires were cross checked for
completeness and internal consistency. The data were cleaned and then entered into SPSS.
The data was doubly entered; this helped in detecting any discrepancies. Data were then
cross checked and the necessary corrections made for accuracy of the final entered data. The
final data was then exported into STATA version 13 for analyses.
3.12 Data Analysis
Data were analyzed using STATA version 13. Categorical variables were described using
frequencies and percentages and descriptive statistics using percentages and frequencies were
presented in tables for socio demographic characteristics, gadgets used for internet
connectivity and risky sexual behaviours. Sexting behaviours were grouped and expressed as
a percentage over the total number of students used for the study. Chi-square analyses were
used to find the factors that are significantly associated with sexting and risky sexual
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
30
behaviours. All variables that were significant were put in a simple and multiple logistic
regression models to determine the strength of association. Odds ratio and their 95%
confidence intervals in the logistic regression model was used to access the strength of
association. In all analyses, a p-value less than 0.05 were used to determine the statistical
significance.
3.13 Ethical Considerations
The following ethical issues were considered in the study.
Ethical approval was sought from the Ghana Health Service Ethical Review
Committee. With ID NO: GHS- ERC 89/12/15.
Permission was sought from the Management of the various halls of residence where
the study was undertaken.
Informed consent was obtained from all participants of the study. It was explained to
the students that participation in the study was voluntary and that they could
withdraw from the study at any point in time if they so desire.
Participants were informed about the risks and discomforts involved in the study,
given the sensitive and intimate nature of the topic.
Data were analyzed in aggregate. The students’ identity remained anonymous as no
personal identifiers could be linked to the data.
Students were assured of privacy and confidentiality. Confidential interviews were
conducted and no other persons have access to the study data.
The study data were password protected, stored on a computer and backed on an
external hard drive. Hard copies were locked in file cabinets with access limited to
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
31
only the principal investigator. Additionally, the Principal Investigator had no conflict
of interest in this study.
3.14 Quality Control
The following quality control measures were employed to ensure data integrity.
Four qualified research assistants were trained before pre-testing of questionnaires.
They were chosen based on their experience with data collection and familiarity with
the subject area.
A day’s training was conducted for the research assistants to ensure that they
understood the context of the research topic, objectives and the sensitivity of the
topic.
Meetings were held every day after collection of data using the administered
questionnaires to ensure completeness of the questionnaires.
Solutions to challenges that were identified were proffered by the team.
Data was thoroughly cleaned before analyses.
3.15 Dissemination of findings
The study targeted the groups listed below for the dissemination of the study findings:
A copy will be sent to the library of School of Public Health, University of Ghana
Copies will be sent to the main library of the university of Ghana and other
departmental libraries for participants involved in the study
A scientific paper will be written for publication in a reputable journal
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
32
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of the study. Various statistical procedures were employed
to analyse the data. The chapter is organized under the following headings
1. Background characteristics
2. Distribution of students
3. Gadgets used for internet connectivity
4. Prevalence of sexting
5. Motivations and attitudes for sexting
6. Risky sexual behaviours and other sexual behaviours
7. Associations between sexting and Risky sexual behaviours.
4.1 Background characteristics
Questionnaires were distributed to 720 eligible students; complete data was obtained from
670 students. This yielded a response rate of 93 %. The analyses in this chapter are based on
the 670 students who fulfilled all the criteria for the study and had complete information.
4.2 Distribution of students
The study participants comprised 283 (42.2%) males and 387 (57.8%) females. The
background characteristics are presented in Table 4.1. Majority of the students (97.3%) were
young people between the ages of 17 and 24 years and some 2.7 % were between the ages of
25 and 29 years of age.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
33
With regards to family structure, about 66.3% live with both parents and 7.9% of the students
live with other family members. Among the students, majority were Christians (91.6%).
Other socio demographic characteristics are shown in Table 4.1.
The device mainly used for internet connectivity is a smartphone 581 (86.7) %, followed by a
laptop 484 (72.2%) and then a hand held tablet. The male and female distributions of gadgets
used are presented in Table 4.2
.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
34
Table 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Students
Demographic variables Female (%) Males (%) Total (%) P- value
Age Groups
15 – 19 92 (23.8) 62 (21.9) 154 (23.0) 0.03
20 – 24 290 (74.9) 208 (73.5) 498 (74.3)
25 – 29 5 (1.3) 13 (4.6) 18 (2.7)
Guardian
Both parents 260 (67.2) 184 (65.0) 444 (66.3) 0.001
Mother 73 (18.9) 42 (14.8) 115 (17.2)
Father 22 (5.7) 20 (7.1) 42 (6.3)
Alone 1 (0.3) 15 (5.3) 16 (2.4)
Other relatives 31 (8.0) 22 (7.8) 53 (7.9)
Religion
Christian 357 (92.3) 256 (90.5) 613 (91.5) 0.71
Muslim 26 (6.7) 23 (8.1) 49 (7.3)
Traditionalist 4 (1.0) 4 (1.4) 8 (1.2)
Ethnicity
Akan 203 (52.5) 140 (49.5) 343 (51.2) 0.9
Ga 59 (15.3) 48 (17.0) 107 (16.0)
Ewe 74 (19.1) 55 (19.4) 129 (19.3)
Northerner 42 (10.9) 31 (11.0) 73 (10.9)
Other 9 (2.3) 9 (3.2) 18 (2.7
Programme of study 0.8
Sciences 157 (40.6) 112 (39.6) 269 (40.2)
Humanities 230 (59.4) 171 (60.4) 401 (59.9)
Level of study 0.000
Level 100 61(15.8) 23(8.3) 84(12.5)
Level 200 106(27.4) 112(39.6) 218(32.5)
Level 300 140(36.2) 106(37.5) 246(36.7)
Level 400 80(20.7) 42(14.8) 122(18.2)
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
35
Table 4.2 Gadgets used for internet connectivity
Gadget Used for internet
Connectivity
Female Male Total Chi-
square
P-
value
Smartphone with internet
No 49 (12.7) 40(14.1) 89(13.3) 0.3078 0.579
Yes 338(87.3) 243(85.9) 581(86.7)
Laptop with internet
No 117 (30.2) 69(24.4) 186(27.8) 2.7904 0.095
Yes 270(69.8) 214(75.6) 484(72.2)
Tablet with internet
No 264(68.2) 179(63.3) 443(66.1) 1.7996 0.18
Yes 123(31.8) 104(36.8) 227(33.9)
4.3 Prevalence of Sexting
From the study, 504 (75.2%) of the students have access to 24 hour internet, which is the
medium for sending sexually suggestive messages. On the whole, about 338 (50.5%) of the
students indicated that males sext more (Table 4.3). However, 129 (19.2%) of the students
had no idea of who sexts more: whether males or females.
About 255 (38%) of the students, reported to have ever sent a sexually suggestive message or
image, while 463 (69.1%) indicated that, they had ever received a sexually suggestive
message/image.
