University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF GHANA TITLE: EMPLOYEE CULTURAL ORIENTATION AND WORKPLACE DEVIANT BEHAVIOURS IN MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES IN GHANA THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF PHD IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT DEGREE BAWULENBEUG RICHARD ZOOGAH (ID. NO. 10598441) JULY 2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, BAWULENBEUG RICHARD ZOOGAH, hereby declare that, this research “Employee cultural orientation and workplace deviant behaviours in multinational companies in Ghana”, is the result of my own research and it has neither been presented in part nor in whole for another degree, except for references to other people’s work, which have been duly acknowledged. 16TH SEPTEMBER, 2021 ___________________________________ __________________ BAWULENBEUG RICHARD ZOOGAH DATE (STUDENT) 21ST SEPTEMBER, 2021 ___________________________________ ___________________ PROFESSOR JAMES BABA ABUGRE DATE 20TH SEPTEMBER, 2021 _________________________________ ______________________ DR. MOHAMMED AMINU SANDA DATE 20TH SEPTEMBER, 2021 _______________________________ _______________________ PROFESSOR STEVE TONAH DATE i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The role of societal cultural practices in workplace deviant behaviours, with the added dynamic effect of perceived ethical leadership, perceived organisational support, and the three-component of employee commitment as relational constructs were explored. Mixed methods approach was employed in this study. Data was gathered from a representative sample of 433 employees of multinational companies (MNCs) for the quantitative study, and 10 qualitative interviews were conducted. Both convenience and simple random sampling techniques were employed. Individualistic, collectivistic, and power distance did not significantly relate with interpersonal deviance of employees but uncertainty avoidance orientation significantly related positively with interpersonal deviance. Also, individualistic and power distance orientations significantly related negatively with organisational deviance whilst uncertainty avoidance showed significant positive relationship with organisational deviance. Collectivistic orientation did not show significant relationship with organisational deviance. Some hypotheses for moderating effects received support whilst others failed to receive support from the empirical data. The findings from the qualitative approach indicated that employees’ perception and interpretation of organisational interventions in dealing with workplace deviance are cardinal to achieving success. Finally, employees of MNCs held differing views about the meaning of workplace deviant behaviours. Implications are particularly relevant for diverse organisations which encourage employees with diverse cultural backgrounds, in addressing workplace deviance, and for multinational organisations which promote global organisational culture and standardized HR and organisational practices while underestimating the impact of local cultures in interventions to address workplace deviant behaviours. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated first to my beloved parent Kpelingateba Zoogah and Suakamane Yimposate Zoogah and all my siblings for their incredible support, encouragement, inspiration, and love towards me during this journey; second, to Mr. and Mrs. Wahab Yeboah and family; and finally, to Emma Essien, Ewurama Fordjour, and Vida Dong. I am deeply indebted to their continued endurance, faith and resources committed into this journey. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am most grateful to God for the gift of life, good health, wisdom, endurance and resilience to accomplish this great feat. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Professor James Baba Abugre, (Principal supervisor), Dr. Mohammed Aminu Sanda (Associate supervisor) and Professor Steve Tonah (Associate supervisor) for their insightful comments on the thesis and mentoring throughout the period. I wish to thank faculty members for their support during various stages of the development of this research for their mentorship and support. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to Professor Baniyelme David Zoogah for his immense support and contribution. I cannot forget the great support and insight of Professor Kwesi Dartey-Baah, Professor Amponsah Tawiah, and Dr. Aaron Makafui Ametorwo for their great contribution. I am grateful to everyone especially Mrs. Lailatu Moro, Mrs. Mercy Orleans Lindsay, Mr. Darlington Laryea, Mr. Hailemelekot Yikum Mekuria, Cynthia Amanor, and Millicent George, who gave their consent to participate in this research. I am equally grateful to Ms. Gladys Amponsah Dadzie, Samuel Zoogah, Ewurama Fordjour, Emma Essien, Ishmael Wahab Yeboah, Rukiya Wahab Yeboah and especially David Nasere for their support and commitment throughout the data collection, data processing period, transcription of data until the completion of the thesis. I say God bless you and replenish everything you have lost during this period. I am incredibly grateful. I am grateful to all the administrative staff of the Organisation and Human Resource Management (OHRM) for their support throughout this journey. Finally, I am eternally grateful to Frederick Kolgo Zoogah and Joseph Kolsablik Zoogah for playing the role of a mentor, ‘eye’, guide and financier, constant reminders and encouragement on the progress of this thesis without whom this thesis would not have seen the light of day and all other siblings for their support in various ways. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ACRONYMS ACT – Affective Commitment AMOS – Analysis of Moment of Structures ANOVA - Analysis of Variance AVE – Average Variance Extracted CCT – Continuance Commitment CFA – Confirmatory Factor Analysis CFI – Comparative Fit Index COL – Collectivistic Orientation CR – Composite Reliability CVE – Cumulative Variance Explained CWB – Counterproductive Workplace Behaviours EC – Employee Commitment ECO – Employee Cultural Orientation GLOBE – Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness IATA – International Air Transport Association IBM – International Business Management ID/INTDEV – Interpersonal Deviance v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh IHRM – International Human Resource Management IND – Individualistic Orientation IPA – Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis MMRA – Multiple Moderated Regression Analysis MNCs – Multinational Companies MNEs – Multinational Enterprises MRA – Multiple Regression Analysis MSV – Maximum Shared Variance NCT – Normative Commitment OD/ORGDEV – Organisational Deviance PCO – Personal Cultural Orientation PDO – Power Distance Orientation PEL – Perceived Ethical Leadership POS – Perceived Organisational Support POST – Perceived Organisational Support Theory RMSEA – Root Mean Square Error of Approximation SD – Standard Deviation vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SEM – Structural Equation Modeling SEMMR – Simultaneous Entry Multiple Moderated Regression SET – Social Exchange Theory SPSS – Statistical Package for the Social sciences SRMR – Standardized Root Mean Square Residual TLI – Tucker-Lewis Index TNCs – Transnational Corporations UAO – Uncertainty Avoidance Orientation UNCTAD – United Nations Convention on Trade and Development UNECA – United Nations Economic Commission for Africa WDB – Workplace Deviant Behaviour vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table of Contents DECLARATION............................................................................................................................ i ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................... iv LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................ v INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.0 Background to the study ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Culture and ethical leadership ............................................................................................ 7 1.1.2 Culture and employee commitment ................................................................................. 10 1.1.4 Culture and workplace outcomes ..................................................................................... 13 1.1.5 Workplace deviant behaviour (WDB) ............................................................................. 16 1.1.6 Contextualizing the study .................................................................................................. 20 1.2 Statement of the problem ..................................................................................................... 21 1.3 Research justification ........................................................................................................... 32 1.4 Research purpose .................................................................................................................. 34 1.5.0 Objectives of the study....................................................................................................... 35 1.5.1 Research questions ............................................................................................................. 35 1.6.0 Relevance of the study ....................................................................................................... 36 1.7.1 Delimitation of the study ................................................................................................... 39 1.8.0 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................... 200 1.8.1 Organisation of the study .................................................................................................. 40 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 41 REVIEW OF THEORETICAL LITERATURE ..................................................................... 41 2.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 41 2.1 Theoretical framework ......................................................................................................... 41 2.2.0 Social exchange theory (SET) ........................................................................................... 41 2.3.0 Perceived organisational support theory (POST) ........................................................... 49 2.4.0 Workplace deviant behaviour (WDBs) ............................................................................ 53 2.4.1 Overview of the historical development of workplace deviant behaviour.................... 57 2.4.2 Classification of WDBs ...................................................................................................... 60 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.3 Antecedents of WDBs ........................................................................................................ 62 2.5.0 Societal cultural orientation and WDBs .......................................................................... 68 2.5.2 Hofstede’s cultural framework ......................................................................................... 81 2.6.0 Sharma’s personal cultural orientation (PCO) ............................................................... 91 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 95 REVIEW OF RELEVANT EMPIRICAL LITERATURE AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................................................... 95 3.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 95 3.1.0 Individualistic-collectivistic orientations and WDBs ...................................................... 95 3.1.2 Power distance orientation (PDO) and WDBs .............................................................. 105 3.1.3 Uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) and WDBs ................................................. 115 3.2.0 Moderation Analysis ........................................................................................................ 121 3.2.1 Perceived ethical leadership (PEL) moderating the relationship between employee cultural orientations and WDBs .............................................................................................. 122 3.2.3 Employee commitment (EC) moderates the relationship between employee cultural orientation and WDBs .............................................................................................................. 131 3.3 Conceptual framework showing relationships among study variables ......................... 142 CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................... 146 STUDY CONTEXT .................................................................................................................. 146 4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 146 4.1.0 Definition of Multinational Companies ......................................................................... 146 4.1.1 MNCs in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) ................................................................................ 151 4.1.2 MNCs and Staffing .......................................................................................................... 154 4.1.3 MNCs contributions to host countries ........................................................................... 156 4.2.0 Profile of Ghana ............................................................................................................... 158 4.2.1.0 Ghana and Hofstede’s Cultural Index ........................................................................ 161 CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................... 164 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................ 164 5.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 164 5.1 Mixed methods approach ................................................................................................... 164 5.1.2 Rationale for Mixed Methods Approach ....................................................................... 167 5.2.0 Research Design ............................................................................................................... 170 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2.1 Concurrent Triangulation Mixed Methods Research Design ...................................... 170 5.3.0 Quantitative research procedure .................................................................................... 170 5.3.1 Research design ................................................................................................................ 171 5.3.2.0 Population, sample, and sample size determination .................................................. 172 5.3.2.2 Response rate ................................................................................................................. 173 5.3.0 Instruments ....................................................................................................................... 174 5.4.0 Data collection instruments ............................................................................................. 176 5.4.1 Reliability and validity of quantitative data .................................................................. 176 5.5.0 Quantitative data mode of analysis ................................................................................ 181 5.5.1 Multivariate analysis techniques .................................................................................... 181 5.6.0 Moderation Analysis ........................................................................................................ 188 5.6.1. Qualitative research procedure ..................................................................................... 192 5.6.2 Sample and sampling procedure .................................................................................... 193 5.6.3 Sample size for qualitative data ...................................................................................... 194 5.6.4 Qualitative data collection instruments ......................................................................... 195 5.6.5 Qualitative data analysis technique ................................................................................ 195 5.6.6 Ensuring trustworthiness and authenticity ................................................................... 199 5.7 Sources of data .................................................................................................................... 200 CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................................... 201 PRESENTATION OF QUANTITATIVE EMPIRICAL RESULTS .................................. 201 6.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 201 6.1.0 Respondents’ Demographic Profile ................................................................................ 201 6.2.0 Multivariate normality of constructs ............................................................................. 202 6.3.0 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) ............................................................................ 203 6.3.1 Results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) ............................................................. 205 6.3.1.1 Assessment of the measurement model ....................................................................... 205 6.3.1.2 Construct Validity Measures ....................................................................................... 205 7.3.2.0 Common method variance (CMV) .............................................................................. 208 7.4.0 Correlational Analysis ..................................................................................................... 208 6.4.1 Tests of Hypotheses .......................................................................................................... 215 7.5.0 Moderation (Two-way Interaction) Analysis ................................................................ 216 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SEVEN ................................................................................................................... 238 PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE RESULTS .............................................................. 238 7.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 238 7.1.0 Background of Participants ............................................................................................ 238 7.2.0 Results from the interviews ............................................................................................. 244 7.2.1 Meaning and interpretation of WDBs ........................................................................... 245 7.2.2 Prevalence and manifestation of WDBs ......................................................................... 248 7.2.3 Forms of WDBs ................................................................................................................ 249 7.2.4 Causes and consequences of WDBs ................................................................................ 251 7.2.5 Some remedies to address WDBs ................................................................................... 261 CHAPTER EIGHT ................................................................................................................... 266 DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS ..................................................................................... 266 8.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 266 8.1.0 Summary of Quantitative Findings ................................................................................ 266 8.1.1 Exploration of significant interactive plots.................................................................... 272 8.1.2. Summary of Qualitative Findings ................................................................................. 282 8.2.1 Convergence of Quantitative and Qualitative Findings ............................................... 285 8.3.0 Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative results ..................................................... 292 CHAPTER NINE ...................................................................................................................... 296 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................ 296 9.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 296 9.1 Summary of the study ......................................................................................................... 296 9.1.2.1 Relationship between employee’s cultural orientations and WDBs......................... 298 9.1.2.2 The moderating roles of perceived ethical leadership ............................................... 299 9.1.2.1 The moderating roles of perceived organisational support ...................................... 300 9.1.2.2 The moderating roles of employee affective commitment ......................................... 301 9.1.2.3 The moderating roles of employee normative commitment ..................................... 303 9.1.3.4 The moderating roles of employee continuance commitment .................................. 304 9.2.2.0 Exploring how MNCs employees interpret and understand WDBs ........................ 306 9.2.1 Contributions to Research .............................................................................................. 307 9.2.2 Contributions to Theory .................................................................................................. 309 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9.2.3 Contributions to Practice ................................................................................................ 312 9.3.0 Limitations of the study and future research direction ................................................ 314 9.4.0 Conclusion of the study ................................................................................................... 317 REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................ 319 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................ 390 APPENDIX 4 ............................................................................................................................. 392 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................ 412 APPENDIX C ............................................................................................................................ 421 APPENDIX D ............................................................................................................................ 428 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh INTRODUCTION 1.1.0 Background to the study There has been a heightening interest in management research across cultures resulting from the expansion of multinational companies (MNCs). This interest is brought about by rapid globalization (George, Corbishley, Khayesi, Haas, & Tihanyi, 2016; Roos, Gelfund, Nau, & Lun, 2015; Aktas, Gelfund, & Hanges, 2015; Harrington & Gelfand, 2014; Peltokorpi & Froese, 2014). The diversity management literature has noted the potential adverse effects on increasing the profitability of firms if the multicultural workforce is ineffectively managed (Crowley-Henry, 2005; Gelfand, Harrington, & Jackson, 2017). This may result in interpersonal differences and or conflict, employee absenteeism, lateness, withdrawal behaviours, miscommunication as well as other undesirable work outcomes (Shaban, 2016). The knowledge and capabilities of organisations' workforce cannot be disentangled from the cultural context in which they are developed (Ansah, 2015; Ménard, Brunet, Savoie, van Daele, & Flament, 2011). One noticeable challenge facing organisations in recent times has been how to manage a culturally diverse workforce (Groeschl & Doherty, 2000). The diversity of culture within organisations give rise to a varied set of values, ideas, beliefs, and assumptions regarding how reality is perceived including what constitute appropriate and inappropriate behaviours (Ahlawat, 2016). Culture is a multi-faceted concept that defies a single definition. This stems from multiple definitions observed in the literature (Tian, Deng, Zhang, & Salmador, 2018). According to House, Javidan, Hanges, and Dorfman (2002), culture refers to a set of parameters of collectives which are related to "patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting that constitute the distinctive way of life of a group of people" (Kluckhohn, 1951, p. 86). Also, Hofstede, Hofstede and Minkov (2010, p. 6) submit that culture is "the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh members of one group or category of people from others". These distinctive patterned ways of life and collective programming of the mind are passed on to younger generations by means of language and imitations (Adler, 2002; Tian et al., 2018), and this "culture seems to distinguish one group from another based on a certain set of values, beliefs, behaviours, and attitudes; which is shared, interpreted, and transmitted over time within a collective; and that makes the collective unique and distinguishes that collective from other collectives" (Bik, 2010, p. 72). The meaning that can be inferred from the above definitions of culture is that culture is the complete whole view and understanding of a person's or group's existence in terms of learned beliefs, values, principles, habits and practices that shape the behaviours of the person or members in the group in a particular society and distinguish them from other collectivities. Accordingly, individuals from a cultural atmosphere tend to be influenced by that cultural atmosphere in which they find themselves, at both organisational and national levels (Al-Jundi, Shuhaiber, & Al-Emara, 2019; Tian et al., 2018). Cultural value orientations are defined as "an individual's knowledge and outlook on the world and his or her environment. National culture, heritage, upbringing, and socialization all influence an individual's cultural orientation, and in turn, individuals can influence the cultural orientation of others" (Sawalha, 2011, p. 3). These differences in cultural backgrounds of the workforce can result in higher levels of subjectivity in terms of understanding workplace practices, norms, and rules which may result in differences, disagreements, strains, tensions, and even conflicts. These observed differences may consequently affect company reputation, productivity, the development of poor perception of organisational support, perception of workplace bullying, increased perception of unethical leadership, and reduced worker commitment (Nielsen, Hetland, Matthiesen, & Einarsen, 2012). Yoo and Donthu (2005, p. 10) define personal cultural orientation "as an individual's values that can be found across 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh countries or cultures". Values are "broad tendencies to prefer a certain state of affairs over others" (Hofstede, 1980, p. 19). Simard and Blight (2011) considered cultural attachment as one main aspect of cultural orientation, which they define as a philosophy summarizing how people connect to their own culture. Cultural orientation, thus, arises from personal learning via interactions with social environments including family, workplace, community, host country, and the media. Cultural orientation entails a system of societal norms and standards of the value systems that are shared by major groups of the population (Yoo & Donthu, 2005; Hofstede, 2001). Despite culture influencing behaviours of people, there is very limited research that focuses on societal culture in deviant behaviour research at the workplace (Wang et al., 2020). Hofstede and colleagues have identified six cultural dimensions including individualism versus collectivism, power-distance, uncertainty avoidance vs anxiety, masculinity vs femininity (which were first identified by Hofstede (1980), long-term vs short-term orientation (proposed by Hofstede and Bond, 1988; and recalculated by Minkov, 2007) see also Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010); and indulgence vs restraint (the last of the six added by Hofstede, Hofstede and Minkov (2010) and Minkov (2007), which are used to measure cross-cultural differences and their impact on workplace behaviours. For purposes of this study, four of these dimensions including individualistic orientation (IND), collectivistic orientation (COL), power distance orientation (PDO) and uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO), are employed to examine their potential impact on workplace deviance in multinational organisations operating in Ghana. They are chosen for a number of reasons including; first, individualism and collectivism dimension has been the most researched, followed by power distance dimension (Wilczewski, Gut, & Gorbaniuk, 2017; Salemi, Khoshsaligheh, & Hashemi, 2015; Merkin, 2015; Kuo, 2013; Taras, Steel, & Kirkman, 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2011b), and they have been key research themes in cross-cultural research (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002; Triandis, Chen, & Chan, 1998). There have been recent calls to investigate these dimensions in cross-cultural research to determine how employees' beliefs and values about uncertainties shape their behavioural outcomes in job settings (Power et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2020). Second, they have been shown to measure individual-level value and behaviour differences in organisations (Hon, Lu, & Chan, 2015). Despite the overwhelming application of this dimension in cross-cultural research, relatively little or none can be observed in the deviance literature in investigating cross-cultural understanding of the deviant behaviour construct. Third, individualism and collectivism (IND-COL) orientations have broadly been explored and linked to behaviour, cognition, motivation, emotion and personality of individuals and groups, and communication (Triandis 2001; Merkin, 2015; Wilczewski et al., 2017). Thus, these cultural orientations can help explain differential impacts on workplace deviance (Greenfield, 1994; Hofstede, 2001, 2011; Carter-Jenkins & Alfred, 2010). Extant research has shown that African, Asian and Latin American cultures tend to be collectivistic; while cultures of Western Europe, Canada and the United States portray more individualistic (Parker, Haytko, & Hermans, 2009; Awedoba, 2005; Bond, 1988; Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1989a, 1989b). Prior research has suggested that cultural dimensions of IND-COL can impact employees’ behaviours towards mild forms of workplace deviance. Liu et al., (2009) found that people with a high collectivistic orientation are less likely to display uncivil behaviours than those with a low collectivistic orientation suggesting the impact of cultural orientation on incivility in the workplace. The finding implies that collectivistic orientation has a restraining effect on incivility and people with collectivistic orientation have less tendency to tolerate uncivil workplace 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh behaviours than persons with individualistic cultural orientation (Liu et al., 2009). This indicates that what might be considered acceptable behaviour in individualistic cultures is likely to be viewed as unacceptable in collectivistic cultures. Accordingly, Bond (2004) acknowledges that different cultures have a divergent definition of aggression which may account for few cross- culture studies on aggression. Power distance orientation (PDO), which describes individuals’ beliefs about how status, authority, and power are exercised in organisations, society or family (Kirkman et al., 2009; Ugwuzor, 2016), might cause individuals to interpret and react to destructive workplace behaviours differently across employees. This is so because people with high PDO are less likely to interpret supervisor behaviours as bullying, questionable, abusive, or even question supervisor actions as they tend to expect more from their superiors, and are more receptive rather than reactive, one-way, top-down direction from their leaders (Javidan et al., 2006a; Zhang & Begley, 2011) unlike people with low PDO (Hofstede, 2001). Employees at lower positions rarely question orders and simply follow instructions emanated from higher authority. Such employees are less likely to question supervisors' rudeness, abuse or harsh intonation directed at them unlike those employees with low PDO because they tend to expect that power is rather equally distributed between less and more powerful individuals and expect power relationships to reflect participatory, democratic and consultative principles. In light of this, they are more likely to question both supervisors and subordinates’ actions they deem rude and abusive. They tend to develop long-term relationship strain with those employees who view unequal power distribution as a normal fact of life. This presupposes those employees who hold high PDO rather than low PDO are less likely to engage in workplace deviance and vice versa (Hon et al., 2015). Power distance may likely provide 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a supplementary explanation to the differences in interpreting and reacting to workplace deviance in work settings (Jiang, Gollan & Brooks, 2015). Uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) is defined as the extent to which a person "feels threatened by uncertain or unknown situations" (Hofstede, 2001, p. 161). This feeling of being threatened is communicated through anxiety and a need for predictability, explicit rules, or structured situations. A person with a strong UAO behaves rigidly, whereas one with a weak UAO behaves flexibly (Hofstede, 2001). The majority of people with high UAO tend to feel uncomfortable and apprehensive in times of uncertainty and ambiguity while people with low UAO, tend to thrive in more uncertain and ambiguous situations and environments (Ugwuzor, 2016). People who have weak uncertainty avoidance tend to accept uncertainty without much discomfort, take risks easily, and show greater tolerance for opinions and behaviours different from their own. Uncertainty avoidance consists of two sub-concepts: "risk aversion, the degree to which individuals feel uncomfortable with taking risks, and intolerance of ambiguity, the degree to which individuals feel uncomfortable when confronted with ambiguity" (Walczuch 1994, p. 3; Sharma, 2010). Despite cultural differences that might have a differential effect on employees' job attitudes, values, and behaviours in organisations, there is extremely little known about how these differences might impact workplace deviance especially in a multicultural work setting (Vogel et al., 2015). Some studies have employed culture as a moderator in the relationship between employee attitudes, values and behaviours and work outcomes (Palich, Hom, & Griffeth, 1995; Zoogah & Zoogah, 2020). However, this study attempts to determine not only the direct impact of cultural orientation, which is the independent variable, on workplace deviance being the dependent variable, but also how employees of MNCs understand the workplace deviance construct, which 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh might inform their involvement or commission of undesirable behaviours. Since cultural factors have been noted to substantially affect individuals’ perceptions of themselves and others, and of how they ought to be treated by their organisations (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Hon et al., 2015), it is imperative to investigate how cultural differences of employees influence their commission of deviant behaviours due to differential interpretation of workplace events and treatments (Lian, Ferris & Brown, 2012a; Hon et al., 2015). Also, the dearth of literature observed on the potential moderators of employee commitment (EC), perceived organisational support (POS), perceived ethical leadership (PEL) in the relationship between culture and work outcomes such as workplace deviance, this study attempts to fill this gap by employing these relational constructs, namely; EC, POS, and PEL as moderators to determine how they enhance or inhibit the relationship between employees’ cultural orientation and their engagement in workplace deviance in multinational environments, as well as unearth the varied meanings employees of MNCs attach to the deviant behaviour construct. 1.1.1 Culture and ethical leadership Ethical leadership in organisations has received academic and practitioner attention due to the challenges associated with how to lead ethically across cultures (Resick, Hanges, Dickson, & Mitchelson, 2006). House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta, (2004) study on Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) project revealed the influence of national culture on not only beliefs regarding leadership (House et al., 2004) but also, perception of leadership by employees (Resick, Martin, Keating, Dickson, Kwan & Peng, 2011). Brown, Trevino and Harrison (2005) defined ethical leadership as the "demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision- 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh making" (p. 120). Ethical leaders are noted to display certain attributes including the character of the leader, integrity of the leader, ethical awareness, a collective orientation that promotes team, group, or organisational interests over self-serving interests, and a demonstration of civility and consideration for the rights and needs of others as well as manage accountability (Resick et al., 2006, 2011; Brown & Trevino, 2006; Brown et al., 2005). Extant studies have shown how ethical leadership influence both employee and organisational outcomes (Resick et al., 2011) particularly, lower levels of work unit deviance (Mayer, Kuenzi, Greenbaum, Bardes, & Salvador, 2009; Liu, Lam & Loi, 2021; Yasir & Rasli, 2018; Mo & Shi, 2015), psychological safety and voice behaviour (Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009; Brown et al., 2005), intrinsic motivation (Piccolo, Greenbaum, Den Hartog, & Folger, 2010), and trust and commitment (De Hoogh & Den Hartog, 2008). As a result, scholars have advocated the need to understand cultural differences to enable managers to lead effectively across cultures (Dickson et al., 2003; Resick et al., 2011; Jackson, 2001) given that existing studies have shown the association between national culture and ethical leadership traits (Ahmad, Fazal-e-hasan, & Kaleem, 2020; Hofstede, 1980; Schwartz, 1999). Accordingly, Resick and colleagues (2011) acknowledge limited research in the cross-cultural domain that examines how ethical leadership moderates the relationship between cultural orientation and workplace outcomes such as employee deviance in multicultural work settings. The degree of emphasis on characteristics of ethical leadership tends to vary significantly across cultures (Resick et al., 2009; Kimura & Nishikawa, 2018; Martin, Resick, Keating, & Dickson, 2009; Keating, Martin, Resick, & Dickson, 2007). This variation may impact the perception of employees about how they view their leaders to be ethically oriented especially in the multinational work setting (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). This implies that an employee's cultural frame is significant in perceiving ethical or unethical leaders (Beekun & Westerman, 2012; Resick 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh et al., 2011). For example, while in some contexts, it is the behaviour that matters in determining ethical transgression, it is the magnitude of the behaviour that matters in another context (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). Resick et al., (2011) provide supporting evidence in their qualitative study of the meaning of ethical and unethical leadership. Other studies provide strong support by showing the relationship between individualism and power distance dimensions and managers' ethical attitudes toward certain questionable practices (Christie, Kwon, Stoeberl, & Baumhart, 2003). Unfortunately, research has not explored how follower ethical leadership perception may alter the relationship between cultural factors and employee outcomes such as workplace deviance (Ozbag, 2016; Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009; Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009; Brown et al., 2005). Given the above, a call for more research has been advocated to examine the effects of culture on workplace deviance such as destructive, toxic or unethical leadership, and incivility (Resick et al., 2011). This is because people tend to use their cultural and ethical value systems when they are faced with ethical or cultural dilemma, as a standard against which to measure the behaviour of members of the other culture or they adopt the norms of the other culture (Resick et al., 2011). Accordingly, it is plausible that employees with individualistic, low power distance and low uncertainty cultural orientations will perceive ethical leadership differently than employees with collectivistic, high power distance, and high uncertainty avoidance orientations. Therefore, using perceived ethical leadership as moderator is in line with recent calls for research to investigate the cognitive processes that precede moral judgments and moral behaviour (van Gils, Quaquebeke, van Knippenberg, van Dijke, & De Cremer, 2015; Hannah, Avolio, & May, 2011; Reynolds & Ceramic, 2009), for which this study argues that employee cultural orientation may constitute one of such processes. As noted by Chordiya, Sabharwal, and Goodman (2017), the ethical behaviour 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of peers and managers is found to have a direct influence on the organisational commitment of individuals. The current study argues that follower perception of ethical leadership can alter the relationship between cultural orientation and deviance at the workplace and subsequently dictate the next course of action that can be available to employees who perceive unethical behaviours of their leaders. Thus, followers whose culture emphasizes moral sensitivity predisposes them to pay greater attention to moral cues in their leader behaviours which subsequently may affect their responses to unethical leadership differently than other followers whose beliefs, values and practices appear insensitive to moral cues. 1.1.2 Culture and employee commitment Several factors affect the commitment levels of employees including job scope which reflects freedom, autonomy, and task significance. This tends to encourage employee attachment to the organisation, in so far as, both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are met. Employees who aspire to enriched tasks are more likely to remain committed in organisations that provide opportunities for personal career enrichment, irrespective of cultural demands (Aydogdu, & Asikgil, 2011). Two streams of research are worth noting here. The first research stream involves studies that show the effect of cultural orientation on commitment levels of employees at the workplace (Gelade, Dobson, & Gilbert, 2006; Palich et al., 1995), with the argument that culture may shape commitment levels of international organisations rather than condition their bases (Chordiya et al., 2017; Chen, Wang & Tang, 2016; Meyer et al., 2012; Fischer & Mansell, 2009; Wasti & Onder, 2009; Kwantes, 2003; Clugston, Howell, & Dorfman, 2000; Meyer & Allen, 1997; Randall, 1993; Lincoln & Kalleberg, 1985; Hofstede, 1980). In particular, Fischer and Mansell (2009) and Meyer et al., (2012) document national cultural differences in organisational commitment along cultural dimensions, and that the components of organisational commitment are characterized by different 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mindsets and hence may have different implications for job behaviours (Meyer & Allen, 1991; Powell & Meyer, 2004; Elele & Fields, 2010). For example, the normative commitment is based on the belief that one must or should be responsible to an organisation, and it reflects the perception of norms that employees in an organisation hold about appropriate and inappropriate behaviours (Jaros, Jermier, Koehler, & Sincich, 1993; Kwantes, 2003). The other research stream involves studies that demonstrate the relationship between commitment and workplace deviance in the workplace (Promsri, 2018; Guay, Choi, Oh, Mitchell, Mount, & Shin, 2016; Khan, 2018; Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002) with the argument that less committed employees engage in workplace deviance as retaliation to perceived mistreatment. However, some studies on commitment did not find a significant relationship with workplace deviance (Sanda, 2017; Ugwu & Okafor, 2017). Sanda (2017) in particular, found no impact of national culture nor employee characteristics on employee's organisational commitment among retail banks in Ghana. Meyer et al., (2002) observed a negative relationship between employee commitment and absenteeism which, in turn, results in low employee intentions to leave along with quitting, stress and work-family conflict. The above literature suggests that employee commitment can impact workplace deviance on the one hand, and can be impacted by cultural orientation, on the other hand. Employee commitment can alter the effects of culture and workplace outcomes such as workplace deviance. Nonetheless, little is known about how commitment can exacerbate or mitigate the relationship between cultural orientation and deviance. This has led scholars to increasingly caution that the paucity of research that examines commitment as a culturally influenced construct or ascertain the extent to which commitment performs an antecedent role and moderating role in cross-cultural management is worrying as there are limited studies that attempt to account for national differences in 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh commitment levels (Gelade et al., 2006), which tend to cloud comprehension regarding commitment and culture. This study argues that the relationship between cultural orientation of employees and workplace deviance can be exacerbated or dampened by the degree of commitment an employee exhibits at the workplace. Committed employees are less likely to engage in undesirable behaviours in the organisation, even where culture predisposes them to, and the opposite holds. 1.1.3 Culture and perceived organisational support (POS) Workplace deviance may communicate to employees that the organisations they work in do not value and respect them (Sidle, 2010), thereby affecting their perception of organisational support. Farh, Hackett, and Liang (2007) found from their study of 163 supervisor-subordinate dyads from Mainland China about the moderating role of power distance and traditionality in the relationship between POS and work outcomes, that power distance and traditionality altered relationships between POS and work outcomes. It was observed that such relationships were stronger for individuals scoring low (rather than high) on PDO or traditionality and that PDO relative to traditionality was a stronger and more consistent moderator of the relationship in the POS-work outcome. This suggests that cultural values largely influence employees POS and work-related behaviours in organisations (Rockstuhl, Eisenberger, Shore, Kurtessis, Ford, Buffardi, & Mesdaghinia, 2020). It must, however, be noted that the culture of an organisation profoundly affects how its employees behave towards achieving its stated goals. Corporate culture, as described by Daft (2013), is the set of key values, beliefs, understandings and norms that members of an organisation share to achieve the organisational goals. These set of values, norms, beliefs etc. are expected to guide the behaviour of organisational members (Ugwuzor, 2016). 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nevertheless, a national culture largely influences how individual preferences are aligned with organisational culture and policies in determining how employees manage their roles in the organisation (Beauregard, Basile, & Thompson, 2018; Schein, 2006). Consistently, the Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) conceptual model stresses that societal cultural practices and values tend to affect the practices endorsed, as well as the values believed in organisations, are embedded within these societies (Brodbeck, Hanges, Dickson, Gupta, & Dorfman, 2004). Similarly, Schein (2006) contends that cultural beliefs serve as the basis for assumptions, and people rationalize their behaviour in concert with their cultural beliefs (Gonzalez & Perez-Floriano, 2015). What people perceive as an organisational supportive environment largely stems from how they are socialized and oriented to their societal culture which affects their behaviours in the organisational setting (Cho & Payne, 2016). 1.1.4 Culture and workplace outcomes Scholars in cross-cultural research have indicated that cultural orientations influence not only how individuals behave, but also how they interpret the actions of others (Geertz, 1973; Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1998; Peterson & Barreto, 2014). Extant studies have shown that individuals transfer their cognitive, affective and behavioural tendencies to organisations (Lok & Crawford 2004; Gunlu, Aksarayli, & Şahin Perçin, 2010; Jundt, Shoss, & Huang, 2015; Hyland, Lee, & Mills, 2015; Adler, Campion, Colquitt, Grubb, Murphy, Ollander-Krane, & Pulakos, 2016). There has been a shift of attention in the ways by which cultural frames influence individuals' behaviours beyond the national level (Oyserman et al., 2002; Hofstede, 2011). Zoogah (2018) argues that ethnic obligations, which are a characteristic of collectivist cultures, tend to be extended to the organisational context to influence the behaviours of members towards each other. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Accordingly, extant studies have shown the role of culture in affecting workplace outcomes in management, psychology, human resource management and organisational behaviour literature (Montoro-Rodriguez & Gallagher-Thompson, 2010; Loh, Restubog, & Zagenczyk, 2010; Giorgi, Leon-Perez, & Arenas, 2015; Welbourne, Gangadharan, & Sariol, 2015; Cho & Payne, 2016; Patterson, Chris, & Gonzalez-Morales, 2017; Beauregard et al., 2018), and that the cultural context in which organisations especially subsidiaries of companies are located is essential to organisation’s success (Hofstede, 2011). This is because management depends largely on culture in so far as it involves manipulating intangible symbols that are directly reflected in culture (Hofstede, 2001). More so, culture impacts the work outcomes of employees because culture provides the context in which one's personality is developed, and observed, and acquires meaning (Benet-Martínez & Oishi, 2008; Arshad, 2016). In Africa, cultural elements, like ethnicity, have been noted to influence individual behaviour (van den Berghe, 1986; Hofstede, 2001) and social interactions (De Sardan, 1999), and that some African cultural values affect how businesses are operated regardless of the origin of the business (George et al., 2016). Additionally, some scholars have expressed wary about the lack of appreciation of African culture in doing business in Africa especially among multinational firms. For example, Nwankwo (2000) thinks that one must not consider African culture as an alternative but must be seen as fundamental to the success of business activities. Still, others contend that improper adaptation of culture especially among management of multinational companies tends to deny Africa substantial collaboration to develop both social and economic management (Iguisi & Rutashobya, 2002). There is substantial research evidence about the direct impact of culture on workplace outcomes (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; House et al., 2004; Fischer & Mansell, 2009; Elele & Fields, 2010; Taras 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh et al, 2011; Allen, French, Dumani, & Shockley, 2015; Wiengarten, Gimenez, Fynes, & Ferdrows, 2015; Devinney et al., 2015; Ashraf, Zheng, & Arshad, 2016; Sanda, 2017; Chordiya et al., 2017; Lin, 2018), and indirect effects of culture in terms of enhancing or inhibiting employee behaviours on work outcomes (Peretz, Fried, & Levi, 2018; Nazarian, Atkinson, & Foroudi, 2017; Zhong, Wayne, & Liden, 2016; Hong, Cho, Froese, & Shin, 2016; Kirkman et al., 2010; Gahan & Abeyesekera, 2009; Liu et al., 2009; Yoo & Donthu, 2005). Other studies have also shown how workplace deviance is connected with situational characteristics such as shared belief systems, formalised policies and procedures, and norms governing the workplace (Wiengarten et al., 2015; Devinney et al., 2015; Ashraf et al., 2016; Grijalva, & Newman, 2015; Kish-Gephardt, Harrison, & Trevino, 2010). Despite the theoretical and empirical research evidence showing the role of culture in workplace outcomes, there are relatively few studies that examine the direct and indirect impact of national culture on workplace deviance of employees especially in a multicultural work setting (Wang et al., 2020). Only conceptual and theoretical linkages between societal culture and workplace deviance are suggested by existing studies (Kalemci, Kalemci-Tuzun, & Ozkan-Canbolat, 2019; Narayan & Murphy, 2017; Agwa, 2018; Načinović Braje, Aleksić, & Rašić Jelavić, 2020; Wang, Chen & Li, 2018) leaving out empirical research attempts to clarify the role of culture in workplace deviance. Hence, the need to investigate the role of national culture in workplace deviance and establish the boundary condition that mitigates or exacerbates the relationship between employees’ cultural orientations and workplace deviance by drawing on employee commitment, perceived ethical leadership and perceived organisational support. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.1.5 Workplace deviant behaviour (WDB) Workplace deviant behaviours (WDBs) are behaviours that depart from organisational norms which may or may not be destructive (Griffin & Lopez, 2005). They generally describe willful behaviours of employees towards violating norms, principles, and expectations of organisations that harm the organisation itself, or other members of the organisation or both (Robinson & Bennett, 2000; Ishaq & Shamsher, 2015; Um-e-Laila & Salman, 2019). WDB (or workplace deviance) have been a topical concern to both academics and practitioners in recent times because of their deleterious consequences on every organisation (Bashir et al., 2012; Abdullah & Marican, 2017; Low, Sambasivan, & Ho, 2019; Wang et al., 2020). More attention is increasingly being given to the need to understand these workplace behaviours and work-related attitudes which have become an important research area (Asghar & Ahmad, 2017; Yildiz, Alpkan, Ates, & Sezen, 2015) and emerging phenomenon (Al-Fayyad, 2015). WDB affects individuals, coworkers, organisations, industry, and the larger society financially or economically, medically or health-related, physically, emotionally, mentally or psychologically, socially, culturally, and performance-related issues. In fact, deviance can be constructive or destructive (Galperin, 2002/2012; Warren, 2003; Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2004; Appelbaum, Laconi, & Matousek, 2007; Bodankin & Tziner 2009; Robbins & Galperin, 2010; Vadera, Pratt, & Mishra, 2013; Robinson, Robertson, & Curtis, 2012). Examples of workplace deviance include but are not limited to deliberately doing work wrongly, taking unauthorized work breaks, unauthorized absence from work, insulting others, hitting a co-worker, yelling at others, talking loudly on the phone about a personal matter during working hours (Onuoha, 2013), ridiculing, making negative comments, and degrading one's worth (Sulea, Fine, Fischmann, Sava, & Dumitru, 2013), vandalism, theft, aggressive behaviour, sexual harassment, embezzlement, insubordination 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and withholding effort, among others. Still, other examples include talking down to others, making demeaning remarks, and not listening to somebody (Pearson & Porath,2009; Asghar & Ahmad, 2017). Also, there is bullying, absenteeism, lateness, sabotage, and unnecessary breaks. Some scholars identify shirking or slacking, withdrawal, deliberate calling in sick, using working hours to undertake personal errands etc. are examples of WDBs (Robinson & Bennett, 2000; Dalal, 2005; Berry, Ones, & Sackett, 2007; Walsh, 2014; Al-Fayyad, 2015; Schilpzand, De Pater, & Erez, 2016; Marcus, Taylor, Hastings, Sturm, & Weigelt, 2016; Hussain & Sia 2017; Bennett, Marasi, & Locklear, 2018). This study considers destructive deviance because of their deleterious consequences on organisational existence and profitability capabilities (Low et al., 2019; Um-e-Laila & Salman, 2019; Bennett et al., 2018; Robinson et al., 2012). It is estimated that about 75 per cent of all employees engage in deviance in organisations (Casebier, 2014). Also, research has shown that destructive or dysfunctional behaviours are problems that pervade in organisations, both public and private sectors including multinational companies (Bennett et al., 2018; Hayford, 2019; Warner, 2011), and that, scholars have suggested that misconducts in organisations depend on the occupational and cultural context surrounding such behaviours (Schein, 2006). Unfortunately, workplace deviance researchers, as well as cross-cultural management, organisational behaviours and human resource management scholars, have overwhelmingly investigated the values and beliefs in relating to work outcomes such as commitment, satisfaction, perceived organisational support (POS), and leadership perceptions (Hofstede, 2011; Javidan, Dorfman, de Luque, & House, 2006b; House et al., 2004). They nonetheless have placed little emphasis on practices such as workplace deviance (Power et al., 2013). This is worrying given that what constitutes workplace deviance might be impacted by the cultural orientation of 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employees. This is because individuals crave the need to belong, either based on contractual relationships or personal relationships and are more likely to maintain group values to be accepted by in-group members. Thus, individuals from similar cultural value orientations are likely to fulfil group expectations over out-group expectations which may result in interpersonal deviance between in-group members and out-group members. Consequently, Gokoglu and Ozturk (2020) argue that cross-cultural differences can play an important role as an antecedent and/or moderator variable in influencing deviance. Also, Welbourne et al., (2015) document the paucity of empirical research examining the influence of cultural orientation on workplace deviance such as incivility which can help direct research and practice beyond conceptual and theoretical linkages. In line with this, Gokoglu and Ozturk (2020) express a similar stance as they noted that studies in workplace deviance research have overlooked cross-cultural differences in workplace deviance research. Examining workplace deviance via a cultural lens can help to know how people cope with and respond to stressors in organisations (Welbourne & Sariol, 2017; Chun, Moos, & Cronkite, 2009; Montoro-Rodriguez & Gallagher- Thompson, 2010). Cultural factors have also been noted to influence absenteeism as research suggests that societies that have more collectivist cultures, tolerate lower levels of inequality, and are generally more future-oriented and tend to have lower rates of absenteeism (Edwards, 2017; Peretz & Fried, 2012) and coworker solidarity, which is expressed in communal or collectivistic culture can influence the perception of workplace deviance (Itzkovich, & Heilbrunn, 2016). Similarly, weak uncertainty cultures tend to demonstrate and accept deviance from accepted norms and standards of behaviour (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; Parboteeah, Bronson, & Cullen, 2005). In particular, Lian et al., (2012b) found that subordinates with high PDO are more tolerant of supervisory mistreatment which make 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh them become less likely to view abusive supervision as interpersonally unfair. This points to the observation that differential interpretation of workplace behaviours may impact the conception of workplace deviant behaviours. The relationship between cultural orientation and employee workplace deviance is likely to be altered along with their perception of how leaders behave ethically or unethically, how employees have committed affectively, normatively and in terms of continuance to the organisation, the way employees perceive organisational support in terms of whether the organisation values and respect employees' well-being as well as their contributions towards the attainment of organisational goals. Given that within-culture differences may account for differences in interpretation of workplace deviance construct at both the individual and societal level (Cho & Payne, 2016; Hofstede, 2010), the study employs individual-level analysis in examining the role of employee cultural orientation on workplace deviance. In this era of intense globalization, changing market structures, and advanced technological developments, organisations need to reorient their strategies to reduce negative workplace behaviours to enjoy a competitive advantage since deviant behaviour can cause great damage to the organisation (Cortina, 2008; Lee & Jensen, 2014; Bennett et al., 2018). Meanwhile, some scholars view workplace deviance as one of the essential constructs that can be used to understand the behaviours of employees especially when their societal cultural orientations are at odds with organisational norms (Gokoglu & Ozturk, 2020). Where there is low or no appreciation of cultural diversity, ethnocentric feelings emerge which may cause one cultural value to be viewed as inferior in terms of how reality and approach are perceived. This may result in increasing differences, and when it is uncontrolled can degenerate into violent or aggressive reactions from cultures viewed as inferior. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.1.6 Contextualizing the study According to Rousseau and Fried (2001), the term `context' lexicologically denotes `to knit together or `to make a connection.' Consequently, contextualizing describes connecting observations to a set of relevant facts, events, or points of view that enable research and theory to form part of a larger whole (Rousseau & Fried, 2001). In research, the term can be seen in many facets of the research process, "from question formulation, site selection, and measurement to data analysis, interpretation, and reporting "(Rousseau & Fried, 2001, p. 1). On their part, Zahra, Wright and Abdelgawad (2014, p. 480) opine that "contextualization fosters creative and novel analyses and explanations by situating phenomena, research questions, theories and findings in their natural setting”. Contextualization has become all the more important because, as stated by Rousseau and Fried (2001), of the internationalization of organisational research in particular, and management research in general; it becomes increasingly problematic in transferring models and frameworks from one society to another (Wang et al., 2020); and finally, the increasing diversification of the nature of work and the work setting brought about by rapid globalization, technological advancement and technology transfer, and market proximity to consumers, have substantially altered the dynamics of employee-employer relationships. This has led to increasing calls in organisational behaviour research in particular, and management research in general, to integrate context in their research design and reporting. For example, Rousseau and Fried (2001, p. 2) recount that, "even in laboratory research conducted by scholars in different countries, cultural frames of reference can alter the nature of instructions regarding ostensibly the same study treatment”. This observation has prompted a caution among researchers to be mindful "when exporting scientific constructs and research methodologies across national borders" (Rousseau & Fried, 2001, p. 2). So, for them, “contextual differences can be a major 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh source of conflicting findings, and teasing out underlying patterns requires us to pay more attention to research settings” (Rousseau & Fried, 2001, p. 2.). 1.2 Statement of the problem Workplace deviance has significant costs for expatriates and organisations (Robinson et al., 2012; Casebier, 2014; Andoh, Quaye, & Akomea-Frimpong, 2018; Bennett et al., 2018; Korletey & Caesar, 2018). If extant research has shown the impact of culture on organisational life (Gokoglu & Ozturk, 2020; Wang et al., 2020), and also has shown overwhelming evidence of workplace deviance in organisations including MNCs (Huang, Wellman, Ashford, Lee, & Wang, 2017; Hayford, 2019), together with their attendant negative effects on organisational sustenance as the review above has shown, to what extent that workplace deviance cannot be understood in light of cultural analysis? Given that culture stipulates and regulates the behaviour of members in a particular social group, the big question that remains unanswered in extant research is how workplace deviance is defined, and subsequently, manifested across cultural contexts in multicultural work setting. Certain behaviours appeal to universal conscience like taking a person's life, inflicting harm on self and others, or taking one's property without due consent etc., yet other behaviours find meaning and sense only in cultural space (Mackey, Freider, Brees, & Martinko, 2015; Shao, Rupp, Skarlicki, & Jones, 2013). These behaviours are essential to organisational studies in so far as organisations are established to achieve specific purposes within a certain time frame. It would be considered as a great disservice in understanding organisational life across borders without an examination and comprehension of how undesirable behaviours manifest across cultures and their impact on both organisational life and members of the organisations. The fact that culture varies both in relational norms (Durkheim, 1951; Tonnies, 1957) and values (Hofstede, 1980), as well as practices 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (GLOBE Project, 2006), suggests that employees in organisations are likely to expect different things from their employers and perceive things differently. This, in consequence, makes them behave differently even under the same organisational norms (Morris, Podolny, & Sullivan, 2008), thereby resulting in workplace deviance. Hence, Kitayama (2002) argues that culture enables and structures individual behaviour without them being aware of it. Similarly, Lu, Rose, and Blodgett (1999) suggest that culture does not only affect learning, but also can affect what is seen to be right/wrong, correct/incorrect, appropriate/inappropriate as well as ethical/unethical. This is consistent with the observation of Ansah (2015), who points out that, the cultural context in which organisations function is critical to understanding norm-conforming and norm-deviating behaviours. Cohen (2007) echoes that abstract values are insufficient in understanding cross-cultural analysis, rather actual social behaviour must be employed to aid a better understanding of cross-cultural analysis. Despite multicultural workforce being touted as "a source of the sustained competitive advantage derived from a large pool of resources, ideas, opinions, and values, which results in a broader range of task-related knowledge, abilities and skills than homogeneous ones" (Zanoni, Janssens, Benschop, & Nkomo, 2009, p. 11), managing multicultural workforce remains a key challenge facing international organisations (Cooper, Doucet, & Pratt, 2007; Mousa & Alas, 2016a). Given the expansion of multinational companies propelled by the intensification of globalization, there has been increasing market expansion, organisations are also attracting and retaining high quality but cheap labour, and they are increasingly extending work closer to the ready market in distant cultures. International assignments are prone to failure largely due to the differential cultural backgrounds of the multicultural workforce (Cooper et al., 2007). These differential cultural orientations can result in differing perceptions of appropriate and or inappropriate 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh behaviour in the work setting which might lead to destructive workplace behaviours. This may adversely impact relationships within organisations especially those with international exposure (Cooper et al., 2007). This is because what one considers appropriate may be viewed as inappropriate or deviant behaviour leading to conflict (Sano & Di Martino, 2003; Power et al., 2013) which can threaten the attainment of organisational goals (Cooper et al., 2007). Also, some cultures have been observed to avoid criticisms, which often lead to strained relationships, aggression, bullying etc., whilst other cultures embrace criticisms (Cho & Payne, 2016). Further, Hayford (2019) found from his study of ethics and deviance in a multinational company that employees of MNCs tend to engage deviant behaviours such as leaving work early, resource wastage at some point, engaging in accepting and showing favouritism even though the study was carried out in one of the Multinational Company (MNC) in the downstream oil and gas company called the Sahara Group. It is unclear whether these deviations observed might have been motivated by differences in cultural orientations of employees which may result from differences in interpretation of appropriate behaviours. Prior theoretical studies have indicated that inappropriate behaviours can elicit negative reactions such as aggression, slacking, turnover, reduced commitment, wasting time, sabotage, unauthorized taking of company properties, increased levels of absenteeism, stress, antagonisms, conflicts, shirking of responsibilities, high turnover intentions, and unnecessary bickering among employees about ways of executing tasks, which tend to affect the degree of subsequent relationships among organisational members (Cooper et al., 2007). These differences arise from different cultural values, beliefs, norms, and practices which have been noted to impact work outcomes (Schwartz, 2006; Javidan et al., 2006; Hofstede, 2011; Cho & Payne, 2016; Mackey et al., 2015; Gokoglu & Ozturk, 2020; Wang et al., 2020). These diverse cultural differences have been an issue for MNCs, 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh particularly, those operating in developing countries (Mba, 2015; Fehrler & Kosfeld, 2013). Also, other conceptual studies have indicated that differential cultural orientations in MNCs may result in increased absenteeism, bullying, abusive supervising, reduced commitment, miscommunication, distrust, psychological well-being and job dissatisfaction, and frustration (Bergbom & Kinnunen, 2014; Choi, Oh, & Colbert, 2015; Fehrler & Kosfeld, 2013; Hussain & Sia 2017; Mba, 2015). Accordingly, Taras et al., (2011) contend that national culture is one of the best predictors of many workplace outcomes and that cultural values significantly predict emotional display and many work-related attitudes and behaviours such as job and co-worker satisfaction, organisational commitment, interpersonal relationships, ethics, communication and conflict resolution style, and organisational outcomes such as performance (Cho & Payne, 2016). Gokoglu and Osturk (2020) posit that, organisations are likely to experience workplace deviance when employee behaviours are found to be culturally misfitted with organisational norms. It is not a sheer coincidence that cultural orientation has received multiple investigations across disciplines including leadership, psychology, anthropology, sociology, management, and human resource management. Also, theoretical and conceptual studies have increasingly indicated that some cultures have strong norms and little tolerance for deviance whilst others have weak norms and a high tolerance for deviance (Roos et al., 2015; Aktas et al., 2015; Harrington & Gelfand, 2014; Geetz, 1973; Pelto, 1968) and this affects individual behaviours in the organisational setting. This is because culture shapes, orients and reorients individual behaviours (de Sardan, 1999). Studies have suggested that differential cultural backgrounds tend to yield destructive consequences on employee outcomes (Mba, 2015; Cho & Payne, 2016; Gokoglu & Osturk, 2020). Chua (2013, p. 1547) theorized that “cultural diversity is a seedbed for intercultural anxiety, 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tensions, and conflicts because of differences in world-views, values, and norms”. This observation requires great attention to ameliorate its undesirable consequences to both employees and organisations including increased stress levels, reduction in job satisfaction, conflict, and rising industrial relations challenges (Jung, 2017; Li, 2015; Nguyen, Kass, Mujtaba, & Tran, 2015), reduction in staff morale (Syed, Hazboun, & Murray, 2014, Toh & DeNisi, 2005), and increased staff turnover in organisations (Gonzalez, 2016). In particular, Cartwright and Cooper (1993) observed that differential cultural orientations which are incompatible observed in organisations can lead to increased levels of absenteeism, turnover, and stress among its employees. Recent works have provided support to this assertion (Bergbom & Kinnunen, 2014; Mba, 2015). For instance, Bergbom and Kinnunen (2014) provided empirical support to show that incompatible cultural orientations of employees negatively affect psychological well-being and job satisfaction at the workplace. On his part, Sparber (2009) contends that diversity in culture is often associated with a number of problems including but not limited to societal unrest, violence, and mistreatment of individuals in the workplace, which are defined as workplace deviance (Warren, 2003; Bennett & Robinson, 2003). It affects employees’ commitment, perceptions of organisational support and the extent to which they view their leaders as ethically oriented. When employees’ commitments are threatened, they exhibit low levels of hard work and develop high levels of turnover intentions as well as other related workplace deviant behaviours. Mousa and Alas (2016b) maintain that organisational commitment explains employees' misuse of power, irresponsibility, inefficiency and carelessness in work. Moreover, it often interprets employees' modes of behaviour in the face of organisational crises (Chang, 2002). Employees are more likely to view the organisation as unsupportive and may react to such an unsupportive work 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh environment with destructive workplace behaviours (Robinson & Bennett, 2000; Choi et al., 2015). Hoon (2003) also found that national culture predicts degrees of corruption. Other scholars share this view (Al-Jundi et al., 2019). Apart from the above, there has been increasing calls to understand how cultural values relate to workplace outcomes (Kirkman et al. 2006; Taras et al., 2010) due to rising interest to understand psychological mechanisms and processes between cultural values and workplace behaviours (Chen et al., 2016). Although Kirkman and colleagues (2010) suggest the need to employ cultural values as a moderator rather than as an antecedent in the theoretical model of workplace behaviours, recent conceptual and theoretical works have shown that cultural values can affect undesirable workplace behaviours such as absenteeism, withdrawals, bullying, and aggression (Mitchell, Holtom, & Lee, 2001; Chen et al., 2016) and desirable outcomes such as performance (Cho & Payne, 2016). Also, such studies lack empirical backing. There is overwhelming underrepresentation of empirical studies that employ cultural analysis in understanding workplace deviance in a multinational context (Power et al., 2013; Gokoglu & Ozturk, 2020; Wang et al., 2020). Few notable exceptions are worth mentioning here. Power and colleagues (2013) investigated the culture and acceptability of workplace bullying and came out with intriguing findings supporting the hypothesis that the cultural orientation of employees may impact workplace deviant behaviours towards coworkers rather than the organisation. The study established that there are differences in the acceptability of bullying across GLOBE country clusters, and this finding of differences in the influence of cultural dimensions on the acceptance of bullying point to cultural differences in the acceptance of bullying. Nevertheless, the study had some limitations which call for further research. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Despite Power et al., (2013) finding that there are cultural differences in the acceptability of workplace bullying; they failed to show how employees in the various countries react during instances of bullying. This warrants future research to understand the processes that account for reactions to workplace deviance such as bullying. Another limitation of the study was that they stressed bullying, which is considered interpersonal deviance (Robinson & Bennett, 2003) rather than deviance directed at the organisation in particular such as absenteeism, shirking, slacking and taking company property without authorization. Another attempt was also made by Liu et al., (2009) who examined the effects of culture on incivility in the workplace. They found that people high in collectivistic orientation tend to display uncivil behaviours than those with a low collectivistic orientation suggesting the impact of cultural orientation on incivility in the workplace. Similarly, the study was limited by its exclusive focus on collectivist orientation as boundary condition enhancing or inhibiting incivility and the fact that it concentrated on developed country contexts of China and the USA. This limitation has effects on the generalization of the findings to developing country contexts such as Ghana which may display varying degrees of collectivism with Asian Cultures (Ugwuzor, 2016). Given that norms vary from society to society, some employees may embrace a particular behaviour as norm violating but the same behaviour might be considered norm congruence. It is this variation in interpretation of organisational norms in a multicultural work setting that invites cultural analysis of the deviant behaviour construct. For example, cultures that encourage social relationships and harmony with the in-group members are likely to view covering up for the absence of a coworker as helping behaviours rather than as deviating behaviours. Similarly, in cultures where self-interest is the dominant way of organizing social life, the same behaviour is likely to be seen as deviating acts. Also, withdrawal behaviours initiated to avert conflict with 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh other coworkers are likely to be seen as non-deviating behaviours in so far as it ensures group harmony but the same behaviour might be seen as transgressive acts by another whose cultural orientation does not stress group interest over personal achievement. Anthropologist Pelto (1968) submits that culturally "tight" societies are strictly formal and disciplined with explicitly defined norms, and impose harsh sanctions on individuals who deviate from norms. Culturally "loose" societies, on the other hand, lack formality, regimentation and discipline with norms expressed through a variety of alternative channels, and tend to display high tolerance for deviant behaviour (Pelto, 1968). The implication is that differences in cultural orientation significantly affect what is viewed as deviance or not regardless of the organisational norms and practices. Research evidence points out that national culture profoundly affects how individual preferences in organisations align with organisational culture to determine how they manage their roles in the organisation (Beauregard et al., 2018). Hence, these variations in interpretations of workplace deviance are necessary to advance theoretical and conceptual knowledge on the construct of workplace deviance. Despite the diversity of interpretation and understanding in behaviours considered as transgression in the workplace setting, there is a dearth of empirical literature examining how cultural factors affect employees' deviance at the work setting (Mackey et al., 2015; Shao et al., 2013). It is therefore problematic for the inability of scholars to empirically identify and document the influence and dimensions of culture on workplace deviance and to determine factors that strengthen or weaken this relationship in a multicultural work setting. Employing cultural lens into deviant behaviour research may help call attention to the taken-for- granted assumption of dimensions and manifestations of workplace deviance due to differences in understanding, interpretation and reaction to perceived acts which fall into the category of 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh workplace deviance construct (Welbourne et al., 2015; Patterson et al., 2017). Scholars have noted that the differences in interpretation of deviant acts may be expressed in withholding or denial of help (Juvonen, 1991), conflict (DeRidder & Tripathi, 1992), and the rejection of individuals who behave inappropriately (Maples, Dupey, & Tones-Rivera, 2001). It may also result in in-group bias, where members within a particular group tend to disparage non-members of that particular group (out-group members) (Turner, 1999). The in-group bias may also be expressed through how people react differently to normative and counter-normative behaviours by in-group and out-group members (Marques, Abrams, Paez, & Hogg, 2001). Surprisingly, research in workplace deviance has overlooked how employee perceptions and motives, which may be expressed in their cultural orientations, undergirding their supposed deviations, account for the understanding of workplace behaviours, as exemplified by Resick et al., (2011) in their study of the meaning of ethical and unethical (deviant) behaviours of their managers at the workplace. Meanwhile, scholars have acknowledged that multinational companies (MNCs) are prone to interpersonal differences and or conflict, employee absenteeism, lateness, withdrawal, miscommunication as well as other undesirable work outcomes (Hayford, 2019; Shaban, 2016; Ayub & Jehn, 2014). This is because employees are more likely to exhibit differences in emotional, attitudinal, and behavioural responses to the events in their lived world (Lin et al., 2013; Shao et al., 2013; Vogel et al., 2015; Hussain & Sia, 2017). This might account for differential reactions to unfavourable feelings. This may result in undesirable workplace outcomes like interpersonal strains (Parillo & Donoghue, 2005), yet little is known about how culture might influence workplace deviance in multicultural settings. Unfortunately, the limited research as pointed out from the review above can help explain the role of societal culture in workplace deviance (Vogel et al., 2015; Schilpzand, De Pater, & Erez, 2016; 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Narayanan & Murphy, 2017). Also limited is the knowledge about studies that directly compare the prevalence and impact of workplace deviance across cultures or ethnic groups (Wasti & Erdas, 2018; Welbourne et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2009). Even more lacking is the understanding of how employees view certain behaviours as appropriate and others view the same behaviours as inappropriate behaviours. Consequently, the lack of concern about the role of societal culture in workplace deviance among cross-cultural researchers evidenced in extant research has been called to attention (Menard, Brunet, Savoie, Van Daele, & Flament, 2011; Hoon, 2003; Lim & Lee, 2011; Kabat-Farr & Cortina, 2012; Ghosh, 2017; Wang et al., 2020), even though societal culture has been found to influence how people interpret and respond to workplace behaviours (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1995; Estes & Wang, 2008; Liu et al., 2009; Hofstede, 2011; Welbourne et al., 2015; Patterson et al., 2017; Beauregard et al., 2018). More so, there is limited empirical research evidence on culture and workplace deviance in Ghana – especially in the area of employing cultural frameworks such as the Hofstede index. The few research attempts which have been undertaken have been disproportionately western centered making it impossible to generalize findings beyond western context (Ugwuzor, 2016; Narayanan & Murphy, 2017) despite research evidence pointing to developing countries also experiencing workplace deviance (Chung & Moon, 2011; Mba, 2015; Aktas et al., 2015; Vogel et al., 2017; Mekpor & Dartey-Baah, 2017). For instance, out of the 101 empirical research articles found in a PsycINFO search by Wang et al., (2020), 64 per cent of the reported research on workplace deviance occurred in the United States or Canada with even far fewer research studies out of those conducted outside North America focusing on cross-cultural comparisons. This cast a gloomy impression on employee behaviour-workplace deviance link especially beyond the western context. Also, Ugwuzor (2016) argues that western cultural practices and global 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh management philosophies and theories tend to make local employees confused, frustrated, disillusioned and even angry when they observe these "strange‟ cultural value differences being imposed on them (p. 736). Thus, context-specific solutions are more likely to augment measures in controlling rising challenges facing international organisations in the host country contexts. Employing cultural lens into workplace deviance research is significant for the following reasons: Firstly, interpretation of specific actions that constitute workplace deviance construct is likely to differ across cultural settings due to differences in norms, values, beliefs, and practices that distinguish one cultural group from the other (Power et al., 2013; Sidle, 2010). Secondly, research has shown that employee commitment, perceived organisational support, and perceived ethical leadership of employees has a significant negative relationship with workplace deviance. This shows that rising workplace deviance is symptomatic of reduced employee commitment, poor perception of organisational support and negative perception of ethical leadership. Hence, investigating workplace deviance by employing cultural orientation may help reveal salient factors that serve as boundary conditions of enhancing positive employee commitment, high perception of organisational support and high perception of ethical leadership among employees. Thirdly, there is a dearth of literature that explicates how differences in interpretation of what constitutes workplace deviance affect employee attitudes such as employee commitment, perceived organisational support, and perceived ethical leadership towards negative work outcomes (Loh et al., 2010). In particular, Schilpzand et al., (2016) and Ghosh (2017) called for more investigation into workplace deviance cross-culturally given that cultural differences are 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh likely to influence antecedents and outcomes of behaviours such as solidarity and workplace deviance. Finally, the study on culture and workplace deviance can reveal manifestations of workplace deviance in a multicultural setting which is lacking in extant research, as evidenced from the review of the literature above, to aid theoretical development of the construct of workplace deviance and its attendant dimensions (Lutgen-Sandvik, Tracy, & Alberts, 2007; Itzkovich, & Heilbrunn, 2016). This can inform proper strategies that take into consideration cultural backgrounds of employees in dealing with workplace deviance in multicultural work settings (Escartin, Zapf, Arrieta, & Rodríguez-Carballeira, 2011). Some scholars have averred that "the conceptualization and operational definition of workplace incivility (which is an example of workplace deviance) may be culture-specific" (Lim & Lee 2011, p. 107), and "may vary across nations" (Ghosh, 2017, p. 263). This is consistent with the suggestion that differences in shared norms of respect may lead to different thresholds of tolerance towards workplace incivility (Montgomery, Kane, & Vance, 2004). These differing thresholds can be accounted for by dissimilarities in social and cultural orientations (Ghosh, 2017). 1.3 Research justification A review of extant studies, as outlined in the sections above, in human resource management, organisational behaviour and cross-cultural management literature has revealed theoretical and conceptual issues where meagre research attempts were observed to have been undertaken by extant scholars to investigate the influence of cultural orientations on workplace deviance even though there are enormous studies conducted on workplace deviance in general (Vogel et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2020). Also, a contextual gap was found from the review of current and past research that most of the studies on workplace deviance were disproportionately western centered (Ménard 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2020) leaving developing countries to apply these findings from the western context to address locally generated problems, which mostly turn out to yield little or no impact when applied in developing countries like Ghana. Differential cultural environments generate differential worker attitudes, beliefs, and norms which must be considered in understanding worker attitudes and behaviours related to workplace deviance in organisations especially multinational companies. For example, economic advancements, improvement in medical services, and technological improvements characterizing western societies may motivate certain types of deviance but may not generate similar outcomes in developing countries where governments are grappling with necessities of life such as food, shelter and welfare. Similarly, individualistic cultural orientations may not consider managerial behaviour that emphasizes task-oriented relationships but may be viewed as a threat to collectivistic cultural orientation which stresses relationship-based work relations expressed in collaboration, cooperation and teamwork. In addition, individualistic cultural orientations have been noted to possess low power distance which explains the degree to which inequality and power differentials are viewed as normal and acceptable over collectivistic cultural orientation where high-power distance orientation is observed. Given this dissimilarity, talking back or correcting management in western societies may not be considered deviation but it may be considered deviation when the same behaviour is enacted in collectivistic cultural orientation. Based on the observation above, which points out significant gaps ranging from theoretical consideration on the meaning and manifestation of workplace deviance across cultures; varied interpretation of workplace deviance and its impact on employee attitudes, values, and practices representing methodological gap; the underrepresentation of empirical studies that investigate cultural influences on workplace deviance in a multinational setting reflecting contextual gap; the 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh role of relational constructs such as commitment, organisational support, and perceived ethical leadership in enhancing or mitigating the impact of culture on workplace outcomes such as workplace deviance; and the overwhelming representation of western centered knowledge and findings on workplace deviance literature; it is evident that there are limitations in the extant literature resulting in the knowledge gap that requires urgent attention. To the best of our knowledge, there is no empirical investigation in this all-important but neglected area worth investigating. This, therefore, raises the need to conduct research to explore the effects of cultural orientation of employees, specifically individualistic, collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations, on workplace deviance, and to ascertain exacerbating and mitigating factors that might alter the relationship within the Ghanaian industrial environment in fulfilment of the identified gaps. 1.4 Research purpose The purpose of this research is to fill the knowledge gaps identified a priory, and by implication, add to the prevailing theoretical and empirical knowledge in the extant literature on workplace deviance construct in particular, and cross-cultural management in general given that there is limited availability of empirical studies that examine direct influence of societal culture on workplace deviance in international management at the micro level of analysis despite conceptual and theoretical propositions linking culture to workplace behaviours. Corollary to this, the research seeks to examine how three relational constructs, namely, perceived organisational support, employee commitment and perceived ethical leadership might exacerbate or inhibit this relationship between the cultural orientation and workplace deviance of employees. These relational constructs are employed as they can measure aspects of the unique social exchange relationships binding employees and employers as well as their supervisors (Cropanzano 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh & Rupp, 2008). This suggests that when exchange relationships are perceived to be positive or favourable by employees, they are less likely to engage in negative workplace behaviours even if their cultural orientation is in sharp contrast with the cultural orientation of their employers, and the opposite also holds. 1.5.0 Objectives of the study The objectives of the study are as follows. 1. To assess the relationship between the following employee cultural orientations and workplace deviance of employees: i. Assess the relationship between employee’s individualistic cultural orientations and workplace deviance. ii. Assess the relationship between employee’s collectivistic cultural orientations and workplace deviance. iii. Assess the relationship between employee’s power distance cultural orientations and workplace deviance. iv. Assess the relationship between employee’s uncertainty avoidance cultural orientations and workplace deviance. 2. To ascertain the moderating roles of perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership and employee commitment in the relationship between employee cultural orientation and workplace deviance. 3. To explore how employees in MNCs interpret and understand workplace deviance. 1.5.1 Research questions The following research questions seek to be answered: 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. What is the relationship between employee cultural orientations and workplace deviance of employees? i. What is the relationship between employee individualistic cultural orientation and workplace deviance of employees? ii. What is the relationship between employee collectivistic cultural orientation and workplace deviance of employees? iii. What is the relationship between employee power distance cultural orientation and workplace deviance of employees? iv. What is the relationship between employee uncertainty cultural orientation and workplace deviance of employees? 2. Do perceive ethical leadership, perceived organisational support and employee commitment moderate the relationship between employee cultural orientation and workplace deviance? 3. How do employees in MNCs interpret and understand workplace deviance? 1.6.0 Relevance of the study The study provides an important contribution to theory, research, and practice as outlined below. First, the study extends workplace deviant behaviour (WDB) research to cross-cultural management and international human resource management (IHRM) in an attempt to integrate local cultures into mechanisms for addressing WDBs of employees in multinational companies (MNCs). Second, it will help in the development of context-specific findings to address local problems such as the prevalence of destructive workplace deviance in organisations. This is in support of Palich 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh et al., (1995) call for validations of cultural influences on workplace outcomes in Third World subsidiaries as more developed countries' global corporations are increasingly venturing into Asian, Latin American, and African operations to enter new markets or to capitalize on low wages (Reich, 1991) to enable them to develop localized solutions to address local problems. Third, the study draws the attention of the scholarly world especially cross-cultural researchers and workplace deviance scholars to undertake cultural analysis of workplace deviant behaviour research given that increasing MNC operations across cultures are plagued with cultural dissimilarities which can result in workplace deviance directed at both persons and the organisation. Finally, the study provides methodological contribution as the study employs mixed methods design to examine relationships and explore varied meanings undergirding destructive workplace deviant behaviour to allow not only examination of patterns and relationships but also acquiring in-depth understanding and nuanced opinions about workplace deviance. In terms of practice, the study offers the following contribution; first, international human resource (IHR) managers can understand how people’s preferences, beliefs, and values differ which can help to improve collaborations among diverse employees for enhancing growth and profitability. Second, the study can help investors not to disregard the cultural orientations of both expatriates and inpatriates as a useful resource towards increasing profitability and sustaining a competitive edge in the global market given the increasing emphasis on foreign direct investment as propelling growth and development, especially in developing countries. Thirdly, the study can help direct regulatory frameworks of MNCs with cultural demands to address WDBs. Also, managers can improve opportunities available to MNCs to enhance 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh teamwork which can stimulate innovations to help the organisation sustain its competitive advantage. Finally, it can help provide managers with insight to foster harmony and cooperation necessary to harness individual talents and skills useful towards the attainment of organisational set goals, and tasks can be tailored to specific employee cultural orientation needs to avoid conflicts and enduring disagreements which affects productivity and reduced worker morale. Limitation of the study The following are some of the likely limitations that the study anticipates including but not limited to: First, given that the study examines cross-sectional data rather than longitudinal data, there is a difficulty in inferring causality in the relationships that would be observed. Second, extant studies have documented the challenge of relying on single-source, self-report methodology as it increases the threat of common method variance, nevertheless, consistent with Welbourne et al (2015), cultural value orientation and destructive workplace deviant behaviours are experienced at the individual level or personal level and may not always be observed by others, it is most appropriate to assess cultural value orientation and destructive workplace deviant behaviours using self-reports than observer ratings. Thirdly, a relatively larger sample size would have been ideal for the investigation to increase the robustness of the findings to aid ideal generalizability. The challenge of obtaining a relatively large sample size arises from the initial reservations expressed by some multinational organisations. This is because workplace deviance research is very sensitive (Shilpzand, 2016) given large scale unethical behaviours observed elsewhere (Like Enron, in the US) have made multinational 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisations unwilling to grant access for research on deviance. Despite that, sufficient sample size necessary for robust analysis using multiple regression is guaranteed. The challenge is that the generalization of the findings beyond the study context must be treated with caution. So long as such sample size is not insensitive to statistical tools like multiple regression, the sample size is considered appropriate for this study. Additionally, cultural orientation will be measured at the individual level rather than the national. Notwithstanding, it has been shown that measuring cultural variables at the individual level of analysis augment relationships (Jackson, Meyer, & Wang, 2013; Taras et al., 2011). Also, the study examines destructive workplace deviant behaviours (DWDBs) rather than constructive workplace deviant behaviours which can be a very useful recipe for MNCs quest for global expansion and profitability generation (Galperin, 2002; Warren, 2003). Nonetheless, the study investigates DWDBs because of their deleterious consequences which can affect organisational functioning. Finally, within-country MNCs are investigated such that participating MNCs operate in Ghana rather than between-country MNCs which limits the comparative strength of the study. Nonetheless, comparative strength within-country MNC is possible as it provides research direction for future investigators. 1.7.1 Delimitation of the study The study investigates employee cultural value orientation measured at the individual level rather than national country level as proxy and workplace deviance among employees in multinational companies operating in Ghana. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Studies have supported measuring cultural orientation at the individual level (Devinney, & Hohberger, 2017; Sharma, 2010; Hofstede et al., 2010; Markus & Kitayama, 1991) is as appropriate as at the national level even though cautions have been made by other scholars (Hofstede, 2001). Additionally, the study employs four of the six of Hofstede's cultural dimensions including individualism, collectivism, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations. These are selected as they are readily embedded in the organisational life of members. Also, the study undertakes as a secondary objective of investigating the moderating roles of perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership and employee commitment in the relationship between employee cultural value orientation and destructive workplace deviant behaviours. 1.8.1 Organisation of the study The thesis is organized into nine (9) chapters. Chapter One introduces the study by providing the background and contextualization of the study, statement of the problem, objectives and research questions. Chapter Two provides theoretical review on social exchange theory, Perceived organisational support theory, cultural orientation frameworks, and workplace deviance behaviour framework. Chapter Three reviews relevant empirical studies on the constructs of study and conceptual framework of the study together with hypotheses development. Chapter Four provides study context followed by Chapter Five which discusses the research methodology detailing mixed methods approach, research design and both quantitative and qualitative approaches in the current study. Chapter Six and Seven provides insight on presentation of quantitative and qualitative results respectively. Chapter Eight discusses the main findings of the study from both the quantitative and qualitative phases of the current study. Finally, Chapter Nine provides the summary, conclusion, recommendation and directions for future research. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF THEORETICAL LITERATURE 2.0 Introduction This chapter highlights theoretical literature that guides this study on two core aspects: first, an overview of theories that may explain hypothesized relationships between the main variables of study; and finally, the moderating effects of perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership and employee commitment in the relationship between the main variables of the study and provide justifications for the use of the theories in this study. 2.1 Theoretical framework Management, organisational behaviour and human resource management as well as cross-cultural researchers have undertaken countless efforts to understand and explain the life of organisations domestically and internationally. This is done to improve organisational existence and enhance profitability especially in the modern age of business operations. Several theories have been employed to understand individual and group behaviours in organisations. Consistently, the current study draws on theoretical perspectives of social exchange, perceived organisational support theory, and ethical leadership theory as well as deviant behaviour and Hofstede’s cultural orientation frameworks in explaining the relationship between employees' cultural orientations and workplace deviance. Also, these theories and perspectives explain the moderating roles of perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership and employee commitment on the relationship between the main variables in the study. 2.2.0 Social exchange theory (SET) SET is one of the most stable and generally used conceptual frameworks (Cropanzano & Rupp, 2008; Cropanzao, Anthony, Daniels & Hall, 2017; Redmon, 2015; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Dijkstra, 2015; Muldoon, Liguori, Bendickson, & Bauman, 2018; Wikhamn & Hall, 2012), which has been applied in several disciplines including sociology, anthropology, social psychology, psychology, cross-cultural studies, management, organisational behaviour and HRM research. In management, organisational behaviour and HRM research, SET have been employed in understanding organisational justice, psychological contract, leadership, board independence, counterproductive work behaviour (CWB) and or WDBs (See Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; Cropanzano et al., 2017). SET is a family of conceptual models (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005) because it transcends a single discipline as well as a single theory (Cropanzano et al., 2017; Muldoon et al., 2018). Additionally, SET has also featured prominently as a theoretical foundation in explaining organisationally relevant issues including organisational support, intra-organisation relationships, trust, other aspects of leadership, personality research, organisational commitment, job satisfaction, turnover, and workplace safety (Muldoon et al., 2018). This is made possible because of the theory's usefulness, practicality and relevance in allowing one to easily test and operationalize constructs in research studies. Further, it makes it possible for researchers to grasp 'the how' and 'the what' aspects of human interaction, especially in the organisational context. (Muldoon et al., 2018; Coyle-Shapiro & Conway, 2004). Members in an organisation engage in diverse exchange relationships in an anticipation of deriving peculiar benefits over costs. This is not different from the multicultural workforce in various multinational companies (MNCs) operating in distant localities other than their originating countries. SET is noted to provide a theoretical lens in understanding the reciprocal relationships that characterize employees of MNCs such that members are more likely to reciprocate something of value such as recognition, approval, respect, dignity, and appreciation that they have received to the source of that benefit as they consider it as obligatory to sustain the relationship. SET 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh involves a series of interdependent interactions, contingent on the actions of the other partner(s) in the social relationship, and generate obligations (Wikhamn & Hall, 2012). Using SET helps in understanding the development and deepening of intangible resources such as trust, justice, fairness, commitment, positive affect, gratitude, social approval, and appreciation that emerge among employees in the organisation (Blau, 1964; Cropanzano et al., 2017). These resources are key to organisational existence and profitability expansion efforts. When employees believe in their organisations’ effort towards helping them to enhance their career opportunities, respect and recognize their uniqueness and dignity, and value their contribution, they tend to remain committed which translates into increased productivity (Worley, 2006). It is no coincidence that a number of the most important topics in organisational behaviour has been examined using SET (Cropanzano et al., 2017; Muldoon et al., 2018). Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) invite continuing investigation into exchange relationships to understand how exchange ideological beliefs influence organisational relationships relative to employees. One assumption of SET is that social life entails a sequence of transactions that occur between or among parties in a relationship (Mitchell, Cropanzano, & Quisenberry, 2012) such that parties exchange resources (rewards or cost) through a norm of reciprocity in which one party repays or returns gesture (whether good or bad) to another party (Gouldner, 1960). Reciprocity implies repayment, either in kind, cash, activity, or favour, which may or may not be proportionate, for activity or action done to one another. In a multinational context, things reciprocated may include respecting and recognizing the uniqueness and dignity of one another, helping one another to complete tasks, standing in for another if one is unavailable at the time of the activity or display of aggression as payback or revenge for mistreatment. The second assumption of SET stresses the quality of the exchange relationship associated with the human nature between the initiator and 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the target (Blau, 1964; Cropanzano & Rupp, 2008) which impacts endurance and sustained relationship between the parties involved. Forms of exchange Both economic exchange and social exchange are emphasized with the former stressing quid pro quo (that is., giving something out to receive something in return or equal exchange) and it involves less trust and is more concerned with active monitoring. The latter tends to be open-ended and yields greater trust and flexibility (Cropanzano & Rupp, 2008; Organ, 1988, 1990). The nature of the economic exchange is usually an explicit and formal one, where each party fulfils specific obligations. Social exchange, in contrast, involves unspecified obligations: "favours that create and diffuse future obligations, not precisely specified ones, and the nature of the return cannot be bargained about but must be left to the discretion of the one who makes it” (Blau, 1964, p. 93). Blau continued, "in contrast to economic commodities, the benefits involved in social exchange do not have an exact price in terms of a single quantitative medium of exchange" (1964, p. 94). Thus, social exchange relationships may be implicit but not always explicitly stated, unlike economic exchanges where reciprocal obligations are expressly stated (Cropanzano & Rupp, 2008; Van Knippenberg, Van Dick & Tavares, 2007). Additionally, economic exchanges require a proportionate exchange of tangible resources between parties, unlike social exchanges where proportional reciprocation of rewards and costs may be impossible due to the presence of intangible resources which may lack equal quantification (Cropanzano & Rupp, 2008). Hence, social exchanges are left to the subjective interpretation of both parties which make the theory useful in cross-cultural research as it can shed more light on how differential cultural backgrounds of employees subjectively interpret exchanges between and or among coworkers in the organisational setting. For example, in social exchange, the value of 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh trust and helping one completes a task are equally valued, unlike economic exchanges where trust and helping one completes a task may elicit differential value. Also, extant research distinguishes reciprocal exchange from negotiated exchange (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; Cropanzano et al., 2017; Molm, 2003). Reciprocal exchanges can occur when people experience a cost while providing a reward for their partners without specifying the exact nature of repayment but usually with an expectation that some form of repayment will happen sometime in the future. Such exchanges tend to be voluntary and typically occur as a result of relationships established by prior successful exchanges (Mitchell, et al., 2012). In the case of a negotiated exchange, parties engage in a discussion and negotiation of the exchange being fully aware of what is expected of one another. Processes of social exchange The processes in social exchanges take place between the initiator of action and the recipient of the intended action. This may endear the recipient to return with positive or negative reactions directed at the initiator (Cropanzano et al., 2017). The initiator of the action may be the organisational representative (or supervisor), coworker, or other stakeholders of the organisation. Similarly, the recipient of the initiating behaviour may also be the supervisor, coworker, or other stakeholders. Consequently, organisational support, justice or fairness, and valuing employee contribution may be viewed as favourable (or positive) initiating behaviours whilst incivility, injustice, abusive supervision, disrespect, discrimination, bullying, unfairness or inequity, denigration etc. may be viewed as unfavourable (or negative) initiating behaviours (Cropanzano et al., 2017). 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The recipient of the initiating action may return the treatment depending upon how the target interprets the treatment such that if it is interpreted as good, the target tends to reciprocate in good fashion to sustain the exchange relationship. However, if the recipient considers the initiating behaviour as bad, the recipient is likely to return or repay the source of the treatment with bad treatment as an expression of dislike or disapproval of such treatment. Cropanzano et al., (2017, p. 2) refer to recipients' available responses to initiator's behaviour as "reciprocating responses". Therefore, SET presupposes that, individuals respond positively to positive treatment and negatively to negative treatment. That is, in reacting to positive enacting actions, recipients are likely to reciprocate in kind by enacting more positive or favourable responses, and or fewer or more negative reciprocating responses as a reaction to negative initiating behaviours. The type of response from the recipient of treatment reinforces subsequent behaviour tendency and or attitudinal or relational tendency between the parties in the exchange relationship. Hence, recipients of good treatment from source or initiator are likely to sustain the relationship by giving off their best, becoming highly committed, protecting organisational property and interests, developing more trust, engaging in more organisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) and greater possibility of avoiding workplace deviance (both interpersonal and organisational deviance) etc. (e. g. Schyns & Schilling, 2013). Central to SET is the norm of reciprocity, which describes an individual's tendencies of a quid pro quo nature, whether positive or negative in organisations (Gobel, Vogel & Weber, 2013; Wang, Bowling, Tian, Alarcon, & Kwan, 2016). Negative reciprocity describes a situation where those who hurt others are expected to suffer a similar fate thereby legitimizing acts of retribution against the source of aggression and the opposite holds for positive reciprocity (Cropanzano & Rupp, 2008; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; Gobel et al., 2013; Gouldner 1960). Consequently, both the 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employee and the employer apply the reciprocity norm to their relationship to the extent that favourable treatment received by either party is reciprocated, leading to beneficial outcomes for both (Rhodes & Eisenberger, 2002; Gobel et al., 2013). The propositions of SET make it ideal for this study given that individuals subjectively interpret beneficial outcomes largely based on their subjective experiences drawn from their contextual factors such as cultural orientation. People may evaluate the same or similar behaviour differently which leads to differential responses (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; Cropanzano et al., 2017; Narayanan & Murphy, 2017). SET suggests that people behave badly because they have been treated badly in the past and behave well because they have received good behaviour from the target in the past (Cropanzano et al., 2017). In organisations, social exchange theorists contend that when employees feel that their organisation provides necessary attention to their welfare, approval, needs, career progression, autonomy etc., they willingly commit high levels of effort to achieving organisational goals as an expression of their appreciation for the organisation's support. Similarly, where employees feel or perceive a sense of mistreatment from the organisation, they are more likely to become dissatisfied; less committed, and become unconcerned about whether or not the organisation achieves its goals. They are more likely to reciprocate this mistreatment with negative behaviours (Alias et al., 2012; Gobel et al., 2013). Consequently, social exchanges lead not only to trust and positive affect among employees (Cole, Schaninger, & Harris, 2002; Muldoon et al., 2018) but also distrust and negative effects especially when positive returns are not forthcoming. SET has been used in several studies examining leadership (Mayer et al., 2012), perceived organisational support (Farasat & Ziaddini, 2013), personality (Yildiz et al., 2015), and justice (Holtz & Harold, 2013). Research has shown that workplace deviant behaviours (WDBs) have been used in previous studies as criterion 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh variables to test SET (El Akremi, Vandenberghe, & Camerman, 2010). In the current study, SET is employed to explain both the human nature expressed in cultural orientation and the quality of the exchange relationships expressed in respect, recognition, approval, fairness, trust, and social worth or value towards employees with different cultural backgrounds which can lead to workplace deviance directed at other coworkers and or at the organisation itself as well as help unearth the deep seated meanings employees attach to workplace deviance and their exchange relationships. It is therefore warranted to investigate the role of cultural orientation of multicultural workforce in MNCs in the Ghanaian context in workplace deviance by employing SET similar to what has been undertaken in western-based studies. Strengths of SET SET helps organisations and their constituents to understand relationships well in terms of why employees behave as they do. Also, SET explains why employees are committed to organisational goals at one point in time and uncommitted to the same organisational goals at another point in time. Additionally, SET is considered ideal in this study because according to Guo, Sun and Dai (2018, p. 165), “social exchange is influenced by interpersonal relations and social environment" as it involves power and resource allocation in human interactions. Given that workplace deviance occurrence is intricately connected with power dimension and resource allocation, SET is far superior in helping us understand the relationship between cultural orientation and workplace deviance in a multinational context. Furthermore, SET has proven utility not only in studies that focus on the macro-level of a society but also it can be applied to studies that concern the micro-level of an organisation (Chen & Choi, 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2005). Hence, SET has earned the reputation of being flexible and generalizable (Muldoon et al., 2018). For this reason, the researcher finds it feasible and appropriate to apply SET in the current investigation. Finally, SET has been used in investigating workplace deviance of employees in organisations. For example, Low et al., (2019) employed SET in examining the impact of abusive supervision on counterproductive work behaviours of nurses in Malaysia and found that nurses with a high level of power distance orientation are less likely to perceive abusive supervision as injustice. Weakness of SET First, SET has been found to lack sufficient theoretical precision (Cropanzano et al., 2017). Second, SET has been criticized for its limited utility (Cropanzano et al., 2005). Finally, the problem is that SET fails to provide strong theoretical reasons for distinguishing among different antecedents and consequences (Cropanzano et al., 2017). Nevertheless, the authors concede that concepts that provide high correlations among themselves are difficult to distinguish theoretically. This is because such concepts act similarly as conceptual function within SET, as either enacting actions or reciprocating responses. It is in view that SET is viewed to provide inadequate conceptual reasons for distinguishing one from the other. 