More than half, 378 (56.4%) of the students indicated they have never been asked to sext
before whereas 127 (19.2%) had no idea, whether or not they have been asked to sext.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
36
Out of the 255 (38%) of the students who admitted ever sending a sexually suggestive
message or image, 62 (9.3%) admitted to sending sexts often, whilst about 316 (47.1%)
indicated they do so rarely.
Findings from the study indicated that females 258 (66.7%) receive sexts more than males,
whereas 133(52.2%) males send sexts more than females. 152 (54.5) females have also been
asked to sext. Also, among those who have ever sent sexually suggestive messages, students
between ages 20-24 years recorded the highest rates: 178 (69.8%). Table 4.4 shows a
summary of sexting proportions among age groups.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
37
Table 4. 3 Proportion of students who have ever engaged in sexting related activities by
sex
Variable Female (%) Males (%) Total (%) P- value
Who sext more
Male 204 (52.7) 134 (47.3) 338 (50.5) 0.05
Females 103 (26.6) 100 (49.3) 203 (30.3)
No idea 80 (20.7) 49 (38) 127 (19.2)
Have you been asked to sext
Yes 152 (54.5) 127 (44.9) 279 (41.6) 0.45
No 228 (60.3) 150 (57.9) 378 (56.4)
No idea 7 (53.9) 6 (2.1) 13 (2.0)
387(57.8) 283(42.2)
How often do you sext
Rarely 178 (46) 138 (48.8) 316 (47.1) 0.130
Often 30 (8.0) 32 (11.2) 62 (9.3)
Never 179 (46.3) 113 (40.0) 292 (43.6)
Ever received any sexually suggestive
picture
Yes 258 (66.7) 205 (72.4) 463 (69.1) 0.110
No 129 (33.7) 78 (27.6) 207 (30.9)
Total 283(42.2) 387(57.8) 670(100)
Ever sent any sexually suggestive picture
Yes 122 (31.5) 133 (52.2) 255 (38.0) 0.000
No 265 (68.5) 150(36.1) 415 (62.0)
Total 387(57.8) 283(42.2) 670(100)
Access to 24hour internet
Yes 292 (75.5) 212 (74.9) 504 (75.2) 0.873
No 95 (24.5) 71 (25.1) 166 (24.8)
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
38
Table 4. 4 Cross tabulation showing the proportion of students who have sent or
received sext messages by age groups
Age
group
Ever received sext message Ever sent sext message
Yes No Total Yes No Total
17-19 113(24.4) 41(19.8) 154(23.0) 68(26.7) 86(20.7) 154(22.9)
20-24 337(72.8) 161(77.8) 498(74.3) 178(69.8) 320(77.1) 498(74.3)
25-30 13(2.8) 5(2.4) 18(2.7) 9(3.5) 9(2.1) 18(2.7)
4.3.1 Two-way sexters
A cross-tabulation of ever sent and ever received sext messages was performed to find out
students who engage in two-way sexting. As shown in Table 4.5, more than half (51.2%) of
the students who have ever sexted engaged in two-way sexting (sending and receiving
sexually suggestive messages and images).
Table 4. 5 Cross-tabulation showing the proportion of students who have ever sent and
ever received sext messages
Ever received sext message
Ever sent sext message Yes NO Total
Sent 237(51.2) 18(8.7) 255(38.1)
Not sent 226(48.8) 189(91.3) 415(91.9)
Total 463(100) 207(100) 670(100)
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
39
4.4 Motivations and attitudes for Sexting
Table 4.6 describes students’ motivations for sexting. Whilst 398 (59.4%) of the students
indicated that they send sexts messages as a sexy gift to their boyfriends/girlfriends, about
56% of the students indicated that they sext to get compliments. However, females were
more likely to report sexting for complements compared with their male counterparts (57.8%
vs. 48.1%, p = 0.001). Similarly, about two-thirds (63.7%) reported that they sext to get
noticed, with females more likely than males to report sexting to be noticed (67.4% vs.
58.7% respectively, p = 0.02).
Table 4.7 describes the attitudes towards sexting behaviours. On the whole, 513 (76.3%) of
the students disagreed that it is ok to post nude pictures of themselves, and 22 (3.3%) enjoy
messages with sexual reference. Other attitudes towards sexting are described in Table 4.7
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
40
Table 4. 6 Motivations for sexting by sex
Variables Female
(%)
Males (%) Total (%) P- value
Avoid been tagged shy
13 (3.4) 9 (3.2) 22 (3.3) 0.90
Exciting
164 (42.4) 155 (54.8) 319 (47.6) 0.02
Feel alive
109 (28.2) 93 (32.9) 202 (30.2) 0.19
Feel sexy
235 (60.7) 167 (59.0) 402 (60.0) 0.66
Feel special
184 (47.6) 133 (47.0) 317 (47.3) 0.89
Get compliments
240 (57.8) 136 (48.1) 376 (56.1) 0.00
Get noticed
261 (67.4) 166 (58.7) 427 (63.7) 0.02
Receive gifts
161 (41.6) 120 (42.4) 281 (41.9) 0.84
Sexy gifts for boy/girlfriend
232 (50.0) 166 (58.7) 398 (59.4) 0.74
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
41
Table 4. 7 Attitudes towards sexting
Variable Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Agree
Posting of nude pictures is
ok
Male 199(70.3) 55(19.4) 16(5.6) 5(1.8) 8(2.8)
Female 314(81.4) 55(514.2) 15(3.9) 0(0.0) 3(0.8)
Sexting is fun
Male 103(36.4) 54(19.1) 79(27.9) 33(11.7 14(5.0)
Female 197(50.9) 56(14.5) 102(26.4) 25(6.4) 7(1.8)
Fun to get nude pictures
from an internet friend
Male 131(46.2) 59(20.9) 59(20.9) 27(9.5) 7(2.5)
Female 286(73.9) 65(16.8) 29(7.5) 2(0.5) 5(1.3)
It is ok to contact an
online friend
Male 83(29.3) 60(21.2) 66(23.3) 65(23.0) 9(3.2)
Female 181(26.8) 93(24.0) 82(21.2) 20(5.2) 11(2.8)
It is ok to post nude
pictures of a friend
without asking
Male 193(68.2) 54(19.2) 26(9.2) 2(0.7) 8(2.8)
Female 311(80.4) 45(11.6) 26(6.7) 2(0.5) 3(0.8)
Enjoy messages with
sexual reference
Male 122(43.1) 81(28.6) 49(17.3) 19(6.9) 12(4.2)
Female 243(62.8) 85(22.0) 42(10.9) 3(0.8) 26(3.8)
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
42
4.5 Risky sexual behaviours
Table 4.8 provides the various modes of risky sexual behaviours identified among the
students encountered during the study. Overall, 160 (23.9%) of the students as against 510
(76.1%) were categorized as indulging in risky sexual behaviour (sex for gifts, sex for cash,
sex for favor, sex when drunk, sex with someone more than 10 years older than you, multiple
sexual partners and last sex without a condom). Regarding condom use during last sexual
intercourse, 123(40.2%) of the students used a condom. Other responses indicated that some
66 (21.6) have ever had sex for Cash. These and other sexual behaviours are presented in
Table 4.8 and Table 4.9 respectively.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
43
Table 4. 8 Risky sexual behaviours by sex of students
Variables Female
(%)
Males (%) Total (%) P- value
Sex for gifts
Yes 23 (20.1) 15 (13.7) 38 (17.0) 0.29
No 91 (79.9) 94 (86.2) 185(82.9)
Sex for cash
Yes 23 (24.1) 24 (18.2) 66 (21.6) 0.21
No 132 (75.9) 108 (81.8) 240 (78.4)
Sex for favors
Yes 37 (21.3) 25 (18.9) 62 (20.3) 0.62
No 137 (78.7) 107 (81.1) 244 (79.7)
Sex when drunk
Yes 46 (26.4) 40 (30.3) 86 (28.1) 0.46
No 128 (73.6) 92 (69.7) 220 (78.9)
Sex with someone 10years older or
more than you
Yes 39 (22.4) 26 (19.7) 65 (21.2) 0.57
No 135 (77.6) 106 (80.3) 241 (78.8)
Students with risky sexual behaviours
Yes 80 (20.7) 80 (28.27) 160 (23.9) 0.023
No 307 (79.3) 22 (16.7) 510(76.12)
Condom use on last sex
Yes 74 (42.5) 49 (37.1) 123 (40.2) 0.34
No 100 (57.5) 83 (62.9) 183 (59.8)
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
44
Table 4. 9 Other Sexual Behaviours
Sexual behaviours Female (%) Male (%) Total (%) Chi-square P-value
Been in a relationship before
No 99 (25.6) 90 (31.8) 189 (28.2) 3.1235 0.077
Yes 288 (74.4) 193 (68.2) 481 (71.8)
Currently having a sexual partner
No 295 (76.2) 216 (76.3) 511 (76.3) 0.0009 0.977
Yes 92 (23.8) 67 (23.7) 159 (23.7)
Ever had sexual intercourse
No 273(70.5) 174 (61.5) 447(66.7) 6.0405 0.014
Yes 114(29.5) 109(38.5) 223(33.3)
Circumstance of first sex
Coaxed 34(298) 28 (25.7) 62(27.8) 0.5281 0.768
Forced 19 (16.7) 18(16.5) 37(16.6)
Own will 61 (53.5) 63(57.8) 124(55.6)
Any pressure for sex
A great deal 31(8.0) 31 (11.0) 62 (9.3) 5.3127 0.07
A little 124 (32.0) 107 (37.8) 231 (34.5)
None 232 (60.0) 145 (56.3) 377 (56.3)
4.6 Relationship between Sexting and Risky sexual behaviour
Table 4.10 illustrates the results of a Chi-square test conducted to ascertain the relationship
between the outcome variable Risky sexual behaviours (sex for cash, sex for favor, sex with
someone 10 years older or more, sex when drunk, no condom use at last sex, and multiple
sexual partners in last 12 months) and other independent variables.
The test was essentially to establish the level of association between the respondent’s risky
sexual behaviour and the other independent variables.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
45
The Chi-square test showed that age was significantly associated with risky sexual behaviour
with the highest among age group (20-24) at 130 (81.2%). The overall association with age
showed a statistical significance at p<0.05.
Other variables such as sex, religion, ever sent a sexually suggestive message/image, ever
received a sexually suggestive message/ image and whether you initiated sexting before
sexual debut were cross tabulated. These associations also showed statistical significance. (P
< 0.05).
However, there was no associations between Ethnicity, program of study and family structure
(p>0.05). Other associations are shown in Table 4.10.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
46
Table 4. 10 Associations between risky sexual behaviour and other variables
Risky Sexual Behaviour
Variable
N=670
Yes (%) No (%) Chi-square
Value(df)
P –Value
Age 13.3(2) 0.001
17-19 22(13.8) 132(25.9)
20-24 130(81.2) 368(72.2)
25-30 8(5.0) 10(1.2)
Sex 5.1(1) 0.023
Male 80(50.0) 203(39.8)
Female 80(50.0) 307(60.2)
Religion 7.5(2) 0.023
Christian 141(88.1) 473(92.8)
Moslem 14(8.8) 34(6.7)
Traditionalist 5(3.1) 3(0.6)
Ethnicity 6.4(4) 0.17
Akan 90(56.3) 253(49.6)
Ga 27(16.9) 80(15.7)
Ewe 24(15.0) 105(20.6)
Northerner 18(11.3) 55(10.8)
Other 1(0.6) 17(3.3)
Family structure 3.9(4) 0.426
Both parents 99(61.9) 345(67.7)
Mother 30(18.7) 85(16.7)
Father 9(5.6) 33(6.4)
Alone 6(3.8) 10(2.0)
Other Relatives 16(10) 37(7.2)
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
47
Continuation of Table 4.10
Risky Sexual Behaviour
Variable
N=670
Yes (%) No (%) Chi-square
Value(df)
P –Value
Ever sent a
sexually
suggestive
picture/image
21.9(4) 0.000
Yes 86(53.7) 169(33.1)
No 74(46.2) 341(66.9)
Ever received a
sexually
suggestive
message/image
14.5(1) 0.000
Yes 130(81.2) 333(65.3)
No 30(18.8) 177(34.7)
Did you initiate
sexting the first
time you had
sex?
414.9(1) 0.000
Yes 60(37.5) 19(3.7)
No 99(61.8) 45(8.8)
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
48
4.7 Association between risky sexual behaviour and other variables
In determining the association between the participant’s background characteristics and other
independent variables, both simple and multiple logistic regression analyses were done.
Table 4.11 indicates that students between ages 25-29 years were 4.8 times more likely to
engage in risky sexual behaviours compared to students aged 17-19 years (95% CI=1.7-
13.49; P < 0.05). However when all other variables are held constant, the relationship
becomes insignificant.