2.3.0 Perceived organisational support theory (POST) Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, and Sowa, (1986) defined perceived support as the extent to which one exchange partner values the contributions of the other and shows concern for his or her well-being. The construct is labelled perceived organisational support, or POS when targeted at an organisation (Eisenberger et al., 1986), but when targeted at a supervisor, the construct is labelled perceived supervisor support, or PSS (Eisenberger, Stinglhamber, Vandenberghe, Sucharski, & 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Rhoades, 2002). Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) define perceived organisational support (POS) as “the extent to which employees perceive that their contributions are valued by their organisation and that the organisation cares about their well-being” (p. 698). Organisational support theory describes the intricate relationships between employers and employees in producing POS (Wikhamn & Hall, 2012). This theory suggests that employees develop universal beliefs about the degree to which their organisations value the contributions and cares about employees’ well-being (Kurtessis et al., 2015; Rhodes & Eisenberger, 2002). Perceived organisational support is considered to be the single most common means of capturing social exchange relationships, with the benefits examined including justice, developmental experiences, promotions, and inclusion and the reciprocating behaviours including citizenship behaviour, counterproductive behaviour, job performance, and turnover (e.g., Colquitt et al., 2014, El Akremi et al., 2010; Moorman et al., 1998; Tekleab, Takeuchi, & Taylor, 2005). POST gives employees a sense of assurance that the organisation they work for will provide help when it is needed to carry out one's task effectively as well as help deal with stressful situations (Rhodes & Eisenberger, 2002). Also, employees are more likely to perceive high POS from the organisation if organisational rewards and favourable job conditions such as recognition, loyalty, appreciation, approval, fairness, respect, pay, promotions, job enrichment, and influence over organisational policies result from the organisation’s voluntary actions, rather than arising from external sources such as union negotiations or governmental health and safety regulations (Rhodes & Eisenberger, 2002). Studies on POS have demonstrated a relationship between the construct and other employees as well as organisational outcomes including extra-role behaviour (Chen, Eisenberger, Johnson, Sucharski, & Aselage, 2009), and safety at work (Eder & Eisenberger, 2008), workplace deviance (Chen, Fah, & Jin, 2016), and affective organisational commitment (Farh et al., 2007). 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Organisational support theory proposes that organisations possess humanlike attributes made up of agents who work in diverse ways to ensure the functioning and existence of the whole organisation (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Kurtessis, Eisenberger, Ford, Buffardi, Stewart, & Adis, 2015; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Generally, organisational support theory suggests that employees who receive valued resources in the past (e.g., pay raises, developmental training opportunities) tend to develop positive POS and feel obligated, based on the reciprocity norm to aspire to reciprocate the organisation by helping it attain its objectives (Neves & Eisenberger, 2014). For example, employees with high POS have been found to reciprocate with increased in- role and extra-role performance (Eisenberger et al., 2001). Organisational support expressed through supervisor support invokes the principle of the norm of reciprocity which guides social exchanges between supervisors and subordinates at the workplace. Thus, supervisor social support tends to attract positive reciprocating supportive behaviours from employees to the organisation indirectly and the supervisor in particular since supervisors serve as agents of the organisation (Sakurai & Jex, 2012). This is made possible because supervisor's supportive behaviours towards employees engender feelings of self-worth and the development of the belief that supervisors will continue to sustain the positive benefits they enjoy in the future. This endears subordinates to repay supervisors’ kind gestures shown to them by becoming more engaged employees to the task at hand and the organisation in general (Eisenberger, Malone, & Presson, 2016; Sakurai & Jex, 2012; Saks, 2006), thereby increasing employee performance towards the organisation. On the contrary, the absence of supervisor supportive behaviours implies that employees are lacking other socioemotional needs, which can be effective in reducing coworker incivilities, bullying, aggression, which may arise from lack of felt obligation that results in the development of negative feelings with coworkers (Greenberg, 2008). 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Consequently, the actions of organisational agents are interpreted as emanating from the intentions of the organisation rather than the personal motives of the agents (Rhodes & Eisenberger, 2002). Employees, therefore, interpret the legal, moral, and financial responsibilities of organisational agents as a reflection and extension of the organisation’s policies, norms, and culture which provides continuity and define role behaviours; and also allows organisational agents to exert power over individual employees (Rhodes & Eisenberger, 2002). In light of the personification of the organisation, employees tend to view their perceived favourable or unfavourable treatment as an indication that the organisation supports or disfavours them. Also, employees are more likely to perceive high POS from the organisation if organisational rewards and favourable job conditions such as pay, promotions, job enrichment, and influence over organisational policies emanate from the organisation’s voluntary actions, rather than arising from external sources such as union negotiations or governmental health and safety regulations (Rhodes & Eisenberger, 2002; Spector, Bauer, & Fox, 2010) Also, Rhodes and Eisenberger (2002) suggest that POST provides certain psychological processes which facilitate POS. First, POS is more likely to yield felt obligation from employees towards the organisation based on the norm of reciprocity to care about the welfare of the organisation and commit much effort towards attaining organisational objectives. Secondly, given that employees receive caring, approval, and respect from the organisation which helps to fulfil socioemotional needs and desires, they are more likely to embrace organisational identity and role status into their social identity (Kurtessis et al., 2015). Finally, POS is likely to strengthen the beliefs of employees in so far as they are aware of the organisation's recognition and rewards associated with increased performance. POST suggests that employees POS arises from social exchange processes in which felt obligation on the part of employees drive them to help the organisation achieve its goals and 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh objectives and this results in the expectation that increased effort towards the organisation will elicit greater rewards from the organisation in return (Kurtessis et al., 2015). Extant research has documented the relationship between POS and organisational as well as employee outcomes, as shown above, nevertheless, little has shown how POS can influence the impact of culture on work outcomes such as workplace deviance. When employees hold a positive perception about their organisation concerning the care, value, respect, and deep concern for their wellbeing, they are more likely to feel obligated to reciprocate positive treatment in terms of developing strong attachment, identification and involvement with such organisation to ensure the success of the organisation even if their cultural orientation suggest otherwise. In light of the above, employees with high POS are more likely to enact greater positive job-related efforts, which can yield enhanced in-role job performance and extra-role performance which can be helpful to the organisation even where there is incompatibility of cultural value orientation. On the contrary, employees with diminished POS are more likely to engage in more negative organisational outcomes such as absenteeism, lateness, misappropriation of company funds, deliberately working slow, and display of aggression towards coworkers, acting rudely towards other workers, tardiness, withdrawal, and turnover intentions. 2.4.0 Workplace deviant behaviour (WDBs) WDBs receive continuous scholarly attention because of their potential far-reaching consequences on an organisation's existence and attainment of goals, or individuals or both (Chirasha, & Mahapa, 2012; Fagbohungbe, Akinbode, & Ayodeji, 2012; Marcus et al., 2016; Robinson & Bennett, 2000; Yildiz et al., 2015; Low et al., 2019). They affect decision-making processes, productivity and financial costs of the organisation (Liu & Ding, 2012; Mazni & Roziah, 2011; Shoss, Eisenberger, Restubog, & Zagenczyk, 2013; Low et al., 2019). As a result, both practitioners and academics are 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concerned to understand the phenomenon and its' various drivers or motivators (Bolton, & Grawitch, 2011; Chiu, Yeh, & Huang, 2015; Ishaq, & Shamsher, 2016) Deviance generally refers to when one deviates from expected behaviour or standards of behaviour (Goode & Ben-Yehuda, 2009). Collins Dictionary defines deviance as "the state of being deviant". It goes on to define a deviant person as "deviating, as from what is considered acceptable behaviour". Whereas criminality or illegality describes violating laws or criminal codes which spell out acts in the national laws or government-backed decisions with corresponding sanctions, deviance is the contravention of social, cultural and or ethical norms which may not necessarily possess definitive sanctions for their violations (Lugosi, 2019). Thus, sociologically, all criminality or illegality constitutes deviance but not all deviance is illegal. Hence, deviance arises from societal reactions or social creations according to labelling theorists (E.g., Becker, 1966). Accordingly, the common ground drawn from scholarly definitions of deviance notably from management and organisation science literature shows that the behaviour is willful or volitional that is geared towards invoking harm on the organisation or other members of the organisation, or both (Ishaq & Shamsher, 2015; Robinson & Bennett, 2003). A definitional conundrum exists among workplace deviance scholars. For example, deviance is typically defined according to Cropanzano et al., (2017) as behaviour that (1) violates acceptable standards of conduct and is (2) destructive. Vardi and Weitz (2004, p. 3) define organisational misbehaviour as "acts in the workplace that are done intentionally and constitute a violation of rules about such behaviours." Also, according to Gruys and Sackett (2003, p. 30), counterproductive workplace behaviour is ‘any intentional behaviour on the part of an organisation member viewed by the organisation as contrary to its legitimate interests.’ Robinson and Bennett (1995, p. 556) define workplace deviance as any “voluntary behaviour of organisational members 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that violate significant organisational norms and, in so doing, threaten the well-being of the organisation and/or its members or both”. In an attempt to conceptualize the deviance construct as distinct from norm violation since some organisational cultures seek to normalize destructive behaviours, Bennett et al., (2005) redefined the deviance construct. Thus, if we define deviance to include norm violation, then any organisational norm that supports such actions as shareholder swindling renders the definition invalid (Cropanzano et al., 2017). Bennett, Aquino, Reed, and Thau (2005, p.111) redefined deviance as "the voluntary behaviour of organisational members that have the potential to cause harm to the organisation, to those within, and in so doing violates significant performance-enhancing norms". That is, a behaviour qualifies to be deviant when it threatens the overall accomplishment and well-being of an organisation (Cropanzano et al., 2017) and its members. Giacalone and Greenberg (1997) view antisocial behaviours as actions or inactions that bring harm or are intended to bring harm to an organisation, its employees and/or stakeholders. In the same vein, Griffin et al., (1998) conceive dysfunctional behaviour in organisations as actions that have detrimental consequences for an individual, group or organisation. A closer look at the definitions offered above reveals the diverse focus, scope, and targets that each scholar attaches to the concept. From the foregone, deviant behaviours are typically discretionary, voluntary, intentional or willful, aimed at violating organisational norms, practices, expectations, and impose or inflict harm on both the organisation and its members or other stakeholders (Hussain & Sia, 2017; Bennet & Robinson, 1995; Klotz & Buckley, 2013; Logosi, 2019; Low et al., 2019). In this study, employee behaviour is deviant when it is willfully enacted to violate organisations' customs, policies, or internal regulations which may affect or harm the well-being of the organisation itself or its citizens or both either now or in the future (Hussain & Sia, 2017; Robinson & Bennett, 1995). WDBs can 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh be subtle and ambiguous like incivility or violent and unambiguous such as aggressive workplace behaviours. Also, Fagbohungbe et al., (2012) contend that these behaviours can occur simultaneously, singly, or even sequentially. These undesirable behaviours have been termed by organisational scholars as destructive workplace deviance (Bennett & Robinson, 2003), counterproductive workplace behaviours (Mangione & Quinn, 1975), antisocial behaviours (Giacolone & Greenberg, 1997), workplace incivility (Andersson & Pearson, 1999; Schilpzand et al., 2016), unethical behaviour (Brown, Trevino, & Harrison, 2005), organisational misbehaviour (Vardi & Wietz, 2004; Richards, 2008), ‘insidious’ (Greenberg, 2010), maladaptive (Perlow & Latham, 1993), ‘dysfunctional behaviour’ (Griffin et al., 1998), and retaliation (Skarlicki & Folger, 2004). These entire terms and others primarily refer to behaviours of employees that affect the stability and success of an organisation as well as the well-being of employees but diverse names emerge from differences in the focus and scope of authors' conceptualization. Among these terms identified in the literature, the most commonly used ones are workplace deviant behaviours (WDBs) and counterproductive workplace behaviours (CWBs), and that readers would most likely see them being used interchangeably in this study. Research in workplace deviance has conceptualized deviance as a reaction or retaliatory mechanism to perceived unjust experiences at work (Chirasha & Mahapa, 2012; Sims, 2010), or by a desire for personal gain or the need to vent or express discrete emotions such as anger or frustration (Robinson & Bennett, 2000), or an adaptation to organisational stressors which results in dissatisfaction, frustration, anxiety, anger as a way of coping with frustration or as a reflection of the organisation's culture (Lawrence & Robinson, 2007; Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007). Examples of (destructive) workplace deviance include but are not limited to purposely doing work 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh incorrectly, taking unauthorized work breaks, unauthorized absence from work, insulting others, hitting a co-worker, yelling at others, talking loudly on the phone about a personal matter during working hours, not sharing information, gossiping, undermining fellow employees, arriving at work late, employee withdrawal, verbal attack on customers; keeping customers waiting longer than necessary; theft of company property; and hoarding work-relevant information from a co- worker, unnecessary conversation within working hours, lying about hours worked, teasing and making a mockery of other employees, fighting other workers, unnecessary delaying about work task, and destroying organisational property (Onuoha, 2013), ridiculing, making negative comments, and degrading one's worth (Sulea et al., 2013). Forms of workplace deviance can also include vandalism, theft, aggressive behaviour, sexual harassment, sabotage, embezzlement, insubordination and withholding effort, frustration, burnout, and turnover intention among others (Hussain & Sia, 2017). In addition, ridiculing, lying to, stealing ideas from coworkers or supervisors, and ignoring subordinates constitute instances of workplace deviant behaviours. Bowles and Gelfand (2010) argue that emphasis in workplace deviance research should go beyond the validation of workplace deviance construct (Bennett & Robinson, 2000; Dalal, 2005), identification of antecedents and consequences (Bennett & Robinson, 2003; Berry et al., 2007), as well as advocating preventive measures to include understanding the subjectivity in the evaluation of workplace deviance in attempt to address potential discrimination associated with the evaluation of workplace deviance and illuminate the grey areas of how workplace deviance reveal psychological processes that reinforce status hierarchies in organisations. 2.4.1 Overview of the historical development of workplace deviant behaviour Chen, Fah, and Jin (2016) concur that workplace deviance has been a thorny issue among scholars of workplace deviance and organisational behaviour researchers in recent times. Mangione and 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Quinn (1975) identified two types of deviance: counterproductive behaviour, characterized by the intention of destroying the property of the employer, and doing little on the job, referring to obtaining results in a smaller quantity and lower quality than normal. Historians in organisational science identified occurrences of workplace deviance preceding the industrial revolution (Bailey, 1998; Klotz & Buckley, 2013) through the industrial revolution (Wren & Bedeian, 2009) up to the machine-breaking period experienced by foremost management torchbearer Frederick Taylor when he was conducting his experiments at Midvale Steel Company in Philadelphia from 1878- 1890 (O'Connor, 1996; Wren & Bedeian, 2009). Taylor sought to cut the piece-rate of pay of employees working on machines in the spirit of encouraging them to increase productivity which received retaliation from workers as they engaged in the deliberate destruction of production equipment (Taylor, 1903; Wren & Bedeian, 2009). The employees on the machines perceived Taylor’s pay cut measure as unjust which elicited such deviating response (Klotz & Buckley, 2013). Hollinger and Clarke (1982) are said to have spearheaded research in employees’ destructive workplace behaviours which led to two broad categorizations of counterproductive behaviours, namely: deviance directed at destruction or unauthorized taking of company property, which they called property deviance such as stealing or theft; and deviance directed at thwarting/hindering production efforts of companies, called production deviance such as tardiness, work delays, withdrawal behaviours, coming to work late etc. (Hollinger & Davies, 2006). Hollinger and Clark (1983) offered a definition of workplace deviance that continues to receive a widespread citation. They defined employee theft as 'the unauthorized taking, control, or transfer of money and/or property of the formal work organisation perpetrated by an employee during the occupational activity which is related to his or her employment (Hollinger & Clark, 1983, p. 1). They 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh distinguished between the two major forms of employee theft, namely, property deviance and production deviance. Property deviance refers to situations in which employees illegally acquire or damage tangible property or organisational assets, whereas production deviance concerns counterproductive behaviour that violates the formally proscribed expectations of daily work production. Property deviance includes such acts as financial embezzlement, pilferage, theft of goods, or sabotage. Thus, production deviance entails 'stealing of time' in which workers get paid for hours not worked, absenteeism or tardiness, abusing leave granted, or failing to promptly accomplish tasks (Hollinger & Clark, 1983). It was not until 1995 that researchers Robinson and Bennett were (and are still) credited to have popularized deviant workplace behaviours as they sought to combine known destructive workplace deviant behaviours into a single comprehensive multidimensional framework to provide a focus for researchers concerned with deviant behaviours at the workplace (Hussain & Sia, 2017). Their typology of deviant behaviours contained four quadrants as they added two dimensions, political deviance and personal aggression, to those already identified by Hollinger and Clark (1983). These quadrants were identified along with two main concerns: target and degree of seriousness of the deviance. With the former, we can identify organisation-directed deviance such as property deviance and production deviance. Regarding the latter, we can identify employee-directed deviance including political deviance and personal aggression. Regarding the seriousness of the deviance, property deviance and personal aggression are serious than political and production deviance which are considered to be minor in terms of the degree of seriousness, hence, the designation serious vs minor (Robinson & Bennett, 1995). It is reported that Bennett and Robinson (2000) revised their typology of deviant behaviours which was developed from a multidimensional scaling study with an emphasis on target and degree of 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh severity in 1995 as a result of later research based on frequencies of self-report Counterproductive Work Behaviours (CWBs) (Marcus et al., 2016). They abandoned the severity dimension in their revision for lack of support but were able to maintain the target dimension which focused on organisational deviance-interpersonal deviance (OD-ID) distinction using factor analytic methods (Bennett & Robinson, 2000; Fox, 2008). It must however be noted that Bennett and Robinson's (2000) two subcategories are probably the most well-established and often-researched dimensions of CWB (Marcus et al., 2016). As a result, the current study draws on the classification of workplace deviance advocated by Robinson and Bennett (1995) consistent with prior studies (Hussain & Sia, 2017). 2.4.2 Classification of WDBs Extant research in workplace deviance has provided classifications of workplace deviance according to some identified criteria, namely, target versus seriousness and helping versus harming workplace deviance. Based on target, two can be identified, namely, interpersonal deviance and organisational deviance (Bennett & Robinson, 2000). Interpersonal deviance involves a volitional violation of significant organisational norms that harms individuals or other employees in the organisation with either serious consequences such as physical aggression, violence, fighting, or mild consequences such as frustrating other workers, ridiculing, showing favouritism towards one against the other. Organisational deviance, on the other hand, refers to intentionally disregarding significant norms whose harm is directed to the organisation such as production deviance including absenteeism, lateness, deliberately working slowly, with less serious consequences and property deviance such as theft, fraud, vandalism, destruction of company properties etc. which has intense consequences (Bennett & Robinson, 2000; Robinson & Bennett, 1995; Sulea et al, 2013). 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appelbaum et al. (2007) contend that Robinson and Bennett (1995) typology is useful in classifying workplace deviant behaviours by the organisational climate. Workplace deviance is also classified according to whether such behaviours are helpful or harmful to the organisation. On this basis, workplace deviance is categorized in the literature into harmful behaviours (destructive or negative) and helping (constructive or positive) behaviours (Appelbaum et al., 2007; Yildiz et al., 2015). Research on constructive deviance has generally considered deviant behaviours as constructive if they are intentionally initiated to violate the norms of a referent group in an honourable way (Appelbaum et al., 2007; Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2004; Warren, 2003). In the words of Spreitzer and Sonenshein (2004), constructive deviance is defined as "intentional behaviours that depart from the norms of a referent group in honourable ways". Galperin (2002) also defines constructive deviant behaviours as "intentional behaviours, which break significant organisational norms and rules to improve and contribute to the well-being of the organisation, its members or both". Vadera and colleagues (2013) identify three defining attributes in previous definitions of constructive deviance including (a) deviation from the reference group norms, (b) such behaviours benefit rather than harm the referent group; and (c) such behaviours conform to hyper norms. This study lay focus on the destructive aspects of deviant behaviours because of their unimaginable negative consequences on the organisation, employees, and stakeholders. From the above, we can identify two targets of deviance at the workplace: Individual and the organisation. Deviance directed to the individual (ID), we can identify two forms, namely: political and personal aggression. Amongst the two, Robinson and Bennett (1995) contend that personal aggression, including sexual harassment, verbal abuse, stealing from coworkers, and endangering coworkers, is considered more serious than political deviance which consists of behaviours such 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as showing favouritism, gossiping about coworkers, blaming coworkers, and competing non- beneficially. Hence, their division of such deviance into minor and serious forms of deviance is directed at the individual at the workplace. Similarly, with the deviance directed towards the organisation (OD), production deviance, example, leaving early before closing time, taking frequent breaks and not returning early when break time is over, deliberately working slow and wasting organisational resources, is considered by the authors as less serious in comparison to the more serious form of deviance directed towards the organisation as property deviance including sabotaging, accepting kickbacks, lying about hours worked, theft etc. It is reported that Bennett and Robinson (2000) maintained the target dimension which focused on OD-ID distinction utilizing factor analytic methods from their revision of their multidimensional scaling dimensions (Bennett & Robinson, 2000; Fox, 2008). Unlike the earlier 1995 study which showed that OD and ID are endpoints of the same dimension (Target dimension), these targets of CWB are now conceptualized as different constructs (Marcus et al., 2016). The current two-factor constructs (OD-ID distinction) find support in meta-analyses by (Berry et al., 2007; Dalal, 2005) for the discriminant validity which confirms that correlation patterns of the two factors with outside variables are partially different. Although the typology reflected deviance in general, scholars have criticized the typology for overwhelmingly focusing on negative deviant behaviours at the workplace. 2.4.3 Antecedents of WDBs WDBs is very prevalent and costly to organisations (Gill, Meyer, Lee, Shin, & Yoon, 2009). Existing research on antecedents of workplace deviance has been categorized according to intra- personal, inter-personal, job-related, and organisational factors (Mazni & Roziah, 2011). Bennett and Robinson (2003) provided three broad distinct research trends in workplace deviant research: 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh first, studies where deviance is conceptualized as a reaction to experiences at work; second, studies that assess deviance as a reflection of employees' personality; and finally, studies that explore deviance as an adaptation to the social context at work. Intrapersonal related factors Intrapersonal factors are those that emanate from an individual's own biological, physiological, emotional, and cognitive bases of behaviour that ultimately result in deliberate harm to the organisation or coworkers or both, either sequentially or at one point in time. The research draws on unique individual qualities, personality, demographics, values, beliefs about rightness or wrongness, cognitions, and attitudes that can help explain an individual's workplace deviance (Bechtoldt, Welk, Hartig, & Zapf, 2007; Berry et al., 2007; Onuoha, 2013; Valentine & Rittenburg, 2007). Personality attributes are found to be positively related to predisposition which ultimately explains workplace behaviours of individuals (Bechtoldt et al., 2007; Berry et al., 2007). Research that draws on intra-personal factors as antecedents includes negative cognition (Yunus, Khalid, & Nordin, 2012), sleep deprivation (Christian & Ellis, 2011), negative affectivity (Muafi, 2011), boredom (Bruursemaa et al., 2011), employees’ cognitive style (Hung et al., 2009; Liu, Kwan, Wu & Wu, 2010), employee motivational traits and emotional intelligence (Liu et al., 2010), intention to quit (Muafi, 2011; Tepper et al., 2009), trait anger, attitude revenge (Hershcovis et al., 2007; Ishaq & Shamsher, 2016), perceiving injustice (Cohen-Charash & Mueller, 2007; Liu & Ding, 2012), personality trait causing workplace deviance (Yunus et al., 2012), psychological factors (Onuoha, 2013). Specifically, Hitlan and Noel (2009) found a relationship between personality and CWB in a study of workplace exclusion and personality on CWBs. Interpersonal related factors 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Interpersonal factors transcend the individual circles to how he/she relate with other people in the social environment such as coworkers, customers, and supervisors. In the case of interpersonal, the research draws on situational variables to explain how individuals relate with one another in the social context they find themselves. Some of the factors identified by scholars include revenge attitude (Ishaq & Shamsher, 2016; Jones, 2009), alienation (Yildiz & Alpkan, 2015), social support (Chiu et al., 2015), personality (Bowling & Eschleman, 2010), interactional justice (Liu & Ding, 2012), coworker loafing (Hung et al., 2009), stress (Omar, Halim, Zainah, Farhadi, Nasir, & Khairudin, 2011). For instance, scholars have shown a relationship between Machiavellianism and both interpersonal and organisational deviance (Appelbaum et al., 2007). Machiavellianism refers to the individuals' inclination to manipulate others to achieve personal goals. What is lacking is the contextual role of societal culture in explaining workplace deviance which requires research attention. This study rises to this call to fill the research gap. Job characteristics related factors Job characteristics factors involve attributes of the job that can lead to CWBs by employees such as work alienation, workload, (role stressors such as role overload, role conflict, role ambiguity), powerlessness, excessive supervisor expectations, job autonomy, job stress, and demanding jobs are noted to predict workplace deviance. For instance, Chiu and associates (2015) found that role conflict and role ambiguity have a positive relationship with both organisational and interpersonal deviance even though the latter was more strongly related to organisational than interpersonal deviance whilst role overload was found to negatively correlate with organisational deviance. Similarly, Javed, Amjad, Mfaqeer-Ul-Ummi and Bukhari (2014) found in their study on factors affecting employee workplace deviance that job burnout strongly predicted employee workplace deviance. Onuoha (2013) provides a similar finding in support of job burnout predicting workplace 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh deviance. Omar et al., (2011) find that job stress predicts workplace deviance. Radzali, Ahmad and Omar (2013) suggest that workers with a heavy workload, high job stress and high intensity of family-to-work conflict tend to exhibit deviance at the workplace. These studies indicate the influence of job characteristics on WDBs. Organisational related factors Organisational factors are those that emanate from the organisation that can result in employee deviance such as injustice, abusive supervision, organisational expectations, organisational justice, code of ethics, organisational climate and organisational culture, and type of leadership, denigration, and disrespect. Organisations that perpetuate stressful environments and a sense of injustice are noted to facilitate employee engagement in workplace deviance (Robinson & Bennett, 2000; Cohen-Charash & Mueller, 2007). These factors emanating from the organisational setting have been termed "dysfunctional culture" (Bolton & Grawitch, 2011), as they "constrain or limit individual and group level capabilities and or that encourage and reward mediocre individual and group level performance" (Van Fleet & Griffin, 2006, p. 699). Norms and values imposed by organisations can induce an otherwise moral individual to commit unethical and deviant acts (Alzola, 2008). Other organisational factors include social pressures stemming from coworker behaviours. Recent studies have categorized organisational related factors into intra-organisational and extra-organisational factors. For example, extra-organisational factors such as customers, affect employee well-being and proclivity toward deviance (Walsh, 2015). Although studies have called for contextual factors in understanding workplace deviance in organisations including organisationally relevant factors such as leadership styles, organisational support, ethical climate and commitment, few have examined cultural orientation as a contextual factor capable of affecting workplace deviance outcomes of employees (Alzola, 2008; Bolton & 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Grawitch, 2011; Bowles & Gelfand, 2010). Notable exceptions must be mentioned here; Lian et al., (2012b), Hussain and Sia (2017), Wang et al. (2012), and Power et al. (2013). For example, Power et al. (2013) study on bullying and power distance found that low power distance employees tend to report a high level of bullying than their high power distance counterparts. These scholars examined cultural value as moderating factor rather than predictor variable suggesting the interactive effects of culture with other predictors such as abusive supervision and workplace deviance (Lian, Ferris & Brown, 2012b), and abusive supervision and perceived interactional justice (Wang et al., 2012), where the researchers found that power distance moderated the relationship of abusive supervision with perceived interactional justice. Also, abusive supervision and workplace deviance by Hussain and Sia (2017) found that power distance moderated the relationship between abusive supervision and deviance at the workplace. Nevertheless, none examined cultural orientation directly on work outcomes leaving an uphill in terms of appreciating the unique role societal culture might influence workplace deviance. This study attempts to examine the cultural orientation of employees of multinationals to determine whether they can influence workplace deviance to provide clarity in terms of the role of culture in workplace deviance research. Despite the findings noted above giving glimpses of how cultural orientation might influence workplace deviance, there is little or none is observed in the literature on workplace deviance. Meanwhile, cultural orientation which describes an individual's unique beliefs, values and mental picture of reality has been noted to shape perceptions, cognitions, attitudes and behaviours of employees. 2.4.4 Effects of WDBs Prior research demonstrates detrimental consequences of workplace deviance including their negative impacts on employees’ job attitudes (Lim & Cortina, 2008; Pearson & Porath, 2009; 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Welbourne & Sariol, 2016), affect employees’ physical health and psychological well-being (Caza & Cortina, 2007; Lim, Cortina, & Magley, 2008; Lim & Lee, 2011); lead to reduced satisfaction with their job (Lim et al., 2008; Pearson & Porath, 2009), with their supervisors and coworkers (Lim & Lee, 2011). Exposure to workplace deviance results in reduced physical health (Lim et al., 2008), increased depression (Lim & Lee, 2011; Miner et al., 2012) and distress (Caza & Cortina, 2007). Victims tend to report higher burnout about their job at the workplace (Miner-Rubino & Reed, 2010); and even can extend into the personal lives of employees outside the work setting resulting in increased work-family conflict (Lim & Lee, 2011). Similarly, current studies have consistently supported prior findings on how workplace deviance threatens operational efficiency, undermines employee well-being, damages brand reputation and value, adversely affects customer experience and curtails profitability capacities of organisations (Harvey, Martinko, & Borkowski, 2017; Gursoy, Cai, & Anaya, 2017). A recent survey found that fraud alone is estimated to cost employers 3.7 trillion U.S. Dollars worldwide (Association of Certified Fraud Examiners, 2016). Depression and anxiety disorders linked to toxic employees have estimated the cost to the tune of 1.15 trillion U.S. Dollars annually (Michalak & Ashkanasy, 2018). As a result, workplace deviance is considered a form of absolute risk (Lugosi, 2019). Given the above consequences, it is significant to understand how to address increasing workplace deviance among employees of a multicultural workforce. Further, individuals who experience workplace deviance at work report lower levels of work effort (Burns & Pope, 2007), greater physiological and psychological strains (Nielsen, Matthiesen, & Einarsen, 2008), and organisations tend to suffer disproportionately (Pearson & Porath, 2009). Similarly, research evidence points out that employees who experienced workplace deviance such as 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh incivility, bullying, etc. tend to engage in counterproductive work behaviours directed toward other employees (Penney & Spector, 2005), report reduced work effort and withdrawal behaviours as well as reduce commitment to the organisation (Burns & Pope, 2007), while some change their job because of incivility instigator(s) (Lim et al, 2008; Pearson & Porath, 2009). Workplace deviance results in uncertainty and disruptions that affect the sustenance of companies (Hollinger & Davies, 2006). For example, research has shown that approximately 30 per cent of all small business failures can be attributed to employee theft (Hollinger & Davies, 2006). Workplace deviance such as employee theft affects employee morale and personal relationships at work (Hollinger, 1989). Rampant employee dishonesty can create tension about workplace interactions and consequently lead to a lack of trust between dishonest and honest employees. Subsequently, employee theft could inhibit positive productivity and heighten employee dissatisfaction levels (Hollinger & Davies, 2006). 2.5.0 Societal cultural orientation and WDBs The study proposes and tests potential relationships between individual-level cultural orientations of employees and WDBs in multinational organisations. Extant research has increasingly shown how culture affects business and organisational outcomes due to rising globalization in recent times (Javidan, Dorfman, de Luque, & House, 2006b; Vogel et al, 2015). One of the reasons that account for this trend has been the increasing recognition that culture plays a vital role in interpersonal interactions among people in organisations (Hofstede, 1980, 2001, 2011). Research in this area is dominated by cross-cultural leadership effectiveness (Javidan et al., 2006) and cultural differences of subordinates' perception of leader behaviours (Vogel et al., 2015). Nevertheless, as noted by Vogel and colleagues (2015), empirical research on cross-cultural differences in negative workplace behaviours in organisations is extremely lacking. Tepper (2007) 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh observes that there is limited attempt to study cross-cultural influences on negative workplace behaviours such as abusive supervision. Culture prescribes interpersonal relationships such that different cultures may highlight dissimilar norms about interpersonal interactions (Vogel et al., 2015). As a result, culture tends to provide innumerable impacts on organisational existence. Some scholars have noted that (David & Singh, 1994, p. 251) cultural differences represent a source of "acquisition cultural risk", and remain a potential obstacle to exploiting synergistic benefits in meagre and acquisition (M&A) (Stahl, & Tung, 2015) whilst others viewed differences in cultural orientation as a source of friction and conflict which can lead to disruptive "culture clashes" (Larson & Risberg, 1998, p. 39). Societal culture and organisational culture Organisational culture is defined as “an objective entity consisting of a set of behavioural and cognitive characteristics” (Schein, 2006, in Resmi, Gemini, Silvian, & Kannan, 2014, p. 8). These behavioural and cognitive characteristics are rooted and largely shaped by the larger societal culture into which individuals are socialized. Other scholars view organisational culture to consist of organisational structure and rules, values, feelings, norms, and the organisational climate (Lewis, 1998). Schein (2010) argue that just as individual has personality so is an organisation become embedded in culture, which suggests the powerful influence culture has in shaping the experiences and behaviours of people. Similarly, culture influences every individual in a unique way (Schwartz, 2014). Thus, individual’s cognition is strongly influenced by one's cultural orientation (Bandura, 2001), implying that culture may influence how a person "scans, selects, interprets and validates the information from the environment to identify, prioritize and categorize issues" (Budhwar & Sparrow, 2002, p. 603). Culture can therefore be seen to unconsciously serve 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as a social control to regulate and prescribe the attitudes and actions of members of an organisation or a community (Chatman & Scha, 2003). According to Schwartz (2014), the way social institutions are organized, their policies and everyday practices, explicitly or implicitly communicate expectations that express underlying cultural value emphases. This suggests that organisational cultures are largely a microcosm of societal cultures. Thus, culture reflects opportunities available to individuals within its context in expressing dissent, cooperating with strangers, innovation, and amassing wealth (Schwartz, 2014). Hofstede (2011) adds that a societal and or national culture which are acquired from infancy and youthful stage onwards tend to be much deeply rooted in the human mind than occupational cultures acquired at school, or organisational cultures acquired on the job. He continues, organisational cultures are exchangeable when people take a new job. Societal culture exists in (often unconscious) values, in terms of broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others (Hofstede, 2001, p. 5). Accordingly, "organisational cultures reside rather in (visible and conscious) practices: the way people perceive what goes on in their organisational environment" (Hofstede, 2011, p. 3). Hence, organisational culture describes the sets of assumptions or beliefs that organisational members share in common within, and about the organisation. These sets of assumptions and beliefs which guide the flow and relationship patterns among organisational members develop over time distinguishing the organisation from others. The organisational culture is expressed in both visible and invisible dimensions with the former describing espoused values, philosophy, and mission of the organisation, and the latter expressing the hidden set of values that guide actions and perceptions of organisational members in the organisation (Hoque, Khan, & Mowla, 2013) 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Schwartz (2006) views societal culture as the rich complex of meanings, beliefs, practices, symbols, norms, and values prevalent among people in a society. National culture and organisational culture are different constructs (Hofstede, 1990, 2001). Yet some scholars have averred that, organisational cultures stem in part from the prevailing ideologies that people carry inside their heads (Scheffknecht, 2011). Gerhart and Fang (2005) posit that country differences in culture are larger than cultural differences due to other factors such as organisation, and this explains why some studies in cross-cultural research emphasize national culture over organisational culture (Gerhart, 2004). Also, organisational culture arises out of beliefs and values held by organisational members and these values and beliefs are internalized through the socialization process from infancy to adulthood. This line of reasoning is consistent with the assertion made several decades ago suggesting that an understanding of employee behaviour must go beyond just the corporate working life of an individual to include non-corporate contexts. Ouchi (1981, p. 195) had this to say; “[A]ny worker's life as a whole, not a Jekyll-Hyde personality, half- machine from nine to five and a half-human in the hours preceding and following". Leung, Bhagat, Buchan, Erez, and Gibson, (2005) broach that culture is a multi-layered construct which exists at different levels, global, national, organisational, and group cultures, which encompass the individual. Similarly, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) share in differential levels in which culture operates in society by stating the three levels including national or regional society, which differentiates one society from another; organisational culture, which describes how attitudes are expressed within a specific organisation; and professional culture, where people with certain functions will tend to share certain professional and ethical orientations (Hoque et al., 2013). In so far as national culture shapes organisational culture, it implies that organisational culture in it and or by itself is insufficient to explain employee behaviours relative 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to work outcomes. Broedbeck and colleagues (2004) study reveal how societal culture influences organisational culture as they report between 21 percent and 47 percent of the variance (with an average of 32.7 percent) across nine organisational culture practice dimensions is explained by societal culture. Also, values which are elements of societal culture underlie and influence behaviour (Jung et al., 2007; Schein, 2010; Hofstede, 2010). These values represent normative standards describing "ought to" or "should be" by incorporating moral and ethical codes, ideologies, and philosophies, and these are embedded in societal culture. These espoused values when internalized become underlying assumptions that influence individuals' thinking, behaviour, and feelings not only in the larger society but also in an organisational context (Jung et al., 2007; Schein, 2010). Culture tends to penetrate every aspect and layer of an organisation (Jung et al., 2007; Zoogah, 2018) in so far as organisations exist only as patterns of “symbolic relationships and meanings sustained through the continued processes of human interaction” (Smircich, 1983, p. 353). This suggests that societal culture impacts organisational culture (Schneider, Ehrhart, & Macey, 2013) but is not determinant of organisational culture. This view is supported by Martin's (2002, p. 151) proposal that "these can exist simultaneously as a function of the lens through which culture is viewed". The above review shows how societal culture beyond organisational culture influences individual behaviours in the organisational context. The next section elaborates on cultural orientation. 2.5.1 Employee cultural orientation (ECO) The understanding of culture can be broadly seen in two different approaches according to Martin (2002). They are ideational and materialistic approaches. The former views culture as embedded in the minds of people whereas the latter suggest that culture is understood in light of the behaviour 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of people. Hofstede (2001) definition of culture is viewed in ideational terms as he views culture to be the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes one group from the other. Here, emphasis is placed on shared beliefs, values, systems, dogma and norms that are expressed in their everyday actions and behaviours or revealed in their myths, symbols and rituals (Gaus et al., 2017; Pettigrew, 1979). Schein (2006) shares in the behavioural or materialistic approach which entails the analysis of those material aspects of a culture that can be directly observed, what Schein (1990) calls the ‘artefacts’, which represent surface aspects of culture including what we see, hear, and feel. They are the visible products manifested in language, technology, products, and creations styles such as clothing, manners of address, myths, and stories. Martin (2002) contends that the materialistic approach views culture in objective terms. A third view that is often neglected is the approach that views culture in terms of both ideational and materialistic. An example of this approach can be seen in the GLOBE project which employed culture from materialistic, that is "practices" and ideational, that is "distinctive characteristics" in their study (House et al., 2004). There is no single definition of culture or universally agreed on definition of culture (Gaus et al., 2019). For that reason, researchers employ definitions that help to direct and enhance understanding of their research purpose and subsequently help in addressing the questions developed for the study. In line with this reasoning, some definitions are highlighted to help appreciate the purpose of the study. Another area of controversy surrounds whether culture can be conceptualized at the individual, organisational, societal levels and more recently at the global level (Clugston et al., 2000; Erez & Gati, 2004; Hofstede, 2001; House et al., 2004; Kirkman & Shapiro, 2001; Low et al., 2019; Oyserman et al., 2002; Schwartz, 2006; Sharma, 2010; Yoo et al., 2011). Individual or personal perspective of cultural orientation argues that culture resides in people’s internalized values and beliefs, and cultural behaviour is driven by these internalized 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh characteristics (Triandis, 1989; Clugston et al., 2000; Kirkman & Shapiro, 2001; Sharma, 2010; Yoo et al., 201; Kim-Pong, 2015). This perspective is consistent with the normative approach to a culture which invokes the individual-level contribution to the creation and recreation of cultural ideas (Chiu et al., 2010; Fischer et al., 2009). Thus, individuals not only always passively internalize cultural values, norms and practices, they also actively construct and share knowledge about their culture which could be distinct from their internalized orientations (Fischer et al., 2009; Tam, Lee, Kim, Li, & Chao, 2012). Accordingly, Steel and Taras (2010) admit that individual cultural values that are learnt from early childhood tend to remain unchanged throughout one's course of life. The global culture lends itself to the ecological perspective of culture which states that contextual factors influence culture. Hence, globalization enhances cross-cultural alliances, promotes knowledge sharing, and encourage technology transfer which results in the transformation of identity through constant interaction between and among diverse people. Nevertheless, a manifestation of global culture differs largely in terms of how much national cultures have been impacted by globalization (Arnett, 2002). Erez and Gati (2004) submit that the effect of the global culture on nested levels of culture can be enhanced or inhibited by the particular characteristics of the societal culture. Employees of multinational companies are socialized into the macro level of global culture and they adopt a global mindset that enables them to adapt to their global work setting and to behave according to its core values. Yet, they maintain a bi-cultural identity at the same time since they are also part of their local national culture. The degree of integration or immersion depends on the extent of openness of local cultures to foreign cultures. This is consistent with other studies that aver that, individuals in organisations are influenced by multiple factors including organisational and societal culture at different levels and that every individual tends to be influenced more by certain layers and less by other layers consistent with 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the situation and their values (Hofstede, 1991; Straubet al., 2002; Karahanna, Evaristo, & Srite, 2005). Accordingly, some scholars share this view by stating that organisations are no longer characterized by single cultures rather contemporary organisations are multicultural as they consist of multiple cultures, subcultures, and countercultures (Jermier, Slocum, Fry, & Gaines, 1991; Hofstede, 2011). Research has identified three major layers in which culture manifests: the outer layer comprising explicit artefacts and products followed by the values and norms that shape the society constituting the middle layer, and finally, the implicit assumptions that regulate the behaviour of members in the society constituting the innermost layer (Hofstede, 2001; Schein, 2010; Vaiman & Brewster, 2014). Apart from the layers identified by extant research, culture displays distinct key attributes observed in extant studies including multi-dimensional, multi-faceted, and multi-layered construct, shared among members, relatively stable, transmitted, learned and developed over a long period, integrative, cumulative, dynamic and differs from one society to the next (Taras et al, 2009; Vaiman & Brewster, 2014). Culture shapes, and is in turn, reshaped by a variety of forces including language, history, religion, environment and social calamities (Vaiman & Brewster, 2014). In this respect, one notices that socio-cultural factors affect the behaviours of individuals and groups in organisations (Karahanna et al., 2005; Khatri, 2009; Peterson & Barreto, 2018). The role of culture in understanding organisational behaviour is not only a scientific curiosity but also a strategic one to organisational performance especially in multicultural work settings (Dickson, BeShears & Gupta, 2004; Mooij & Hofstede, 2010; Shi & Wang, 2011). It will be unfortunate to think that individuals' cultural orientations are not brought to bear at the workplace during working hours. Mendonca and Kanungo (1996, p.67) vehemently put it this way, it is unthinkable to believe that "when employees arrive at work they can or should leave at the point 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of entry their cultural baggage, and pick it up at the end of the workday for use in their non-work life and non-work activities". Prior research has identified internal and external factors that influence organisations. Some of the internal factors include (non)availability of competitors, local, regional, national, and global economic conditions, as well as the basic nature of the business. Extant studies have indicated that societal cultural practices and values are one of the external factors that influence the practices that are enacted in organisations. Also, the values upheld in organisations are embedded within societies in which these organisations operate (Broedbeck et al., 2004) and largely the beliefs and value systems upheld by employees. Again, Strandell (2017) argues that culture explains the differential construals that people have about themselves and others. Similarly, other studies confirm the influence of societal culture on organisational characteristics (Dickson et al., 2004; Kwantes & Dickson, 2011; Hofstede, 2011; Whelan, 2016). Also, Khatri (2009) contends that individuals belonging to a particular culture usually share certain mindsets that cause them to interpret events and circumstances in generally similar ways, while members outside that culture (that is, persons from other cultures and mindsets) are likely to interpret them differently. This suggests that culture impacts employee behaviour in an organisational context. Accordingly, researchers have noted the powerful force culture exerts in shaping and influencing both the cognitions and behaviours of individuals (Broedbeck et al., 2004; Erez & Gati, 2004; Gaus, Tang, & Akil, 2019). According to Beauregard and colleagues (2018), individuals may be more likely to prioritize roles that are most consistent with their core values, which are, in part, shaped by their national culture. In line with this reasoning, societal culture is observed when "... a large number of people are conditioned by similar background, education, and life experiences" (Donley, Cannon & Mullen, 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1998, p. 607). This implies that the cultural context in which individuals belong shapes the psychological processes in evaluating actions or inactions as norm conforming or norm-deviating actions. This is consistent with Kitayama’s (2002) admission that cultural context subtly but powerfully can shape human behaviour and experience. What may be considered a normal way of expression in one culture may be viewed as abnormal in another culture. The same acts can be viewed differently by people according to their cultural orientation (Strandell, 2017). Due to this ongoing contention regarding what constitutes culture, scholars have cautioned that researchers must consider the overall property of the concept of culture (e.g., Tsui et al., 2007) since individuals’ cultural orientations are derived from host countries or specific groups (Vogel et al., 2015). Thus, culture shapes the beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and perceptions of its inhabitants and, therefore, shapes the degree to which individuals adopt certain alien cultural values (Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1994). It must however be noted that individuals and organisations within a national culture can differ in their value orientations (Earley & Gibson, 1998; Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995; Viaman & Brewster, 2014) suggesting the possibility that some people may not share in the dominant value orientation characterizing a particular society or organisation (Khatri, 2009). In essence, the understanding one gets from culture resonates in what Durkheim (Lukes, 1982) called the social facts, which are defined as artificial or man-made artefacts and associated online cognitive responses that make up the society in general and daily behavioural environments (Hallowell, 1955) in particular (Kitayama, 2002, p. 90). These social facts involving daily routines, practices, interpersonal rituals and discourses, styles of conversation, and social institutions, tend to make each society and culture different and unique (Kitayama, 2002). They are widely shared consciously, subconsciously or unconsciously in any given society or culture that engage in them. 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sometimes, individuals seldom think explicitly about them (Kitayama, 2002) but they implicitly undergird their actions and inactions in one way or the other. It has been argued that the global environment tends to create a new collective and impersonal identity leading to the formation of global consciousness which influences a person's identity (Erez & Gati, 2004). Consequently, a global identity emerges which suggests that people tend to develop a sense of belongingness to a global culture, by adopting practices, styles, and information that are part of the worldwide culture (Arnett, 2002). Nonetheless, it must be noted that people still hold their local identity as well in the global culture because of their socialization into their local culture, thus holding a bi-cultural identity (Arnett, 2002). The ability to simultaneously maintain these two types of identity depends on the similarity between the global and local cultures. A good fit between the local and the global cultures strengthens the integration of global and local identity (Erez & Gati, 2004). Extant studies have shown how workplace deviant behaviours (WDBs) are connected with features of the environment, namely; formalised policies and procedures, shared belief systems and norms that govern the work setting (Grijalva, & Newman, 2015; Kish-Gephardt et al., 2010). Again, culture can be very important in the quest to appreciate how an employee reacts or responds to work processes that can, in turn, affect group processes, group effectiveness, and overall organisational performance (Chung & Moon, 2011). Culture is suggested to influence workplace deviance (Miles, Borman, Spector & Fox, 2002). Khatri (2009) observes that culture affects the degree to which individuals define ethical and unethical behaviours (workplace deviant behaviours). Some scholars have stated that work ethics tend to be weak in a high power distance culture (Nasierowski & Mikula, 1998) and that people from high power distance cultures relative to low power distance individuals are more likely to view a questionable business practice as more ethical. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This is because superiors are insulated from justifying their actions and inactions to their subordinates because of the general belief and acceptance of hierarchical order upheld in that culture. And this absolves them from any wrongdoings in the organisation (Khatri & Tsang, 2003). Again, because of their higher status and power, they escape potential challenges that may arise from employees voicing their discontent, displeasure, or questioning leader misbehaviour (Hofstede, 2001). As a result, other employees may consider such behaviours as an endorsement of such misbehaviours by leaders in the workplace. Khatri (2009) avers that, individuals in a high- power distance culture tend to live with institutionalised injustice and consider hierarchical order to be normal and even desirable and accept the inequalities of power thereby perpetuating undesirable workplace behaviours. For instance, it has been noted that hierarchies play part in corruption (La Porta et al., 1997; Lambert, 1999). The intensification of globalization which has affected the expansion of businesses across distant localities has made it necessary to examine the influence of cultural values on individuals, groups and organisational life (Daniels & Greguras, 2014; Shi & Wang, 2011). Hofstede (1991, p. 9) definition of culture as "the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another" depicts culture as a group-level phenomenon, and values are a defining feature of culture (Hofstede, 1980). Daniels and Greguras (2014, p. 1203) consider values as “broad-based beliefs that signal what is desirable and undesirable in an environment and may be conceptualized and measured at the individual, group, organisational, or national/societal level”. Several models have been proposed in understanding cultural differences which help define patterns of basic problems and consequences as well as the functioning of human groups and individuals (Myers & Tan, 2002; Shi & Wang, 2011). Few notable ones are the Hofstede Model 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Hofstede 2001, Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005; Hofstede, 2007), studies by Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1996), Trompenaars (1993), Triandis (1994), Schwartz (2006) theory of cultural value orientation, GLOBE Model (House et al., 2004) and Sharma’s (2010) personal cultural orientations, with the Hofstede Model being the most applied and cited in the literature (Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). Among these, some have conceptualized cultural values at the societal level such as Hofstede's (1980) four initial dimensions of the cultural framework which includes individualism- collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity-femininity, and later added long-term-short term orientations in 2001, and Schwartz and colleagues' cultural indices. Others also conceive cultural value at the individual level (e.g., Maznevski, Gomez, DiStefano, Noorderhaven, & Wu, 2002; Sharma, 2010; Triandis, 1995). Still, others conceptualize culture at both the collective and individual levels such as the GLOBE Project. Apart from this classification, other classifications observed in extant studies (Myers & Tan, 2002) take a single-dimensional view of culture such as High Context – Low Context (Hall & Hall, 1990), High Trust – Low Trust (Fukuyama, 1995), Idiocentric – Allocentric (Triandis, 1995), and Monochronic – Polychronic (Lewis, 1992); whilst others take multidimensional view including Hofstede's five dimensions of the cultural framework (Power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, long-term-short-term orientations) (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; Hofstede & Bond, 1988); Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1993) framework consisting of Universalism – Particularism, Analyzing – Integrating, Individualism – Communitarianism, Inner-directed – Outer-directed, Time as a sequence – Time as synchronization, Achieved Status – Ascribed Status, and Equality – Hierarchy; and GLOBE Project’s nine dimensions (House et al., 2004). 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It must be noted that Hofstede’s work was not the first systematic study on Cross-Cultural Research, nonetheless, Hofstede's cultural dimensions succeeded in putting cross-cultural research at the forefront of international business research (Shi & Wang, 2011). As a result, Hofstede's influence in the fields of international business and management is indisputable despite several criticisms levelled against his cultural dimensions. The cultural dimensions developed from the GLOBE project is considered to be one of the most current studies (Chhokar, Brodbeck & House, 2007) that explore organisational values and cultures (Pramila, 2009). The fact that the GLOBE study has received less criticism than Hofstede's work can be attributable to it being much more recent, and therefore researchers have not yet fully analyzed and tested it (Shi & Wang, 2011). There is therefore no universal acceptance of a single cultural taxonomy (Daniels & Greguras, 2014). This study employs individualism-collectivism, power distance and uncertainty avoidance at the individual level in determining their impact on workplace deviant behaviours of employees. An overview of the Hofstede's dimensions and Sharma's (2010) personal cultural orientation is provided in the next section to enable an understanding of the constructs under study. 2.5.2 Hofstede’s cultural framework Social Psychologist Geertz Hofstede posited a cultural orientation framework to distinguish national cultures of countries in his study of IBM employees across countries. Hofstede sought to understand the impact of societal culture on corporate culture in terms of how differences in cultural orientation of individuals and regions affect organisational life. Hofstede relied upon a database of employees of one of the largest multinational companies at the time, IBM, in more than 70 countries and regions while working at IBM. Accordingly, he administered surveys within subsidiaries of IBM employees across the world by capturing more questions about values. The survey was undertaken twice around 1968 and around 1972 resulting in a sample size of more than 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 116,000 employees of IBM (Shi & Wang, 2011). In the editions of his work since 2001, scores are listed for 74 countries and regions, partly based on replications and extensions of the IBM study on different international populations (Shi & Wang, 2011). It is reported that subsequent research attempts in validating earlier results of Hofstede have drawn on commercial airline pilots and students in 23 countries, civil service managers in 14 countries, “up-market” consumers in 15 countries and “elites” in 19 countries. Hofstede developed a model that identifies four primary cultural dimensions to assist in differentiating cultures, from the initial results and later additions, namely, Power Distance (PD) - the extent to which the less powerful members of organisations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less) but is defined from below, not from above. It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders; Individualism (IND) - on the one side versus its opposite, collectivism (COL), that is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. The word "collectivism" in this sense has no political meaning: it refers to the group, not to the state; Masculinity (MAS) - MAS versus its opposite, femininity (FEM), refers to the assignment of roles among the genders, a fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. The assertive pole was called "masculine" and the modest, caring pole called "feminine"; and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAO) - it deals with a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man's search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Hofstede (2001) added a fifth dimension after conducting an additional international study with a survey instrument developed with Chinese employees and managers. This dimension, based on Confucian dynamism, is termed Long-Term Orientation (LTO) and was applied to 23 countries. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Long-term orientation (LTO) - versus its variant short-term orientation (STO). It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respected for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting one's "face". Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B.C.; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage (http://www.geert-hofstede.com/). These five Hofstede Dimensions are found to correlate with another country, cultural, and religious paradigms (Shi & Wang, 2011). Hofstede's work was updated and expanded in 1991, 2001, and 2005 and has continued to receive widespread citation and application by management scholars and practitioners (Shi & Wang, 2011) especially in psychology, sociology, (human resource) management, marketing and cross-cultural studies as observed in extant research in psychology, sociology, marketing or even, management (Devinney et al., 2016; Schwartz, 2006; Shi & Wang, 2011; Sharma, 2010; Sondergaard, 1994; Steenkamp, 2001; cited in Soares, 2007; Taras et al., 2011; Yoo et al., 2011). One advantage of Hofstede’s cultural framework is that it is found to be the most comprehensive and reliable in terms of national culture samples (Yoo & Donthu, 2005). Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) renowned five-dimensional measure of cultural values is the overwhelmingly dominant metric of culture (Yoo, Donthu, & Lenartowicz, 2011; Caprar, Devinney, Kirkman, & Caligiuri, 2015). This is because Hofstede's cultural dimensions fully cover and extend major conceptualizations of culture developed through decades of research in cross-cultural studies. Second, Hofstede's dimensions were empirically developed from his 1980 study which used a survey of about 116,000 IBM employees in 66 countries, excluding then-communist and Third World countries, unlike other dimensions that were conceptually developed (Yoo et al., 2011). Also, the overwhelming 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh adoption of Hofstede's dimensions of culture is attributable to the large number of countries that were involved and the simplicity of his dimensions, which are considered forthright and attractive to both academic researchers and business people (Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). Finally, social sciences and cross-cultural studies have overwhelmingly replicated Hofstede’s typology and found it to be the most important theory of culture types (Chandy & Williams, 1994; Søndergaard, 1994; Taras et al., 2011, Taras et al, 2010; Yoo et al., 2011). For instance, according to the Social Science Citation Index, a total of 2,700 refereed journal articles cited Hofstede's work (Hofstede, 2001). Finally, scholars have been able to find meaningful relationships between national culture and relevant economic, political or legal, demographic, and geographic indicators of society upon employing Hofstede's cultural dimensions (Kale & Barnes, 1992). It is worth reiterating Fernandez et al., (1997, p. 43-44) assertion that Hofstede's cultural framework has been considered "a watershed conceptual foundation for many subsequent cross-national research endeavours”. The individualism-collectivism dimension has received by far the most attention (Triandis, 1995; Khatri, 2009; Smith, 2002). Apart from the widely received citation of the Hofstede model which has led to its adoption in the current study (Rosa dos Reis, Ferreira, Santos & Serra, 2013; Wu, Dong-Heon, Deng & Srite, 2017), there is also the fact that Ghana, where this study is undertaken, was represented in the Hofstede model, unlike the GLOBE project which did not include Ghana in its study regions (Hofstede, 2004). With the Hofstede model, nine African countries including Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia (East African subregion), Morocco, South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone (West African subregion) were included in the participating countries. However, the GLOBE project included eight countries from Africa including Egypt, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa (Black Sample) and South Africa (White Sample), Zambia and Zimbabwe (Shi & Wang, 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2011). From the Hofstede model, Ghana scores 80 on PD, 15 on IND, 40 on MAS, 65 on UAI, and 4 on LTO (http//: www.geert-hofstede.com, 2019). This implies that Ghana is considered a high power distance society in which the people accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification; a collectivist society where people belong to 'in groups' that provide for them in exchange for loyalty; a relatively feminine society where the focus is on "working to live", managers try to achieve consensus, people value equality, solidarity and quality in their working lives; a high-risk averse society where people express a preference for avoiding uncertainty; and finally, Ghanaian people prefer thinking normatively by showing great respect for traditions. Additionally, it has been used in human resource management practices (Aycan, Kanungo, Mendonca, Yu, Deller, Stahl, & Kurshid, 2000). For instance, Kirkman et al., (2006) and Dimitrov (2014) report that Hofstede's cultural dimensions have been applied in human resource management research and measured at both individual and country-level of analysis. It must however be noted that few studies have investigated Hofstede's dimensions as the main effects in their application (Dimitrov, 2014). Further, Hofstede's model is found to be simple and intuitive in its application and relatively with ease when comparing people along these cultural dimensions as well as encourages quantitative measure of culture (Hadwick, 2011; Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006; Dimitrov, 2014). Other scholars think that the model is capable of capturing national cultural differences as it focuses on the universals of each culture that connect society (Song, Montabon, & Xu, 2018). The study, therefore, employs four dimensions of Hofstede's framework including power distance, individualistic, collectivistic and uncertainty avoidance orientations. These are relied upon for some reasons: First, individualism (IND) and collectivism (COL) have received wider research 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh attention both as a predictor and moderator in management, cross-cultural and sociological research and has been validated by extant studies (Dimitrov, 2014; Khatri, 2009; Sharma, 2010; Taras et al., 2010; Yoo et al., 2011) but has not been adequately explored in workplace deviance research. Hence, IND-COL is employed to ascertain its influence on employees' commission of destructive workplace deviance. Second, power distance is employed because it stresses hierarchical arrangement in organisations and that leadership has been noted to be critical to ameliorating undesirable workplace behaviours. Given that, power distance which described the degree of acceptance of inequality or equality in the organisation is employed to ascertain its impacts on workplace deviant behaviours of employees (Dimitrov, 2014; Rosa dos Reis, Ferreira, Santos & Serra, 2013). Finally, uncertainty avoidance is employed in response to recent calls that it affects workplace behaviours (Rapp, Bernardi & Bosco, 2011; Taras, Kirkman, & Steel, 2010). Given that workplace deviance is so sensitive and that offenders are likely to consider the risk associated with desisting or engaging in such acts, it is believed that it may affect how employees of multicultural settings react to differential risk-taking behaviours and ultimately inform employees' tendency to engage in workplace deviance. The succeeding chapter describes how each of the dimensions identified may predispose an employee to committing deviance as well as how different cultural orientations of diverse people respond to uncertainties in influencing work outcomes such as workplace deviance. Criticism of Hofstede cultural framework Despite Hofstede's (1980, 2001) five cultural dimensions being the dominant typology of cultural values in the context of organisational behaviour, some scholars have criticized Hofstede's scales on methodological grounds. For instance, it is criticized for its lack of correlation among items (for example, combining unrelated items under a cultural dimension and connecting unrelated 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh items to a composite scale (Prasongsukarn, 2009; Robinson, 1983). Also, the items have been criticized for possibly capitalizing on statistical chance due to the small sample size (the number of data points being equal to the number of countries included (Prasongsukarn, 2009). Again, Hofstede’s model is criticized for laying great emphasis on values rather than beliefs and behavioural patterns and practices. Thus, it focuses on values which are the middle level on the continuum between visible and invisible elements of culture to the neglect of the visible and external elements of culture consisting of behaviours and practices (House et al., 2004; Erez & Gati, 2004). Additionally, it does not consider the basic assumptions expressed in beliefs regarding human nature and their relationship to the environment (Erez & Gati, 2004; Schein, 1992). Even though Hofstede's items that is used to construct his dimensions appear in slightly different item format, by addressing both values (i.e., "how important is it to you to work with people who cooperate well with one another?"), and behaviours (i.e. "how frequently, in your experience, do the following problems occur?"), great emphasis is placed on values rather than practices which distinguish Hofstede's model from the GLOBE project since the GLOBE project focuses largely on behaviours and practices. Another criticism stems from differential values priorities held by people even from the same society. Hofstede model is criticized for portraying that all people in a particular society share in the general values of the society, what is sometimes referred to as the value consensus view. He bases his theory on this approach to distinguish societies on his cultural dimensions. However, theoretical and empirical evidence points out that there is a within-country or within-society difference in national cultural values. Given that people have been found to exhibit differences in value priorities even among people from the same society, it stands to reason that all people do not 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh share in the values priorities of the society in which they belong (Leung & Morris, 2015; Fischer & Schwartz, 2011; Oyserman et al., 2002; Schwartz, 2006). In particular, the rigorous review by Oyserman and colleagues (2002) found significant differences that people within the same nationality or country hold about individualism and collectivism cultural dimension proposed by Hofstede. Fischer and Schwartz (2011) review confirm this finding. Again, despite the general recognition that values priorities, beliefs and practices tend to be relatively enduring (Taras et al., 2009), some undergo rapid changes due to rapid social change in society (Leung & Morris, 2015). Additionally, Hofstede’s theory is criticized for the conceptual basis for its culture dimensions (Schwartz, 2006), cultural bias (McSweeney, 2002; Hofstede, 2002), and the measurement properties of his scales (e.g., Spector, Cooper, & Sparks, 2001, find that only 13 of 115 alpha coefficients exceeded the .70 criterion normally considered acceptable and only 22 of 115 exceeded .60, in 23 national/provincial samples). Other scholars raise concerns regarding the uni- organisational design, small samples representing some countries resulting from uneven distribution of sample sizes across participating countries’ employees of IBM, and the age of the data which largely impedes its current relevance to cross-cultural research (Taras, Steel, & Kirkman, 2011). Individual-level cultural orientation analysis Some research studies have extended individualism, collectivism, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientation measures at the national level to the individual level of analysis (Chung & Moon, 2011; Triandis & Suh, 2002; Triandis, 1995; Wang et al., 2012) with the finding that each of Hofstede’s value dimensions differ significantly between individuals within a specific society (Clugston et al., 2000; Kirkman & Shapiro, 2001). Taras, Steel, and Kirkman, (2011) contend that it would be best to directly assess the cultural values of each individual in the group instead of 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh relying on any sort of national average. Some researchers employ the concepts ‘idiocentrism’ and ‘allocentrism’ (Wasti, 2003a) or ‘individualistic’ and ‘collectivistic’ values (Ramamoorthy & Carroll, 1998; Ramamoorthy & Flood, 2004) when measuring Hofstede’s country-level individualism and collectivism at the individual level (Kalemci et al., 2019). Similarly, Fischer and Schwartz (2011) demonstrated that values vary much more within countries than between countries. Also, Kirkman, Lowe and Gibson (2006) found that large number of studies have examined these values at the micro level than at the macro level. As a result, the authors argue that individual-level measurement of culture "... is more analytically superior which can allow researchers to support claims that country differences are due, in fact, to cultural values" (Kirkman et al., 2006, p. 312). The individual level of analysis has received some criticisms (McSweeney, 2002; Bond, 2002; Hofstede, 1991; McSweeney, 2002; Oyserman et al., 2002a; Sharma, 2010). In particular, Sharma (2010) submits that Hofstede's cultural framework was developed to measure national cultural differences and that it tends to lack rigour when employed to measure individual cultural values because "the cultural dimensions are conceptually and empirically quite different from individual cultural values as conceptualized and measured by others because all the citizens of a country may not share similar cultural characteristics" (Sharma, 2010, p. 787). Despite these criticisms, scholars continue to employ it at the individual level of analysis in understanding the culture and work outcomes of employees (Taras et al., 2010; Yoo et al., 2011). For example, Taras et al., (2011) meta-analysis reported that the Google Scholar's total citation count for various editions of Hofstede's cultural framework was more than twenty thousand. Also, Yoo et al., (2011) acknowledge that Hofstede's cultural dimensions have gained general wide application and general acceptance as an individual-level metric of cultural orientations. This line 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of reasoning is shared by other scholars, too (Bearden, Money, & Nevins, 2006; Blodgett, Bakir, & Rose, 2008; Kirkman et al., 2006) although there is a recognition that individual-level application of Hofstede's dimension is fraught with insufficient validity and hence unsuitable (Hofstede, 2011; Hofstede et al., 2008). Also, Hofstede's cultural dimensions have received widespread applications in research on a wide range of organisational and national issues, including leadership, teamwork, justice, communication, ethics, satisfaction, commitment, foreign market entry modes, international trade, and individual, company and national performance at the individual level of analysis (Taras et al., 2011; Vaiman & Brewster, 2014). Again, the scores on Hofstede dimensions represent relative positions concerning other countries rather than an absolute position; a culture change is unlikely to result in a change in these dimensions (Afrifa & Gyapong, 2019; Hofstede, 2001). It is not surprising that scholars continue to depend on it for its high robustness (Afrifa & Gyapong, 2019), convenience and limited availability of alternatives (Vaiman & Brewster, 2014), and its widespread replication and validation in several studies (Flynn & Saladin, 2006) as well as wide acceptance and applications (Galego-Alvarez & Ortas, 2017; Vaiman & Brewster, 2014). Vaiman and Brewster (2014) acknowledge the difficulty associated with employing nations or countries as a good proxy for measuring culture, they nonetheless concede that it is predominantly used due to convenience in researching and explaining cultural differences at the individual level. This study, therefore, follows extant studies (Afrifa & Gyapong, 2019; Song et al., 2018; Li et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2012; Taras et al., 2011; Yoo et al., 2011; Sharma, 2010; Ramamoorthy & Flood, 2004; Wasti, 2003; Triandis, 1995) in employing individual level individualistic, collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations in this investigation to determine their effects on employees’ workplace deviant behaviours at the workplace. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6.0 Sharma’s personal cultural orientation (PCO) Sharma (2010) views personal cultural orientations to consist of shared cultural values and norms, as well as personal beliefs based on unique individual experiences, which shows a conceptual link between national level and individual level cultural values based on theoretical reasons (Oyserman et al. 2002a). Piyush Sharma (2010) sought to fill a gap observed in both cross-cultural and consumer behaviour literature expressed in the overwhelming reliance on Hofstede's national cultural dimensions in measuring personal cultural orientations. Sharma (2010) proposes a multi-dimensional structure for Hofstede’s five cultural factors, using the dimensions independence (IND) and interdependence (INT) for INDCOL, power (POW) and social inequality (IEQ) for PDO, masculinity (MAS) and gender equality (GEQ) for MAS, risk aversion (RSK) and ambiguity intolerance (AMB) for UAO, and tradition (TRD) and prudence (PRU) for LTO to reflect different aspects of personal cultural orientations. Unfortunately, the attempt could be described, at best, as being conceptually different but for practical similarity with Hofstede's framework in so far as the individual level of culture were drawn from Hofstede's national cultural dimensions. There are ongoing research attempts to develop conceptually distinct and empirically different scales that measure individual-level cultural orientations better than Hofstede's dimensions. This explains the continued increasing application of Hofstede's cultural dimensions at the individual level of analysis. The ten-dimensional structure of the personal cultural orientations (PCO) scale was validated to establish its convergent, discriminant, nomological, and predictive validity in the study that drew on a sample of 1,744 adult shoppers consisting of both locals and foreigners recruited in shopping malls all over Hong Kong by a team of trained undergraduate students. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For purposes of the current study, only six of Sharma’s (2010) dimensions of personal cultural orientation is provided to illustrate Hofstede’s (2001) cultural dimensions of individualism, collectivism, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations. Sharma uses independence- interdependence to depict Hofstede’s individualism-collectivism scale; power-social inequality to represent power distance of the cultural framework proposed by Hofstede; risk aversion-ambiguity intolerance to depict Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance orientation. Sharma (2010, p. 790) defines independence “as a personal cultural orientation associated with acting independently, a strong self-concept, a sense of freedom, autonomy, and personal achievement; and interdependence as a personal cultural orientation associated with acting as a part of one or more in-groups, a strong group identity, a sense of belongingness, reliance on others, giving importance to group-goals over own individual goals, and collective achievement.”. Uncertainty avoidance orientation is comprised of risk avoidance which is defined as the extent to which individuals feel uncomfortable when taking risks (Bontempo et al. 1997; Keh & Sun 2008); and intolerance of ambiguity describes the degree to which individuals feel uncomfortable when faced with ambiguity (de Mooij & Hofstede, 2002). Sharma (2010) measures these constructs with four items each including, I tend to avoid talking to strangers, I prefer a routine way of life to an unpredictable one full of change, I would not describe myself as a risk-taker, and I do not like taking too many chances to avoid making a mistake, measuring risk aversion; and I find it difficult to function without clear directions and instructions, I prefer specific instructions to broad guidelines, I tend to get anxious easily when I don't know an outcome, and I feel stressed when I cannot predict consequences, also measuring ambiguity intolerance. Sharma (2010) conceives power (POW) as representing the extent to which individuals accept differences in the power wielded by various members in any organisation; and social inequality 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (IEQ) as representing the degree of inequality among people in a society in which the individual accepts as normal (Taras et al. 2009). Thus, power describes how people relate to authority, whereas social inequality is concerned with Schwartz's (2006) hierarchy vs. egalitarianism. Sharma (2010) measures these constructs with four items each including; I easily conform to the wishes of someone in a higher position than mine, it is difficult for me to refuse a request if someone senior asks me, I tend to follow orders without asking any questions, and I find it hard to disagree with authority figures, for power construct; and a person’s social status reflects his or her place in the society, it is important for everyone to know their rightful place in the society, It is difficult to interact with people from different social status than mine, and Unequal treatment for different people is an acceptable way of life for me, for social inequality construct. It must be noted that Sharma's (categorization) is not typically different from prior individual-level measures of cultural value orientations such as Triandis and Gelfand (1988) horizontal-vertical individualism-collectivism, independent and interdependent self-construals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), and Triandis et al., (1985) idiocentrism (based on IND) and allocentric (based on COL). Sharma's (2010) categorization is not conceptually and empirically different from existing scales measuring cultural orientation at the individual level. Notwithstanding, credit is given to Sharma for his explicit goal of developing a cultural orientation scale to assess cultural values at the individual level. Unlike, Hofstede and the GLOBE Project which are developed with the structural or institutional ambition to measure cultural orientation at the societal level, Sharma attempts to reduce societal level culture to the individual level to enable researchers to avoid conceptual and theoretical challenges associated with using societal level measures at the individual level of analysis. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh One considers Sharma's (2010) personal cultural orientation scale as furthering cross-cultural research at best by helping to distinguish cultures across space and time. It is given this that there has been growing application of Hofstede's national culture dimension at the individual level (Birgelen et al., 2002; Laroche et al., 2004; Sivakumar & Nakata, 2001; Steenkamp, Hofstede & Wedel, 1999) whilst other scholars tend to adapt few items from Hofstede’s original scales to measure cultural dimensions at the individual level of analysis (e.g., Donthu & Yoo, 1998; Yoo & Donthu, 2005; Erdem, Swait & Valenzuela, 2006; Lee & Lim, 2008). In summary, the review above has shown that the current study measures employee cultural orientations at the individual level using both Hofstede’s and Sharm’s insights to achieve the research objectives. Table 2.1 in appendix 4 illustrates the constructs in the current study. The next chapter discusses empirical studies and the conceptual framework. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE REVIEW OF RELEVANT EMPIRICAL LITERATURE AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 3.0 Introduction This chapter highlights the empirical literature on the relationship between employee cultural orientation and workplace deviance as well as showing, the moderating effects of perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership and employee commitment in the relationship between employee cultural orientation and workplace deviance. Additionally, a conceptual framework showing the hypothesized relationships among the variables of study is presented together with the statement of hypotheses. Further, a research model was developed showing relationships among constructs. Finally, a summary of hypotheses subject to testing from the empirical data is presented. 3.1.0 Individualistic-collectivistic orientations and WDBs Individualism and collectivism cultural value orientations have been widely studied in organisational research (Erez, 2011), hence their selection in this study as indicated earlier. Of the six cultural dimensions postulated by Hofstede, some scholars contend that collectivism and individualism portray distinct cultural characteristics such that African cultures are more collectivistic with high power distance while many western cultures are more individualistic with low power distance (Awedoba, 2005; Chung & Moon, 2011). These constructs are employed to differentiate individuals consistent with prior studies (Kalemci et al., 2019). Individualistic and collectivistic orientations imply 'people taking care of themselves and their immediate family only’ versus ‘people belonging to in-groups that look after them in exchange for loyalty’ (Parker et al., 2009). It must be noted that recent research evidence has shown that individualism and 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh collectivism are orthogonal dimensions rather than being conceptualized as bipolar dimensions by earlier studies with the assumption that the values, goals, and self-construal related with the two constructs were incompatible (Coon & Kemmelmeier, 2001). This suggests that one can be high (or low) in both individualistic and collectivistic orientations without contradiction (Coon & Kemmelmeier, 2001). Hence, they are considered separate constructs in the current study. Individualistic Cultural Orientation and WDBs Generally, in individualistic cultural orientation, an individual’s identity is located in the person. People tend to be "I-conscious", and self-actualization is important. Persons who hold individualistic cultural values embrace universalistic ideals, assuming that their values are binding for the whole world. Also, they embrace low-context communication cultural values with explicit verbal communication. Persons with individualistic cultural value orientations emphasize short- term relationships, accomplishment, self-direction, social power, and stimulation. They are less willing to view confrontation with the in-group as negative and less likely to supports conflict with the out-group. They mostly make an internal attribution to successes and praise their ability, but they make external attribution to their failures by finding fault with external causes. Hence, people with individualistic orientation tend to be concerned with personal interests over the importance of the group's interests because they view their interests to be in sharp contrast with group interests since they are preoccupied with taking care of themselves and prioritizing the accomplishments of their personal goals. This enables them to place greater priority on autonomy, freedom, confidence, and a sense of personal uniqueness (Sharma, 2010, Yoo et al., 2011; Kalemci et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2012). 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Also, such persons stress personal outcomes and value competitiveness, risk-taking, and achievement (Eisenhardt & Tabrizi, 1995; Li, Griffin, Yue, & Zhao, 2013). Again, they are more likely to perceive functional heterogeneity as a good feature that improves group effectiveness (Sosik & Jung, 2002). Kim and Markus (1999) suggested that uniqueness can be seen as a form of deviance by persons who hold collectivistic orientation beliefs. Also, unlike conformity which is considered a harmonious living in more collectivistic cultural orientations, conformity to in-group may be considered deviance by people with individualistic cultural value orientation consistent with propositions of groupthink by Janis (1991). Because they emphasize short term relationships, they are less likely to be engrossed in meeting social or collective demands which may drive them to engage in behaviours deemed as destructive to organisations. Due to their incessant desire to stand out, persons with individualistic orientations are more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours with the intent of achieving higher than others in the organisation which may result in organisational deviant behaviours. Empirical studies show strong support for a positive relationship between cultural value orientation of individualism and corporate firm-level risk- taking behaviours (Griffin, Li, Yue, & Zhao, 2009). Similarly, Hope (2003) study which draws on a sample of firms from more than 40 countries demonstrates that individualism is positively associated with disclosure whilst masculinity is negatively related to disclosure. Also, individualistic cultural values stress competition rather than cooperation unlike collectivistic values that emphasize cooperation and these tend to shape individual behaviour in organisations. Social competition emphasized by individualistic values encourages employees to spend more time in work-related activities (Billing, Bhagat, Babakus, Srivastava, Shin, & Brew, 2014) such as coming to work early, avoiding behaviours such as sabotage although may be aggressive in meeting organisational objectives to improve their status. In contrast, individuals with 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh collectivistic cultural values are less concerned with competition and unique accomplishment and may be discouraged in spending more time in work-related activities but spend more time directed at collective duties in the home. Rather than engaging in citizenship behaviours, they tend to show a predisposition to using work-related resources in meeting collective obligations outside the work because of their attachment to maintaining in-group harmony (Syed, Arain, Schalk, & Freese, 2015). Comparing individuals with collectivistic orientation, individuals with individualistic or independent orientations are less likely to engage in behaviours such as taking time off without permission, coming to work late, and taking company resources to meet social obligations etc. Given their self-interest and achievement orientation, such people are more likely to engage in behaviours that may enhance their self-reputation, enhance their self-interest, gain social power or make management see that such an individual has the company’s well-being more at heart than others or thinks about the success of the organisation thereby eliciting supervisor praise and positive recommendations. Concerning questionable practices at the workplace, some studies have shown how culture affects the questionable behaviours of employees at the workplace. For example, Swaidan (2012) investigated how the level of individualism/collectivism an individual portrays impacts the likelihood of the individual making questionable choices or engaging in questionable or dubious activities. The result showed that employees who score high on the collectivism dimension reject dubious choices or activities more than employees who score low on the same scale (Swaidan, 2012). This finding suggests that individuals who tend to be more individualistic or are part of individualist societies tend to be more tolerant of questionable activities than those who are collectivist or hold a collectivistic orientation. A meta-analysis by Grijalva and Newman (2015) on narcissism and counterproductive work behaviour (CWB) found only narcissism as the dark 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh triad trait for which culture moderated the relationship with CWB, such that narcissists executed less counterproductive behaviour in collectivist relative to individualist cultures. More so, conception of the self among individuals with individualistic orientation might be misinterpreted by individuals with collectivistic orientation as egoistic and relishing uniqueness and self-centeredness making it difficult to work with them. Persistent view of individuals with an individualistic orientation by others with collectivistic orientation in this light may engender feelings of withdrawal behaviours especially in task performance relating to teams and workgroups in the organisation. Similarly, individuals with individualistic orientation might exhibit withdrawal behaviours when working with people with collectivistic values as employees with individualistic orientation are more likely to view other employees with collectivistic orientation as placing more emphasis on relationships to the detriment of task execution, which can undermine individual success capacities and self-satisfaction potentials of people with individualistic orientations (Kalemci et al., 2019). Individualistic values place a premium on self-interest and may avoid any threat to accomplishing personal. Even though highly individualists may regard heterogeneity within groups as a means to increase group efficiency (Sosik & Jung, 2002), they are more likely to view heterogeneity within groups as sources of conflict in terms of ideas and processes associated with task execution, and subsequently affect personal interest and wellbeing. It is said that employees with high collectivistic orientation values expect beneficial behaviours from organisations because of their emphasis on in-group harmony and collective concern, they are less likely to demonstrate OCBs in organisations whose leadership stresses task-based relationships to work processes over relationship-based work activities. Jang, Shen, Allen, and Zhang (2018) found partial support for the proposition that individualism-collectivism moderated relationships between job control and 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh strain. This implies that relationships were stronger in more individualistic rather than collectivistic cultures with significant cross-level interaction for turnover intentions but not for job satisfaction. This, further, suggests that the relationship was higher rather than lower in more individualistic cultures than collectivistic cultures. Yet the authors failed to find support for individualism- collectivism moderating the relationship between participation in decision making (PDM) and strain. It must be pointed out that the study measured cultural orientations at the societal level rather than adopting individual-level analysis. Differential cultural orientations may heighten WDBs among individuals in the organisation as one belonging to individualist or independent orientation may view those in interdependent orientation as lazy and shirking of tasks, making them stand out from their group through competitive acts of accomplishment (Kitayama, Markus, & Lieberman, 1995). Unlike persons with collectivistic orientation driven to seek collective identification with the group, persons with individualistic orientation aim at unique identification in the group. As a result, individualists tend to engage in both interpersonal and organisational deviance with coworkers who share collectivistic orientations. It is therefore expected that cultural orientations of individualistic relates to workplace deviant behaviours. In particular, there is a relationship between individualistic orientation and workplace deviance (ID-OD Dimensions). As a result, the current study hypothesizes that: Hypothesis 1a: Individualistic orientation (IND) significantly relates positively with interpersonal deviant behaviours Hypothesis 1b: Individualistic orientation (IND) significantly relates negatively with organisational deviant behaviours 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Collectivistic Cultural Orientation and WDBs Generally, persons who hold collectivistic cultural orientation values are guided by "we- consciousness". They derive their identity from the social system to which they belong, and avoiding loss of face is considered key aspect of their personality (de Mooij & Hofstede, 2011; Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995). They embrace high-context communication cultural values with an indirect style of communication (de Mooij & Hofstede, 2011). Persons with collectivistic cultural values view the self as an interdependent entity that is part of an encompassing social relationship (Sharma, 2010). Individual behaviour tends to be context-bound, that is, individual behaviour varies from situation to situation and from time to time (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989). Unlike in individualistic cultural orientation where a person has to develop an 'identity that enables them to operate independently in a number of social groups, in collectivistic cultural value orientation, youth development is based on the encouragement of dependency needs in complex familial hierarchical relationships, and the group ideal is 'being like others, not being different' (Gotz et al., 2018; Triandis, 1995). In collectivistic cultures, people's ideal features differ with social roles, and contextual factors affect behaviour (Fischer et al., 2009). Research has identified four attributes of collectivistic orientation; first, identity is connected with membership to various social groups; second, members subordinate self-goals to group goals and usually sacrifice personal interests for the attainment of and preservation of group interests if conflict ensues between personal interests and collective interests; third, members submit to social norms, duties and obligations as a behavioural guideline; and finally, members lay great emphasis on harmonious social relationships within the in-group sometimes to the detriment of one's task achievement (Chung & Moon, 2011; Hofstede, 2011; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Oyserman, Spike & Lee, 2008; Parsons, 1950). Consistently, individuals with collectivistic orientation tend 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to regard themselves as highly interdependent with the in-group (Oyserman et al., 2002; Sharma, 2010; Triandis, 1995) which enable them undertake more cooperative behaviours toward the group’s interest (Hofstede, 2010; Kalemci et al., 2019; Oyserman et al., 2008; Taras et al., 2011). Hence, individuals with collectivistic orientation are oriented towards a strong sense of in-group solidarity. Consequently, they tend to emphasize long-term relationships, conformity, security, and tradition (Hofstede, 2011; Matondo, 2012; Ollier-Malaterre & Foucault, 2017). Also, employees with collectivistic cultural values are socialized into the belief that work brings honour to the family by demonstrating self-sacrifice for the well-being of the family (Galovan et al., 2010). Accordingly, the stronger family ties associated with collectivistic values may be extended to interrupt workplace assignments leading to more family-to-work conflict (Allen et al., 2015). These interruptions may take the form of attending to family obligations using company hours, taking company property to augment provision of family obligations, lateness to work, absenteeism etc. which are described as WDBs (Robinson & Bennett, 2000). Further, the in-group harmony emphasized in collectivistic value orientation may discourage the direct expression of feelings, sentiments, and interests (Ng & Feldman, 2014) that may harm in-group members even if such behaviours contravene organisational norms. This might make them cover up for in-group members who may slack during task execution. Given that in collectivistic cultural orientation, individuals can rely on the help of extended family members to achieve home duties whilst away at work, it makes it near impossible to avoid meeting family member's obligations even where one is in a difficult situation to make it possible. Yet, individuals are more likely to go the extra mile in meeting such obligations even if it means improvising contrary to organisational expectations. On the contrary, in individualistic cultures, employees receive less tangible support from their smaller nuclear families and for that reason may decline obligations that stem from extended 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh family members. They are less likely to experience strain and the pressure of meeting obligations tied to the extended family. The findings of Chung and Moon (2011) is worth mentioning. The researchers observed that individuals with high collectivistic or interdependent orientations tend to engage in behaviours that will help meet interdependent social obligations such as shirking of responsibilities, attending to work duties late, taking time off work to attend to social obligations without authorization, or even taking organisational resources to support social obligations without permission. Collectivistic orientation emphasizes relationship-based working relationships in the working environment over task-based and calculative working relationships which are stressed among individualists (Kalemci et al., 2019). Individualistic orientation embraces emotionally detached relationships, stronger freedom and less supervisor direction making them more inclined to personal accomplishment consistent with the assertion that individualistic values consider the self as separate from others (Hofstede, 2001, 2011; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1995; Wilczewski et al., 2017). Drawing on work-family conflict literature, for example, scholars have observed that employees with collectivistic cultural orientations tend to report more family-to-work conflict and less work- to-family conflict than their individualistic counterparts (Allen et al., 2015; Galovan et al., 2010; Ng & Feldman, 2014; Syed et al., 2015). This observation suggests that the tensions associated with meeting family or group obligations characterizing collectivistic values may be extended into the work setting which may affect an individual's productive capacity resulting in WDBs. Further, collectivistic and individualistic values influence the degree of strain that individuals experience at the workplace. For instance, Jang et al., (2018) argue that societal individualism- collectivism and uncertainty avoidance may affect individual‐level job resource–strain relationships in a culture. The authors continue, "societal individualism-collectivism and 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh uncertainty avoidance may either influence the importance of resources generally (i.e., resources have a stronger impact on reducing strain in more stressful, individualistic cultures and higher uncertainty avoidance cultures) or may affect the value, use, or effectiveness of specific types of resources (i.e., individual vs. group preference‐oriented, greater impact of uncertainty‐reducing resources) in combating strain within a culture, leading to stronger job resource–strain relationships for certain job resources in specific cultural contexts" (p. 508). Since collectivists emphasize a harmonious relationship with a strong attachment to people, they share in-group membership with, and they do not prefer to stand out in a competitive relationship with other members for achievement, they are more likely to work in a cooperative relationship with coworkers and they believe in collective success in the performance of tasks rather than individualized success. Not only do they strongly embrace organisational norms and values but also group norms and values, and tend to feel that it is their duty and obligation to preserve and protect group norms in the organisation. Where there is a conflict of interest between larger organisational goals and values and group goals and values, collectivists will align with the group to which they feel a strong attachment, which usually are the group norms they share with coworkers. Unlike persons with individualistic orientation driven to seek unique identification in the group, collectivists are likely to engage in interpersonal deviance with coworkers who share individualists' orientations. It is therefore expected that collectivistic orientation relates to workplace deviance. In particular, there is a relationship between collectivist cultural orientation and workplace deviance (ID-OD Dimensions). As a result, the current study hypothesizes that: Hypothesis 2a: Collectivistic orientation (COL) significantly relates positively with interpersonal deviant behaviours 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hypothesis 2b: Collectivistic orientation (COL) significantly relates negatively with organisational deviant behaviours 3.1.2 Power distance orientation (PDO) and WDBs Power distance orientation (PDO) is perhaps an important dimension as individualism- collectivism in terms of how it influences employee behaviours and organisational structures and processes. Power distance is significant given that power is a cornerstone to all relationships in organisations and tends to affect varied aspects of organisational processes and outcomes (Daniels & Greguras, 2014). Yet, it has attracted relatively much less attention (Khatri, 2009). It is given this that some scholars have submitted that there is a paucity of studies that examine PDO at the organisational level of analysis (Khatri, 2009). PDO essentially depicts individuals' values and attitudes about power in organisations and or in societies. PDO is more closely linked to people's understanding and interpretation of supervisory behaviours and their assessment of whether such behaviour is stressful or not to their wellbeing. Also, individuals' interpretation and understanding of the manifestation of power distance enables them to decide whether to react to it directly or indirectly or avoid it altogether in organisational settings or a given society (Lin, Wang & Chen, 2013). According to Lawrence and Robinson (2007), four dimensions of power namely, influence (e.g., manipulation and negotiation), force (e.g., physical abuse), discipline (e.g., surveillance), and domination (e.g., discrimination) affect the supervisor-subordinate relationship in the workplace. High PDO can result in any of the three dimensions identified such as manipulation, discrimination, or abuse due to less self-control (Fatima & Bashir, 2017). Power distance, otherwise referred to as hierarchy versus egalitarianism or equality by Schwartz (2006), varies at the individual, group, organisational, and societal levels and relates to various criteria across these 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh different levels even though power distance is sometimes treated as a homogeneous national value (Lin et al., 2012; Taras, Kirkman, & Steel, 2010; Yoo, Donthu, & Lenartowicz, 2011). At the individual level of analysis, some scholars employ constructs such as power and social inequality (Sharma, 2010), as the former, represents the extent to which individuals accept differences in the power wielded by various members in any organisation; and the latter represents the degree of inequality among people in a society in which the individual accepts as normal consistent with prior studies (Taras et al., 2009). Organisations are characterized by an unequal distribution of status and power (Hauf & Richter, 2015), which has implications on employees’ behaviours, attitudes and preferences (Hofstede, 2001, 2011; Porath & Pearson, 2012). Geertz Hofstede adopted the term 'power distance' from the research done by a Dutch experimental social psychologist, Mauk Mulder (Khatri, 2009). Mulder (1977) defined power distance as “the degree of inequality in power between a less powerful individual and a more powerful other, in which the individual and the other belong to the same (loosely or tightly knit) social system” (p.90). Drawing upon Mulder's conception of power distance, which emphasized dyadic and social- psychological concept, Hofstede (1997) extended it to a broader, cultural concept to refer to it as “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally” (p.28). Thus, PDO describes the degree to which individuals, groups, or societies accept inequalities (e.g., inequalities in power, status, and wealth) as unavoidable, legitimate, or functional (Daniels & Greguras, 2014). For Javidan et al., (2006), PDO represents the extent to which less powerful employees expect and accept that power, authority, status and material possessions are unequally distributed. The acceptance of inequalities in power or power differentials shapes views about how individuals with differing levels of power 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh should interact (Javidan & House, 2001). It deals with individuals’ beliefs about status, authority, and power in organisations (Kirkman et al., 2009). Given the diversity of the multicultural workforce, prior studies have demonstrated that differences in individuals' acceptance and endorsement of authority, status privileges and power differentials may affect employee behaviours such as workplace deviance (Hauf & Richter, 2015). Because perceptions of status and power vary across cultures, they are more likely to yield differential outcomes among employees in organisations. Accordingly, people who hold high PDO embrace centralization, formalization, authoritarian rule, tight control, and formal norms, accepting lack of autonomy and inequalities in power (Yoo et al., 2011). Individuals with high PDO believe that authority figures should be respected and shown deference and obey instructions and commands from power holders in the organisation, whereas individuals with low PDO do not perceive many distinctions based on social strata, power, or hierarchical position (Javidan & House, 2001). Hence, PDO may influence WDBs in a multicultural work setting due to differences in degrees of PDO of employees. Also, individuals in cultures that endorse and accept power distances are less likely to perceive their superiors as abusive, rude, uncivil, or aggressive relative to individuals from cultures that embrace status equality (Lin et al., 2012). This is because cultures emphasizing high PDO socialize members into submitting and receiving instructions from their superiors in the organisation. For such people, supervisor mistreatment may not have great effects on their retaliatory behaviours towards superiors who are perceived to be abusive (Kalemci et al., 2019; Power et al., 2013). Also, such individuals are less likely to view another as lazy, faking illness, or even reporting lateness, or the absence of another coworker since such employees prefer saving face and working cooperatively. They stress relationship-driven more than task-driven in the execution of 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh assignments. Unlike individuals from low PDO cultures who prefer to work independently to attain personal accomplishments over group goals (Fock et al., 2013). According to Vogel et al., (2015, p. 725), high PDO cultures "legitimize status differences and supervisor hostility towards subordinates", and low PDO "emphasizes