Participants who have never sent a sexually suggestive message, were 0.4 times less likely to
be involved in risky sexual behaviours than those who have ever sent sexually suggestive
messages (95% CI=0.29-0.61;P<0.05). However, when all other variables are adjusted for,
the relationship becomes insignificant with risky sexual behaviours (p > 0.05)
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
49
Table 4. 11 Results of Logistic Regression analyses
Variable
Risky sexual Behaviours
UNADJUSTED ADJUSTED
OR(95%)C1 P-VALUE OR(95%CI) P-VALUE
Age 0.001 0.16
17-19 Reference
20-24 2.1(1.29-3.47) 2.06(0.96-4.41)
25-29 4.8(1.7-13.49) 1.38(0.33-5.66)
Sex 0.54
Male Reference
Female 0.66(0.42-0.94) 0.023 0.82(0.45-1.51)
Religion 0.0415 0.36
Christian Reference
Muslim 1.3(0.7-2.4) 2.68(0.64-11.12
Traditionalist 5.6(1.31-23.6) 1.58(0.17-15.5)
Ever sent a
sexually suggestive
image/text
0.000 0.90
Yes Reference
No 0.42(0.29-0.61) 1.03(0.54-1.96)
Ever received a
sexually suggestive
message
0.69
Yes
No 0.43(0.28-0.67) 0.0001 1.2(0.52-1.96)
Initiated sexting
before your first
sexual encounter
0.001
Yes Reference
No 0.69(0.37-1.30) 0.6(0.31-1.16)
*Adjusted for age, sex, religion, ever sent sexually suggestive message, ever received sexually message and
initiated sexting before first sexual encounter.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
50
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction
This study sought to investigate the influence of sexting on risky sexual behaviours among
students of the University of Ghana. Specifically, the study examined the prevalence of
sexting among students of the University of Ghana, the factors that motivates students’ to
sext and attitudes towards sexting behaviours, the proportion of students who engage in risky
sexual behaviours and the relationships between sexting and risky sexual behaviours.
5.2 Discussion of findings
The study population comprised 42.2% males and 57.8% females. The students were
between the ages of 17-29 years. 154 (22.9) % of the students were adolescents between the
ages of 17-19 years and 498 (74.5%) were young adults between the ages of 20 -24 years.
This age structure mimics the age structure of studies done elsewhere in the West Coast,
among young people and adolescents in tertiary institutions (Delevi & Weisskirch, 2013).
5.3 Prevalence of Sexting
In literature, sexting is said to increase with age (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2014; Mcgraw &
Mcgraw, 2013). One of the objectives of the study was to determine the prevalence of
sexting among students in the University of Ghana. The results showed that 255 (38.0%) of
the students reported to have ever sent a sexually suggestive message or image, and majority,
463 (69.1%) indicating that they have ever received a sexually suggestive message.
Studies on prevalence of sexting by sex are varied. This study revealed that females were
avid primary sexters than males, similar to findings by (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2014;Martinez-
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
51
prather & Vandiver, 2014; Benotsch, Snipes, Martin, & Bull, 2013; Barker, Rizzo, Hancock,
Norton, & Brown, 2014). This however contradicts findings by (Henderson & Morgan, 2011;
Gordon-Messer, Bauermeister, Grodzinski, & Zimmerman, 2013;West et al., 2014). These
studies reported that males sext more than females. However, other studies by (Temple et
al., 2014; Lenhart, 2009) showed no significant differences between males and females.
In this study, it was confirmed that sexting increases with age, i.e. Out of the 255 students
who indicated to have sexted, 178 (69.8) belonged to age group 20-24. This is similar to
studies done by Gordon-Messer et al., 2013; Henderson & Morgan, 2011).
Among those who have ever sent sexually suggestive messages/images, majority sent it to
their boy/girlfriends, colleagues or just mere friends. Less than 2% sent it to elderly persons.
Similarly, 1.5% elderly persons sent sexually suggestive messages/images to the students.
This is in line with findings of an online survey conducted in two public universities in the
West Coast, USA (Delevi & Weisskirch, 2013). Their findings indicated that young people
and adolescents usually sent sext messages and images to friends, colleagues and persons
they are in consensual relationships with (Delevi & Weisskirch, 2013).
A retrospective study on sexting among adolescents, analyzing motivating factors, potential
factors and the role of a capable guardian, in the United states by Martinez-prather &
Vandiver, (2014), revealed that females are more pressured to sext than their male
counterparts. This assertion was confirmed in the current study where 152 (54.5%) females,
indicated that they have been asked to sext.
The findings on prevalence of sexting were however inversely related to analysis of various
literature by Lounsbury et al., (2011).They debunked the idea that sexting is a problem of
epidemic proportions among teenagers, as there is little consistency in the estimated
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
52
prevalence of sexting among adolescents. They continued that the high estimates that have
received the most media attention come from studies with a number of problems including
unrepresentative samples, vaguely defined terms, and great potential for public
misperception. They asserted that the media reportage exaggerates the true extent of the
problem, and that sexting occur in a small minority of adolescents.
5.4 Reasons and motivations for Sexting
Factors that motivate adolescents and young people to sext are numerous. A lot of factors
have been linked to sexting behaviours. Temple et al, (2014) gave the opinion that; sexting
was associated with impulsive behaviours, depression and substance use. Other researchers
have reported that, young people sext as a prelude to sexual activity between partners i.e. in a
consensual relationship and to view the other partners’ opinion on a possible impending
sexual activity (Lenhart, 2009; West et al., 2014). They continued that sexting was a form of
flirtatious behaviour, or gaining romantic attention from ones’ partner, whether endorsement
will be given to initiate, improve or sustain sexual activity, and that in relationships where
partners live far away from each other, sexting is a means of sustaining the relationship and
communication gap.
The researcher considered attitudes and reasons for sexting as the motivational factors that
will make someone to send a sexually suggestive text/image. Majority of the students 427
(63.7%) gave their reasons as sending sexts to get noticed, 402(60%) and 56.1% reported that
it made them feel sexy and to fish for compliments whilst 398(59.4%) of the students sent
sexually suggestive messages or images to their boy/girlfriend as a sexy gift. Chi-square
analyses revealed that, males and females had comparable views regarding motivations, and
reasons why nude or semi-nude pictures/images are sent. These findings is attuned to an
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
53
online survey conducted among Hispanics in large North West University by Henderson &
Morgan, (2011), and studies by National Campaign to prevent teen and unplanned pregnancy
(2008).
Motivations for sexting indicate that whilst most young people especially females are
pressured to sext, a lot more of sext; whether sending or receiving takes place in a consensual
relationship, or as a youthful experimental phase of life, to gain attention from peers (Collins
et al., 2011).
This is similar to findings by of the study which indicated that more females have been asked
to sext more than females this could be so because most males receive sexually suggestive
messages, which was not primarily intended for them.
5.5 Proportion of students engaging in risky sexual behaviours
Another objective of this study was to determine the proportion of students that were
involved in risky sexual behaviours. A lot of behaviours are deemed to be risky, but for the
purposes of this study, the following questions were asked to ascertain ones risky sexual
behaviour status: whether Yes or No. They included Sex for Cash, Sex for gifts, Sex for
favour,sex with someone 10years older or more, multiple sexual partners in the past 12
months and sexual intercourse without a condom.
Results from the study indicated that a very low proportion of students engage in risky sexual
behaviours with all the behaviours recording below 30%, except Condom use at last sex
which recorded 59.8%.Indicating that, among all the students who have had sex, the most
risky behaviour exhibited is non condom use. This phenomenon is similar with studies done
in Slovakia by Ondrej Kalina, who reported a 27% condom use at last sex (Kalina, 2012).
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
54
Putting all the risky sexual behaviours together to attain one variable, where scoring a ‘Yes”
in any one of the variables put you in the risky Sexual behaviour category, it was observed
that 23.88% of the students engaged in risky sexual behaviours.
In Cross tabulating risky sexual behaviours with guardians, it was observed that, though the
association was insignificant at a p-value >0.05, it was observed that persons who lived with
both parents had a lower probability of engaging in risky sexual behaviours than persons who
lived with either of their parents, alone or other relations.
From the study, it was also observed that compared to males, females were less likely to be
involved in risky sexual behaviours. This relationship was significant, but after adjusting for
other variables, the relationship became insignificant. This results is synonymous with a
study done in Ibadan, Nigeria among secondary school adolescents.(Oluwatoyin, Famutimi
Esther, 2014).
5.6 Associations between sexting and risky sexual behaviours
The principal investigators quest to find an association between sexting and risky sexual
behaviours, a Chi-square analysis was done for all the demographic characteristics and
sexting behaviours against the generated dependent variable, risky sexual behaviour. All the
variables that were statistically significant at bivariate level, p < 0.05 were entered into a
simple regression model to determine the strength of the associations. After wards, all other
confounding variables were controlled for and the adjusted odds ratios were calculated.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
55
The findings indicated that age of students, sex, religion, having ever sent a sexually
suggestive message; having ever received a sexually suggestive message and initiating
sexting prior to sexual debut were statistically significant, with a p-value < 0.05.
These variables were put in a multiple regression model and after adjusting for other
confounding variables; the results showed that persons aged 20-24 years were more likely to
engage in risky sexual behaviours, than persons aged 17-19 years.
Persons who have never sent sexually suggestive messages were 0.42 times less likely to be
engaged in risky sexual behaviours. After adjusting for all other variables, the odds were
almost the same. This finding confirms results from other studies by Temple and others in
2014, who reported that persons who sent Sexts had 2 times the odds of indulging in risky
sexual behaviours, but after adjusting for other variables, it was no longer significantly
associated with risky sexual behaviour (Temple et al., 2014).
Another online survey conducted in Rhode Island,USA, among at risk adolescents revealed
that Sexting was significantly associated with risky sexual behaviour (Barker et al., 2014).
Similar findings by Henderson & Morgan, (2011),as well as another conducted Benotsch and
colleagues in 2013, revealed that sexting is robustly associated with risky sexual behaviour
(Benotsch et al., 2013).
Contrary to these findings, Gordon-Messer et al., (2013), in an online survey in Michigan,
USA , reported that Sexting was the new norm in sexual relationships, and it did not occur
with risky sexual behaviours.
However, all the other variables were statistically insignificant with risky sexual behaviour.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
56
5.7 Limitations of the study
Data from this study came from students self-reports, which maybe be influenced by social
desirability. Questions that were highly personal or potentially embarrassing in some way
may have caused students to respond different than reality.
Secondly, because the sample size was chosen from students in the University of Ghana,
looking at the cultural and social differences and the sample size used, the results cannot be
generalized to all students in Ghana. Also, the quantitative method that was employed by the
researcher did not allow the researcher to collect in depth information from the students.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
57
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Introduction
This study was conducted to determine the influence of sexting on risky sexual behaviours
among students of the University of Ghana. This was achieved through determining the
prevalence of Sexting among students, the attitudes and reasons that motivate sexting
behaviours, the proportion of students who engage in risky sexual behaviours and the
relationships between sexting and risky sexual behaviours.
Regarding the prevalence of sexting, the findings showed that persons who sent or received
sexually suggestive messages and images were high, compared to those who did not. Persons
between the ages of 20-25 years, have the higher odds of sexting, compared to persons
between the ages of 17-19years. More so it was found out that, females engaged in sexting
more than males, and majority of those who have had sexual intercourse initiated sexting
before their sexual debut.
Majority of the students gave their reasons for sexting as sending sexts to get noticed, feel
sexy and to fish for compliments and as a sexy gift to their boy/girlfriends.
Results from the study also indicated that a very low proportion of students engage in risky
sexual behaviours. Among the risky sexual behaviours, condom use at last sex recorded the
highest, indicating that, among all the students who have had sex, the most risky behaviour
exhibited is non condom use. Males were also reported to have higher odds of engaging in
risky sexual behaviours than their female counterparts.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
58
Furthermore, the study also found that, students who sexted have higher odds of involving in
risky sexual behaviours than persons who did not.
6.2 Recommendations
On the basis of evidence derived from this study, and conclusions drawn, the following
recommendations were made.
1. To the Ministry of Education, young people in Junior and Senior High Schools should
be educated during Information, communication And Technology lessons on risks
involved with internet use and Sexting behaviours
2. Also, most students engage in sexting and risky sexual behaviours because it is the
new norm, and their peers are engaging in it. Therefore peer groups that foster sexual
and reproductive health wellbeing should be established on university Campuses to
keep students educated on reproductive and sexual issues.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
59
REFERENCES
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. http://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
AP-MTV. (2009). Associated Press and MTV. A Thin Line:AP-MTV Digital Study:
Executive Summary.Available at: http://www.athinline.org/MTVAP_.
Barker, D., Rizzo, C., Hancock, E., Norton, A., & Brown, L. K. (2014). Sexting and Sexual
Behavior in At-Risk Adolescents. Journal of Paediatrics.
http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-1157
Bauermeister, Jose Arturo,Gordon-Messer Deborah,Grodzinski Alison, Z. marc. (2014). NIH
Public Access, 52(3), 301–306.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.05.013.Sexting
Benotsch, E. G., Snipes, D. J., Martin, A. M., & Bull, S. S. (2013). Sexting, Substance Use,
and Sexual Risk Behavior in Young Adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(3),
307–313. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.011
Black, S. R., Schmiege, S., & Bull, S. (2013). Actual versus perceived peer sexual risk
behavior in online youth social networks. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 3(1),
312–319. http://doi.org/10.1007/s13142-013-0227-y
Chandra, A., Martino, S. C., Collins, R. L., Elliott, M. N., Berry, S. H., Kanouse, D. E., &
Miu, A. (2015). Does Watching Sex on Television Predict Teen Pregnancy ? Findings
From a National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 122(5).
http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-3066
Cochran, W. G. (1977). Sampling techniques. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Collins, R. L., Martino, S. C., & Shaw, R. (2011). Influence of New Media on Adolescent
Sexual Health : Evidence and Opportunities, (April).
Cooper, K., Quayle, E., Jonsson, L., & Svedin, C. G. (2014). Adolescents and self- ‐ taken
sexual images : A review of the literature, 1–37.