egalitarianism and respectful supervisory behaviour" (p. 265). In high PDO cultures, everyone has their rightful place in the social hierarchy. As noted earlier, PDO tends to have a more direct theoretical relationship to not only leadership reactions but also follower responses than other cultural values (Vogel et al., 2015). Followers with high PDO values expect more and are more receptive to, one-way, top- down direction from their leaders. On the contrary, followers with low PDO expect little from their superiors in terms of direction and guidance and are less likely to embrace a top-down approach from their leaders (Javidan et al., 2006). Further, low PDO followers are less likely to be viewed as lazy for lack of proactiveness or receptive attitude to task execution as they take initiative and show responsiveness to working with little direction from superiors which can affect exchange relationships between employees and employers, and among employees themselves. Again, PDO affects how individuals perceive appropriate and inappropriate behaviours. For instance, Khatri (2009) observes that PDO affects the degree to which individuals define ethical and unethical behaviours (e.g., workplace deviant behaviours). This is because leaders or superiors are insulated from justifying their actions and inactions to their subordinates because of the general belief and acceptance of hierarchical order upheld by individuals who hold that cultural orientation (Khan, 2014), thereby justifying abusive behaviours towards employees. This is more likely to absolve superiors from any wrongdoings in such organisations (Khatri & Tsang, 2003). Further, because of superiors' higher status in the organisation, they tend to escape potential challenges that may arise from employees voicing their discontent, displeasure, or questioning leader 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh misbehaviour (Hofstede, 2001). This signals to other employees that leaders endorse such misbehaviours in the workplace. Khatri (2009) avers those individuals with high PDO tend to live with institutionalized injustice and consider hierarchical order to be normal and even desirable. They tend to accept the inequalities of power thereby perpetuating undesirable workplace behaviours. It has been noted that hierarchies play part in corruption (La Porta et al., 1997; Lambert, 1999). Accordingly, individuals with high PDO tend to shun insubordination, disagreements, and sabotaging as they behave submissively to their bosses, unlike those with low PDO, who are likely to view their superiors as equal, and may engage in disagreements, defy orders of leaders, and are less likely to submit to the orders of their superiors. This may result in insubordination, sabotaging, and aggressive reactions. Given this, people with high PDO are more likely to accept autocratic and paternalistic power relations (Ugwuzor, 2016). Employees at lower positions rarely question orders and simply follow instructions emanated from higher authority. Such employees are less likely to question supervisors' rudeness, abuse or harsh intonation directed at them. In contrast, employees with low PDO tend to expect that power is rather equally distributed and expect power relationships to reflect participatory, democratic and consultative principles. In light of the above, employees with low PDO are more likely to question both supervisors and subordinates’ actions they deem rude and abusive. They are more likely to develop long term relationship strain with employees who view unequal power distribution as a normal fact of life. Similarly, research has indicated that PDO affects good relationships among coworkers in the organisational setting (Hauf & Richter, 2015; Madlock, 2012). In particular, Madlock (2012) has shown that high PDO is associated with the increasing use of negative forms of communication in the workplace, which can result in interpersonal deviance (Ugwuzor, 2016). The reason for 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh individuals with high PDO avoid questioning their superiors, suppress retaliatory tendencies towards supervisor mistreatments, and do not argue with their bosses for fear of being perceived as deviant employees is that they view their bosses or leaders to be superior, elite, and deserving of respect, and reverence to the extent that their instructions require unquestionable obedience from employees (Kalemci et al., 2019). This therefore can result in less likelihood of such individuals engaging in WDBs like retaliation and sabotage in reaction to perceived mistreatment relative to individuals with low PDO (Hofstede, 2001; Khatri, 2009). Also, individuals with high PDO usually expect their leaders, superiors or managers to communicate strong directives with little explanation or clarification because they view their leaders to provide direction and solutions to common problems. This might seem laziness, slacking, and sabotaging to other employees with low PDO because low PDO employees expect that always receiving directions from superiors is a sign of encouraging laziness, thereby eliciting interpersonal strains such as ridiculing, shaming, and strains with coworkers with high PDO. PDO may even affect team performance. For example, Fatima and Bashir (2017) argue that supervisor PDO influences leaders to enact strategic abusive behaviours directed at employees, which subsequently decrease employee morale at the workplace. The authors found an indirect effect of PDO on abusive supervisor behaviours (Fatima & Bashir, 2017). Consistent with Kirkman and colleagues (2009), that even though employees with high PDO essentially receive instructions from their leaders without questioning, employees lower in PDO are less likely to embrace a leader's instruction to reexamine their assumptions about work or rethink how their jobs can be performed. Hence, leaders and coworkers who attempt to challenge followers or individuals with high PDO and their attitudes to task execution might be met with suspicion by such followers (Hofstede, 2001; Javidan et al., 2006). This results in the development 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of negative perceptions about such leaders or coworkers. Accordingly, the negative perception developed may increase the possibility for interpersonal strains, aggression and withdrawal behaviours among employees who embrace assumptions of high PDO as a worldview at work which may consequently affect organisational performance. Employees with low PDO who value independence, self-achievement and taking on challenging tasks may be less motivated in working with other coworkers with high PDO (Kirkman et al., 2009) which may elicit undesirable workplace behaviours. Further, Tepper, Moss, and Duffy (2011) suggest that high PDO and collectivistic cultural values can be used to encourage subordinates to perform better because people with high PDO revere their higher status individuals in organisations and tends to act unquestionably to supervisor's directives. Hence, superiors are more likely to elicit compliance from subordinates to supervisors’ wishes and caprices. Coupled with collectivistic orientation, employees are motivated to seek, restore and preserve harmony in social relationships with even abusive supervisors (Fatima & Bashir, 2017). This may communicate affirmation of supervisory abusive behaviours towards subordinates on the one hand, and makes supervisors think and accept abusive behaviours and aggressive tendencies as a normal way of treating subordinates on the other hand (Priesemuth, Schminke, Ambrose, & Folger, 2014). This is sustained by the fact that subordinates who hold high PDO places greater emphasis on supervisors’ feedback and subsequently get more benefits if they are perceived by superiors to be more responsible and compliant to their superiors (Fatima & Bashir, 2017). In consequence, strain relationships may develop between subordinates with low PDO and managers with high PDO because the latter expect those subordinates to show respect and reverence to their leaders rather than exhibiting defiance by the former. Where subordinates lack 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh managers' support, they become more likely to display aggression and other retaliatory behaviours to coworkers rather than to their leaders. Low PDO employees are likely to view such actions as disparaging to their wellbeing and may elicit negative reactions towards other coworkers who share different cultural value orientations. Conversely, individuals with low PDO are more likely to view high PDO counterparts with scepticism which may affect their interpersonal relationship with them. For managers with high PDO, subordinates with low PDO are more likely to speak their minds, question leader instructions, and are more likely to act before leader directions, which may engender perceived feelings of inadequacy on the part of the manager (Mourouzidou-Damtsa, Milidonis, & Stathopoulos, 2019). This is because high PDO aims at saving face, establishing status hierarchy, and preserving social distance with less powerful people in the status hierarchy (Khatri, 2009), hence, subordinates are highly unwilling to voice their opinions, discontent, displeasure and disagreements openly (Ugwuzor, 2016). More so, Takyi-Asiedu (1993) found that, in a high PDO organisation, 'scandals involving people in authority are, almost always covered up as long as they remain in power (p. 92). These cover-ups result from subordinates' loyalty (Khatri, 2009). It has also been noted that individuals with high PDO values are less likely to be in control of organisational activities especially in the absence of dependable superiors who can give them clear instructions, clarifications, directions and guidance (Hofstede, 2001). The pressure to conform under low power distance superiors by high power distance subordinates may drive them into undesirable workplace behaviours. They may experience higher levels of stress and hence attempt to engage in actions or activities that can help eliminate or ameliorate such workplace stressors, some of which may be harmful to the organisation (Lazarus, 1995). Meanwhile, studies have indicated that employees who go through stressful situations become inefficient in the delivery of 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tasks. Thus, an employee under potential stress cannot carry out his duties skillfully and suitably (Mourouzidou-Damtsa et al., 2019; Hussain & Sia, 2017). This may invite perceived mistreatment from bosses in the workplace or employees may perceive supervisor confrontation as mistreatment. Until recently, empirical studies, to the best of our knowledge, that provide evidence pointing to the direct effect of PDO at the individual level on WDBs are lacking (Fatima & Bashir, 2017; Kalemci et al., 2019; Ugrin, Pearson & Nickle, 2018), even though there has been a modest attempt by some scholars who investigate indirect effects of culture on WDBs such as incivility and workplace bullying (Wang et al., 2011). Ugrin et al., (2018) found that online shopping and social networking were strongest among individuals with low rather than high PDO. This suggests that cyberloafing, which is considered to be a deviant behaviour because it distracts employees from focusing on their main job duties (Lim & Chen, 2009, 2012; Lim, 2002), is more likely to be engaged in work settings by individuals with low PDO values than those with high PDO values. Unfortunately, there are rising reports of cybercrime in most developing countries including Ghana (Antwi-Boasiako, 2017; Boateng, Olumide, Isabalija, & Budu, 2011). On their part, Power et al., (2011) showed a theoretical linkage of PDO and incivility behaviours, a milder form of workplace deviant behaviours. Power et al., (2011) found a negative relationship between power distance and incivility behaviours at the workplace. Although PDO is indirectly but significantly related to OCB in a study among the United States of America (USA) and The People's Republic of China (PRC) respondents (Kirkman et al., 2009), at the same time, found that PDO had a slightly direct negative relationship with organisational citizenship behaviours (OCB). Yet, an empirical attempt made to show how PDO might relate to destructive workplace behaviours directly has been underrepresented. It is therefore argued in favour of the need to 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh address the prevalence of workplace deviance in organisations given that leadership is critical to organisational efforts towards ameliorating undesirable work outcomes (Power et al., 2011; Kirkman et al., 2009). Some research attempts have been made on the indirect effect of power distance on undesirable employee behaviours (see Kirkman et al., 2009). These studies offer the opportunity to examine how differential cultural background affects employee behavioural outcomes since not all employees react similarly to similar situations at work. Some might react negatively by engaging in destructive workplace behaviours, whilst others may choose to overlook certain injustices experienced at the workplace or other factors outside contextual influences that shape employee reactions at the workplace. Lian et al., (2012b), Lin et al., (2013), Wang, Mao, Wu, and Liu, (2012), and Khan (2014) studies have demonstrated how PDO affects employees' perceptions of (un)fairness of supervisor abuse, (non)reaction to supervisory abuses, and interactional injustice of abused employees, and subsequently, affect their behaviours in the organisation. The review above has shown that power distance influences differential employee outcomes at the workplace (Kirkman et al., 2009; Fatima & Bashir, 2017; Vohs, Baumeister & Ciarocco, 2005), and the corresponding dearth of studies that examine direct impacts of PDO on workplace deviance (Barnes, Lucianetti, Bhave & Christian, 2015; Martinko, Harvey, Brees & Mackey 2013) invites empirical attempt to show the relationship between PDO and workplace deviance. Therefore, this study tests the hypothesis that power distance orientation relates negatively to organisational deviance (OD), but positively to interpersonal deviance (ID). Hypothesis 3a: Power distance orientation significantly relates positively to interpersonal deviant behaviours. 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hypothesis 3b: Power distance orientation significantly relates negatively with organisational deviant behaviours 3.1.3 Uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) and WDBs Despite research evidence that points out that societies vary in terms of how they are concerned with certainty and predictability, and the practical consequence of this concern in terms of social manifestations (Debus, Probst, König, & Kleinmann, 2012), UAO has received less research attention relative to individualistic, collectivistic and power distance orientations in cross-cultural research, especially, in understanding negative behaviours of employees (Giebels, Oostinga, Taylor, & Curtis, 2017). Cultural differences can affect mutual understanding and cooperation negatively because the expectations and norms that help in sense making become incompatible and misleading (Giebels & Taylor, 2009; Taylor et al., 2014). Uncertainty avoidance is noted to impact individual interactions in the work setting (Cialdini, Wosinska, Barrett, Butner, & Gornik- Durose, 1999). Uncertainty avoidance orientation refers to the degree to which a person “feels threatened by uncertain or unknown situations” (Hofstede 2001, p. 161). This feeling of being threatened is communicated through anxiety and a need for predictability, explicit rules, or structured situations (Kalemci et al., 2019; Ugrin et al., 2018). UAO describes a person’s tolerance for uncertainty which enables them to evaluate their approach to the uncertainties and ambiguities embedded in everyday life (Hofstede, 2001). Hence, a person with high UAO behaves firmly, whereas one with weak UAO behaves flexibly (Hofstede, 2001). High UAO values relate with a desire for reduction of ambiguity and risk, with a need for predictability, explicit written rules, structured situations, whereas low UAO values are associated with a tolerance for ambiguity and propensity to engage in risk-taking behaviours (Hofstede, 2001). Ambiguous or unpredictable circumstances prompt anxiety in high UAO employees resulting in increased stress. These rising stress levels can lead 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh them to engage in practices or behaviours, of which some might be contrary to organisational norms, unlike individuals with low UAO values (Hofstede, 1980; Weaver, 2001). People with high UAO values are less open to change and innovation, and therefore, more likely to resist change by defying organisational expectations than people with low UAO values. For example, the introduction of technology that allows employees to cut down time spent on packaging a product might be interpreted as a measure to downsize employees and may trigger high uncertainties and, subsequently, result in non-compliant behaviours (Puffer, 1987) towards the use of the technology. Extant studies have shown that managerial perception of risk and predisposition to taking risk varies between individuals and societies (Delerue & Simon, 2009; Li et al., 2013). This implies that national cultural values primarily influence risk preferences and attitude towards risk (Husted & Allen, 2008; Mourouzidou-Damtsa et al., 2019). People with high UAO tend to submit wholly to the rules, orders, and decisions of management with the anticipation that they will not incur any risk for themselves. In contrast, people with low UAO values embrace equality to power and status in organisations as equals (Mourouzidou-Damtsa et al., 2019; Peretz et al., 2018). Also, individuals with low UAO values tend to usually display individualistic and low power distance orientations, unlike their high uncertainty avoidance counterparts who embrace stability and security. High UAO individuals are resistant to change because they display collectivistic and high-power distance values (Hofstede, 2001). This suggests that high UAO values are upheld in high collectivistic and high-power distance societies, whilst low UAO values are embraced in high individualistic and low PDO societies. Because employees with low UAO values are risk-takers, their attempt to achieve personal achievement may result in feelings of increased tensions, frustrations, and aggression especially when they find it incapable of meeting such personal 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh accomplishments that result from uncertainties about expected performance and responsibilities. This constraint may be interpreted as threats to the achievement of personal goals which they value in high esteem. This further exacerbates their feelings of frustration, aggression, anger, and annoyance which may predispose them to high levels of engaging in workplace deviance by defying orders and instructions of superiors and coworkers. Similarly, people with weak UAO tend to accept uncertainty with little or none discomfort, easily take risks, and embrace divergent opinions and behaviours different from their own. They do not need precise and explicit details including job descriptions, product descriptions, and product use instructions. In contrast, people with strong UAO need to control the environment, events, and situations, and consistent with extant research tend to require explicit rules and directions at the workplace. Uncertainty avoidance consists of two sub-concepts: “risk aversion, the degree to which individuals feel uncomfortable with taking risks, and intolerance of ambiguity, the degree to which individuals feel uncomfortable when confronted with ambiguity” (Walczuch 1994, p. 3). Triandis (1989, 1990) elaborates on Hofstede’s (1980) dimension of uncertainty avoidance through his discussion of loose and tight cultures. He explains that loose cultures encourage freedom and deviation from norms, whereas in tight cultures, norms are promoted and deviation from those norms is punished. Therefore, individuals in tight cultures prefer “predictability, certainty, and security,” and individuals from loose cultures prefer creativity and diversity (Triandis, 1989, p. 50). For Straub, Loch, Evaristo, and Srite (2002), uncertainty avoidance is the level of risks accepted by a culture, which can be gleaned from the emphasis on rule obedience, ritual behaviour, and labour mobility. Also, Sharma (2010) posits that, individuals with high UAO values tend to be active, emotional, and embrace security-seeking traits; they also tend to accept uncertainty without much discomfort and show greater tolerance for opinions and behaviours 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh different from their own. In contrast, individuals with lower UAO are contemplative, less emotional, and risk-takers; and they have a greater need to control the environment, events, and situations in their personal lives (Sharma, 2010). Empirical studies have reported the impact of cultural orientation on risk-taking behaviours of individuals and groups as well as financial decision-making in banks (Li et al., 2013; Kanagaretnam, Chee Yeow, & Lobo, 2014; Mourouzidou-Damtsa et al., 2019). In particular, Mourouzidou-Damtsa et al., (2019) found the causal effect of national culture on bank risk taking using a sample of banks from 70 nations covering all continents. Similarly, Li et al., (2013) found that culture is related to corporate risk using a sample of manufacturing firms. Mourouzidou- Damtsa et al., (2019) concluded from their study that cultural values are important and economically significant determinants of domestic bank risk as they found a strong positive (and negative) association between individualism, hierarchy (trust) and bank risk-taking. Accordingly, individuals with risk-taking cultural values are more likely than those with risk-averse to undertake risk which may not be sanctioned by organisational expectation and this may bring destructive or constructive consequences to the organisation. Unfortunately, the impact of UAO on workplace deviance is underexplored. In addition, extant studies have shown that individuals who are low in UAO are more likely to accept illegal activities than those high in UAO (Swaidan, 2012). Consistently, Ugrin and colleagues (2018) hypothesized that individuals with high UAO will be more likely to engage in cyberloafing than individuals with low UAO. They found a positive relationship between shopping and social networking (elements of cyberloafing which is defined as the use of Internet technologies for personal purposes at work) at the workplace. The finding suggests that online shopping and social networking were strongest among individuals with high UAO values relative 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to individuals with low UAO values. This finding provides evidence that cyberloafing activities vary across cultures. In this study, culture indirectly influenced cyberloafing. The direct impact of culture was not explored. Barry et al., (1957) observe that socialization practices about gender vary across cultures. Successive scholars share in this assertion. For instance, scholars have noted that UAO has implications on socialization which differs according to how a society emphasizes risk-taking and risk-averse behaviours, which, in turn, has implications on predisposition to workplace deviance (Hofstede, 2001). Young ones in high UAO cultures are socialized into conformity to norms, avoid developing self-reliance, foster a strong sense of dependence, and greater unwillingness to take risks. This makes them develop less inclination towards deviations unlike socialization in low UAO values (Kawanishi, 2004, p. 28). Thus, individuals with high UAO internalize a low penchant for risky behaviours relative to low uncertainty avoidance counterparts, which are translated into the work environment. Tightness-looseness is another dimension related to uncertainty avoidance (Gelfand et al., 2011; Giebels et al., 2017). Consistently, Triandis (2004) observed that tight nations have strong norms and a low tolerance for deviant behaviour, while loose nations are characterized by the opposite. This is because tight or high UAO values prioritize high value on law and regulations in organisations, institutions and relationships relative to individuals with loose or low UAO values (Hofstede, 2001). Hierarchy and egalitarianism proposed by Schwartz (2006) are conceptually related to uncertainty avoidance. Thus, differences in individuals' uncertainty avoidance in terms of, for example, what is going to happen next or why did something happened the way it did in the past etc., may generate differences in how individuals respond to uncertain and ambiguous situations at the workplace. Some individuals may respond to uncertainties legitimately or 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh illegitimately (Giebels et al., 2017; Merkin, 2006). In particular, Merkin (2006) found that people with high UAO scores endorse more ritualistic behaviour, including speaking the proper words, dressing decently, and performing the appropriate acts in certain situations compared to individuals with low UAO scores. Since individuals with high UAO values may experience more strain in ambiguous and uncertain situations than do people with low UAO values (Hofstede, 2001; Jang et al., 2018), they may exhibit a strong inclination to taking time out without permission to calm themselves from the strain they experience from job demands. They may also choose to stay out beyond break time or show withdrawal behaviours targeting the organisation or may show hostility towards members in the organisation unlike individuals with low UAO who tend to experience less strain. These outcomes constitute workplace deviance (Robinson & Bennett, 2003). Jang et al., (2018) found that the relationship between job control and the strain was stronger in high compared to low UAO cultures. This implies that individuals who hold high UAO tend to experience low strain resulting from job control compared to individuals with low UAO. Hence, weak UAO values tend to tolerate deviant behaviours in a relaxed atmosphere where the practice is more important than principle (Hofstede, 1984; Afrifa & Gyapong, 2019) whereas strong UAO values predispose individuals to be conservative, preserve the status quo, and intolerant towards foreign or alien practices (Chan & Cheung, 2012). Other studies provide contrary evidence to the job-demands-strain relationship cross-culturally by indicating that individualists tend to experience more strain in comparison to collectivists counterparts resulting from job demands (Spector et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2012). This implies that job demands relate strongly to strain among employees with individualistic values which correspond with low uncertainty avoidance cultural values than collectivistic individuals who 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh demonstrate high UAO (Yang et al., 2012). Also, extant research has shown that cultural dimensions such as uncertainty avoidance affect the association between leaders' emotional intelligence and leadership practices (Butler, Kwantes, & Boglarsky, 2014; Tang, Yin, & Nelson, 2010). This implies that employees' UAO values may influence how they perceive their leaders and subsequently react to their perceived desirable and undesirable behaviours at the workplace. Where they view their leaders to provide unambiguous tasks with minimal uncertainties, individuals high in UAO are less likely to experience strain which may result in a less likelihood to engage in WDBs and vice versa. Based on the literature reviewed above, the study tests the hypothesis that individual-level uncertainty avoidance relates to WDBs towards the organisation (OD) and coworkers (ID). Hence, it is hypothesized that: Hypothesis 4a: Uncertainty avoidance orientation significantly relates positively with interpersonal deviant behaviours Hypothesis 4b: Uncertainty avoidance orientation significantly relates positively with organisational deviant behaviours 3.2.0 Moderation Analysis Moderation analysis is undertaken to explore what alters the magnitude and or direction of the causal relationship observed (Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004; Wu & Zumbo, 2007). That is, moderation analysis allows one to ascertain another variable(s) that modifies the relationship between predictor and criterion variables. The moderation analysis can allow for a deeper and more refined understanding of a causal relationship between these cultural orientations and WDBs (Wu & Zumbo, 2007; Hauff, Richter, & Tressin, 2015). Accordingly, the moderation analysis seeks to determine at what point the cultural orientation of employees most strongly affect workplace deviance of employees (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Wu & Zumbo, 2007; Andersson, 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Cuervo-Cazurra, & Nielsen, 2014). This study seeks to ascertain whether the strength or direction of the effects of the causal models is due to the degree of involvement and identification of an employee with the organisation, how employees perceive their leaders to be ethical, and finally how they perceive their organisations to be supportive or otherwise. 3.2.1 Perceived ethical leadership (PEL) moderating the relationship between employee cultural orientations and WDBs Generally, ethics constitute the standards of appropriate behaviour or conduct that an individual uses to guide and shape decisions in both work and non-work environments (Ralston et al., 2009). Ethics is the code of values and moral principles that guides individual or group behaviour for what is right or wrong (Mihelic, Lipicnik, & Tekavcic, 2010). Ethical leadership is when a leader respects the rights and dignity of others, such a leader can be said to demonstrate ethical leadership. Sims (1992) defined ethical behaviour as behaviour that is morally accepted as "good" and "right" as opposed to "bad" or "wrong" in a given. Trevino (1986) adds that ethical behaviour is both legally and morally acceptable to the larger community. Ethical leadership is defined as “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement and decision-making” (Brown et al., 2005, p. 120). From this definition, four main roles of the ethical leader can be identified: first, the conduct of ethical leaders serves as role-modelling behaviour for followers as their behaviour is accepted as appropriate; second, ethical leaders communicate and justify their actions to followers (i.e. they make ethics salient in their social environment) (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999); third, ethical leaders want to continually behave according to ethics, therefore, they set ethical standards in the company and reward ethical conduct (Minkes, Small, & Chatterjee, 1999) on the part of employees as well 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as punish unethical behaviour; finally, ethical leaders incorporate ethical dimension in the decision-making process by considering the ethical consequences of their actions and or inactions and aspire towards making fair choices. Ethical behaviour in organisational context comprises an array of behaviour expectations that occur in organisational settings, such as, how organisations achieve their goals, how leaders and followers behave in organisations whether they are legally and morally right or otherwise (Trevino et al., 2006). It also entails playing fair, thinking about the welfare of others and thinking about the consequences of one's actions (Brown, 2007; Mihelic et al., 2010). Additionally, some scholars identify individual values, conscious intentions, freedom of choice, stage of moral development, types of influence used, and use of ethical as well as unethical behaviour as relevant criteria for judging ethical behaviour of leaders (Yukl, 2006; Mihelic et al., 2010). Others include humility, honesty and straightforwardness, fulfilling commitments, fairness, taking responsibility, showing respect for others, encouraging and developing others, serving others, and showing courage to pursue what is right (Mihelic et al., 2010) Extant scholars have underscored the crucial role ethical leadership plays in organisations, in terms of, how it provides direction to enable the organisation achieve its vision and mission as well as accomplish its stated objectives (Kanungo & Mendonca, 1996). Others contend that ethical leadership is crucial in helping to manage an organisation's reputation in the external environment, and also enriches its status relative to competitors in the external environment (Brown & Trevino, 2006). Despite recent research attempts in understanding how culture impacts ethics and its attendant decision making (Kish-Gephart et al., 2010), there has been an overemphasis on normative aspects of ethical beliefs to the neglect of individual-level influences on attitudes of management and what is considered ethical (Forsyth et al., 2008; Ralston et al., 2014). In the same 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vein, organisational scholars have demonstrated that contextual factors such as ethical leadership (Brown & Trevino, 2006), ethical climate (Mayer et al., 2009), and codes of conduct (Weaver & Trevino, 1999) drive unethical or WDBs. Similarly, extant scholars have noted the lack of attention on how ethical inclinations moderate relationships between employee behaviour and job outcomes (Husted & Allen, 2008). It has been acknowledged that ethically questionable behaviour by employees and organisations tend to vary across cultures (Ralston et al., 2014). This implies that behaviour may be seen as ethically incorrect in one society but will be seen as ethically approved in another society, and these differences in the conception of ethics impact individual behaviours in the workplace. Ralston et al., (2014) finding supported the proposition that for collectivistic and individualistic cultural value orientations (respectively), the micro-level of analysis is more likely to predict perceptions of ethical behaviour than the societal-level of analysis. Chen et al., (2002) examined individualism and collectivism influence on ethical behaviours by drawing on the concept of opportunistic propensity, which has been defined as "opportunism refers to the incomplete or distorted disclosure of information, especially to calculated efforts to mislead, distort, disguise, obfuscate, or otherwise confuse" (Williamson 1985, p. 47), used to perpetuate unethical or deviant behaviours in the workplace. Chen et al., (2002) argue that collectivistic and individualistic societies have different levels of opportunistic propensity resulting from the group membership of the target. Thus, collectivistic societies tend to be more opportunistic in out-group relationships and less opportunistic in in-group relationships than are individualistic societies. This implies that individuals with collectivistic orientations are more likely to conceal, misrepresent, and keep information from people who are considered out-group to them. This finding also suggests the role culture plays in influencing employee deviance at the workplace. 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh People with collectivistic cultural values are more likely to hold negative view about business practices that are not consistent with the wellbeing of the collective (Erez & Earley, 1993), unlike people with individualistic cultural values, who tend to regard themselves as autonomous and place a higher value on their self-interests (Husted & Allen, 2008). This suggests that individuals with collectivistic orientations are more likely to perceive superiors who place great emphasis on welfare, relationship-driven and a focus on group harmony as more ethically correct than another superior who stresses autonomous, task-driven and self-accomplishment as unethically correct or ethically incorrect. Employees with individualistic cultural values are more likely to view decisions and actions that embrace autonomy, self-serving, and a focus on personal achievement as business decisions rather than as a threat to the maintenance of group harmony as may be seen by employees who hold collectivistic cultural values. This is consistent with studies that find that post-conventional moral reasoning of people who hold collectivistic cultural values tends to be relationship-based unlike the moral reasoning of people with more individualistic cultural values which tend to be justice-based (Husted & Allen, 2008). Husted and Allen (2008) proposed that individualism and collectivism should moderate the relationship between moral reasoning and moral behaviour because personal beliefs are prioritized in decision making over group norms among people with individualistic cultural values whilst people with collectivistic cultural values may hold personal beliefs that differ significantly from the group norm but will behave in accordance with the group norm (Oyserman et al., 2002; Triandis, 1995). From the above, this study seeks to test the hypothesis that employees' perceptions of ethical leadership moderate the relationship between the cultural orientation of employees and workplace deviance at the workplace. In particular, it is hypothesized that: 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hypothesis 5a: Employee's perceived ethical leadership moderates the positive relationship between individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for those with a negative perception of ethical leadership than those with a positive perception of ethical leadership Hypothesis 5b: Employee’s perceived ethical leadership moderates the negative relationship between individualistic orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for those with a negative perception of ethical leadership than those with a positive perception of ethical leadership Hypothesis 5c: Employee’s perceived ethical leadership moderates the positive relationship between collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for those with a negative perception of ethical leadership than those with a positive perception of ethical leadership Hypothesis 5d: Employee’s perceived ethical leadership moderates the negative relationship between collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for those with a negative perception of ethical leadership than those with a positive perception of ethical leadership Hypothesis 5e: Employee's perceived ethical leadership moderates the positive relationship between power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for those with a negative perception of ethical leadership than those with a positive perception of ethical leadership Hypothesis 5f: Employee's perceived ethical leadership moderates the negative relationship between power distance orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for those with a negative perception of ethical leadership than those with a positive perception of ethical leadership Hypothesis 5g: Employee's perceived ethical leadership moderates the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for those with a negative perception of ethical leadership than those with a positive perception of ethical leadership Hypothesis 5h: Employee's perceived ethical leadership moderates the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for those with a negative perception of ethical leadership than those with a positive perception of ethical leadership 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.2 Perceived organisational support (POS) moderating the relationship between employee cultural orientations and WDBs Organisational behaviour researchers, as well as human resource scholars, have generally agreed that the way employees perceive the nature of a supportive environment that they operate regarding how management values and cares about their wellbeing, is incrementally significant to the life of the organisation (Allen, 2003). This is because when employees hold a positive perception about their organisations regarding how caring and strong value their organisations place on employees' contribution, they are more likely to return such beneficial outcomes to the organisation in terms of increased commitment, trust, loyalty, extra-role activities, as well as prosocial behaviours that enable the organisation attain its stated goals (Kalemci et al., 2019; Kurtessis et al., 2015; Rhoades, Eisenberger, & Armeli, 2001). In contrast, when employees hold negative perception that their organisations do not care and value their contributions, they are more likely to have low self- esteem, which translates into reduced commitment, heightened engagement in negative behaviours such as retaliation, absenteeism, lateness, withholding effort, shirking, slacking, unnecessary breaks, lack of punctuality, theft of company properties, etc. which are detrimental to the attainment of organisational goals. As a result, employees' perception of organisational support cannot be understated when it comes to ways to address employees undesirable work outcomes (Kalemci et al., 2019; Kurtessis et al., 2015; Martinko et al., 2013) Perceived organisational support (POS) describes the quality of the employer-employee relationship in terms of assessment of the extent to which employees hold the belief that their employers tend to value their contributions and care about their wellbeing (Shoss et al., 2013). Nair and Bhatnagar (2011) suggest that perceived organisational support will have a negative relationship with workplace deviance. Similarly, other studies have shown how POS contributes 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh immensely to both employee and organisational success in terms of reducing stress (Shaw et al., 2013) and positively relates to performance (Kurtessis et al., 2015). A meta-analysis by Chiaburu and Harrison (2008) which drew on social exchange theory (SET) found that coworker social support correlates positively to employee organisational commitment, and negatively to job involvement and effort reduction work behaviours, whilst coworker antagonism (e.g., incivility) correlates positively to counterproductive workplace behaviours and negatively to employee organisational affective commitment and job involvement. When superiors demonstrate supportive behaviours towards their subordinates, they essentially communicate to subordinates that they value their contribution and care for their well-being, on the one hand, the employees, on the other hand, become reassured that their supervisors treat them with dignity, respect, and value their continuing presence on the job (Shore et al., 2001) which may dispel perceptions of 'supervisor don't want me here' that may arise when employees perceive non-supportive behaviours from their superiors. Organisational support expressed through supervisor support invokes the principle of the norm of reciprocity which guides social exchanges between supervisors and subordinates at the workplace. Thus, supervisor social support tends to attract positive reciprocating supportive behaviours from employees to the organisation indirectly and the supervisor in particular since supervisors serve as agents of the organisation (Sakurai & Jex, 2012). Supervisor's supportive behaviours towards employees engender feelings of self-worth and the development of the belief that supervisors will continue to sustain the positive benefits they enjoy in the future. This endears subordinates to repay supervisors kind gestures with positive behaviours (Saks, 2006), thereby increasing employee performance towards the organisation. In contrast, the absence of supervisor supportive behaviours implies that employees are lacking other socioemotional needs which can be effective in reducing 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh coworker incivilities, bullying, and aggression, which may arise from lack of felt obligation that results in the development of negative feelings with coworkers. Thus, supervisor supportive behaviours can be a good recipe in inhibiting or enhancing employee retaliatory or destructive workplace behaviours (Kim et al., 2018; Choi et al., 2018). When employees perceive high levels of supervisor supportive behaviours towards them, they are less likely to engage in workplace deviance such as withdrawal, effort reduction, and using working hours to attend to personal errands to the detriment of the organisation even where their core beliefs seem incompatible with organisational policies and managerial decisions. Also, POS has been linked to theories of organisational commitment (Panaccio & Vandenberghe, 2009) given that commitment attitudes and behaviours develop usually after employees recognize that their organisation has their welfare at heart. Without positive perceived support of the organisation by the employee, it will be difficult for employees to harness commitment towards the organisation because perceptions of organisational commitment influence organisational commitment (Mowday et al., 1979). This is consistent with the observation that organisational support to the employee is associated with employee commitment to the organisation (Meyer & Allen, 1997) implying that POS reinforces the processes associated with organisational commitment (Rhoades et al., 2001). Studies have shown how culture significantly affects business practices irrespective of their location whether originating countries or host countries (Hofstede, 2011). So, where diverse employees from different cultural environments come together to pursue a common objective of increasing the profitability and competitiveness of firms, they are more likely to encounter differences resulting from cultural clashes about ways of doing things in the organisation. If such clashes emerge, employees are likely to perceive organisational support differently, and this 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh difference in perception of organisational support may yield differential work outcomes. Thus, where employees whose cultural orientation values encourage independence in the execution of assignments and tasks, are more likely to support organisations that stress task-oriented relationships by fostering self-achievement, competition, and personal accomplishment as more supportive than other employees with collectivistic values which emphasize collectivism, relationships, cooperation and collaboration in the execution of tasks. Consequently, employees with individualistic cultural orientation are likely to view employees with collectivistic orientations as unassertive, lazy, or delay activities which may result in gossiping, ethnocentric inclinations, acting rudely towards coworkers, tensions and frictions leading to the development of aggressive tendencies which are largely defined as deviant behaviours. In essence, perception of organisational support is likely to differ among employees with different cultural backgrounds and subsequently elicit different outcomes. Hence, employees whose cultural background supports task-oriented organisational practices are likely to have positive organisational support than employees whose cultural background supports relationship- oriented practices in task-oriented organisations. As a result, the following hypotheses are developed for testing: Hypothesis 6a: Perceived organisational support moderates the negative relationship between individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than employees with positive PO. Hypothesis 6b: Perceived organisational support moderates the positive relationship between individualistic orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is weak among employees with positive POS than employees with negative POS. Hypothesis 6c: Perceived organisational support moderates the positive relationship between collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than those with positive POS 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hypothesis 6d: Perceived organisational support moderates the negative relationship between collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than those with positive POS Hypothesis 6e: Perceived organisational support moderates the relationship between power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is weak rather than strong among employees with positive POS Hypothesis 6f: Perceived organisational support moderates the negative relationship between power distance orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is weak rather than strong among employees with positive POS Hypothesis 6g: Perceived organisational support moderates the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance of employees such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than employees with positive POS. Hypothesis 6h: Perceived organisational support moderates the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance of employees such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than employees with positive POS. 3.2.3 Employee commitment (EC) moderates the relationship between employee cultural orientation and WDBs Extant studies have shown that organisational commitment is among the most extensively studied constructs in terms of its components, antecedents, correlates, and consequences (Dartey-Baah, 2014; Eslami & Gharakhani, 2012; Jiang et al., 2015). Existing research has identified three types of commitment, namely; affective, continuance, and normative (Meyer, Allen & Gellatly, 1990) with each having its focus because Bateman (1976) describes commitment as multidimensional. At least two of these two types of commitment can be interpreted in social exchange theory terms, with continuance commitment being similar to an economic exchange relationship and affective commitment being similar to a social exchange relationship (Cropanzano et al., 2017). Organisational commitment, according to Porter and colleagues (1974), refers to “the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organisation” (Porter 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh et al., 1974, p.604). Thus, commitment describes an individual’s strong belief in and acceptance of the organisational goals and values, disposition to exert substantial effort on behalf of the organisation and a strong desire to maintain organisational membership (Porter et al., 1974). The concept of organisational commitment has therefore received enormous research interest resulting in it being treated as a variable of interest in its own right (Resmi, Gemini, Silvian, & Kannan, 2014). Meyer and Allen (1991) defined the three categories of commitment as affective (wanting to stay with an organisation due to the “emotional attachment to, identification with and involvement in the organisation” (p. 11); normative (developing a sense of moral obligation to stay with the organisation); and continuance (“feeling stuck” and remaining with the organisation because it is too costly to leave). These components can develop from how HRM practices are perceived (Eslami & Gharakhani, 2012). Thus, affective commitment describes the degree to which the individual identifies with the organisation (identification, involvement, and emotional attachment); Normative commitment describes the extent to which an employee believes he/she should be or ought to be committed to an organisation and this is usually determined by social norms; and continuance commitment describes an individual's calculative need to continue working for the organisation based on the perceived costs or high risks associated with leaving (Allen & Meyer, 1990; Meyer & Allen, 1997). Klein, Becker, and Meyer (2009) review of the range of conceptualizations of commitment noted that Meyer and Allen's (1991) three-component model dominates in current research. Commitment seeks to explain regularities involving attitudes, beliefs and behaviour, and these three components of commitment can be experienced in varying degrees simultaneously (Meyer & Allen, 1997). 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Normative commitment concerns itself with one's feeling of (moral) obligation to remain in the organisation. This stems from the way the individual thinks if it is the right thing to do by staying with the organisation that has provided him/her with certain resources in exchange for his/her obligation to work to achieve organisational goals. Continuance commitment describes the commitment employees experience towards the organisation due to the investments they have made from working with the organisation which could not or might not have been able to mobilize from elsewhere or because the costs associated with leaving the organisation outweighs the benefits (Dipboye, Smith, & Howell, 1994). Continuance commitment arises when employees realize that they have accumulated sufficient investments they would lose if they left the organisation or because they have limited alternatives elsewhere (Eslami & Gharakhani, 2012). The difference between affective commitment and continuance commitment is that unlike employees high in affective commitment remain with the organisation because they want to, employees high in continuance commitment tend to remain because the calculative decisions they undertake make them have to stay (Meyer et al., 1990). Differences in individual cultural orientation account for differences in the predictive capacities of these commitment components which in turn will affect how individuals will behave in the organisation. This is consistent with the assertion that organisational commitment is a subjective construct that entails employees’ views about their identification with their organisations’ core values, their intent to remain with their organisation, and their inclination to exert more effort than expected by their organisation (Mowday et al., 1979). Affective commitment has been noted to be influenced by culture to a large extent because of its emotional basis which is developed from values individuals hold. These values vary from society to society (Kwantes, 2003; Meyer & Allen, 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1991). As a result, it has received much research attention compared to the other components (Kwantes, 2003). According to Eslami and Gharakhani (2012), organisational commitment describes employees' attitude of attachment to the organisation which leads to particular job-related behaviours such as work absenteeism, job satisfaction, turnover intentions, organisational citizenship behaviours, work motivation and work performance. The low commitment of employees can result in undesirable employee behaviours such as intention to leave and turnover whilst high commitment yields positive employee behaviours like OCBs, prosocial behaviours, and staying longer with the organisation (Dartey-Baah, 2014; Resmi et al., 2014). Organisational commitment arises out of the exchanges emerging from employer-employee relations in the workplace. As a result, most studies employ social exchange perspectives in understanding motivations, correlates and outcomes of employee commitment (Colquitt et al., 2013). Employees with affective commitment desire to emotionally attach to, identify with and involve themselves in the organisation (Meyer & Allen, 1991), and this desire arises out of the favourable treatment these employees enjoy from the organisation consistent with social exchange principles. Consequently, employees tend to commit to the organisation by reciprocating the favourable treatment they have received from the organisation (Cropanzano et al., 2017). In contrast, employees who receive unfavourable treatment from the organisation directly or indirectly from organisational members or management are less likely to desire to commit to the organisation, and consequently, may show a great predisposition to higher levels of turnover intention and organisational deviance, which to a large extent is caused by a lower level of affective organisational commitment (Chang, 1999). Commitment is found to be negatively associated with turnover intention and turnover (Meyer et al., 2002; Resmi et al., 2014). Some scholars have 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh indicated that organisational commitment is a useful recipe not only for enhancing performance but also for controlling, regulating and correcting employee behaviour at the workplace (Resmi et al., 2014). Given that individuals differentially participate in social exchanges (Brockner, Chen, Mannix, Leung, & Skarlicki, 2000) because of differences in employees' evaluation of what constitutes fairness, well-being, support, and treatment from organisational agents and coworkers (Kim et al., 2010), it is expected that individuals will evaluate and exhibit commitment differently in the organisational setting. Individuals who value autonomy, equality, personal accomplishment, which are characteristics of individualistic orientations, are likely to respond favourably, and consequently, identify with organisations that provide enabling environment for them to flourish compared to individuals who embrace collectivistic cultural orientations because such people are less likely to be committed to organisations that place a strong emphasis on task-oriented working relationships. Continuance, normative and affective components of commitment are expected to moderate the cultural orientation-workplace deviant behaviour relationship examined in this study. Employees’ continuance commitment emerges from the cost associated with leaving the organisation. They will choose to remain with the organisation if they feel or think that they will be deprived of certain material resources they have gained with the current organisation (Dartey- Baah, 2014; Meyer et al., 2003) even if their cultural value orientations are incompatible with organisational values. This suggests that high continuance commitment of employees will superimpose employees' cultural value orientations when they are incompatible with organisational goals or supervisor mistreatments. Employees are less likely to retaliate negatively with supervisor or coworker mistreatments in the work setting. On the other hand, those with low continuance commitment are more likely to engage in undesirable workplace behaviours when 135 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh they perceive negative support or mistreatment from organisational agents like withdrawal behaviours, intention to leave, absenteeism, deliberately working slow, pilfering or taking properties belonging to the organisation without authorization etc. This is because they would not like to risk losing the material gains from the current organisation especially when there will not be any viable alternative elsewhere leading them to endure negative experiences which arise out of the clash of cultural values at the workplace. Thus, continuance commitment is more likely to buffer the relationship between employees' individual level power distance, individualism, collectivism and uncertainty avoidance orientations and workplace deviance in the organisation. The logic above is consistent with extant studies that find that continuance commitment (CCT) moderate relationships between employee attitudes, values, behaviours and practices and work outcomes across cultures (Clugston et al., 2002; Guay et al., 2016; Lapointe & Vandenberghe, 2018; Masud & Daud, 2019; Meyer et al., 2012) Although individuals with collectivistic cultural orientations cherish in-group harmony, interdependence, and collective attainment of goals more, they are less likely to engage in undesirable behaviours in organisations that embrace individualistic cultural orientations such as innovation, daring, self-accomplishment, independence, and place great emphasis on task-driven working relationships. This is because they are more likely to endure by adopting coping mechanisms that can allow them to remain with the organisation and obtain financial rewards that can be channeled into meeting familial obligations. That is, the networks of sociability, subordination of personal interest to collective interest, maintenance of in-group harmony, and an obligation of mutual assistance inherent in collectivistic cultural value orientation may create pressure on individuals to remain with the organisation rather than quitting or doing something that calls for discontinuance of job (De Sardan, 1999). Hence, for the sake of collective interest, 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the individual is more likely to overlook any perceived mistreatment or negative support from the organisation and desist from engaging in workplace deviant behaviours. On the other hand, individuals guided by individualistic cultural value orientation are more likely to discontinue their obligation with the organisation where they are getting financial resources and look to getting it elsewhere. Because they may not embrace subordination of personal goals to collective goals, and may not have an obligation beyond their immediate family, and contractual obligations binding them with the organisation. Therefore, they are less likely to consider group interests in their decisions and more likely to look elsewhere when they perceive that they can rely on the little to provide for their immediate family at least for the meantime before the next job is obtained. They may also engage in negative retaliatory behaviours to supervisory mistreatment and negative support from supervisors and coworkers. In individualistic orientations, individuals are extricated from extended family pressures, and this can make them more likely to consider their interest in decisions that may result in negative retaliation to the organisation even if their options for alternative material gains are limited. Following this logic, continuance commitment has the potential to buffer the cultural orientation-workplace deviant behaviour relationship examined in this study. Also, normative commitment (NCT) arises out of employees’ feelings of obligation to remain with an organisation because of compatibilities of personal goals with organisational goals and they tend to feel responsible and enthusiastic in staying with the organisation (Jaros, 2017). This type of commitment makes employees feel that they should or ought to remain with the organisation (Dartey-Baah, 2014) irrespective of any perceived mistreatment from organisational agents. Employees are more likely to overlook any mistreatment insofar as their (cultural) beliefs, values and goals are congruent with organisational goals, and may interpret any mistreatment of negative 137 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh support from supervisors and coworkers as negligible to warrant negative retaliation. They remain in the organisation to ensure that their personal goals are met, and show less tendency to quit or slack. On the contrary, employees whose goals remain incongruent with organisational goals are less likely to be committed to the organisation and are more likely to react negatively to any perceived mistreatment from supervisors and coworkers alike, which may inflict significant harm to the organisation. Thus, employees’ normative commitment is likely to inhibit or enhance employee involvement in workplace deviance in retaliation or response to incompatibility of cultural value orientations. The affective commitment may affect individual-level cultural orientation-workplace deviant behaviour link examined in this study. According to Meyer and Allen (1991), employees gain enhanced feelings of devotion, belongingness, and stability which affect their decisions to remain with the organisation. These feelings of devotion, belongingness, and stability have cultural underpinnings, in which interpretations vary from one cultural value to the other. For instance, feelings of belongingness, devotion, and stability are observed in sociability, relationship-based work settings, in-group harmony, and interdependent relationships which are guided more by collectivistic cultural values than individualistic cultural values. Individuals with individualistic orientation may develop strong feelings of devotion, belongingness, and stability in work cultures that stress independence, personal accomplishment, egalitarianism, risk-taking, and task-based working relationships than work culture that emphasizes interdependence, risk-averse, collective goal attainment, hierarchy, and relationship- based work relationships. Thus, there is the absence of networks of sociability, the obligation of mutual assistance, solidarity, interdependence, collective attainment of goals, and group centeredness in individualistic values (De Sardan, 1999). This tends to discourage members with 138 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh individualistic value orientation from remaining with an organisation that stress collectivistic work culture than individualistic work culture. This affects decisions associated with workplace deviant behaviours of individuals in terms of retaliation to perceived mistreatment or incompatibility of cultural values. Given the differences in cultural orientations, employees' affective commitment is likely to moderate the relationship between employees' cultural orientation and workplace deviant behaviours. Consistently, differences in the evaluation of organisational practices, norms, and values might explain differences in commitment levels of individuals and ultimately make employees more likely to evaluate commitment differently. This therefore can serve as a buffer in the relationship between cultural orientations of employees and workplace deviant behaviours in the work setting. Hence, it is hypothesized that; Hypothesis 7a: Affective commitment moderates the positive relationship between individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment Hypothesis 7b: Affective commitment moderates the negative relationship between individualistic orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for employees with high rather than low affective commitment Hypothesis 7c: Affective commitment moderates the positive relationship between collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment Hypothesis 7d: Affective commitment moderates the negative relationship between collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment Hypothesis 7e: Affective commitment moderates the positive relationship between power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment Hypothesis 7f: Affective commitment moderates the negative relationship between power distance orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hypothesis 7g: Affective commitment moderates the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment Hypothesis 7h: Affective commitment moderates the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment Hypothesis 8a: Normative commitment moderates the positive relationship between individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment rather than those with high normative commitment Hypothesis 8b: Normative commitment moderates the negative relationship between individualistic orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment rather than those with high normative commitment Hypothesis 8c: Normative commitment moderates the positive relationship between collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment rather than those with high normative commitment Hypothesis 8d: Normative commitment moderates the negative relationship between collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment rather than those with high normative commitment Hypothesis 8e: Normative commitment moderates the positive relationship between power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment rather than those with high normative commitment Hypothesis 8f: Normative commitment moderates the negative relationship between power distance orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment rather than those with high normative commitment Hypothesis 8g: Normative commitment moderates the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment than those with high normative commitment Hypothesis 8h: Normative commitment moderates the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment than those with high normative commitment 140 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hypothesis 9a: Continuance commitment moderates the positive relationship between individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment Hypothesis 9b: Continuance commitment moderates the negative relationship between individualistic orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment Hypothesis 9c: Continuance commitment moderates the positive relationship between collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment Hypothesis 9d: Continuance commitment moderates the negative relationship between collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment Hypothesis 9e: Continuance commitment moderates the positive relationship between power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment Hypothesis 9f: Continuance commitment moderates the negative relationship between power distance orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment Hypothesis 9g: Continuance commitment moderates the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment Hypothesis 9h: Continuance commitment moderates the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment In sum, SET entails both the kind and quality action and reaction of the relationship between two or more people in a social exchange relationship. If the action is conceived to be good, a good 141 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh reaction is invoked as a reciprocating response. Similarly, if the action is conceived to be bad or undesirable, an undesirable reaction is invoked as a reciprocating response. Hence, SET explains how treatment of employers in organisations engender similar treatment in return from employees which, when it is positive results in higher POS, higher commitment, and higher PEL and subsequently leading to low WDBs of employees even when cultural orientation stipulates otherwise, and the opposite holds. 3.3 Conceptual framework showing relationships among study variables The online Encarta World English Dictionary (1999) defines a framework as "a set of ideas, principles, agreements, or rules that provides the basis or the outline for something that is more fully developed at a later stage." Similarly, the Advanced English Dictionary views framework as "a hypothetical description of a complex entity or process or an underlying structure of an entity or process". Lester (2005, p. 458) likens a framework to "a scaffold erected to make it possible for repairs to be made on a building. A scaffold encloses the building and enables workers to reach otherwise inaccessible portions of it". These views about a framework suggest a basic structure embedded in an idea that enables a phenomenon to be investigated. The framework expresses both the abstractions and assumed relationships (or interrelationships) about the phenomenon of study (Osanloo & Grant, 2016). Lester (2005, p. 458) identifies four key benefits associated with the use of framework in a given research, which include the following; first, a framework offers a structure for conceptualizing and designing research studies by helping to determine the nature of the questions asked; a) the manner in which questions are formulated; b) the way the concepts, constructs, and processes of the research are defined; and c) the principles of discovery and justification allowed for creating new "knowledge" about the topic under study (this refers to acceptable research methods); second; 142 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh frameworks help to make sense of the set of data gathered (or to be gathered); third, good frameworks allow (readers or scholars) to transcend common sense which help to build a carefully conceptualized structure to guide the study; and finally, frameworks enhances deep understanding about the phenomenon under study in terms of the insights the structure provides relating to the designing of research studies, interpreting data resulting from those studies, and drawing conclusions. Accordingly, the conceptual framework guiding the study is developed from the review of extant studies from the empirical and theoretical lens. In doing so, the conceptual framework helps the researcher to structure and streamline subsequent presentations as well as facilitate the researcher's effort towards making meaning and sense about research findings. Thus, the conceptual framework proposed in this study, therefore, guided the empirical aspect of the study as it describes the constructs, relationships and outcomes associated with the variables of the study. Hence, individual-level cultural orientations of power distance, individualistic, collectivistic, and uncertainty avoidance have been hypothesized to influence workplace deviant behaviours. At the same time, this relationship can be heightened or inhibited by an employees' commitment to the organisation from all three domains including affective, normative and continuance, perceived organisational support, and finally perceived ethical leadership of employees about their supervisors. The theoretical model summarizing the predicted relationships between the constructs is illustrated empirically below. 143 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Employee Cultural Orientations (ECOs) (Human Nature) Workplace Deviant Behaviours (WDBs) (Outcome of uality of exchange) Perceived Perceived ethical organisational support leadership (PEL) (POS) IND H5a H6a H5b H6b H5c H6 c COL H5d H6d H6e H5e H6g H6f PDO H7g, H8g, H9g H5f H5 H6h g H7h, H8h, H9h H5h Affective commitment (ACT) Normative commitment (NCT) UAO Continuance commitment (NCT) NB: IND Individualisticorientation,COL Collectivisticorientation,PDO Power distance orientation,UAO Uncertaintyavoidance orientation,INTDEV Interpersonaldeviance, and ORGDEV Organisational deviance. Blue Independent Variables, Green Dependent Variables, Grey PEL;Goldaccent EC, LightBlue POS Figure 3a: Conceptual framework summarizing relationships among variables understudy Source: Author's conceptualization 144 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the model above, it is hypothesized that individual-level cultural orientations of individualistic, collectivistic, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance significantly relate positively and negative with Interpersonal deviance (HIa, H2a, H3a and H4a) and organisational deviance (H1b, H2b, H3b, and H4b) respectively. Hypotheses 1 through 4 illustrates the main effects of employee cultural orientation on workplace deviant behaviours. This cultural orientation-workplace deviant behaviour relationship is either inhibited or enhanced by employees’ perceived ethical leadership (H5a, H5b, H5c, H5d, H5e, H5f, H5g, and H5h), perceived organisational support (H6a, H6b, H6c, H6d, H6e, H6f, H6g, and H6h), affective commitment (H7a, H7b, H7c, H7d, H7e, H7f, H7g, H7h), normative commitment (H8a, H8b, H8c, H8d, H8e, H8f, H8g, H8h) and continuance commitment (H9a, H9b, H9c, H9d, H9e, H9f, H9g, H9h) such that the relationship is weak among employees who demonstrate weak affective, normative and continuance commitments, negative perceived organisational support, and negative perceived ethical leadership than those who hold positive perceived organisational support, positive perceived ethical leadership, strong affective commitment, strong normative commitment, and strong continuance commitment. These relationships were developed from the review of extant studies. The next chapter presents overview of the study context in the current study. 145 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR STUDY CONTEXT 4.0 Introduction This chapter provides an overview of the operations of multinational companies in the Ghanaian economy to help readers appreciate the context of the study. This chapter begins with the definition of MNCs and is followed by the forms and objectives of MNCs. The highlight of the operation of MNCs in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) is offered next, and MNC staffing decisions are briefly described, and the chapter concludes with Ghana's score in the four dimensions by Hofstede selected in the current study. 4.1.0 Definition of Multinational Companies Despite the non-existence of universally agreed definition of MNCs, which consequently results in the application of operational definitions, MNCs have been defined by employing various characteristics, such as the number of foreign workers, the proportion of foreign sales or foreign assets, the size of the firm by sales, and the number of foreign subsidiaries (Agarwal, Berrill, Hutson & Kearney, 2010). Accordingly, Dunning and Lunden (2008, p. 3) define MNC as "an enterprise that engages in foreign direct investments (FDI) and which owns or, to a certain extent, controls value-added activities in several countries." Such activities usually occur within subsidiaries which can take the form of wholly-owned subsidiaries (subsidiaries where the MNC owns the majority of the entire share capital), minority equity investments (companies where the MNC holds a minority equity share) or joint ventures (companies where the MNC shares its capital with another company) (Mayrhofer, & Prange, 2013). Contractor and Lorange (1988) note, 'traditionally, multinational corporations can be viewed as a transnational force of nature, the enterprises' internal control chain, but in today's complicated, competitive world, it should be seen 146 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as quasi-market transactions inter-dependent on each other. According to Perlmutter (1969), MNCs can be identified according to their values and modes of behaviour. This involves three stages: orientation of the home country, the orientation of the host country and orientation of the world. When a firm enters the last stage, then the firm is truly an MNC, according to Perlmutter (1969). MNCs portray the following attributes: (1) they share the title as a link to connect; (2) they rely on the resources in common, such as currency and credit, information systems, trademarks, patents, and technology, etc.; and (3) they are controlled by a common strategy (Zhao, 1996). Hennart (2009) contends that MNCs are characterized by multiple networks which evolve based on the local environments they operate. As a result, the operations of MNCs traverse national borders through exportation and importation of raw materials, semi-finished or finished products, employ foreign capital (FDI), people, and processes in their activities, and by organizing, coordinating and monitoring resources internationally (Agarwal et al., 2010). Other terms are used interchangeably with MNCs, and they include multinational enterprises (MNEs) and transnational corporations (TNCs) which receive a wide application in international business research (Agarwal et al., 2010). MNCs have become internationally present through their operations, visions, and strategies as a result of the rapid increases in technologies, communications and transport through the internationalization of small and medium-sized enterprises (Agarwal et al., 2010; Zhang & Daly, 2012). In the current study, MNCs refer to enterprises, first, having their headquarters in one country, originating or parent country, and having affiliates or subsidiaries in one or multiple countries through direct investments, second, such enterprises have an operational strategy that extends globally to maximize overall benefits integrative and synergistic efforts on the one hand and maintain a global strategic system that is geared towards the pursuit of multiple interests in 147 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh multiple countries, on the other hand, finally, employee talents from a pool of global workforce including parent country nationals, host country nationals and third party nationals in the parent company or in the subsidiary to achieve specific organisational goals of the parent company. Forms of MNCs There are various forms or types of MNCs which range from smaller companies that invest abroad to large groups that manage subsidiaries in an important number of countries. MNCs can be classified according to their focus, reach and level of operation in the international business literature. Consistently, Mayrhofer (2012) submits that the boundaries between an MNC and its environment have become loose in recent times. There is frequent cooperation between foreign subsidiaries and local companies and other actors in the business environment of host countries including suppliers, distributors, clients, government, etc. (Mayrhofer & Prange, 2013). Few categorizations observed in extant literature are highlighted. Multinationals can also be categorized according to their choice of methods of market entry. They include licensing and subcontracting, outsourcing, offshoring, a wholly-owned subsidiary, merger or acquisition, international joint venture, and strategic alliance/partnership (Briscoe, Schuler, & Claus, 2009). Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) also identified distinct stages of internationalization of a company including domestic, international, multinational, global and transnational. MNCs can also be categorized according to international orientation, namely; ethnocentric orientation - where managers in headquarters tend to use a home country standard as a reference in managing international activities of subsidiaries; polycentric orientation – where host country standards and practices are increasingly used as a point of reference for managing subsidiaries abroad; regiocentric orientation – where international managers create and implement strategies 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that focus on specific region or sub-region; and geocentric orientation - international orientation focuses on producing a world chain and preference for adopting an international strategy that is integrative and interdependent among various elements of the global organisation (Broscoe et al., 2009; Perlmutter, 1969). This categorization focuses on the degree of domination of the headquarters of MNCs over subsidiary management and HR practices, as well as determining the level of autonomy that subsidiaries can take advantage of in their management and HR practices (Briscoe et al., 2009). Further, MNCs can be categorized according to their pattern of internationalization operations. Based on this, several MNCs can be identified including; (1) companies that have firm-specific advantages with a regional focus and locational advantages with global scope; (2) regional companies whose firm-specific and locational advantages have a regional reach; (3) global companies who can benefit from the global scope of firm-specific and locational advantages; (4) bi-regional companies whose firm-specific advantages have a global reach, but whose locational advantages are regional; they mainly operate in two geographic regions (Rugman, 2005; Mayhofer & Prange, 2013). Thus, firm-specific advantages (for example, technological or marketing competencies) are factors that focus on building a competitive advantage. It can be directed at the regional level or the global level. For example, the regional scope of a firm-specific advantage can be linked to a European patent, North American Patent, and African Patent. At the global level, the firm-specific advantages seek to maintain international standards or become global products, or they may focus on generating global integration benefits which can allow enjoyment of economies of scale and deepening of experiential effects. The geographic reach of locational advantages targets exogenous factors that determine the regional or global locus of the company’s competitive advantage. Here, considerations are given to natural resources, the legal system, 149 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh infrastructure, workforce qualification or local demand to drive market strategies. For instance, at the regional level, one can link locational advantages to national or regional government regulation; at the global level, they can emerge from the legal context determined by international organisations like the World Trade Organisation (WTO) (Mayrhofer, & Prange, 2013). Finally, Birkinshaw and Morrison (1995) categorize MNCs according to the roles their subsidiaries undertake. The authors offer a three-fold typology of subsidiary roles including world mandate, specialized contributor, and local implementer to categorize subsidiary roles of MNCs. Local implementers largely place emphasis on the local market and have high operational autonomy to implement the strategy in the host market; specialised contributors are largely interdependent business units within the MNC, having less autonomy; world mandate subsidiaries are both locally responsive and globally integrated, having both operational and strategic autonomy (Birkinshaw & Morrison, 1995). Other categorizations according to subsidiary roles of MNCs can be observed in the literature includes implementer, contributor, and strategic leader (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1986), local innovator, global innovator, and integrated player implementer (Gupta & Govindarajan, 1991), etc. Some Objectives of MNCs MNCs undertake investments in distant countries based on four objectives according to Behrman (1972), namely; resource seeking, market seeking, efficiency-seeking, and strategic, asset/capabilities seeking. Each of these objectives encourages MNCs to maximize output in distant localities. First, the need to seek and secure natural resources such as minerals, raw materials, cheap labour costs, and abundant labour encourage MNCs who are already beset with an insufficient capital base to develop a vast stock of resources or when there is a shortage of 150 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh skilled labour and professional knowledge (UNCTAD, 1998), to invest in distant localities with such abundance of natural resources availability. This is done to exploit these resources with the intention of re-exporting the products or services to the parent country or for the consumption of the host country (Yeboah & Antwi, 2019). Another reason for MNCs investment in distant localities is proximity to markets in terms of population size, income levels, purchasing power, taste and preferences to cut down costs associated with transporting products and services to consumers. Also, the search for increased productivity drives MNCs investment decisions as this allows investors to achieve an efficient and effective allocation of international economic activities of companies. As a result, organisations and firms seek to gain from the difference in factor price and product variation risk which undergirds their investment motives (Yeboah & Antwi, 2019). Thus, MNCs work to take advantage of different factor endowments, cultures, institutional arrangements, economic systems and policies, and market structures by concentrating production in a limited number of locations in order to supply multiple markets (Behrman, 1972; Dunning, 1993). MNCs are largely viewed to pursue rational investment decisions by engaging in strategic operations to acquire existing companies or assets to maintain specific superiority to enable them advance their international competitive drive. MNCs undertake such acquisitions in some key domestic established firms, local capabilities (R&D, knowledge and human capital), market knowledge and also preempting market entry by competitors (Yeboah & Antwi, 2019). 4.1.1 MNCs in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) 151 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Multinational companies (MNCs) play dominant roles towards enhancing sustainable development of countries in developing countries in SSA (OECD, 2002; UNCTAD, 2019). MNCs have become a pivot in global economic development, increasing the transfer of advanced technologies to distant localities, and strengthening global ties among countries of the world (Owusu-Antwi, Antwi, & Poku, 2013; Williams, Frempong, Akuffobea, & Onumah, 2017; Abugre, 2018). They undertake wide-ranging business activities from manufacturing to extraction, agricultural production, chemical processing, service provision, and finance among others (Williams et al., 2017), resulting in the massive transformation of developing countries of the world. UNCTAD in 2012 reported that Africa is one of the developing economies that enjoyed an increase in the global foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows. This trend has consistently grown since 2012 in terms of Africa's global FDI inflows from 5 per cent to $50 billion in 2012 to $54 billion in 2015 although it witnessed stability for a while in 2015. The inflow of FDI into the Ghanaian economy has been unprecedented in recent years (Yakubu & Mikhail, 2019). These FDI from North America, Europe, and Asia has contributed significantly to Ghana's socio-economic development interventions which cut across infrastructural development, education and agriculture. There is influx of MNCs in the business landscape of Ghana mainly from the West (Abugre, 2018). This arises from the ideal business climate the country has consistently shown in recent years as well as pursuing greenfield investments with over 47 percent being western joint ventures with the Government of Ghana (Abugre, 2018). Yeboah and Antwi (2019) aver that foreign direct investment inflows in Ghana have enjoyed significant growth every year as Ghana overtook Nigeria in 2018 as the major recipient of FDI. The authors conclude that the investment motives achieved by foreign investors should be a major concern by the host countries on the African continent as there might be a hidden agenda beyond the normal investment 152 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh motives (Yeboah & Antwi, 2019). Similar observations are reported elsewhere (Harvey & Abor, 2009; Justice & Gloria, 2012; Osei, 2014; Owusu-Antwi et al., 2013) Ghana remained the largest MNCs and other FDI recipient in West Africa (UNCTAD, 2019; Otoo- Essien, 2020) due to the favourable socio-politico-economic environment. Accordingly, Ghana has increasingly become a source of attraction to a lot of foreign companies in sectors such as agriculture, industry and services (UNCTAD, 2019; Williams et al., 2017), with most of these MNCs concentrated in the mining sector and the banking and telecommunication sectors have all received their fair share of foreign companies (Fosu et al., 2014). Also, the tourism and hospitality services sector continue to enjoy a significant boost in the attraction of investments with notable internationally acclaimed hospitality groups including Accor, Hilton, Marriott International and Radisson Hotel Group staking their presence in Ghana in particular, and Africa in general in recent years. Africa is considered the new twenty-first century market where all the industrial powers are moving in to do business (Abugre, 2018). In Ghana, for instance, past and successive governments have increased their efforts to attract huge MNCs into the country to complement governments' efforts of providing basic amenities and enhancing the livelihoods of the people. Recently, the discovery and subsequent exploration and exploitation of Oil fields in the country in 2007 have augmented the status of Ghana in terms of attracting MNCs into the country leading to the operation of large numbers of oil and gas companies and their service providers such as Tullow Oil, Kosmos Energy etc. in Ghana. More so, the political landscape and favourable fiscal incentive mechanisms have largely helped in making already existing MNCs operate, and attract new ones (Williams et al., 2017). 153 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Foreign investors largely consider not only their technological and marketing competencies but also the political climate, regulatory and institutional frameworks of the host country in undertaking their investment decisions. Where MNCs find these factors mentioned above as inhibitive and prohibitory to safeguarding their business interests, they will not hesitate to discontinue their operations in the host countries if they already exist, or will not even extend their investments into such hostile host country altogether. On the other hand, where MNCs find host country's legal, political and institutional landscape viable to meeting business interests, they tend to invest in such country (Christiansen & Ogutcu, 2002; Fosu et al., 2014; Williams et al., 2017). In essence, the profitability of MNCs projects; relative ease associated with how subsidiaries' operations can be integrated into investors' global strategies and overall quality of the host country's enabling environment largely affects investment decisions of MNCs (Christiansen & Ogutcu, 2002; Williams et al., 2017). Consistently, the findings of Harvey and Abor (2009) support the argument by stating that firm size, technological intensity, capital requirement, and labour cost are the significant motivators of FDI in the manufacturing sector. 4.1.2 MNCs and Staffing Staffing in MNCs cannot be overemphasized since the quality of the workforce is key to sustained competitive advantage and performance enhancement. By their nature, MNCs like domestic firms, rely on staffing which entails recruiting and selecting appropriate talents to perform specific tasks to help meet organisational goals. The staffing needs available to MNCs are varied and broad as they have a wide pool of talents to choose from. This pool includes locals, third party country nationals and parent country nationals. Staffing allows MNCs to take advantage of diverse inputs of talented individuals and teams with diverse cultural backgrounds, values, attitudes, and behaviours, and varied perspectives on products, services, organisational and management 154 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh practices, markets, and international needs. This enables MNCs to increase their ability to learn, innovate, and adapt skills which are critical to success in the global competition. These diverse perspectives, multiple viewpoints, and varied experiences rooted in cultural orientations help parent companies, foreign subsidiaries and partnerships to deepen their competitive advantage in the global market space. There are several approaches to staffing for MNCs. Notable among them, the ethnocentric, polycentric, geocentric, or regiocentric staffing options. The ethnocentric staffing approach allows MNCs to recruit employees from the country of the parent company and send them on international assignment to the subsidiaries. In the case of polycentric staffing, MNCs tend to recruit locals from the subsidiary country. The geocentric approach to staffing allows MNCs to search, deploy, develop and retain talent from anywhere in the world. Lastly, the regiocentric approach encourages the use of people from the region in which the subsidiary operates. Staffing of MNEs can also be categorized into Parent country nationals (PCNs) - defined as citizens of the country of the headquarters of the MNE and employed by the firm in the country of its headquarters. Expatriates or International assignees are employees of the parent company (PCNs) who are transferred to another country where the subsidiary is located to work or engage in another type of foreign operation of the MNC for more than one year. When they return home, they are referred to as repatriates. Host country nationals (HCNs) - defined as citizens of the host country of the MNE subsidiary who are employed by the firm in the country. When HCNs are relocated to the headquarters of the parent firm, they are generally referred to as inpatriates (although they are viewed by themselves and their relatives as expatriates from their home countries). Third-country nationals (TCNs) - referred to nationals from countries other than neither the country of the parent company nor the host country who are employed in the subsidiary or 155 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh parent company. TNC describes nationals hired by MNE from another country other than the parent country or the country of the subsidiary to work in one of its foreign subsidiaries. This person is neither a citizen of the parent country nor the country hosting the foreign subsidiary. Despite MNCs having an edge to recruit, deploy and develop talents from multiple locations and cultures, there are attendant challenges of tensions, strains, miscommunication, and misunderstanding regarding appropriate and inappropriate behaviours in the organisation due to multicultural backgrounds. Extant studies have documented a major challenge associated with the parent-subsidiary relationship resulting from ethnocentric attitudes among parent managers in subsidiaries (Birkingshaw, 1997; Perlmutter, 1969; Michailova, Piekkari, Storgaard, & Tienari, 2017). Meanwhile, extant studies have shown that homophilous ties can sever workplace relationships, especially where there are heterophyllous members with immense cultural distance between locals and expatriates. Homophily is the tendency of people to associate with people similar to themselves in varied dimensions such as culture, ethnicity, race, gender, and other defining attributes. Homophilous ties based on shared ethnicity or cultural background tend to foster solidarity, which makes them selflessly support one another in the workplace (Prashantham, Dhanaraj, & Kumar, 2015). Consequently, employees in multicultural contexts may form homophilous or heterophyllous relationships, which, ultimately, can affect workplace relationships (Thomas, 1996). This can lead to undesirable workplace behaviours. It is given this that an examination of the cultural orientation and workplace deviance in a multicultural context cannot be underestimated. This can help shed insight on the role that cultural orientation of employees can impact employee workplace deviance, irrespective of the benefits MNCs and their subsidiaries provide to their localities of operation. 4.1.3 MNCs contributions to host countries 156 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh MNCs play significant roles in the development of host countries in the areas of socio-economic development, sociopolitical development and stability (Williams et al., 2017) through revenue generation. MNCs provide several benefits including employment provision, revenue generation, resource mobilisation and utilisation, technology transfer and development, livelihood empowerment, provision of basic social amenities, bridging income inequality gap, information dissemination, cultural transfer, provision of employment opportunities, facilitating global integration of markets etc. (Mayhofer & Prange, 2013). MNCs may contribute to the achievement of global development targets through their operations especially in developing countries (Williams et al., 2017). Moreover, MNCs tend to engage in corporate social responsibility (CSR) through providing and expanding access to basic amenities such as potable clean water, schools etc. to communities in which they operate as well as guaranteeing the security of both human and labour rights of citizens (Williams et al., 2017). Finally, the activities of MNCs can serve as mentoring to local firms to improve productivity (Amissah & Stack, 2016) thereby enhancing the profitability of the local firms as they strive to increase productivity, although this depends largely on the readiness of the local firms to embrace the new ideas being transmitted by the MNCs (Williams et al., 2017). Although the operations of MNCs through their technical assistance and CSR contribute positively to socio-economic development by facilitating the achievement of growth targets, their operations in developing economies have been met with scepticism from some scholars. This is because several concerns have been highlighted about the presence and operations of MNCs which can be detrimental to both the host country governments and citizens. For example, the operations of MNCs in especially developing countries result in crowding out of local firms, use of technologies that local firms cannot absorb, widening income inequality, increased tax exemptions, reduction 157 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in domestic capital stock and tax revenues through unfavourable technology transfer arrangements as well as high capital flights through profit repatriations which impact negatively on economies of developing countries (De Backer & Sleuwagen, 2003). 4.2.0 Profile of Ghana The Republic of Ghana is a country on the West Coast of the Continent of Africa and is considered as one of the most thriving democracies on the continent (Ayee, 2017; Sithole, 2012; Boafo- Arthur, 2008; Asante, 2013). Ghana has earned the reputation of being considered one of the world's fastest-growing economies, if not the fastest growing economy in Africa in 2018, and is among the most stable African countries, marked with relatively low corruption and high political stability (Appiedu, 2018). According to the African Development Bank (2020), Ghana's economy has continued to enjoy expansion in 2019 as shown by the first-quarter gross domestic product (GDP) growth, which was estimated at 6.7%, compared with 5.4% in the year 2018 during the same period. Non-oil growth reached 6.0% with relatively high quarterly growth driven by a strong recovery in the services sector which grew by 7.2% compared with 1.2% in 2018. The population of Ghana is comprised of burgeoning youth population, with a broad base made up of majority of children and a small number of elderly persons reflecting pyramidal shape. Social transformation dictates the structure of the population changes over time. For instance, the proportion of persons under 15 years of age was 38.3 per cent in 2010 and increased to 38.8 per cent in 2015, while the proportion over 65 years of age totaling 4.6 per cent in 2010 and declined to 3.4 per cent in 2015. The share of the population that lives in urban areas has increased two-folds in the last five decades, with 23 per cent in 1960 but jumped to 51 per cent in 2010, which has placed enormous demand on urban public amenities such as transportation, housing, sanitation, education, and public health (UNECA, 2017). The country has more than one hundred ethnic groups each of which has its 158 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unique language but the main ethnic groups include Akan, Ewe, Ga, Moshi-Dagomba. Akan (which includes Asante Twi, Akwapim Twi, Akyem, and Fanti) 49%, Mole-Dagbani 16%, Ewe 13%, Ga-Adangbe 8%, Guan 4%, others 10%, however, English is the official language owing to the legacy of the British Rule (ghanaweb.com, 2014), and the basic currency unit is the 'Ghana Cedi'. About 69% are Christians, Muslims constituting 15.6%, and traditional and indigenous beliefs constituting 8.5% (GSS, 2016). Ghana is well endowed with natural resources with roughly twice the per capita output of the poorest countries in West Africa including gold, oil, timber, diamonds, bauxite, manganese, and fish. Crops such as cocoa, coconuts, coffee, tea, cork and wood manufactures, pineapples, cashews, spices, other food crops, and rubber contribute to export earnings for the country. The Ghanaian economy with a worth of US$ 42.69 billion is ranked 85th in the world due to its abundant natural resources. Ghana exported US$10 billion which earned her 64th position in the largest export economy in the world. The West African country is also the second-largest cocoa exporter in the world (https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/gha/). This trend continued as the Ghanaian economy is noted to be among the top 100 globally, and in 2017 its gross domestic product was the 84th highest in the world standing at $47.33 billion. Ghana is the world's second-largest exporter of cocoa in the world and the second-largest producer of gold in Africa. Ghana sits on the gold coast, and until the recent advent of oil, the country's main export products were cocoa and gold (UNECA, 2017). Ghana achieved a remarkable economic performance during the implementation of the previous GSGDA (2010-2013), with an average real growth rate of 9.6 per cent per annum (GIPC, 2014). 159 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The oil industry became the highest average growth rate from 2014 to 2017, followed by the services sector and the agriculture sector (GSGDA II, 2014-2017). The services sector has taken over from agriculture sector as the composition of outputs. The services sector earned the highest growth (5.2 per cent), followed by agriculture (2.5 per cent) and the industry sector (1.0 per cent) (UNECA, 2017). Agriculture, Industry and Services are the 3 main sectors that account for Ghana's economy (bbc.com, in 2014). The agriculture sector is the leading sector in the economy accounting for about 40% of the country's GDP with 50% of the population employed in the sector (Aryeetey & Kanbur, 2005; UNCTAD, 2019). The service sector remains a rising dominant sector in the economy of Ghana. The GDP of the service sector rose from 52 per cent in 2014 to 53.3 per cent in 2015 but its growth rate declined to 5.2 per cent in 2015 from 5.6 per cent in 2014. The information and communication (13.4 per cent) and health and social work (11.5 per cent) subsectors earned impressive growth rates. The industry sector increased from 0.8 per cent in 2014 to 1.0 per cent in 2015 (UNECA, 2017). Growth in the agriculture sector declined to 2.5 per cent in 2015 from 4.6 per cent in 2014 together with its attendant share of GDP, which also decreased from 21.5 per cent in 2014 to 20.2 per cent in 2015. Crops remained the largest activity with a share of 15.7 per cent of nominal GDP (GSS, 2015; UNECA, 2017). In 2013, the services sector was second, with a share of about 41.0 per cent of total employment, absorbing the urban labour force, mainly in the wholesale and retail trade subsectors. The industry sector accounts for about 14 per cent of total employment (UNECA, 2017). The service sector, which constitute 50.2 per cent of the economy, followed by industry and agriculture at 28.4 per cent and 19.9 per cent, respectively continue to be the drivers of growth. In particular, a reliable energy supply will enhance the proper functioning of both the industry sector and the service sector (UNECA, 2017). 160 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana actively participates in regional integration arrangements in West Africa and on the continent, including the African Union and ECOWAS. Ghana prioritizes a relatively open trade opportunities with the rest of the world by upholding high standards of good relations with its traditional trading partners and donors, especially the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America, both of which have a large Ghanaian diaspora, on the one hand, and with many emerging countries, backed by funding for various projects on the other hand (UNECA, 2017; UNCTAD, 2019). Ghana continues to earn high FDI inflows from the past few years, driven mainly by the hydrocarbon sector to reach 8.7 per cent of GDP in 2014 despite increasing reservations plaguing the Ghanaian economy (IMF, 2016). 4.2.1.0 Ghana and Hofstede’s Cultural Index Culture, as defined to constitute the collective mental programming of the human mind which distinguishes one group of people from another (Hofstede, 2001) tends to influence distinctive forms of thinking which are reflected in the shared meaning people assign to various aspects of life. Nonetheless, there are considerable within-country differences between individuals which may oppose the dominant cultural group. As Hofstede (2011) argue, the law of big numbers enables one to use such country scores based on the fact that most of us are strongly influenced by social control. Power Distance Dimension The power distance (PD) dimension deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal – it expresses the attitude of the culture towards these inequalities amongst us. Power Distance is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. Ghana scores high on this 161 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh dimension (score of 80) which means that people accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification (geerthofstede.com, 2019). Ansah (2015) study of cultural dimensions in marketing manager’s decision-making using Hofstede’s cultural index found that there is a strong power distance among marketing managers in the indigenous organisations in Ghana as illustrated in 70 per cent of respondents indicating "No" and 30 per cent indicating 'Yes" to whether the managers were consulted by their superiors in marketing decisions. Individualism-Collectivism Dimension The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among its members. It has to do with whether people´s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “We”. In Individualist societies, people are supposed to look after themselves and their direct family only. In Collectivist societies, people belong to 'in groups' that takes care of them in exchange for loyalty. Ghana, with a score of 15 is considered a collectivistic society. This is manifest in a close long-term commitment to the member 'group', be that a family, extended family, or extended relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount and overrides most other societal rules and regulations. In collectivist societies, offence leads to shame and loss of face, employer/employee relationships are perceived in moral terms (like a family link), hiring and promotion decisions take account of the employee’s in-group, and management is the management of groups (geerthofstede.com, 2019). Ansah (2015) study of cultural dimensions in marketing manager's decision-making using Hofstede's cultural index reported that decisions by the managers in Ghana were collective suggesting that Ghana is more collective than individualistic consistent with Hofstede (2001). Uncertainty Avoidance Dimension 162 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The dimension of Uncertainty Avoidance has to do with the way that a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? The extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these is reflected in the score on Uncertainty Avoidance. Ghana scores 65 on this dimension. This score expresses a preference for avoiding uncertainty. Countries exhibiting high Uncertainty avoidance maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. In these cultures, there is an emotional need for rules (even if the rules never seem to work) time is money, people have an inner urge to be busy and work hard, precision and punctuality are the norms, innovation may be resisted, security is an important element in individual motivation (geerthofstede.com, 2019). Ansah (2015) study of cultural dimensions in marketing manager's decision-making using Hofstede's cultural index found that Ghana has a very strong uncertainty avoidance index in the Ghanaian marketing culture as about 92 per cent indicated "No" when asked whether marketing managers in Ghana liked taking risk while 8% indicated "Yes". In conclusion, the chapter has provided overviews of multinational companies and their operations in Ghana as well as providing a profile of Ghana, the study setting, alongside her scores in Hofstede's cultural indices. 163 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 5.0 Introduction The chapter reports on the research methodology employed in the current study. It involves the decisions and activities which guided the conduct of the study during data collection and data analysis. 5.1 Mixed methods approach In management and organisational behaviour research in particular and social sciences in general, the mixed methods approach has enjoyed increasing usage and application in research investigations because the approach has been regarded as a legitimate stand-alone research design. The mixed-methods approach generally is an approach that encourages researchers to integrate both quantitative and qualitative methods to gather data, analyse the data, report the findings and draw inferences in a single study to attain a complete, holistic, and in-depth understanding of a given phenomenon (Bryman & Bell, 2011; Creswell, 2014; Saunders et al., 2019). Also, the mixed methods research could mean the collection and evaluation of quantitative and qualitative data in a single study where the data can be collected either concurrently or sequentially, and are both given priority in the analysis of the findings (Creswell, Plano-Clark, Gutman, & Hanson, 2003). This is done “to obtain different but complementary data on the same topic” (Morse, 1991, p. 22) that can best understand the problem under investigation. It enables triangulation of the methods by directly comparing and contrasting quantitative statistical findings with qualitative findings to corroborate and validate the findings of the research problem under investigation, and finally, to combine complementary research methods findings to develop a more complete understanding of 164 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the phenomenon under study such as workplace deviance and cultural orientation among employees of MNCs. The pragmatist paradigm undergirds the mixed methods research approach which upholds the principle of methodological pluralism indicating that it is concerned with what works, is doable, and legitimate to employ multiple methodologies and paradigms in a single research investigation. This study, therefore, follows the pragmatist paradigm which allows the use of both quantitative and qualitative designs in varying degrees to answer the research questions driving the study. The benefits and uses of this approach are that it can offset the weaknesses associated with adopting only one approach in a particular study. Unlike the multi-methodology which involves using methods with a particular paradigm or multi-paradigms, the mixed methods research is conceptually distinct as it strictly concerned itself with the integration of multiple paradigms within a study. The mixed methods research design originated in the late-nineteenth–the early-twentieth-century USA in the work of philosophers Charles Pierce (1992), William James (1975) and John Dewey (1988), Putnam (1995), and Rorty (1989) (Saunders et al., 2019; Tsang, 2017) in response to seemingly unattainable problems which characterized metaphysics and epistemology which constrained the development of science (Tsang, 2017). It started gaining popularity as an alternative to the two main research approaches from the year 1990 onwards (Tashakkori, 2010) and has since been termed the third path (Gorard & Taylor, 2004), the methodological movement (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003) and the third research paradigm (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Hence, it has increasingly been adopted in management and organisational behaviour research (Alavi & Habek, 2016; Tsang, 2017; Saunders et al., 2019). 165 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The pragmatist philosophy governs mixed methods research as it espouses the belief of reconciling objectivism and subjectivism, facts and values, accurate and rigorous knowledge, and different contextualized experiences to enhance understanding and explanation of social problems and theory building (Jogulu & Pansiri, 2011; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998). The key attribute of pragmatism is its exclusive focus on "... the practical solutions of human beings in their social world" (Tsang, 2017, p. 7). Hence, using the pragmatic philosophy can allow reliable, well- founded, consistent, and relevant data to be collected that can enhance the research, and contributes to theoretical knowledge (Saunders et al., 2019; Tsang, 2017). Management scholars advance two main reasons for increasing adoption of pragmatism or mixed methods research in management research; first, its theoretical capacity makes it useful in different scientific disciplines including human resources, strategic management, production engineering, sociology, education, organisational behaviour, and psychology as well as healthcare. Second, it can ensure the reliability and validity of research outcomes due to variable research questions that it can answer (Alavi & Habek, 2016). The pragmatic paradigm allowed the researcher to view organisations as composed of both static and dynamic social realities. The static social realities like organisational rules require members in an organisation to uphold to achieve organisational goals. On the contrary, the dynamic social realities which are brought about by multiple experiences, values, beliefs, interpretations, and meanings allow organisational members to make sense out of what is around them in the organisational setting which can result in conflicting interests, expectations, and needs (Crotty, 1998). More so, culture is a multidimensional construct that means differently to different people at different times and from society to society (Hofstede, 2011). In the same vein, workplace deviant 166 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh behaviour also assumes a multidimensional outlook given that what is acceptable or unacceptable, and or significant or non-significant, values vary across people, organisations, and larger social systems (Robinson & Bennett, 1995). Employing this research approach allows the researcher the opportunity to explore and adopt multiple lenses in understanding how employee cultural orientations can predispose them to workplace deviant behaviours. Further, organisational members' views about what is considered significant organisational norms may be at odds with management's views of such organisational norms, and this may ultimately affect how organisational members relate with one another in the achievement of organisational goals. Unfortunately, organisational researchers have paid little attention to how the cultural values of individuals may affect workplace deviant behaviour construct. This study is undertaken to fill that methodological void in extant literature. Based on the above, the researcher considered that both etic and emic perspectives could co-exist in a single study whereby each strand generates knowledge that could be matched and blended, thereby increasing the credibility and the utility of the study's findings. Hence, the approach brought multiple and varied stances of values to the forefront of analysis and acknowledged that these strands could influence the research process. 5.1.2 Rationale for Mixed Methods Approach The methodological rigorousness enshrined in this approach can better seek answers to certain complex research questions or objectives than could be attained when either of the approaches is employed singly or independently. The results from both the quantitative and the qualitative could either be validated or diverged or be contradictory which can spur reflections, hypothesis revisions, and further research (Burrell & Morgan, 2016) 167 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3.2.1 Sampling technique Both simple random sampling techniques, a probability sampling method, and convenience sampling which is a non-random sampling technique, were employed to select organisations and employees to participate in the study. To begin with, letters were sent to multinational companies operating in Greater Accra Region to request their participation in the current study. These companies ranged from manufacturing, banking and finance, transportation, construction, hospitality, telecommunications, mining and energy, and insurance. Among these companies, a simple random sampling was undertaken to select 25 multinational companies from a list of multinational companies gathered from the Association of Ghana Industries, Ghana Investment Promotion Center, and Registrar Generals Department of which 17 multinational companies expressed interest to allow me to administer questionnaires to a cross-section of employees and interview some supervisors and subordinates in their respective organisations. These companies spanned from banking and finance, insurance, manufacturing, energy, hospitality, and telecommunications operating in Accra. Given that multinational companies operate in a competitive environment, most MNCs do not allow their organisations to be used as a setting for research investigation. Some of the companies expressed reservations about indicating the name of the company on the questionnaire even though the investigator detailed the purpose of the study to the respective agents of the MNCs. After gaining permission from the random sampling of the companies, the questionnaires were given to representatives of the company upon the direction of the human resource manager so that I can return later for the pickup of the completed questionnaires in order not to interrupt their work. In some organisations, I was allowed to personally send the questionnaires to departments and units. 