Cubbin, C., Santelli, J., Brindis, C. D., & Braveman, P. (2005). Neighborhood context and
sexual behaviors among adolescents: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study
of Adolescent Health. Perspectives on Sexual …, 37, 125–134.
http://doi.org/10.1363/3712505
Darroch, E Jacjueline; Frost J.Jennifer; Singh, S. (2001). Can More Progress Be Made?
Teenage Sexual and Reproductive Behavior in Developed Countries. The Alan
Guttmacher Institute, (3), http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/summaries/euroteens.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
60
Delevi, R., & Weisskirch, R. S. (2013). Computers in Human Behavior Personality factors as
predictors of sexting. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(6), 2589–2594.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.06.003
Eaton, D. K., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Shanklin, S., Ross, J., Hawkins, J., … Wechsler, H.
(2010). Youth risk behavior surveillance - United States, 2009. Department Of Health
And Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Preventio, 59(5), 1–142.
Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20520591
Farmer, M. A., Trapnell, Æ. P. D., & Meston, Æ. C. M. (2008). The Relation Between
Sexual Behavior and Religiosity Subtypes : A Test of the Secularization Hypothesis.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9407-0
Gadzekpo, A. (2014). Publishing offensive materials is punishable by law. Retrieved March
14, 2015, from http://www.myjoyonline.com
Geary, C., Baumgartner, J., & Tucker, H. (2008). Early sexual debut sexual violence and
sexual risk-taking among pregnant adolescents and their peers in Jamaica and
Uganda., (8). Retrieved from http://www.popline.org/node/206926
Ghana Statistical Service. (2013). POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS, CHILDREN
& ADOLESCENTS & YOUNG PEOPLE IN GHANA.
Gordon-Messer, D., Bauermeister, J. A., Grodzinski, A., & Zimmerman, M. (2013). Sexting
Among Young Adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(3), 301–306.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.05.013
Gore, F. M., Bloem, P. J. N., Patton, G. C., Ferguson, J., Joseph, V., Coff, C., … Mathers, C.
D. (2011). Global burden of disease in young people aged 10 – 24 years : a systematic
analysis, 6736(11), 1–10. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60512-6
Henderson, L., & Morgan, E. (2011). Sexting and Sexual Relationships Among Teens and
Young Adults. Hispanic, 31–39. Retrieved from
http://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/mcnair_journal/vol7/iss1/9/
Kaiser, R., Woodruff, B. a., Bilukha, O., Spiegel, P. B., & Salama, P. (2006). Using design
effects from previous cluster surveys to guide sample size calculation in emergency
settings. Disasters, 30(2), 199–211. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.0361-3666.2006.00315.x
Kalina, O. (2012). Sexual risky behaviour among Slovak adolescents and young adults :
social and psychological factors.
Khanna, P., Singh, K., & Khas, H. (2015). (3):175-205. Perceived Factors Affecting Well -
Being among Urban Adolescents J. Indian Asscoc. Child Adolesc.Ment.Health, 11(3),
175–205.
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
61
Krauss, H., Bogdański, P., Szulińska, M., Malewski, M., Buraczyńska-Andrzejewska, B.,
Sosnowski, P., … Mikrut, K. (2012). Sexual initiation of youths in selected European
countries compared with their sexual and contraceptive knowledge. Annals of
Agricultural and Environmental Medicine : AAEM, 19(3), 587–92. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23020062
Lenhart, A. (2009). Teens and Sexting How and why minor teens are sending sexually part of
teen life. Pew Internet and American Life Project.
Lenhart, A., Ling, R., Campbell, S., & Purcell, K. (2010). Teens and Mobile Phones. Pew
Internet and American Life Project, 20, 1–94.
Logan, C., Moore, K. A., Logan, C., & Moore, K. A. (2003). Pathways from Family
Religiosity to Adolescent Sexual Activity and Contraceptive Use.
http://doi.org/10.1363/4010508
Lounsbury, K., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2011). The True Prevalence of “Sexting.”
Crimes Against Children Research Center, (April), April 2011.
Martinez-prather, K., & Vandiver, D. M. (2014). Sexting among Teenagers in the United
States : A Retrospective Analysis of Identifying Motivating Factors , Potential
Targets , and the Role of a Capable Guardian. International Journal of Cyber
Criminology, 8(1), 21–35.
Mcgraw, J. M., & Mcgraw, J. M. (2013). Sexting Unleashed : The Social Phenomenon
According to Youth Sexters by.
National Campaign to prevent teen and unplanned pregnancy. (2008). Sex and Tech.
http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/sextech/PDF/SexTech_Summary.pdf.
Oluwatoyin, Famutimi Esther, M. O. (2014). Risky Sexual Behaviour among Secondary
School Adolescents in Ibadan North Local Government Area , Nigeria . Jounal of
Nursing and Health Science, 3(3), 34–44. Retrieved from
https://www.mendeley.com/research/risky-sexual-behaviour-among-secondary-
school-adolescents-ibadan-north-local-government-area-nigeria-
1/?utm_source=desktop&utm_medium=1.14&utm_campaign=open_catalog&userDo
cumentId={bc6652c1-e359-494c-8b92-11fa58e17ddd%7
Ringrose, J., Gill, R., Livingstone, S., & Harvey, L. (2012). A qualitative study of children ,
young people and “ sexting ” A report prepared for the NSPCC.
Rostosky, S. S., Wilcox, B. L., Laurie, M., Wright, C., & Randall, B. A. (2004). The Impact
of Religiosity on Adolescent Sexual Behavior : A Review of the Evidence. Journal of
Adolescence Research, 19(6), 677–697. http://doi.org/10.1177/0743558403260019
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
62
Slaymaker, E., Walker, N., & Zaba, B. (2004). Unsafe sex. Comparative Quantification of
Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Diseases Attributable to Selected
Major Risk Factors, 1177–1254. http://doi.org/10.1086/431486
Strasburger, V. C., Jordan, A. B., & Donnerstein, E. (2010). Health effects of media on
children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 125, 756–767. http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-
2563
Temple, J. R., Le, V. D., van den Berg, P., Ling, Y., Paul, J. a., & Temple, B. W. (2014).
Brief report: Teen sexting and psychosocial health. Journal of Adolescence, 37(1),
33–36. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.10.008
The Alan Guttmacher Institute. (2004). Research In Brief Adolescents in Ghana : Sexual and
Reproductive Health. Popline.Org, (1), 1–4. Retrieved from
http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/rib/rib1-04.html
UNFPA. (2011). The State of World Population 2011. United Nations Population Fund, 1–
132. http://doi.org/ISBN 978-0-89714-990-7
University of Ghana (2016). University of Ghana Student Statistics. Retrieved on 20th
September, 2016 from
http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/education/legon.html
Van Ouytsel, J., Van Gool, E., Ponnet, K., & Walrave, M. (2014). Brief report: The
association between adolescents’ characteristics and engagement in sexting. Journal
of Adolescence, 37(8), 1387–1391. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.10.004
Walker, S., Sanci, L., & Temple-, M. (2011). Sexting and young people, 30(4).
West, J. H., Lister, C. E., Hall, P., Crookston, B. T., Snow, P., Zvietcovich, M., & West, R.
P. (2014). Sexting among peruvian adolescents. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 811.
http://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-811
Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2014). “Sexting” and Its Relation to Sexual Activity and
Sexual Risk Behavior in a National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 55(6), 757–764. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.07.012
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
63
APPENDIX I: INFORMED CONSENT FORM
Project Title: SEXTING AND RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG UNIVERSITY
OF GHANA STUDENTS
Principal Investigator:
AHIATAKU DOREENDA ENYONAM, CCTH, BOX CT I363, CAPE COAST.
TEL: 0244850264. EMAIL: ddeyaet@gmail.com
General information about the study
This is a research study being is being undertaken by Doreenda Enyonam Ahiataku, a student
of the School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Legon; In order to gain a better
understanding, of sexting and risky sexual behaviours, among students.
Despite the generally high level of perceived sexting in Ghana, there is no evidence to
suggest that these behaviours truly exist.
The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of sexting on risky sexual behaviours:
specifically the prevalence of sexting, factors that motivate sexting behaviours and the
relationship between sexting and risky sexual behaviours
Findings will enable us to identify important social factors that contribute to sexting and
risky sexual behaviours among University students. And will address gaps in our knowledge
of the processes that lead to consequences of sexting among young adults in Ghana.
Procedures
Students from randomly selected halls in the University of Ghana will be included in the
study
If you are eligible and agree to participate, you will be required to complete an interviewer-
administered questionnaire. We will ask you questions about your background, health and
social wellbeing, knowledge about risky sexual behaviours and sexting, motivations for
sexting and consequences of sexting.
The survey interview is expected to last about 30 minutes.
Possible Risks and Discomforts
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
64
The study may involve some risks. We anticipate some discomfort during the interview
process given the sensitive, intimate nature of the topic. We will ask you questions about
your background, health and social wellbeing, knowledge about risky sexual behaviours and
sexting, motivations for sexting and consequences of sexting.
Some of the questions focus directly on your personal life, and you may feel uncomfortable
answering those questions or you may not know the answer to a particular question. You are
free to skip any questions you are not comfortable answering.
Possible Benefits
There is no direct benefit to the participants of this study. However, the information you will
provide will contribute to the overall knowledge about sexting and risky sexual behaviours
that will be generated from this study
This information will help us in identifying the social factors that motivate sexting
behaviours. Overall, the study will not only deepen our understanding of sexting behaviours
but ultimately help improve the general health and wellbeing of students in Africa.
Voluntary Participation and Right to Refuse
Your participation in this study is absolutely voluntary. During the interview, you can choose
not to answer any questions that you do not want to answer. Additionally, you are at liberty
to withdraw from the study or stop the interview at any time. However, we will encourage
you to participate and complete the questions since your opinions are very important in
helping us to examine the motivations of sexting.
Confidentiality
We would like to assure you that whatever information you provide will be handled with
strict confidentiality, will be used purely for research purposes, and will never be used
against you. Data analysis will be done at the aggregate level to ensure anonymity. Your
name or personally identifying information will not be published in any report. Some staff of
the research team may sometimes review the research records, but no unauthorized
individual(s) will be able to access your information.
Compensation
There is no compensation for participating in this study.
Contact for Additional Information
If you have questions later, you may contact:
(Doreenda Enyonam Ahiataku: Tel:0244850264, e-mail ddeyaet@gmail.com
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
65
Your rights as a Participant
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, you can contact the
Administrator of the GHS Ethical Review Committee at the following address:
Hannah Frimpong
GHS-Ethical Review Committee
Research and Development Division
Ghana Health Service
P. O. Box MB 190
Accra
Office: 0302 681 109
Mobile: 024 323 5225 or 050 704 1223
Email: Hannah.Frimpong@ghsmail.org
VOLUNTARY CONSENT
I declare that the above document describing the purpose, procedures as well as risks and
benefits of the research titled “(Sexting and Risky Sexual Behaviour among University of
Ghana students)” has been thoroughly explained to me in English/Twi/Ga language. I have
been given the opportunity to have any questions about the research answered to my
satisfaction. I hereby voluntarily agree to participate as a subject in this study.
______________________________________ _____/_____/_________
Signature or Mark of Participant Date
If participant cannot read the read the form themselves, a witness must sign here.
I, ________________________________________ was present while the purpose,
procedures as well as risks and benefits were read to the participant. All questions were
answered and the participant has voluntarily agreed to participate as a subject in this research
study.
________________________________ _____/_____/_________
Signature of Witness Date
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
66
Interviewer’s statement:
I, __________________________________________, certify that the nature and purpose,
the potential benefits and possible risks associated with participating in the study have been
explained to the above individual in the English/Twi/Ga language. The participant has freely
agreed to participate in the study.
________________________________ _______/_____/__________
Signature ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬of person who obtained consent Date
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
67
APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRES
QUESTIONNAIRE ON SEXTING AND RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA STUDENTS.
SECTION A
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS.
A1.Age (as at last birthday) _________
A2.Sex: 1 Male 2 Female
A3.Religion: 1 Christian 2 Muslim 3 Traditionalist 4 Other_________________
A4.Ethnicity: 1. Akan 2. Ga 3. Ewe 4. Northern Ghana 5. Other
A5.Programme of study …………………..
A6. Level of study 1. 100 2. 200 3. 300 4. 400
A7. Whom do you live with?
1. Both Parents 2. Mother 3. Father only 4. Alone 5. Friend 6. Other relatives
SECTION B
SEXTING BEHAVIOURS
6. Do you use any of the following gadgets with internet connectivity?
INTERNET
B1 GADGET USE YES NO YES NO
B2 Mobile Phone without internet 1 2 _ _
B3 Smart Phone with mobile internet 1 2 1 2
B4 Laptop 1 2 1 2
B5 Tablet 1 2 1 2
B6 Digital camera/webcam 1 2 1 2
B7 Others (please specify) 1 2 1 2
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
68
B8.Do you have a 24 hour access to internet? 1. Yes 2.No
B8a. If yes, How many hours a day?...............................
B8b.Have you ever used the Internet to seek health information? 1.Yes 2. No.
B8c.Have you ever watched a sexually explicit film? 1. Yes 2. No. If NO skip to B9
B8d. With whom do you usually watch sexual explicit films? 1. Alone 2.Same sex friends
3.Opposite sex friend 4.Someone else, specify: _________
B8e. How often did you watch such materials in the last one month? 1. Rarely (once to thrice
a month) 2.Often (four to eight times a month 3. Very often (Eight or more times a month)
…..