168 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In such situations, convenience sampling was adopted which allowed me to administer questionnaires to those who were easily accessible to fill the questionnaires. Although convenience sampling is less desirable because it is a nonprobability sampling technique and may affect generalizability capability, it allows the researcher to rely on respondents who find it convenient and are available for the study. This sampling technique has also been used in organisational and management research (Fatima & Bashir, 2017). Random sampling allows participants to have a non-zero chance of selection to participate in the study to avoid any biases. This seeks to augment the credibility, validity, and reliability of the results. Random sampling is undertaken where the target population is homogenous suggesting that any element or unit sampled can provide similar responses as those who could not be selected to participate. The target population is considered a homogenous in as much as they are drawn from multinational organisations operating in Accra, Ghana. Given that they are homogenous, convenience sampling is relied upon to select those accessible or available for the study rather than those, although qualifies to participate in the study, may not be available at the time of the conduct of the study. Both the random and convenience sampling techniques guided the selection of respondents to participate in the study by responding to the surveys administered to answer objectives one through to objective three. Inclusion criteria involved organisations that have operated for at least five years in the multinational space in the country, hence, companies that have not exceeded five years since their operation were excluded. Also, only employees of multinational companies were included in the study and all employees who belong to other private establishments other than a multinational company were excluded together with employees from public organisations. 169 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2.0 Research Design The researcher followed the recommendation of Creswell and Plano Clark (2011) in applying the mixed methods research design to assess the quality of the design by ensuring that; first, both quantitative and qualitative data were collected simultaneously; second, apply rigorous procedures during data collection and subsequent data analysis; third, specifying the type of mixed methods design considered appropriate for the current study which is concurrent triangulation mixed methods research design; fourth, using a theoretical lens; and finally, strictly applying the terminologies associated with the mixed methods such as triangulation, quantitative research approaches, validity, reliability, dependability, confirmability, transferability, and credibility in the current study. 5.2.1 Concurrent Triangulation Mixed Methods Research Design The concurrent triangulation mixed methods research design is chosen in this study because it seeks to examine the relationship between the individual-level cultural orientation of employees and workplace deviance among employees of multinational organisations operating in Ghana using quantitative methods and exploring how employees interpret and react to workplace deviance using qualitative methods (Boateng, 2016; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). As a result, the quantitative and qualitative data are given priority to enable not only the integration of results but also for the qualitative result to enrich the statistical findings towards a more complete understanding of the research problem. Table 5.1 provides a summary of some justifications for the selection of concurrent triangulation mixed methods research design which embraces the blend of quantitative and qualitative designs in a single study in Appendix 5.3.0 Quantitative research procedure 170 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This aspect discusses the procedure adopted for the quantitative approach of the research design in achieving the quantitative research objectives. It sheds light on the quantitative strategies and decisions associated with the method and choice in using the quantitative approach. It provides an overview of using the quantitative approach, the philosophical stance of the investigator, the research design concerning the population, sample, and sample size determination; sampling techniques; instrumentation, data collection method and procedure, exclusion and inclusion criteria, reliability and validity analysis; and data analysis tools. 5.3.1 Research design Cross-sectional descriptive survey The descriptive cross-sectional survey design was used in the quantitative study to collect data to address the quantitative objectives in the current study. This survey research design allowed the opportunity to quantitatively describe trends, patterns, attitudes, behaviours, and views of a representative sample of a population to address research problems. It is ideal for studies that focus on prevalence, patterns, relationships, and trends from a given population of interest at a specific point in time (Bryman & Bell, 2011). It entails collecting numerical data from a representative sample of a population at one point in time, and hence, viewed as taking a "snapshot" of a group of people (Bryman & Bell, 2011). Accordingly, the current study used the descriptive cross-sectional survey research which permitted the researcher to administer questionnaires across a representative sample of employees of MNCs operating in Accra at one point in time to gather quantifiable data which are then examined to detect patterns of relationships to generalize across the population using the representative sample (Bryman & Bell, 2011). The elements inherent in the descriptive cross-sectional survey makes it ideal for the current study including collecting views, opinions, and behaviours from a representative sample of employees 171 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from MNCs, carried out at a single point in time, quantifiable or numerical data, and patterns of association or relationships (Bryman & Bell, 2011) between employee cultural orientations and workplace deviant behaviours in the current study. This design allows for stronger external validity (Bryman & Bell, 2011), which helps to extend inferences from the research context to another context of similar attributes. 5.3.2.0 Population, sample, and sample size determination The target population of the study includes all employees of multinational organisations operating in Accra, the capital city of Ghana. They include manufacturing, telecommunications, financial and insurance, and hospitality industries. Given that the study focuses on individual-level cultural orientation, selecting respondents from these organisations helped to understand how an individual's belief systems, values, ethnicity, and practices shape his/her experiences and behaviours at work which may thwart the attainment of organisational goals. Multinational companies (MNCs) are considered in this study because they provide a multicultural workforce which is considered ideal for the study. Also, these companies operate within the boundary of profit maximization and competitiveness where employees must constantly aspire to meet organisational targets. The pressure to meet organisational goals and enjoy a competitive edge makes such organisations and their employees suitable for the study. Hence, management and subordinates of the participating multinational companies constitute the unit of analysis for this study. The accessible population included those employees within reach or are accessible at the time of the conduct of the study. Hence, the accessible population was drawn upon in the current study. Given resource constraints including time, money, and other resources, a representative sample of 625 employees was obtained from the accessible population to respond to the surveys 172 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh administered. A representative sample can adequately represent the population from which it is drawn so that true inferences about the population can be made from the results obtained. Vogel et al., (2015) submit that some trade-offs are important to be undertaken when conducting a within- country data collection effort. As a result, data is collected from a sufficiently large sample of multinational organisations operating in the capital city of Ghana, Accra so that our arguments and findings can be generalized within the boundary of the cultural context as suggested by previous research (Vogel et al., 2015), and also allow proper use of statistical tools to conduct the analysis. Consideration was given to factors such as ethical concerns, availability of participants, researcher's time constraints, research objectives, contextual situations, and acceptance from participating companies and individuals. The population of the study refers to an identifiable set of elements of interest that a researcher considers as pertinent to the information problem (Babbie, 2007; Creswell, 2014; Saunders et al., 2019). The sampling technique is employed to select the sample as a representation of the whole population. Consistently, some scholars opine that a sample size of 200 is fair and 300 is good for robust analysis and generalizations (Creswell, 2014; Hair et al., 2006; Prajapabi, Dunne, & Armstrong, 2010; Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996) and can lend themselves to common statistical estimates and generate valid results. The final sample size obtained for the study is six hundred and twenty-five (625) respondents which are considered even higher than the sample considered as appropriate for good statistical analysis. One reason for this is to gauge against return rate after survey administration and attrition. 5.3.2.2 Response rate Survey instruments were administered among employees of multinational companies operating in Accra, Ghana. Out of the 625 respondents, 510 questionnaires representing approximately 82 173 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh percent were returned but only 433 questionnaires were considered useful for analysis in the current study which represented about 85 percent response rate. The results show an adequate response rate for rigorous statistical analysis given that the questionnaire administration has often received not only a relatively low response rate but also a low return rate. Hence, scholars suggest that anything beyond 50 percent is considered a relatively large sample (Leedy & Omrod, 2016; Nardi, 2018). 5.3.0 Instruments Survey instruments are relied upon to gather responses from respondents participating in the study. Survey questions are relatively convenient, easy, and simple to use, as well as inexpensive in their administration. They are the most plausible alternative for measuring unobservable constructs, such as population attitudes, values, preferences, intentions, perceptions, and opinions about particular issues (Howard, 1994; Kim & Kim, 2013; Nunnally, 1978). Consequently, self-report questionnaires were used given that they are commonly used in social and organisational science research (Kim & Kim, 2013). Further, most management and organisational behaviour research make use of survey measures that are obtained through questionnaires to assess some or all of the variables of interest. In this study, validated scales are relied upon including the following: Bennett and Robinson's (2000) scale was adapted to measure destructive workplace deviance. This measure employed 21 items assessing two dimensions: (i) interpersonal deviance (having eleven items) and (ii) organisational deviance (having 10 items). The response description against each item is obtained on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from almost never (1) to almost always (5). Respondents are asked to rate how often they have engaged in these behaviours as recently as since the last six months. The reliability of this scale was 0.817 for interpersonal deviance and 0.826 for organisational deviance. 174 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Perceived ethical leadership was assessed using Brown et al., (2005) ten-item measure with sample items including my supervisor 'Listens to what employees have to say' and 'Disciplines employees who violate ethical standards' on a five-point Likert type scales ranging from 1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-neutral, 4-agree, and 5-strongly agree. The reliability of this scale was 0.887. Perceived Organisational Support Scale (Eisenberger & Rhoades, 2002) was used to assess the extent to which the participants feel and believe that the organisation value and care about them. The 6-item scale is rated on a 5-point scale (Strongly disagree = 1; strongly agree = 5) with scale items such as 'This organisation values my contributions to its well-being', and 'My organisation shows very little concern for me'. The reliability of this scale was 0.757. Employee cultural value orientation is assessed using Hofstede's cultural orientation index which contains 24 item scale measuring four subscales including individualistic (IND- 4 items), collectivistic (COL- 4 items), power distance (PDO- 8 items)), and uncertainty avoidance (UAO- 8 items). All were measured on a 5-point Likert scale from 1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3- neutral, 4-agree, and 5-strongly agree. Reliabilities of the scales were 0.722 for individualistic orientation, 0.745 for collectivistic orientation, 0.858 for power distance orientation, and 0.806 for uncertainty avoidance orientation. Employee commitment is measured using the Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) created by Meyer and Allen (1997), which contains 22 items. 8-items subscale measuring affective commitment, 6-items subscale measuring normative commitment, and 8-items subscale measuring continuance commitment. All were measured on 7-point Likert scales ranging from 1-strongly disagree, 2-moderately disagree, 3-disagree, 4-neutral, 5-agree, 6-moderately agree, and 7- 175 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh strongly agree. The scale reliabilities were 0.892 for affective commitment, 0.872 for normative commitment, and 0.872 for continuance commitment. 5.4.0 Data collection instruments The data collection instruments used in the current study included structured questionnaires or surveys to gather the quantitative data from the sample respondents. A five-page survey questionnaire instrument was developed beginning with section one which sought to elicit responses from respondents about the prevalence of ‘undesirable’ workplace behaviours on a scale of 1=Almost never, 2=Seldom, 3= occasionally, 4=usually, and 5=Almost always. Section two sought to obtain the individual level cultural orientation of employees at the workplace; section three elicited information about employee's engagement of undesirable behaviours at the workplace for the last six months on a scale of 1=Almost never, 2=seldom, 3=occasionally, 4=usually, and 5=frequently; section four collected information about moderators including perceived organisational support, employee commitment measuring affective, normative, and continuance on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = moderately disagree, 3 = disagree, 4 = neutral, 5 = agree, 6 = moderately agree, and 7 = strongly agree, and perceived ethical leadership, section five gathered demographic information from respondents including gender, tenure (both organisation and job), type of industry, age, marital status, religion, general work experience, position, level of education, country of birth, country of residence, and ethnicity. The variables were operationalized and measured by using validated scales in management, organisational behaviour, and cross-cultural research (Caprar et al., 2015; Hofstede, 2001; Yoo & Donthu, 2005). 5.4.1 Reliability and validity of quantitative data 176 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to Creswell (2014), the validity and reliability of scores on instruments lead to meaningful interpretations of data. As a result, internal validity, external validity, and reliability helped in ensuring statistical rigor as recommended in quantitative research (Neuman, 2014; Bryman & Bell, 2011). Reliability refers to the degree to which the data collection techniques and analysis procedures yield reliable and reproducible findings (Leung, 2015). Reliability and validity of the survey scale items were undertaken using internal consistency reliability indexes based on Cronbach's (1951) alpha values, inter-item correlations, and factor analysis, and the results of the Cronbach's alpha values are shown in Table 5.3. According to Nunnally (1978), a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.6 and above is considered reliable. Other scholars contend that a threshold of at least 0.7 Cronbach alpha is reliable (Bryman & Bell, 2011; Vouzas & Psychogios, 2007). From Table 5.3, the Cronbach’s alpha values range from 0.720 to 0.892 indicating the achievement of sufficient reliabilities. Also, both supervisors and other lecturers who specialized in cross-cultural management research helped to establish the content validity of the survey items. Given the primacy of validity and reliability in a quantitative study, the researcher observed the following in achieving validity in this study: the instruments for measuring the constructs adequately covers all the content that it deems to measure in the study (content validity); also attempt was made to seek expert opinion on whether the instruments measure what they are intended to measure (face validity); Again, the effort was made to ensure that inferences about test scores related to the concept being studied can be made (construct validity), Finally, the research instruments guard against a similar instrument that measures the same variables measured in this study (criterion validity) before the data collection (Bryman, 2012; Creswell, 2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). After data collection, the results from the reliability and validity testing corroborated the results obtained before the data 177 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh collection. The testing included the Cronbach's alpha used in testing the internal consistency, composite reliability (CR), maximum shared value (MSV), and average variance extracted (AVE), according to Hair, Hult, Tomas, Ringle, and Sarstedt, (2014), were assessed. Composite reliability measured the overall reliability of a collection of related but heterogeneous items (Hair et al., 2014). Both convergent and discriminant validity were used to assess construct validity. The standardized factor loadings provided by the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to assess convergent validity. Hair et al., (2014) define convergent validity as the degree to which a high proportion of variance that is shared in common with indicators of a specific construct. Also, Fornell and Larcker's (1981)'s recommended procedure was employed to assess discriminant validity. Discriminant validity measured the degree to which the constructs are dissimilar to other constructs in terms of the extent to which they correlate with other constructs and how unique variables represent only those particular single construct (Hair et al., 2014). The Fornell and Larcker (1981) procedure suggests that the square root of the AVE should be greater than all the corresponding correlations. The information on these instruments of reliability is provided in the quantitative empirical results chapter, chapter seven (7). 178 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.3: Scale reliability analysis of constructs Variable Items/Indicators C.R. Cronbach’s Alpha Interpersonal Deviance 1. Neglecting to follow the boss's instructions 0.831 0.817 (ID) 2. Acting rudely towards someone at work Organisational 1. Coming in late to work without permission 0.840 0.826 Deviance (OD) 2. Leaving work before closing without permission Individualistic 1. My personal identity, independent of others, is important to 0.889 0.722 Orientation (IND) me 2. I rely on myself most of the time, rarely on others Collectivistic 1. It is my duty to take care of my family members, whatever it 0.796 0.745 Orientation (COL) takes 2. Family members should stick together even if they do not agree Power Distance 1. I find it hard to do any important task delegated to me by 0.869 0.858 Orientation (PDO) someone senior to me 2. I think people in higher positions should not delegate important tasks to people in lower positions at the workplace Uncertainty Avoidance 1. I tend to get anxious easily when I don’t know an outcome 0.828 0.806 Orientation (UAO) 2. I feel stressed when I cannot predict the consequences Perceived Ethical 1. [My supervisor] defines success not just by results but also the 0.897 0.887 Leadership (PEL) way they are obtained 179 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. [My supervisor] when making decisions, asks ‘what is the right thing to do?” Perceived 1. This organisation strongly considers my goals and values 0.843 0.757 Organisational 2. The organisation is willing to help me when I need a special Support (POS) favour Affective Commitment 1. I do not feel like “part of the family” at my organisation * 0.923 0.892 (ACT) 2. I do not feel “emotionally attached” to my organisation * Normative 1. I would not leave my organisation right now because I have a 0.894 0.872 Commitment (NCT) sense of obligation to the people in it 2. I owe a great deal to my organisation Continuance 1. I am afraid of what might happen to my dependents if I quit 0.882 0.872 Commitment (CCT) my job without having another one lined up 2. It would be very hard for me to leave my organisation right now even if I wanted to because of my obligations (Source; Fieldwork, 2020) * Reverse coded 180 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.5.0 Quantitative data mode of analysis The data were subjected to both univariate, bivariate, and multivariate statistical procedures in analyzing both the metric and nonmetric data that answers the three main objectives of the study. The univariate statistical techniques allowed the analysis of single-variable distributions such as means, standard deviations, frequency counts, and percentages. Also, the bivariate analysis allowed analysis on two variables such as correlation. Further, multivariate statistical techniques, which allowed analysis of multiple measurements on individuals or objects under investigation simultaneously (Hair et al., 2014) were undertaken. Also, multiple regression, moderation analysis, and factor analysis, which detects the factor structure underlying a set of variables, were undertaken using AMOS version 22 and SPSS version 21. The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was useful as it helped to reduce a large number of variables into smaller numbers in the case of the factor analysis, and predictions based on strong correlations between independent and dependent variables were done using multiple regression consistent with the suggestion of Hair et al., (2003). Multiple regression analysis was employed after the CFA was undertaken to determine discriminant factor analysis to identify factors that measure individualism, collectivism, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations of employees as predictor variables, perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership, affective commitment, normative commitment, and continuance commitment as moderators, and workplace deviant behaviours directed at coworkers (ID), and the organisation itself (OD) as criterion variables. 5.5.1 Multivariate analysis techniques Extant studies categorize multiple variate techniques into dependence and interdependence techniques (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 2010). Dependence techniques involve those techniques that allow one or more other independent variables to predict one or more criterion 181 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh variables (Hair et al., 2014). These techniques, including multiple regression, structural equation modeling, and multivariate analysis of variance, are useful for causal or experimental studies (Hair et al., 2010; Hair et al., 2014; Keith, 2015). In contrast, interdependent techniques such as factor analysis, allow all variables to be analyzed collectively and simultaneously. Here, the variables are categorized as either criterion or predictor variables (Hair et al., 2006). Analytical techniques used in the current study Confirmatory factor analysis, correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis, and moderated multiple regression analysis were employed in the current study. Fulfilling research objectives two (2) and three (3) in the current study informed this decision as the study involved two dependent variables, four independent variables, and five moderators consistent with extant studies (Malhotra, 2007). The dependent variables included interpersonal deviance and organisational deviance together with four independent variables such as individualistic, collectivistic, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance orientations. Also, moderated multiple linear regression analysis (MMRA) was employed to analyse the moderating effects on the main relationships between predictor variables and criterion variables (Brown, 2015). Multiple regression focuses on the prediction of one dependent variable from multiple or more than one independent variable at a time (Keith, 2015). Multiple regression analysis (MRA) is selected for the moderation analysis for several reasons including: first, it enables both categorical and continuous predictors to be regressed on each criterion variable. By this, it means that a researcher can explain multiple variations in a dependent variable. Second, MRA is most suitable for both experimental and non-experimental research. Finally, MRA can easily incorporate multiple independent variables in explaining variations in one dependent variable (Keith, 2015). 182 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For the current study, MMRA was considered appropriate because the study contains continuous predictors including individualistic, collectivistic, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance orientations which are hypothesized to explain variations in criterion variables, namely; interpersonal deviance and organisational deviance of employees, and also testing five moderators including perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership, affective commitment, normative commitment, and continuance commitment in the relationships between predictor and outcome variables. Again, the current study is not an experimental study where neither there is no active manipulation of the independent variables nor random assignment of subjects to treatment groups. Finally, the MRA can incorporate all the predictors in explaining variations in the criterion variables. In effect, MRA is considered appropriate for analysing the interrelationships that exist between the predictor and the criterion variables in the current study. To run multiple regression analysis, key assumptions have to be met including the absence of missing values, normality, independence, absence of outliers, and multicollinearity. Missing values occur from potential errors that arise from data entry and data processing. Failure to address missing values may affect the application of multiple regression. As a result, missing data were analyzed using expectation maximization (EM) because EM is considered an effective technique that is often used in data analysis to manage missing data (Alumran, Xiang-Yu, Sun, Yousef, & Hurst, 2014; Tabachnick, & Fidell, 2013). Normality of data occurs where there are no significant differences among the averages indicating that the mean distribution across samples is normal (Garson, 2016). Normality indicates that the target population from where the sample is drawn is normally distributed and that any “violation of the normality assumption may lead to the use of suboptimal estimators, invalid inferential statements and inaccurate predictions" (Das & Imon, 2016, p. 6). Independence suggests that observations must be unaffected by other variables. They 183 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh exert substantial effect on the extent of significance and the power of the test when violated (Hair et al., 2014). Outliers simply refer to extreme data points that "split off" or are different from the rest of the points which have an enormous impact on the interpretation of results (Pituch & Stevens, 2016). Finally, multicollinearity occurs when there are high correlations among independent variables to suspect the relative contributions of each predictor in terms of the effects it exerts on the dependent variable. For example, Pituch and Stevens (2016) identify three key problems posed by multicollinearity: first, multicollinearity limits the size of the R severely because the predictors tend to explain very little variance on the outcome variable; second, multicollinearity affects the weight of each predictor on the outcome variable because the effects of the predictors are confounded due to the moderate or high correlations among them; finally, multicollinearity increases the variances of the regression coefficients. Factor analysis Factor analysis refers to a set of procedures that are used primarily to reduce and summarize variables of study into fewer measures (Hair et al., 2010; Hair et al., 2014). Factor analysis helps to identify the factors that measure the same construct as shown by high correlations among them and those that measure different constructs as shown by low correlations among them. It also helps to establish the underlying structure of interrelationships among a large number of variables (Pallant, 2010). This helps to determine both the number and nature of unobserved variables or factors that explain the variation and covariation among a given set of observed variables or indicators (Brown, 2015). There are two main types of factor analysis, namely; exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis (Joreskog, 1971; Brown, 2015). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is regarded as a data-driven procedure as it entails no specifications involving the number of factors or the pattern of relationships between the common factors and the indicators. 184 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hence, it is employed as a descriptive technique to ascertain the proper number of common factors as well as reveal the measured variables that are reasonable indicators of the various unobserved dimensions (Brown, 2015). It is mostly used during the initial process of scale development and construct validation (Brown, 2015). In contrast, the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) allows researchers to "specify the number of factors and the pattern of indicators factor loadings in advance, as well as other parameters such as those bearing on the independence or covariance of the factors and indicator unique variances. The prespecified factor solution is evaluated in terms of how well it reproduces the sample correlation (covariance) matrix of the measured variables” (Brown, 2015, p. 12). Because of its typical features of specification of the number of variables in advance, CFA requires strong empirical or conceptual background to guide a researcher in determining the specification and evaluation of the factor model (Brown, 2015; Hair et al., 2016; Keith, 2015). In the current study, a large set of variables were identified as influencing workplace deviant behaviours of employees in a multinational setting. Accordingly, employing confirmatory factor analysis to reduce these large number of variables by identifying their underlying structure and interrelationships among the variables into fewer meaningful and more manageable measures was key to this study. Consistent with Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) recommendation of a minimum of 300 cases as adequate for factor analysis, and Nunnally’s (1978) recommendation that at least 10 observations to 1 item under investigation is sufficient for the application of factor analysis, the sample size of 433 respondents for the current study was considered sufficiently ideal for factor analysis. Again, the current study investigated 85 items using a sample of 433 which translates into more than 5 cases per item consistent with Tabachnick and Fidell's (2007) recommendation. Scale reliability test was also relevant in determining the internal consistency of the items that constituted each of 185 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the components of both the predictor and criterion factors. According to Hair et al., (2006), an item should have a minimum factor loading threshold of 0.5 for such an item to be retained in the scale. The item should also be able to register an item-total-correlation greater than 0.3 (Blankson & Stokes, 2002). Additionally, the variables that make up a factor must have a reliability (Cronbach Alpha) score of at least 0.7 (Pallant, 2010) with at least two items measuring the factor (Kenny, 2016). In the current study, CFA was used because it can identify different factors of the dependent variable. That is, CFA helped to confirm the underlining structure of the items used in measuring the various constructs. It also added the benefit of testing construct validity of the measurement scales or model to allow MRA to assess the relative effect of predictors on the response variable. According to Mueller and Handcock (2001), CFA is best understood as a process that begins from model conceptualization, identification, and parameter estimation to data-model fit assessment and potential modification of the model. This mode of analysis has been used in extant studies (Fornell & Lacker, 1981; Croft, Milam, Meylor, & Manning, 2016). Some reasons informed the selection of CFA and MRA instead of structural equation modeling (SEM) in the current study, few are mentioned for purposes of clarity. First, SEM is a process approach derived from a general linear model (GLM) from which regression is undertaken. Hence, results from multiple regression will yield similar results from SEM. Also, Unlike MRA that can allow multiple moderators to be examined in relationships between multiple independent variables and a dependent variable in a single study, testing moderation analysis involving more than four moderators in SEM may be extremely difficult which might lead to model misspecification (Awang, 2012). There are five moderator variables in the conceptual model developed for the current study, together with four independent variables. However, SEM analysis may be more 186 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh useful when examining one or two moderator variables that permit the use of product-indicator, two-stage, and orthogonalizing approaches in PLS-SEM (Memon, Cheah, Ramayah, Ting, Chuah, & Cham, 2019). There is also multigroup analysis in SEM which is only suitable for categorical moderator variables (Tarhini, Hone, & Liu, 2014; Ramayah, Cheah, Chuah, Ting, & Memon, 2018). Even with these approaches, several weaknesses have been raised involving moderator analysis (Fassott, Henseler, & Coelho, 2016). Finally, SEM is a complete model that allows one to test the processes by which relationships and interrelationships occur between independent and dependent variables simultaneously. As a result, all variables in the process must be included in the model to test how they fit the empirical data or the measurement model, and subsequently the structural model. Unlike SEM, moderation deals with joint effects or product terms of independent and moderator variables on the dependent variable. As a result, including all variables including the interaction terms in the model in SEM makes it extremely difficult or near impracticable consistent with extant studies (Awang, 2012; Tarhini et al., 2014). Validation test of the measurement model The following fit indices were used to validate the measurement model including the name of the index used, cut-off criteria, and the subsequent results obtained for the study. They include chi- square (χ2) statistic, standardized root mean square residual (SRMR, Joreskog & Sorbom, 1988), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA, Steiger, 1990), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI, Tucker & Lewis, 1973), and Comparative fit index (CFI, Bentler, 1990). These fit indices are the common indices recommended by extant scholars and other research methodologists consistent with extant research (Adedeji, Lawan, & Shaufique, 2017; Gaskin & Lim, 2016; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Maat, Zakaria, & Rosli, 2017). Additionally, these indices are most often reported in CFA studies (Alumran et al., 2014; Prudon, 2015; Tang et al., 2013; Schreiber, Nora, Stage, Barlow, & 187 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh King, 2006) even though there is endless controversy about their usage (Hayduk, Cummings, Boadu, Pazderka-Robinson, & Boulianne, 2007). It is recommended that chi-square values closer to zero show a better fit, i.e., a smaller difference between expected and observed covariance matrices but a larger chi-squared test with a corresponding small p-value shows a poor fit of the data (Suhr, 2006). Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR; Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1988), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA, Steiger, 1990), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI; Tucker & Lewis, 1973), and Comparative fit index (CFI) were used to assess the model by acceptable threshold (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Gaskin & Lim, 2016; Awang, 2012). 5.6.0 Moderation Analysis Moderation analysis was undertaken to ascertain at what magnitude and direction do individualistic, collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance constituting the independent variable explain interpersonal deviance and organisational deviance constituting dependent variable. This was done to determine whether perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership, affective commitment, normative commitment, and continuance commitment constituting moderating variables inhibit or enhance the effects of independent variables on the dependent variables. Extant studies have shown the relevance of moderation analysis to business and social science research (Andersson, Cuervo-Cazurra, & Nielsen, 2014; Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003; Memon et al., 2019). In particular, Pedhazur and Schmelkin (1991) argued for the idea that multiple effects of constructs should be studied in research rather than the isolated effects of single variables. A simple moderation effect is assessed through a moderated multiple regression model to help explain whether the moderator alters the magnitude and/or direction of the relationship between an antecedent and criterion variable (Andersson et al., 2014; Baron & Kenny, 1986). Mean centering 188 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh was done to try to reduce the effect of multicollinearity brought about by the correlation between the product term of the moderating variable (Z) and its independent variable (X) and the moderator (M). Finally, mean centering was also favoured to facilitate the interpretation of coefficients on direct effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable (or otherwise, lower-order terms) in the presence of interactions (Aiken & West, 1991; Memon et al., 2019). The moderated multiple regression (Aiken et al., 1991; Aiken & West, 1991; Cohen, 1978), was performed by "creating a regression model that predicts the outcome based on a predictor, X, a second predictor, Z hypothesized to be a moderator, and the product term between X and Z, which carries information on the moderating effect of Z on the X-Y relation. The regression coefficient for the XZ product term from which X and Z have been partialed out offers information on the presence as well as the magnitude of the moderating effect" (Aguinis, Edwards, & Bradley, 2017, p. 666). This implies that the effect of the independent variable, X, on the outcome, Y, is different for different values of the moderating variable (Ponchio & Correio, 2018). The independent variable, moderator variable, and interaction term were entered simultaneously into a regression model. The MMRA was selected because it is noted to have superior performance when moderators are continuous over multigroup or subgroup analysis (Dawson & Richter, 2006; Helm & Mark, 2012; Stone-Romero & Anderson, 1994). Also, the moderated multiple regression analysis relative to subgroup analysis can detect direct effects of the moderator variable (Aguinis, 2004; Helm & Mark, 2012). Finally, this technique remains the most popular procedure for the identification of moderator effects (Dawson & Richter, 2006; Helm & Mark, 2012; Dawson, 2014). Jeremy Dawson interaction plots specifically two-way unstandardized plots were relied upon to plot the graph of the significant interactions from the moderated regression analysis (Dawson, 2014). 189 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Analytic instruments in the current study The study relied on IBM Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 21 and IBM’s Analysis of Moments of Structures (AMOS) version 22 software packages. Both these software have been extensively used by researchers in management and organisational research (Hinson et al., 2019). The data was coded, screened, and cleaned using SPSS for further analysis including correlation, multiple regression, and moderated multiple regression analysis. The clean data was transferred to Amos for the CFA to determine the measurement variables for the subsequent analysis involving multiple regression and moderated multiple regression. Quantitative Data Management Procedure Quantitative data processing and screening were undertaken by examining missing values, outliers, collinearity diagnostics, and normality tests to ascertain how the data meet the assumptions for further analysis such as confirmatory factor analysis and multiple regression. They are highlighted below: a) Analysis of missing values Missing data were analyzed using expectation maximization (EM) because expectation maximization is considered an effective technique that is often used in data analysis to manage missing data (Alumran et al., 2014; Tabachnick, & Fidell, 2013). This is because expectation- maximization overcomes some of the limitations of other techniques, such as mean substitution or regression substitution (Alumran et al., 2014). The EM allowed the means, variances, and covariances to be estimated from the individuals whose data is complete. Also, the EM was used to strengthen the conduct of CFA (Alumran et al., 2014). The formulas were therefore used to estimate the missing values. b) Independence and normality test 190 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In the current study, quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plots were used to check normality assumptions to provide graphical checking of the observations (Das & Imon, 2016). The results showed that the data is normally distributed. Again, coefficients of skewness and kurtosis were used in confirming the normality test. The values of kurtosis and skewness are between +/-1, or +/-7.0 and +/- 2.0 respectively, are considered very good for most psychometric uses, but also between -2 and +2 to be considered acceptable for normally distributed data (Gravetter, & Wallnau, 2014; Hahs- Vaughn, 2017). From the test conducted, the result meets the assumption of normality given that the values of skewness and kurtosis are within the acceptable ranges of +/- 2. c) Examination of outliers The examination of the studentized residuals, Cook’s distance (Cook, 1977), and the Mahalanobis’ (1936) distance results showed no significant outliers on the outcome variables consistent with extant studies (Dennis, 2019; Fox, 2016; Pituch & Stevens, 2016; Obrad, 2020). The result indicated that there was no distance greater than one consistent with extant studies for Cook’s Distance and the Mahalanobis’ (1936) distance (Pituch & Stevens, 2016) indicating that there were no influential data points. d) Multicollinearity diagnostics Variance inflation factor (VIF), Tolerance, and intercorrelations among the variables were used to check multicollinearity issues consistent with extant studies (Dennis, 2019; Pituch & Stevens, 2016). The tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) results showed that there were no multicollinearity problems given the values obtained for tolerance and VIF are within acceptable thresholds of +/- 1.5 to +/-2.5 and +/-1.0 to +/- 3.0 respectively. There was no value above 1.0 in the case of the tolerance and with the VIF, all values showed no evidence of multicollinearity with values ranging from 1.3 to 1.4. Finally, the small to moderate correlations observed provided 191 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh further evidence of the absence of multicollinearity issues (Hahs-Vaughn, 2017). The data, therefore, was found to meet all the necessary statistical assumptions to undertake, CFA, multiple regression, and moderated multiple regression. Hence, the analysis proceeded. 5.6.1. Qualitative research procedure Background This section discusses the aspect of the qualitative approach of the research design that was followed in ensuring the trustworthiness of the qualitative aspect of the current study. The qualitative study embodies a naturalistic setting where multiple meanings, experiences, and opinions, in their natural setting are uncovered to help understand how they make sense of their daily activities as well as how they frame their realities (Boateng, 2016). The qualitative study employed in the current is relevant as it helps to focus on discovering, understanding, and interpreting deep-seated multiple experiences and perspectives that participants attach to their existence and realities about workplace deviance and how they respond to such behaviours in the workplace through the production of oral or verbal expressions with little concern about statistical analysis (Shaugnessy et al., 2012). This is a novel area where there is research study exploring the meanings and experiences of employees of MNCs about workplace deviant behaviours. Philosophical assumptions The constructivist or interpretivist philosophy underpins the qualitative approach which arises from idealism (Pluye & Hong, 2014). Hence, the findings from the qualitative study are contextualized, which helps investigators to understand social phenomena better. The ontological foundation of this paradigm is subjectivism, nominalism, or conventionalism (Saunders et al., 2019) which argues that the order and structures of social phenomena studied by researchers are 192 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh created by the researchers and by other social actors through the use of language, conceptual categories, perceptions and consequent actions (Bryman & Bell, 2011). Researchers must be concerned with uncovering and interpreting these varied meanings based on an actor's subjective frame of reference (Tsang, 2017). Epistemologically, the researcher must emphasize understanding the social world through an assessment of the interpretations that individuals assign or attach to their realities rather than seeking to generalize (Bryman & Bell, 2011). Rather than being concerned with generalization, the qualitative researcher is increasingly concerned with being able to transfer described experiences of the particular phenomenon in-depth and vividness to descriptions of another context. Though the values of the researcher may influence findings, qualitative researchers are advised to bracket or guard against such tendencies. 5.6.2 Sample and sampling procedure A sample of 10 research participants made up of organisational supervisors and subordinates were purposely selected for qualitative interviews although saturation and circumstantial factors informed the total number of the participants settled on for the interviews. Also, scholars have suggested that participants between five (5) and ten (10) are ideal for interviews using interpretivist phenomenological analysis (IPA) (Polkinghorne, 1989; Smith et al., 2009; Alase, 2017). The researcher considered the participants to be key in soliciting information from them including human resource managers and other supervisors as well as subordinates who were engaged in an in-depth interview at places, they considered convenient for the interview. These participants were from both HR departments and other departmental units in the organisations. A purposive sampling technique was adopted in selecting participants to participate in the interview regarding what they think to constitute destructive workplace deviance and how they responded to such behaviours in their day-to-day working lives based on their willingness and availability. This 193 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh helped to provide in-depth understanding and emerging views about workplace deviance in multinational organisations. It also provided an added advantage of probing further to unearth the deep-seated rationale of participants' responses which are unlikely to be obtained in the survey administration. 5.6.3 Sample size for qualitative data The sample size of the employees to participate in the interviews was informed by several reasons including, first, employee's willingness to freely share his/her experiences, opinions, and views about behaviours considered as workplace deviant behaviours and how they think cultural factors such as socialization, family networks, and social relationships can provoke behaviours that might attract the deviant label at the workplace; second, availability of the respondent to participate in the study at his/her convenient time; third, must be either full-time or part-time employee, and finally, the employee could be available if the researcher seeks further clarification. In all, 10 employees including supervisors and subordinates participated in the in-depth interviews which helped to gather rich, hidden, varied meanings about the constructs under study. Inclusion and exclusion criteria Only employees of MNCs were considered for the interviews. Also, employees with prior working history in multinational companies were still excluded given that they were not currently working in MNCs at the time of the data collection. Both supervisors and non-supervisory in MNCs that have operated for at least five years were deemed qualified to participate in the study baring the unwillingness and unavailability. Finally, employees of MNCs who lacked fluency in the English language were not considered since the English Language was the official language of communication in Ghana. 194 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6.4 Qualitative data collection instruments The interview was employed in this study as it is the most important technique in terms of how it lends itself to exploring and capturing people's attitudes, beliefs, and norms (Gaus et al., 2017). The interview guide had four sections with each section seeking detailed information about how participants construct their meanings concerning what constitutes workplace deviant behaviours and how they think about ways by which cultural orientation influences an individual's behaviour at the workplace about workplace deviant behaviours. The interview guide elicited information about participants' meanings, prevalence, causes, and consequences of workplace deviant behaviours; cultural influences on workplace deviant behaviours of employees; other factors that can help an individual to control cultural influences on his/her undesirable workplace behaviour resulting from cultural orientation; and finally, participants' suggestions about how to control workplace deviant behaviours at the workplace. The researcher considered it useful to unearth rich, nuanced, varied information to understand the link between culture and workplace deviant behaviours among employees in multinational organisations. This helped to provide richness and depth about the relationship between culture and workplace deviant behaviours (Stake, 1995). Both face-to-face interviews and telephone interviews were employed. The telephone interviews were used due to national lockdown measures initiated by the Government of Ghana in response to control the transmission of the outbreak of the COVID-19. Each interview was conducted in the English language and it lasted for two hours even though the anticipation for each interview was less than 60 minutes. The extension of the duration might have been brought about by the interest from participants during the interactions per session. 5.6.5 Qualitative data analysis technique 195 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Qualitative data analysis technique, particularly, thematic analysis was employed to make sense out of the interviews organized on participants of the study (Braun & Clarke, 2006). About the qualitative data analysis which sought to answer one main objective of the study, each of the interviews was audiotaped after permission was granted by participants and transcribed verbatim (Creswell 2005, 2014). The data collected from the in-depth interviews were manually analyzed through the following steps (TRAFICOGER) recommended by Miles and Huberman (1994): i. Transcription: This marked the beginning of the analysis where the information gathered during the interviews was played repeatedly, listened to and transcribed verbatim. Four of the interviews were transcribed by four different people for Three hundred Ghana cedis. But I transcribed the rest of the six interviews. In all the interviews transcribed, a minimum of 30 pages and a maximum of 45 pages were obtained. ii. Familiarization: At this stage, the researcher spent time reading and rereading through the verbatim transcriptions of the interviews with the main goal of identifying vital ideas that emerged from the textual transcripts. This familiarization was done by highlighting with different colours: green, yellow, and turquoise, the key ideas that ran across all the ten transcripts. This was done on several occasions to ensure that these new ideas were captured. This was done to appreciate the shared participants' stories that helped to answer the research question. iii. Isolation or separation of data set from the data corpus: Here, I sought to identify the actual data that is needed for the analysis and isolating them from the entire primary data that were gathered from the field. At this stage, ideas that were identified using different colours were separated from the entire transcripts for further rereading and analysis. 196 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv. Coding: The research questions guided the coding after familiarization with the data and identifying the ideas that emerged from the data. The coding was manually done using both highlights and abbreviation in terms of meaning, prevalence, causes, consequences, cultural influences on undesirable behaviours, and remedies were particularly noted. After generating the codes, they were supported by colleagues who were allowed to help check the authenticity of the codes generated. The patterns of codes were aggregated and compared with dissimilar patterns to synthesize seemingly divergent patterns observed in the analysis. v. Generating themes from the codes: After the coding and its subsequent checking for authenticity, themes that showed an overview of similar ideas from the data were generated for the codes and they also indicated certain patterns within the data. Attempts were made to note the number of times an event or idea corresponding to a theme emerged and the number of participants that shared in that idea throughout all the transcripts. The findings from the themes helped to make explanations of the patterns, and discussions entailed comparisons and contrasting arguments from participants' accounts are reported in the results of the qualitative findings chapter. Synthesis of the themes generated helped me to interpret the perceptions, roles, and relationships observed from respondents' lived experiences (Smith et al., 2009). vi. External check of themes: After I generated the themes from the reading and rereading of the transcripts and codes developed, I sought independent persons such as supervisors and friends to independently check the themes generated from the codes. Also, the transcripts and themes generated were sent to participants of the interview for their review and response to allow the participants of the interview to study their transcripts to ensure 197 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fairness and accuracy. Some of the participants replied in the affirmative which helped the researcher in interpreting the findings. This helped to provide clarity by serving as an important check on the potential of selective perception and blind interpretive biases noted in a qualitative study (Laverty, 2003). vii. Reporting of findings: The categories developed helped to answer the research question using descriptive analysis and explanations. After all the themes related to the categories were developed, the information relating to the research question was evaluated and reviewed to compile the results. The interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) constituted the philosophical and analytical methods underpinnings the qualitative interviews of the current study. The IPA was considered appropriate for this study because it can elucidate the rich and wealth of subjective knowledge and experiences an individual assign to their daily lived experience (Smith & Osborn, 2015; Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). The IPA was developed by Smith (1996) to explore how individuals make sense of their personal and social world and the meanings they attach to a phenomenon they face in their daily living. The IPA draws on three cardinal theoretical grounds, namely: phenomenology, hermeneutics, and ideography (Smith et al., 2009; Laverty, 2003). The phenomenology explores the lived experiences of individuals (Laverty, 2003; Smith & Osborn, 2015); hermeneutics allows one to make sense of events and experiences of the other person through interpretation (Smith et al, 2009); and ideography allows the investigator to commit to particularistic context rather than the universalistic context to garner detailed and in-depth analysis of an event (Smith et al., 2009). In reporting the findings and conclusions drawn, the textual and verbatim or quotes from respondents are presented using pseudonyms to reflect actual comments and assertions which 198 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh seeks to shed a deeper understanding of the constructs, destructive workplace deviant behaviour, and cultural orientation of individuals (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016; Bryman & Bell, 2011). Some verification procedures such as triangulating different sources of information like gestures, exclamations, and other nonverbal cues, member checking, intercoder agreement, rich and thick descriptions of the cases, reviewing and resolving disconfirming evidence were undertaken. 5.6.6 Ensuring trustworthiness and authenticity The validity of qualitative research is considered to be the 'appropriateness' of the tools, processes, and data (Creswell, 2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2010; Leung, 2015). Hence, qualitative researchers are concerned with the trustworthiness, credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability, and transparency associated with tools, processes, and data obtained (Creswell, 2014; Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2018). Accordingly, the researcher ensured fairness and representativeness in reporting cases as well as the inclusion of cases that contradicted the researcher's propositions consistent with extant studies (Leung, 2015; Tracey, 2013). The researcher ensured fairness through the presentation of fairly and balanced accounts of participants' views, perspectives, claims, concerns, and voices in the text (Lincoln et al., 2018; Tracey, 2013). Also, consistency of thoughts and clarity, as well as transparency, were strictly observed to increase the trustworthiness of the results (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). These were done through peer debriefing, and also by supervisors to assist the researcher to identify taken-for-granted biases, or assumptions, repeated revisiting of the data to check emerging themes, and remain true to participants' accounts of their lived experiences. Also, the use of rich and thick verbatim quotes from the participants, invitation of comments from experts on the categories and themes generated from the transcriptions, and discussion of themes with peers, supervisors, and other experts were done to ensure that the 199 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh researcher's neutrality is maintained. This helped to ensure the dependability of results (Tracey, 2013). This was done to enhance category and inter-judge reliability (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). 5.7 Sources of data The study makes use of both secondary sources of data including journal articles, books, editorials, online articles, reports, company records, and other research materials, and primary sources including administration of surveys and conduct of interviews from respondents who expressed willingness to participate in the study 5.8. Ethical Considerations The study seeks to observe ethical considerations, from the planning, gathering, analysis, and reporting of the research, as well as, dissemination of research findings and results. All ethical concerns involving free, informed and documented consent, confidentiality, privacy, anonymity, right to voluntary participation and withdrawal from participation at any time participant wish to do so, and integrity will be observed. Instruments are reviewed and fine-tuned by the Institutional Review Board and supervisors to check the accuracy and ethical implications of the instruments for fieldwork. Reliability and validity analyses are also undertaken before and after data collection using quantitative and qualitative methods. According to Saunders et al., (2019), a well-thought-out and consistent set of assumptions constitute a credible research philosophy, the methodological choice, research strategy, and data collection techniques and analysis procedures undergirding the research project. This chapter has described the mixed methods approach employed by utilizing both quantitative and qualitative research approaches in detail. The next chapter presents the results of the quantitative data followed by qualitative data results in the following chapter. 200 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX PRESENTATION OF QUANTITATIVE EMPIRICAL RESULTS 6.0 Introduction The chapter analyzes quantitative result which answered research questions two (2) and three (3) in the current study. The statistical results reported here include demographic characteristics, multivariate normality, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), correlational analysis, multiple regression analysis and the results of the moderation analysis. 6.1.0 Respondents’ Demographic Profile Table 6.0 shows the profile of respondents’ demographic characteristics. With regard to gender, more than half of the respondents were males (246 representing 57 percent) and the remaining being females (43 percent). As regards to age, 210 respondents representing 49 percent had their ages falling between 21 and 30 with the least age range represented in the study being only one person’s age which was found to be sixty years and over. With regard to the level of education of respondents, 242 (56%) reported having a first degree or bachelor degree with only six respondents (1.4%) reported having a doctoral degree. Regarding respondents’ general work experience, about 211 (49%) respondents have between one and five years of general experience with the least being eight respondents (1.8%) with work experience of 21 years and over. Further, 259 respondents (60%) have been with their organisation for at least five years with five respondents (1.2%) reported having worked continuously with their organisations lasting for over 21 years. More so, majority of the respondents were general employees with 185 (42.7%) and 38 respondents (9%) constituted senior level managers. Additionally, 116 employees (26.8%) were from the hospitality, catering and restaurants sectors whilst 29 employees (6.7 percent) were from insurance and marketing companies. 201 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2.0 Multivariate normality of constructs Multivariate normality including mean, standard deviations, minimum, maximum, kurtosis, and skewness was reported consistent with extant research (Odoom, 2015; Pallant, 2013). Table 6.1 illustrates the results of mean values ranging from 1.59 to 4.43 and standard deviation ranging from 0.86 to 1.64. The highest mean score was represented by continuance commitment M=4.43, SD=1.54; followed by normative commitment M=3.80, SD=1.63; collectivistic orientation M=3.63, SD=0.98; uncertainty avoidance orientation M=3.05, SD=1.01; affective commitment M=3.05, SD=1.48; perceived organisational support M=3.03, SD=0.86; individualistic orientation M=2.95, SD=1.03; perceived ethical leadership M=2.71, SD=1.25; organisational deviance M=2.16, SD=1.13; power distance orientation M=1.97, SD=1.06; and interpersonal deviance recording the lowest mean M=1.59, SD=0.90. Apart from affective, normative and continuance commitment which were measured on a Likert type scale of 1-7 where 1 means strongly disagree and 7 means strongly agree, the rest of the constructs were measured on a 5-point Likert type scale where 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means strongly agree. Table 6.1: Multivariate Normality of constructs in the study (N = 433) Construct Min Max M SD Skew Kurt Interpersonal deviance 1.00 5.00 1.59 0.90 1.75 2.72 Organisational deviance 1.00 5.00 2.16 1.13 0.88 -0.32 Individualistic orientation 1.00 5.00 2.95 1.03 0.28 -0.83 Collectivistic orientation 1.00 5.00 3.63 0.98 -0.25 -0.86 Power distance orientation 1.00 5.00 1.97 1.06 0.75 -0.49 Uncertainty avoidance orientation 1.00 5.00 3.05 1.01 0.13 -1.11 Perceived organisational support 1.00 5.00 3.03 0.86 -0.04 -0.11 Perceived ethical leadership 1.00 5.00 2.71 1.25 0.19 -1.20 Continuance commitment 1.00 7.00 4.43 1.54 -0.53 -0.77 Afffective commitment 1.00 7.00 3.05 1.48 0.39 -0.69 Normative commitment 1.00 7.00 3.80 1.63 -0.03 -1.23 (Source: Fieldwork, 2020), Min-Minimum, Max-Maximum, M-Mean, SD-Standard deviation, Skew -Skewness, Kurt -Kurtosis. 202 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Skewness and kurtosis were used to check normality of distribution in the current study. Consistent with extant studies, the current study maintained the skewness and kurtosis thresholds where values greater than plus or minus 2 for skewness and values greater than plus or minus 7 for kurtosis signaled violation of normality assumption. In the current study, the values of both skewness and kurtosis were within the thresholds in absolute figures, hence, met the assumption of normality of distribution of the data. Interpersonal deviance-1.75, organisational deviance-0.88, individualistic orientation-0.28, collectivistic orientation-0.25, power distance orientation-0.75, uncertainty avoidance orientation-0.13, perceived organisational support-0.04, perceived ethical leadership-0.19, continuance commitment-0.53, affective commitment-0.39, and normative commitment-0.03 for skewness. For kurtosis, the following were recorded: interpersonal deviance- 2.72, organisational deviance-0.32, individualistic orientation-0.83, collectivistic orientation-0.86, power distance orientation-0.49, uncertainty avoidance orientation-1.11, perceived organisational support-0.11, perceived ethical leadership-1.20, continuance commitment-0.77, affective commitment-0.69, and normative commitment-1.23. 6.3.0 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) The current study conducted confirmatory factor analysis to assess the factor structure and uniqueness of the constructs employed in the study. An 11-factor measurement model was achieved for all the latent variables in this study. Each indicator variable was estimated to load on to the respective latent construct in the measurement model. The standardized regression weights provided estimates of the factor loadings of the items to their respective constructs in the measurement model. Some scholars suggest that values greater than 0.30 indicates a significant contribution of the latent variable to the explanation of the variability in the indicator (Hoyle, 2004) whilst others indicate that the standardized factor loadings should not be lower than 0.5 (Hair et 203 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh al., 2014; Fornell & Larcker, 1981). All items had regression weights between 0.5 and 1.0 except one constrained item which showed low effect consistent with the observation that standard regression weights above 0.8 can be considered to reflect significant effect of the underlying variable (Ullman & Bentler, 2012). This is supported by the fit indices which showed adequate fitting of the measurement model discussed below. Additionally, the results from the CFA showed that each construct achieved higher convergent validity at a 5% statistically significant level thereby confirming construct validity of the items employed in the current study. Table 6.2A presents the results of regression weights of the latent variables. Table 6.2A: Standardized regression weights of the measurement model Subscales Estimates S.E. C.R. (t-values) P OD3  Organisational deviance .871 0.064 18.018 *** OD7  Organisational deviance* .808 ID6  Interpersonal deviance* .844 ID7  Interpersonal deviance .818 0.063 14.581 *** IND1  Individualistic orientation 1.212 1.251 4.460 *** IND4  Individualistic orientation* .336 COL3  Collectivistic orientation .926 0.147 11.701 *** COL4  Collectivistic orientation* .640 PDO9  Power distance orientation .823 0.045 17.205 *** PDO10  Power distance orientation* .912 UAO7  Uncertainty avoidance .901 0.091 14.687 *** orientation UAO8  Uncertainty avoidance .748 orientation* NC5  Normative commitment .772 0.040 16.688 *** NC6  Normative commitment* .756 AC5  Affective commitment* 1.064 AC6  Affective commitment .756 0.042 14.524 *** CC1  Continuance commitment* .933 CC2  Continuance commitment .828 0.046 16.723 *** POS2  Perceived organisational 1.036 support* POS3  Perceived organisational .589 0.163 3.727 *** support PEL9  Perceived ethical leadership* .835 PEL10  Perceived ethical leadership .955 0.064 20.360 *** 204 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Source: Fieldwork, 2020) *= Constrained items, *** = Significant p – values 6.3.1 Results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) 6.3.1.1 Assessment of the measurement model Table 6.2B: Measurement model fit indices Model Measurement Model Threshold* Interpretation Fit Index Value CMIN/DF 333.383/154 Chi-square 2.165 Between 1 and 3 Excellent P 0.000 Excellent TLI 0.945 >0.95 Excellent CFI 0.963 >0.95 Excellent SRMR 0.047 <0.08 Excellent RMSEA 0.052 <0.06 Excellent PCLOSE 0.329 >0.05 Excellent (Source: Fieldwork, 2019) *Hu & Bentler, 1999; Awang, 2012; Gaskin & Lim, 2016. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) are shown in Table 6.2B. Established fit indices were employed to assess adequate fitting of the measurement model as illustrated in Table 6.2B where Chi-square test (χ2) =2.165; CFI=0.963; TLI=0.945; RMSEA=0.052; SRMR=0.047; and PCLOSE=0.329, fall in the acceptable thresholds indicating that the measurement model fit the data well consistent with existing literature (Gaskin & Lim, 2016; Obrad, 2020). See appendix A for initial measurement model in Figure 6.1 and final measurement model in Figure 6.2. 6.3.1.2 Construct Validity Measures Both discriminant and convergent validity were assessed to ascertain the reliability or internal consistency of the constructs in the current study. In particular, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), maximum shared variance (MSV), and Max R(H) were calculated in validating the reliability of the measurement model in addition to the Cronbach’s alpha consistent with extant studies (Awang, 2012; Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007; Hair et al., 2014; Trochim, 205 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Donnelly, & Arora, 2015). The AVE and CR scores were from 0.686 to 0.852 and 0.770 to 0.918 respectively in Table 6.3. 206 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.3: Reliability and Validity VAR. CR AVE MSV Max OD IND COL CCT PDO PEL UAO POS ACT NCT ID R(H) OD 0.827 0.706 0.370 0.834 0.840 IND 0.851 0.791 0.227 1.499 0.342 0.889 COL 0.770 0.634 0.270 0.870 -0.052 0.402 0.796 CCT 0.875 0.778 0.199 0.899 0.130 -0.119 -0.190 0.882 PDO 0.860 0.755 0.282 0.876 -0.252 0.197 0.189 -0.398 0.869 PEL 0.891 0.805 0.282 0.927 -0.371 0.181 0.520 -0.404 0.531 0.897 UAO 0.812 0.686 0.227 0.848 0.382 0.476 0.453 -0.035 0.294 0.123 0.828 POS 0.820 0.710 0.036 1.076 -0.009 0.051 0.189 0.019 -0.075 0.100 0.043 0.843 ACT 0.918 0.852 0.175 1.160 0.224 0.335 0.299 -0.284 0.322 0.226 0.352 -0.025 0.923 NCT 0.887 0.799 0.199 1.002 -0.361 -0.363 -0.249 0.446 -0.180 -0.125 -0.379 0.064 -0.418 0.894 ID 0.817 0.691 0.370 0.818 0.608 0.362 0.101 -0.120 0.085 0.014 0.187 -0.020 0.334 -0.338 0.831 (Source: Fieldwork, 2020) The figures in the diagonal represent the discriminant validities for each sub-scale; IND – Individualistic orientation, COL - Collectivistic orientation, CCT – Continuance commitment, PDO – Power distance orientation, PEL – Perceived ethical leadership, UAO – Uncertainty avoidance orientation, POS – Perceived organisational support, ACT – Affective commitment, NCT – Normative commitment, ID – Interpersonal deviance, OD - Organisational deviance 207 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.3.2.0 Common method variance (CMV) The current study addressed CMV before, during and after data collection by employing the Harman's single-factor test (1960) and correlation matrix procedure to control CMV consistent with extant scholars (Gefen, Straub & Rigdon, 2011; Tehseen, Ramayah, & Sajilan, 2017). Harman's single factor test (1960) stipulates that common method bias (CMB) or CMV is present when the majority of the variance, say, more than 50%, can be explained by a single factor, indicating that there is a systematic source of measurement error (Podsakoff, Mackenzie & Lee, 2003). In the current study, the result from the test indicated that the variance of a single factor was 21.77%. The principal component analysis output generated revealed 22 distinct factors accounting for 86.83 percent of the total variance. The first unrotated factor explained only 21.768 percent of the variance in the data and there was no single factor that emerged to explain most of the variance in the constructs. These results indicate the absence of potential common method bias consistent with extant studies (Alumran et al., 2014; Hasan, 2018). The results from the zero-order correlation showed that all the correlations among the constructs were found to be less than 0.9 indicating further evidence of the absence of the potential of CMV in the current study consistent with extant studies (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2012; Tehseen et al., 2017). The result is shown in Table 6.4 in appendix 4. 7.4.0 Correlational Analysis The correlational analysis was conducted to answer the research question two about significant relationships between employee cultural orientations and workplace deviant behaviours, both interpersonal and organisational dimensions. The intercorrelation matrix shows the linear relationship among the variables of study as illustrated in Table 6.4 208 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Interpersonal deviance (ID) was positively and significantly related with uncertainty avoidance (UAO) (r = 0.161, p < 0.01) but not statistically and significantly related with individualistic orientation (IND) (r = 0.071, p > 0.05), collectivistic orientation (COL) (r = 0.086, p > 0.05), and power distance orientation (PDO) (r = 0.077, p > 0.05) although they were all positively related. The correlation between interpersonal deviance and uncertainty avoidance is weak but statistically significant unlike the correlations between interpersonal deviance and collectivistic, individualistic and power distance orientations which were equally weak but not statistically significant. In contrast, organisational deviance (OD) had a statistically significant negative correlation with individualistic orientation (IND) (r = -0.216, p < 0.01) and power distance orientation (PDO) (r = -0.204, p < 0.01) but a statistically significant positive correlation with uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) (r = 0.298, p < 0.01). Also, organisational deviance (OD) was not statistically significant with collectivistic orientation (r = -0.054, p > 0.05) although the correlation was negatively weak. The correlation between organisational deviance and individualistic orientation and power distance orientation was negatively weak but OD had a moderately positive statistical significant correlation with uncertainty avoidance orientation. Also, there was a statistically positive significant correlation between organisational deviance (OD) (r = 0.505, p < 0.01) and interpersonal deviance (ID), but perceived organisational support (POS) (r = -0.054), and perceived ethical leadership (PEL) (r = -0.028) had no statistical significant correlation with interpersonal deviance (ID) although they were negatively related. Interpersonal deviance (ID) had a statistically significant but moderately positive correlation with affective commitment (ACT) (r = 0.291, p < 0.01) but a statistically significant moderately negative correlation with normative commitment (NCT) (r = -0.307, p < 0.01) and negatively but weak correlation with continuance commitment (CCT) (r = -0.112, p < 0.05). With respect to 209 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisational deviance (OD), perceived ethical leadership (PEL) (r = -0.364, p < 0.01) and normative commitment (NCT) (r = -0.337, p < 0.01) had a statistically significant negative correlation with organisational deviance but there was a statistically significantly positive correlation between affective commitment (ACT) (r = 0.179, p < 0.01) and organisational deviance. The correlation between organisational deviance and both perceived ethical leadership and normative commitment was fairly and moderately negative but organisational deviance correlated positively, although weak, with affective commitment. Similarly, continuance commitment (CCT) (r = 0.103, p < 0.05) had a significantly weak positive correlation with organisational deviance. Again, it was observed that there was no statistically significant correlation between perceived organisational support (POS) (r = -0.014, p > 0.05) and organisational deviance even though the correlation is negative. Individualistic orientation (IND) has a statistically significant positive correlation with collectivistic orientation (COL) (r = 0.200, p < 0.01), power distance orientation (PDO) (r = 0.471, p < 0.01), and perceived ethical leadership (PEL) (r = 0.434, p < 0.01) but a statistically significant negative correlation with continuance commitment (CCT) (r = -0.112, p < 0.05). The correlation between individualistic orientation and collectivistic orientation is weak but individualistic orientation moderately relates positively with power distance orientation and perceived ethical leadership. There was no statistically significant correlation between individualistic orientation and uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) (r = -0.041, p > 0.05), perceived organisational support (POS) (r = -0.004, p > 0.05), and affective commitment (ACT) (r = -0.018, p > 0.05). In the case of collectivistic orientation, there was a statistically significant weak positive correlation between employee’s collectivistic orientation and power distance orientation (PDO) (r = 0.170, p < 0.01), moderate correlation with uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) (r = 0.382, 210 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh p < 0.01), weak correlation with perceived organisational support (POS) (r = 0.128, p < 0.01) and moderate relationship with perceived ethical leadership (PEL) (r = 0.432, p < 0.01). However, normative commitment (NCT) (r = -0.162, p < 0.01) had a statistically significant but weak negative correlation with collectivistic orientation. With respect to power distance orientation of employees, there was a statistically significant positive correlation with uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) (r = 0.274, p < 0.01) and perceived ethical leadership (PEL) (r = 0.480, p < 0.01) whilst a negative but statistically significant correlation was observed between power distance orientation and perceived organisational support (POS) (r = -0.128, p < 0.01). The correlation between power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations was positively but fairly weak, however, a fairly and positive moderate correlation was observed between power distance and perceived ethical leadership whilst a negatively weak correlation was observed between power distance and perceived organisational support. Uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) was found to be positive but insignificantly related with perceived organisational support (POS) (r = 0.012, p > 0.05) and perceived ethical leadership (PEL) (r = 0.094, p > 0.05). Similarly, perceived organisational support is insignificantly but positively related with perceived ethical leadership (PEL) (r = 0.066, p > 0.05). There was no statistically significant correlation between uncertainty avoidance orientation and perceived organisational support and perceived ethical leadership. In the same vein, no statistically significant correlation is observed between perceived organisational support and perceived ethical leadership. Continuance commitment (CCT) had a statistically significant positive correlation with normative commitment (NCT) (r = 0.386, p < 0.01) but statistically significant negative correlation exists with affective commitment (ACT) (r = -0.278, p < 0.01), collectivistic 211 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh orientation (COL) (r = -0.132, p < 0.01), power distance orientation (PDO) (r = -0. 338, p < 0.01), and perceived ethical leadership (PEL) (r = -0.325, p < 0.01). The correlation is moderate with normative commitment but weak with affective commitment, collectivistic orientation, power distance orientation and perceived ethical leadership. There was no significant correlation observed between continuance commitment and uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) (r = - .049, p > 0.05) and perceived organisational support (POS) (r = .061, p > 0.05) although the former was a negative correlation whilst the latter was a positive correlation. With regard to affective commitment (ACT), there was a statistically significant positive correlation with collectivistic orientation (COL) (r = 0.252, p < 0.01), power distance orientation (PDO) (r = 0.253, p < 0.01), uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) (r = 0.337, p < 0.01) and perceived ethical leadership (PEL) (r = 0.154, p < 0.01) but there was a statistically significant negative correlation with normative commitment (NCT) (r = -0.419, p < 0.01). The correlation between affective commitment and collectivistic, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance were fairly positively weak whilst the correlation between affective commitment and normative commitment was fairly negatively weak. It was observed that there was a very weak negative but insignificant correlation between affective commitment and perceived organisational support (POS) (r = -0.029, p > 0.05). Normative commitment (NCT) had a statistically significant negative correlation with power distance orientation (PDO) (r = -0.129, p < 0.01) and uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) (r = -0.321, p < 0.01). The correlation between normative commitment and cultural orientations of power distance and uncertainty avoidance is fairly and negatively weak. However, perceived organisational support (POS) (r = 0.054, p > 0.05) and perceived ethical leadership (PEL) (r = - 0.032, p > 0.05) showed positive and negative insignificant correlation with normative 212 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh commitment respectively. In sum, the correlational analysis illustrated in Table 6.4 has provided information about the significant relationships that are observed between employees’ cultural orientations of individualistic, collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance as independent variables and workplace deviant behaviours of employees directed at the organisation and other employees at the workplace as dependent variables. 213 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.4 Intercorrelation matrix of constructs VARIABLE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1. ID 1 2. OD .505** 1 3. IND .071 -.216** 1 4. CCT -.112* .103* -.112* 1 5. ACT .291** .179** -.018 -.278** 1 6. COL .086 -.054 .200** -.132** .252** 1 7. NCT -.307** -.337** .003 .386** -.419** -.162** 1 8. PDO .077 -.204** .471** -.338** .253** .170** -.129** 1 9. UAO .161** .298** -.041 -.049 .337** .382** -.321** .274** 1 10. POS -.054 -.014 -.004 .061 -.029 .128** .054 -.128** .012 1 11. PEL -.028 -.364** .434** -.325** .154** .432** -.032 .480** .094 .066 1 (Source: Fieldwork, 2020) **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed). 1. ID-Interpersonal deviance, 2. OD-Organisational deviance, 3. IND-Individualistic orientation, 4.CCT-Continuance commitment, 5. ACT-Affective commitment, 6. COL- Collectivistic orientation, 7. NCT-Normative commitment, 8. PDO-Power distance orientation, 9. UAO-Uncertainty avoidance orientation, 10. POS-Perceived organisational support, 11. PEL-Perceived ethical leadership, N-Total sample (433). 214 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.4.1 Tests of Hypotheses H1a: Individualistic orientation significantly relate positively with interpersonal deviance As shown in Table 6.4 above, individualistic orientation did not have any significant positive relationship with interpersonal deviance although the direction was supported (r = 0.071, p > 0.05). Hence, H1a did not receive support from the empirical data. H1b: Individualistic orientation significantly relate negatively with organisational deviance As shown in Table 6.4 above, individualistic orientation significantly and negatively related with organisational deviance (r = -0.216, p < 0.05). Hence, H1b received support from the empirical data. H2a: Collectivistic orientation significantly relate positively with interpersonal deviance As shown in Table 6.4 above, collectivistic orientation did not have any significant positive relationship with interpersonal deviance although the direction was supported (r = 0.086, p > 0.05). Hence, H2a did not receive support from the empirical data. H2b: Collectivistic orientation significantly relate negatively with organisational deviance As shown in Table 6.4 above, collectivistic orientation did not significantly relate with organisational deviance (r = -0.054, p > 0.05) although the direction was supported. Hence, H2b did not receive support from the empirical data. H3a: Power distance orientation significantly relate positively with interpersonal deviance As shown in Table 6.4 above, power distance orientation did not have any significant positive relationship with interpersonal deviance although the direction was supported (r = 0.077, p > 0.05). Hence, H3a did not receive support from the empirical data. H3b: Power distance orientation significantly relate negatively with organisational deviance 215 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As shown in Table 6.4 above, power distance orientation significantly and negatively related with organisational deviance (r = -0.204, p < 0.05). Hence, H3b received support from the empirical data. H4a: Uncertainty avoidance orientation significantly relate positively with interpersonal deviance As shown in Table 6.4 above, uncertainty avoidance orientation significantly and positively related with organisational deviance (r = 0.161, p < 0.05). Hence, H4a received support from the empirical data. H4b: Uncertainty avoidance orientation significantly relate negatively with organisational deviance As shown in Table 6.4 above, uncertainty avoidance orientation significantly and positively related with organisational deviance (r = 0.298, p < 0.05). Hence, H4a received support from the empirical data. 7.5.0 Moderation (Two-way Interaction) Analysis Moderation analysis was undertaken to answer research question three in determining moderating effects of perceived ethical leadership, perceived organisational support, affective commitment, normative commitment and continuance commitment on cultural orientations-workplace deviant behaviours relationships. A simple moderation effect was assessed using a moderated multiple regression model to explain whether the moderator alters the magnitude and/or direction of the relationship between an antecedent variable and each of the outcome variable in the current study (Andersson et al., 2014; Baron & Kenny, 1986). In doing so, I created the product terms for each centered score of the independent variables with the moderating variables consistent with extant studies (Aguinis et al., 2017, Memon et al., 2019). I regressed each independent variable with each moderator variable together with its interactive (or product) term (independent variable X 216 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh moderator variable) on each of the two dependent variables. That is, taken individualistic orientation (IND) as independent variable and perceived ethical leadership (PEL) as moderator on organisational deviance (OD) as dependent variable for instance, the centered scores were entered as IND, PEL AND INDXPEL in the first block of the regression model on the dependent variable, OD. This was followed for all the independent variables, moderators and their product terms in the regression model. The following algebraic model expressed the interactive effects which was tested in the regression equation: 𝐸(𝑌) = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑋 + 𝛽2𝑀 + 𝛽3𝑋𝑀 (Equation 1) Where ‘Y’ is the dependent variable, ‘X’, the independent variable, and ‘M’, the moderating variable, E(Y) is the expected value of Y for given values of X and M. 𝛽0, 𝛽1, 𝛽2, and 𝛽3 are the coefficients of the moderated multiple linear regression model. In effect, the moderating effect from the moderated regression is determined when the regression coefficient 𝛽3 of the interaction term or product term is found to be significant (Aguinis 2004; Baltes-Gotz 2006; Dawson, 2014). The plots of the significant interactions are presented as well in Appendix B. Thus, the significance of the interaction term is suggestive that the association between X and Y differs significantly at different levels of the moderator variable, M, which is able to determine whether the formulated hypothesis was supported or otherwise (Dawson, 2014). Discriminant validity and convergent validity were established earlier and the correlation coefficients also ranged from small to moderate consistent with extant research (Cohen et al., 2003). The results from the moderated multiple regression (MMR) analysis indicated that some of the moderators showed significant interactive effects on organisational deviance and interpersonal deviance. The results of MMR on interpersonal deviance are reported first and then followed by the results of MMR on organisational deviance. The tables showing result of MMR are presented 217 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in Appendix 4. We begin with the moderating effects of perceived ethical leadership in the relationship between employees’ ECO and interpersonal deviant behaviours of employees. What is the moderating role of perceived ethical leadership (PEL) in the relationship between employee cultural orientations (individualistic (IND), collectivistic (COL), power distance (PDO) and uncertainty avoidance (UAO)) and interpersonal deviance (ID)? Table 6.6.1 which illustrates significant interactions are presented in Appendix 4, and the plots are displayed in Appendix B. Hypotheses Testing The results in Table 6.6.1 in Appendix 4 show support for hypotheses H5c, H5e, H5g but did not show support for H5a. In particular: H5a: PEL moderates the positive relationship between IND and ID such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative perception of ethical leadership than those with positive perception of ethical leadership. Results from Table 6.6.1 showed that this hypothesis did not receive support from the empirical data result because the interaction term (INDXPEL) did not show significance in predicting interpersonal deviance of employees. H5c: PEL moderates the positive relationship between COL and ID such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative perception of ethical leadership than those with positive perception of ethical leadership. From Table 6.6.1, collectivistic orientation (M = 3.63, SD = 0.98, Coef. = 0.105, SE = 0.047, Beta = 0.115, t = 2.225, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance but perceived ethical leadership (M = 2.71, SD = 1.25, Coef. = -0.028, SE = 0.038, Beta = -0.039, t = -0.737, p = 0.462) 218 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh did not predict interpersonal deviance. However, the interaction term was significant (M = 0.53, SD = 1.12, Coef. = -0.184, SE = 0.038, Beta = -0.230, t = -4.856, p < 0.05). Hence, hypothesis H5c was supported. Taken together, the variables explained 6.4 percent of the variance in interpersonal deviant behaviour, R = 0.253, R2 = 0.064, Adjusted R = 0.058, F (3,429) = 9.792, p < 0.001. H5e: PEL moderate the positive relationship between PDO and ID such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative perception of ethical leadership than those with positive perception of ethical leadership. As shown in Table 6.6.1, power distance orientation (M = 1.97, SD = 1.06; Coef. = 0.161, SE = 0.046, Beta = 0.191, t = 3.466, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance, and perceived ethical leadership (M = 2.71, SD = 1.25, Coef. = -0.117, SE = 0.040, Beta = -0.164, t = -2.954, p < 0.05) also significantly predicted interpersonal deviance. Similarly, the interaction term was significant (M = 0.64, SD = 1.17, Coef. = -0.191, SE = 0.038, Beta = -0.249, t = -5.076, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H5e was supported. Taken together, the variables explained 6.8 percent of the change in interpersonal deviance, R = 0.260, R2 = 0.068, Adjusted R = 0.061, F (3,429) = 10.351, p < 0.001. H5g: PEL moderate the positive relationship between UAO and ID such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative perception of ethical leadership than those with positive perception of ethical leadership. Results from Table 6.6.1 show that uncertainty avoidance orientation (M = 3.05, SD = 1.01, Coef. = 0.120, SE = 0.042, Beta = 0.136, t = 2.868, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance but perceived ethical leadership (M = 2.71, SD = 1.25, Coef. = -0.019, SE = 0.034, Beta = -0.027, t = -.573, p > 0.05) did not predict interpersonal deviance. However, the interaction term 219 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh was statistically significant (M = 0.12, SD = 1.42, Coef. = -0.124, SE = 0.030, Beta = -0.197, t = -4.158, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H5g was supported. Taken together, the variables explained 6.8 percent of the changes in interpersonal deviance, R = 0.256, R2 = 0.065, Adjusted R = 0.059, F (3,429) = 9.997, p < 0.001. All the significant moderators showed a quasi-moderation or partial moderation effect as all the moderators showed direct effects on the criterion variables except the moderating effect of PEL on COL-ID and UAO-ID relationships which appeared pure or full moderation because the moderator variables did not have any direct effects on the criterion (Aguinis, 2004; Helm & Mark, 2012). What is the moderating role of perceived ethical leadership (PEL) in the relationship between employee cultural orientations (individualistic (IND), collectivistic (COL), power distance (PDO) and uncertainty avoidance (UAO)) and organisational deviance (OD)? The results show support for hypotheses H5b, H5d, H5h but did not show support for H5f. Hypotheses Testing H5b: PEL moderates the negative relationship between IND and OD such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative or low perception of ethical leadership than those with positive or high perception of ethical leadership. From the results, individualistic orientation (M = 2.95, SD = 1.03, Coef. = -.130, SE = .056, Beta = -.119, t = -2.338, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance, and perceived ethical leadership (M = 2.71, SD = 1.25, Coef. = -.270, SE=.045, Beta = -.300, t = -6.008, p < 0.05) also predicted organisational deviance. The interaction term between individualistic orientation and perceived ethical leadership was also significant (M = 0.56, SD = 1.32, Coef. = 0.142, SE = 0.039, t = 3.647, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis, H5b, was supported. Taken together, the variables 220 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh explained 16.3 percent of the variation in organisational deviance, R = .403, R2 = 0.163, Adjusted R = .157, F (3,429) = 27.804, p < 0.001. H5d: PEL moderates the negative relationship between COL and OD such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative perception of ethical leadership than those with positive perception of ethical leadership. From the results in Table 6.6.2, collectivistic orientation (M = 3.63, SD = 0.98, Coef. = .140, SE = .054, Beta = .122, t = 2.529, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance and perceived ethical leadership (M = 2.71, SD = 1.25, Coef. = -.341, SE=.044, Beta = -.380, t = - 7.781, p < 0.05) also predicted organisational deviance. The interaction term was also significant (M = 0.53, SD = 1.12, Coef. = -.219, SE = 0.044, Beta = -.218, t = -4.955, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis, H5d, was supported. Taken together, the variables explained 19.2 percent of the variation in organisational deviant behaviour, R = .438, R2 = 0.192, Adjusted R = .186, F (3,429) = 33.992, p < 0.001. H5h: PEL moderates the positive relationship between UAO and OD such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative perception of ethical leadership than those with positive perception of ethical leadership. Results from Table 6.6.2 indicate that uncertainty avoidance orientation (M = 3.05, SD = 1.01, Coef. = 0.325, SE = 0.045, Beta = 0.292, t = 7.281, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance, and perceived ethical leadership (M = 2.71, SD = 1.25, Coef. = -0.333, SE = 0.036, Beta = -.371, t = -9.298, p < 0.05) also predicted organisational deviance. The interaction term was also significant (M = 0.12, SD = 1.42, Coef. = -0.235, SE = 0.032, Beta = -0.296, t = -7.397, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis, H5h was also supported. Taken together, the variables explained 33 221 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh percent of the variation in organisational deviance, R = .574, R2 = .330, Adjusted R = .325, F (3,429) = 70.357, p < 0.001. H5f: PEL moderates the negative relationship between PDO and OD such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative perception of ethical leadership than those with positive perception of ethical leadership Results from Table 6.6.2 showed that the interaction term was not significant. Hence, this hypothesis did not receive support from empirical data. All the significant moderators showed a quasi-moderation or partial moderation effect as the all the moderators showed direct effects on the criterion variables (Aguinis, 2004; Helm & Mark, 2012). Table 6.6.2 which illustrates significant interactions are presented in Appendix 4, and the plots are displayed in Appendix B. What is the moderating role of perceived organisational support (POS) in the relationship between employee cultural orientations (individualistic (IND), collectivistic (COL), power distance (PDO) and uncertainty avoidance (UAO)) and both interpersonal deviance (ID) and organisational deviance (OD)? Hypothesis Testing H6a: POS moderates the negative relationship between IND and ID such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than employees with positive PO. This hypothesis did not receive support from the empirical data because the interaction term (INDXPOS) was not found to be significant when entered into the regression model. Hence, H6a was not supported H6b: POS moderates the negative relationship between IND and OD such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than employees with positive POS. 222 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As shown in Table 6.6.3.2, individualistic orientation (M = 2.95, SD = 1.03, Coef. = -0.239, SE = 0.051, Beta = -0.218, t = -4.643, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance but perceived organisational support (M = 3.03, SD = 0.86, Coef. = -0.036, SE = 0.062, Beta = -0.027, t = -0.578, p > 0.05) did not predict organisational deviance. But, the interaction between individualistic orientation and perceived organisational support (M = -0.004, SD = 0.818, Coef. = 0.123, SE = 0.065, Beta = 0.089, t = 1.889, p = 0.06) did predict organisational deviance. Hypothesis, H6b, was supported at 10 percent alpha level. Taken together, the variables explained 5.5 percent of the change in organisational deviance, R = 0.234, R2 = 0.055, Adjusted R = 0.048, F (3,429) = 8.276, p < 0.001. This is shown in Table 6.6.3.2 presented in Appendix 4, and the plot is displayed in Appendix B. H6c: POS moderates the positive relationship between COL and ID such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than those with positive POS received support only at 10 percent significance. Results from Table 6.6.3.1 showed that collectivistic orientation (M = 3.63, SD = 0.98, Coef. = 0.092, SE = 0.044, Beta = 0.100, t = 2.073, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance, and perceived organisational support (M = 3.03, SD = 0.86, Coef. = -0.085, SE = 0.051, Beta = -0.081, t = -1.656, p = 0.098) also predicted interpersonal deviance. Similarly, the interaction term was significant (M = 0.11, SD = 0.89, Coef. = -0.090, SE = 0.049, Beta = -0.089, t = -1.837, p = 0.067). This hypothesis H6c was supported at 10 percent alpha. Taken together, the variables explained 1.9 percent of the variation in interpersonal deviance, R = 0.139, R2 = 0.019, Adjusted R = 0.012, F (3,429) = 2.821, p < 0.05. The result is shown in Table 6.6.3.1 presented in Appendix 4, and the plot is also displayed in Appendix B. 223 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H6d: POS moderates the negative relationship between COL and OD such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than those with positive POS The result showed that the interaction term (COLXPOS) was not found to be significant when entered into the regression model. Hence, H6d failed to receive support from the empirical data. Hypothesis 6e: POS moderates the positive relationship between PDO and ID such that the relationship is weak rather than strong among employees with positive POS The result showed that the interaction term (PDOXPOS) was not found to be significant when entered into the regression model. Hence, H6e failed to receive support from the empirical data. Hypothesis 6f: POS moderates the negative relationship between PDO and OD such that the relationship is weak rather than strong among employees with positive POS The result showed that the interaction term (PDOXPOS) was not found to be significant when entered into the regression model. Hence, H6d failed to receive support from the empirical data. Hypothesis 6g: POS moderates the positive relationship between UAO and ID such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than employees with positive POS. The result showed that the interaction term (UAOXPOS) was not found to be significant when entered into the regression model. Hence, H6d failed to receive support from the empirical data. Hypothesis 6h: POS moderates the positive relationship between UAO and OD such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative POS than employees with positive POS. The result showed that the interaction term (UAOXPOS) was not found to be significant when entered into the regression model. Hence, H6d failed to receive support from the empirical data. The plots are displayed in appendix B. 224 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh What is the moderating role of affective commitment (ACT) in the relationship between employee cultural orientations (individualistic (IND), collectivistic (COL), power distance (PDO) and uncertainty avoidance (UAO)) and interpersonal deviance (ID)? Hypotheses Testing The results are illustrated in Table 6.4.0 in Appendix 4, and the plots shown in Appendix B. H7a: ACT moderates the positive relationship between IND and ID such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high ACT As shown in Table 6.6.4.0, the interactive term (INDXACT) did not show significance when entered into the regression model. This indicates that H7a did not receive support from the empirical data. H7c: ACT moderates the positive relationship between COL and ID such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high ACT From Table 6.6.4.0, collectivistic orientation (M = 3.63, SD = 0.98, Coef. = -0.001, SE = 0.044, Beta = -0.002, t = -0.032, p > 0.05) did not predict interpersonal deviance but affective commitment (M = 3.05, SD = 1.48, Coef. = 0.167, SE = 0.029, Beta = 0.275, t = 5.785, p < 0.001) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance and the interaction term was also statistically significant (M = 0.36, SD = 1.43, Coef. = -0.073, SE = 0.029, Beta = -0.117, t = -2.498, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 7c was supported. Taken together, the variables explained 9.8 percent of the variance in interpersonal deviance, R = 0.313, R2 = 0.098, Adjusted R = 0.092, F (3,429) = 15.515, p < 0.001. H7e: ACT moderates the positive relationship between PDO and ID such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high ACT 225 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As shown in Table 6.6.4.0, power distance orientation (M = 1.97, SD = 1.06; Coef. = 0.004, SE = 0.040, Beta = 0.005, t = 1.110, p > 0.05) did not significantly predict interpersonal deviance but affective commitment (M = 3.05, SD = 1.48. Coef. = 0.187, SE = 0.029, Beta = 0.309, t = 6.484, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance and the interaction term was also statistically significant (M = 0.40, SD = 1.63, Coef. = -0.079, SE = 0.025, Beta = -0.143, t = - 3.111, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 7e was supported. The variables explained 10.5 percent of the variation in interpersonal deviance when taken together, R = 0.324, R2 = 0.105, Adjusted R = 0.099, F (3,429) = 16.739, p < 0.001. H7g: ACT moderates the positive relationship between UAO and ID such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high ACT As shown in Table 6.6.4.0, the interactive term (UAOXACT) did not show significance when entered into the regression model. This indicates that H7g did not equally receive support from the empirical data. All the significant moderators showed a quasi-moderation or partial moderation effect as all the moderators showed direct effects on the criterion variables (Aguinis, 2004; Helm & Mark, 2012) What is the moderating role of affective commitment (ACT) in the relationship between employee cultural orientations (individualistic (IND), collectivistic (COL), power distance (PDO) and uncertainty avoidance (UAO)) and organisational deviance (OD)? Hypotheses Testing The results are displayed in Table 6.6.4.1 in Appendix 4 with the plots displayed in Appendix B. H7b: ACT moderates the negative relationship between IND and OD such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high ACT 226 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As shown in Table 6.6.4.1, the interactive term (INDXACT) was not found to be significant when entered into the regression model. Hence, H7b was not supported by the empirical data. H7d: ACT moderates the negative relationship between COL and OD such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high ACT As shown in Table 6.6.4.1, the interactive term (COLXACT) was not found to be significant when entered into the regression model. Hence, H7d was not supported by the empirical data. H7f: ACT moderates the negative relationship between PDO and OD such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high ACT As shown in Table 6.6.4.1, power distance orientation (M = 1.97, SD = 1.06; Coef. = -0.281, SE = 0.050, Beta = -0.265, t = -5.664, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance and affective commitment (M = 3.05, SD = 1.48, Coef. = 0.202, SE = 0.036, Beta = 0.266, t = 5.627, p < 0.05) also predicted organisational deviance. The interaction term was also significant (M = 0.40, SD = 1.63, Coef. = -0.099, SE = 0.032, Beta = -0.143, t = -3.127, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 7f was also supported. The variables explained 11.9 percent of the change in organisational deviance when taken together, R = 0.345, R2 = 0.119, Adjusted R = 0.113, F (3,429) = 19.304, p < 0.001. H7h: ACT moderates the positive relationship between UAO and OD such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high ACT As shown in Table 6.6.4.1, uncertainty avoidance orientation (M = 3.05, SD = 1.01, Coef. = 0.283, SE = 0.055, Beta = 0.255, t = 5.200, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance and affective commitment (M = 3.05, SD = 1.48, Coef. = 0.091, SE = 0.039, Beta = 0.266, t = 2.360, p < 0.05) also predicted organisational deviance. The interaction term was also significant (M = 0.50, SD = 1.40, Coef. = 0.078, SE = 0.038, Beta = 0.097, t = 2.032, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 227 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7f was also supported. Put together, the variables explained 10.5 percent of the change in organisational deviance, R = 0.323, R2 = 0.105, Adjusted R = 0.098, F (3,429) = 16.701, p < 0.001. All the significant moderators showed a quasi-moderation or partial moderation effect as all the moderators showed direct effects on the criterion variables (Aguinis, 2004; Helm & Mark, 2012). What is the moderating role of normative commitment (NCT) in the relationship between employee cultural orientations (individualistic (IND), collectivistic (COL), power distance (PDO) and uncertainty avoidance (UAO)) and interpersonal deviance (ID)? Hypotheses Testing H8a: NCT moderates the positive relationship between IND and ID such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment rather than those with high normative commitment. As shown in Table 6.6.5.0, individualistic orientation (M = 2.95, SD = 1.03, Coef. = 0.097, SE = 0.042, Beta = 0.111, t = 2.325, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance, and normative commitment (M = 3.80, SD = 1.63, Coef. = -0.169, SE = 0.025, Beta = -0.309, t = - 6.806, p < 0.05) also significantly predicted interpersonal deviance. Similarly, the interaction term was also statistically significant (M = 0.01, SD = 1.68, Coef. = 0.070, SE = 0.025, Beta = 0.131, t = 2.741, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 8a was supported. Put together, the variables explained 11.5 percent of the variance in interpersonal deviance, R = 0.339, R2 = 0.115, Adjusted R = 0.109, F (3,429) = 18.588, p < 0.001. 228 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H8c: NCT moderates the positive relationship between COL and ID such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment rather than those with high normative commitment. The result in Table 6.6.5.0 indicates that collectivistic orientation (M = 3.63, SD = 0.98, Coef. = 0.011, SE = 0.043, Beta = 0.012, t = 0.325, p > 0.05) did not significantly predict interpersonal deviance but normative commitment (M = 3.80, SD = 1.63, Coef. = -0.168, SE = 0.025, Beta = - 0.307, t = -6.622, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance, and the interaction term was also found to be statistically significant (M = -0.26, SD = 1.56, Coef. = 0.061, SE = 0.027, Beta = 0.107, t = 2.272, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 8c was supported. The variables explained 10.7 percent of the variance in interpersonal deviance when put together, R = 0.326, R2 = 0.107, Adjusted R = 0.100, F (3,429) = 17.048, p < 0.001. H8e: NCT moderates the positive relationship between PDO and ID such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment rather than those with high normative commitment. From Table 6.6.5.0, power distance orientation (M = 1.97, SD = 1.06; Coef. = 0.045, SE = 0.038, Beta = 0.054, t = 1.190, p > 0.05) did not significantly predict interpersonal deviance but normative commitment (M = 3.80, SD = 1.63, Coef. = -0.162, SE = 0.025, Beta = -0.296, t = - 6.544, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance and the interaction term was also found to be statistically significant (M = -0.22, SD = 1.77, Coef. = 0.105, SE = 0.023, Beta = 0.208, t = 4.627, p < 0.05). The variables explained 13.9 percent of the change in interpersonal deviance when put together, R = 0.373, R2 = 0.139, Adjusted R = 0.133, F (3,429) = 23.052, p < 0.001. 229 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H8g: NCT moderates the positive relationship between UAO and ID such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment than those with high normative commitment. As shown in Table 6.6.5.0, uncertainty avoidance orientation (M = 3.05, SD = 1.01, Coef. = 0.070, SE = 0.043, Beta = 0.079, t = 1.626, p > 0.05) did not significantly predict interpersonal deviance but normative commitment (M = 3.80, SD = 1.63, Coef. = -0.151, SE = 0.026, Beta = -0.276, t = -5.716, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance and the interaction term was also found to be statistically significant (M = -0.53, SD = 1.64, Coef. = 0.053, SE = 0.025, Beta = 0.097, t = 2.103, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 8g was supported. The variables were able to explain 10.8 percent of the variation in interpersonal deviance when put together, R = 0.328, R2 = 0.108, Adjusted R = 0.102, F (3,429) = 17.298, p < 0.001. All the significant moderators showed a quasi-moderation or partial moderation effect as the all the moderators showed direct effects on the criterion variables (Aguinis, 2004; Helm & Mark, 2012). The plots are also displayed in Appendix B. What is the moderating role of normative commitment (NCT) in the relationship between employee cultural orientations (individualistic (IND), collectivistic (COL), power distance (PDO) and uncertainty avoidance (UAO)) and organisational deviance (OD)? Hypotheses Testing Table 6.6.5.1 shows the results in Appendix 4 with the plots displayed in Appendix B. H8b: NCT moderates the negative relationship between IND and OD such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low NCT rather than those with high NCT 230 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From Table 6.6.5.1, individualistic orientation (M = 2.95, SD = 1.03, Coef. = -0.175, SE = 0.050, Beta = -0.160, t = -3.519, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance and normative commitment (M = 3.80, SD = 1.63, Coef. = -0.233, SE = 0.030, Beta = -0.339, t = -7.789, p < 0.05) also significantly predicted organisational deviance. The interaction term was also significant (M = 0.01, SD = 1.68, Coef. = 0.121, SE = 0.031, Beta = 0.181, t = 3.976, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 8b was also supported. Taken together, the variables explained 19 percent of the variance in organisational deviance, R = 0.435, R2 = 0.190, Adjusted R = 0.184, F (3,429) = 33.451, p < 0.001. H8d: NCT moderates the negative relationship between COL and OD such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low NCT rather than those with high NCT As shown in Table 6.6.5.1, the interactive term (COLXNCT) was not significant in predicting organisational deviance. Hence, H8d was not supported by the empirical data. H8f: NCT moderates the negative relationship between PDO and OD such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low NCT rather than those with high NCT As illustrated in Table 6.6.5.1, power distance orientation (M = 1.97, SD = 1.06; Coef. = -0.252, SE = 0.046, Beta = -0.238, t = -5.486, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance and normative commitment (M = 3.80, SD = 1.63, Coef. = -0.251, SE = 0.030, Beta = -0.364, t = -8.391, p < 0.05) also significantly predicted organisational deviance. Similarly, the interaction term was also significant (M = -0.22, SD = 1.77, Coef. = 0.113, SE = 0.027, Beta = 0.178, t = 4.118, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H8f was also supported. Put together, the variables explained 20.7 percent of the variance in organisational deviance, R = 0.455, R2 = 0.207, Adjusted R = 0.202, F (3,429) = 37.405, p < 0.001. 231 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H8h: NCT moderates the positive relationship between UAO and OD such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low NCT than those with high NCT From Table 6.6.5.1, uncertainty avoidance orientation (M = 3.05, SD = 1.01, Coef. = 0.213, SE = 0.051, Beta = 0.192, t = 4.175, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance and normative commitment (M = 3.80, SD = 1.63, Coef. = -0.198, SE = 0.032, Beta = -0.288, t = - 6.265, p < 0.05) also significantly predicted organisational deviance. Similarly, the interaction term was also significant (M = -0.53, SD = 1.64, Coef. = -0.140, SE = 0.030, Beta = -0.204, t = - 4.679, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 8h was also supported. Taken together, the variables explained 19.5 percent of the change in organisational deviance, R = 0.441, R2 = 0.195, Adjusted R = 0.189, F (3,429) = 34.622, p < 0.001. All the significant moderators showed a quasi-moderation or partial moderation effect as all the moderators showed direct effects on the criterion variables (Aguinis, 2004; Helm & Mark, 2012). What is the moderating role of continuance commitment (CCT) in the relationship between employee cultural orientations (individualistic, IND, collectivistic, COL, power distance, PDO, and uncertainty avoidance, UAO) and interpersonal deviance (ID)? Hypothesis Testing The results are shown in Table 6.6.6.0 in Appendix 4 with plots displayed in Appendix B. H9a: CCT moderates the positive relationship between IND and ID such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low CCT rather than those with high CCT As shown in Table 6.6.6.0, the interactive term (INDXCCT) when entered into the regression model did not show significance in impacting interpersonal deviance. Hence, H9a did not receive support from the empirical data. 232 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H9c: CCT moderates the positive relationship between COL and ID such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low CCT rather than those with high CCT As shown in Table 6.6.6.0, collectivistic orientation (M = 3.63, SD = 0.98, Coef. = 0.056, SE = 0.043, Beta = 0.061, t = 1.282, p > 0.05) did not significantly predict interpersonal deviance but continuance commitment (M = 4.43, SD = 1.54, Coef. = -0.075, SE = 0.028, Beta = -0.129, t = - 2.695, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance and the interaction term was also found to be statistically significant (M = -0.20, SD = 1.53, Coef. = 0.106, SE = 0.028, Beta = 0.182, t = 3.818, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis, H9c was supported. The variables explained 5 percent of the variance in interpersonal deviance when put together, R = 0.223, R2 = 0.050, Adjusted R = 0.043, F (3,429) = 7.519, p < 0.001. H9e: CCT moderates the positive relationship between PDO and ID such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low CCT rather than those with high CCT As illustrated in Table 6.6.6.0, power distance orientation (M = 1.97, SD = 1.06; Coef. = 0.041, SE = 0.043, Beta = 0.049, t = .957, p > 0.05) did not significantly predict interpersonal deviance but continuance commitment (M = 4.43, SD = 1.54, Coef. = -0.066, SE = 0.030, Beta = -0.114, t = -2.212, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance and the interaction term was also found to be statistically significant (M = -0.55, SD = 1.63, Coef. = 0.053, SE = 0.027, Beta = 0.096, t = 1.973, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H9e was supported. Taken together, the variables explained 2.3 percent of the variation in interpersonal deviance, R = 0.152, R2 = 0.023, Adjusted R = 0.016, F (3,429) = 3.298, p < 0.05. H9g: CCT moderates the positive relationship between UAO and ID such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low CCT rather than those with high CCT 233 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.6.6.0 shows that uncertainty avoidance orientation (M = 3.05, SD = 1.01, Coef. = 0.114, SE = 0.042, Beta = 0.128, t = 2.682, p < 0.05) significantly predicted interpersonal deviance and continuance commitment (M = 4.43, SD = 1.54, Coef. = -0.060, SE = 0.027, Beta = -0.103, t = - 2.197, p < 0.05) also significantly predicted interpersonal deviance. Similarly, the interaction term was also found to be statistically significant (M = -0.08, SD = 1.60, Coef. = 0.080, SE = 0.027, Beta = 0.143, t = 2.985, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H