B8f. Where do you usually find the sexually explicit material to watch? 1. Internet 2. Rental
3. Friends 4.Found at home. 5. Others, specify:____________________
B9.Have you ever sent any sexually suggestive picture or text to anyone? 1 Yes
2.No
B10. If yes, who did you send the sexually suggestive message to?
1. Boyfriend 2. Colleague 3. Friend 4. Elderly 5.casual friend
B11. Have you ever received any sexually suggestive text messages or pictures? 1. Yes
2. No
B12.If yes who did you receive the sexually suggestive text message or picture from?
1. Boyfriend 2. Course mate 3. Friend 4. Elderly 5. A close friend 6. Casual friend
B13. How often do you sext? 1. Rarely (once to thrice a month) 2.Often (four to eight times a
month 3. Very often (Eight or more times a month)
B14.Have you ever been asked to send a sext? 1. Yes 2.No
B15. Who do you think sexts more? 1. Males 2. Females
B16. How will you feel if you received a video/image/video with sexual reference?
…………………………………..
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
69
REASONS FOR SEXTING.
Why do you think people post or send nude pictures? (TICK ALL THAT APPLY)
B17 To feel sexy 0
B18 To feel interesting and special 1
B19 To receive gifts, remunerations, 2
B20 It is exciting 3
B21 To give boy/girlfriend a sexy gift 4
B22 It’s fun and exciting 5
B23 Because those who don’t do it are made fun of for being
shy
6
B24 To get someone to notice them 7
B25 To feel alive 8
B26 To fish for compliments 9
YES
NO
B27 Do you think sexting is an offense punishable by law? 1 2
B28 Do you know of any punishment if caught sexting? 1 2
B29 Is phone sex considered sexting? 1 2
From the following statements, please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree. Circle
the number (code) corresponding to your answer in the spaces provided for each question.
Question
1=
Strongl
y
disagree
2=
Disagre
e
3=
Neutr
al
4=
Agree
5=
Strong
ly
agree
B30 Posting nude pictures of me ok.
1
2
3
4
5
B31 Sexting is interesting and fun.
1
2
3
4
5
B32 It is fun to receive nude pictures from a person
I met on the Internet.
1
2
3
4
5
B34 It is ok to post my telephone number to
someone I met on the Internet
1
2
3
4
5
B35 Posting nude pictures of my friends without
asking them is quite ok
1
2
3
4
5
B36 I like to receive messages containing sexual
references
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
70
CONSEQUENCES OF SEXTING
B37 Likely getting in trouble with parents, if they
find out
1 2 3 4 5
B38 Getting in trouble with the law 1 2 3 4 5
B39 Sexting can lead to becoming addicted with
virtual/imaginary sex
1 2 3 4 5
B40 Being targeted by criminals or blackmailers 1 2 3 4 5
B41 Having problems with a (future) employer 1 2 3 4 5
B42 Meeting people who turn out to be different
from the one seen online.
1 2 3 4 5
SECTION C: SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AND CONTRACEPTIVE USE
NO
.
QUESTION
CODING CATEGORY
SKIP
TO
C1 Have you ever been in a relationship with a male
or female (boyfriend/girlfriend)?
Yes
1
No
2
C2 Do you currently have a sexual partner
(boyfriend/girlfriend)?
Yes
1
No
2
C3 How many sexual partners (boyfriend/girlfriend)
have you had in your lifetime?
C4 Within the last 12 months, how many sexual
partners have you had?
C5 Have you ever had sexual intercourse? Yes
1
No
2
C10
C6 If Yes, what was your age when you first had
sexual intercourse?
(Age in complete years)
C7 How will you describe your first sexual relation Own will
1
Coaxed
2
Forced
3
C8 Within the past 3 months, how many times have
you engaged in sexual intercourse?
C9 Within the last 12 months, how many casual sex
partners have you had?
C1
0
Do you feel any pressure to have sexual
intercourse? IF YES, a great deal or a little?
None
1
A little
2
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
71
A great deal
3
C1
1
From whom do you feel the pressure? Circle all
that apply
Friends(involved in sexting)
1
Relatives
2
Work colleagues
3 Partner/special friend
4
Other ________________
5
C1
2 Have you ever had sexual intercourse in exchange
for cash
Yes
1
No
2
C1
3 Have you ever had sexual intercourse in exchange
for gift?
Yes
1
No
2
C1
4 Have you ever had sexual intercourse in exchange
for favours ?
Yes
1
No
2
C1
5
Have you ever had sex when drunk? Yes 1
No 0
C1
6
Have you ever had sex with someone 10 or more
years older than you?
Don’t know 2
Yes 1
No 0
C1
7
Did you initiate sexting before your first sexual
encounter?
Yes
1
No 0
Contraceptive Use
C1
8
The first time you had sexual intercourse, did you
use a condom?
Yes
1
No
2
C1
9
Who suggested condom the first time you had
sexual intercourse?
Myself 1
My partner 2
Joint decision 3
C2 Why did you use a condom? To prevent pregnancy…........1
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
72
0 To prevent STIs ………..…. 2
To prevent HIV………... …..3
To prevent all of the above…4
No particular reason….......... 5
Other_______________ 6
C2
1
Did you use a condom the last time you had
sexual intercourse?
Yes
1
No
2
C2
2
If No, did you use any of the following
contraceptive methods?
Diaphragm
01
Female Condom
03
Emergency CP
04
Injectables
05
Foam/Jelly
06
Implants
07
IUDs
08
Pill
09
Withdrawal
10
Periodic abstinence
11
LAM
12
Sterilization
13
Other __________)
14
C2
3
Who suggested the use of contraceptives during
sex?
Myself
1
My partner
2
Joint decision
3
C2
4
When you had sexual intercourse during the past
12 months, how much of the time, if any, did you
and your partner use a condom?
Never
1
Occasionally
2
Sometimes
3
Most of the time
4
Always
5
C2
5
Have you heard about family planning? Yes
1
No 2
C29
C2
6
If yes, where did you hear about it
Specify____________________________
_____
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
73
C2
7
Who in your opinion should do family planning?
Married couples only
1
All sexually active persons
2
Don’t know
3
C2
8
For those who have NEVER HAD SEX, skip to C35; otherwise continue
Pregnancy
C2
9
Have you ever been pregnant OR made someone
pregnant?
Yes 1
No 2
C3
0
If yes, how many times?
C3
1
How old were you when you first became
pregnant or made someone pregnant?
(Age in complete years)
[ ] [ ]
C3
2
What happened to the pregnancy/pregnancies?
(Circle all that apply)
1 Resulted in live birth
2 Miscarried
3 Aborted
4Currently pregnant
C3
3
FEMALES: At the time you first became
pregnant; did you want to become pregnant then?
MALES: At the time you made someone
pregnant, did you intend to make her pregnant?
Yes
1
Not at all
2
Later
3
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
74
APPENDIX III: ETHICAL CLEARANCE LETTER
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh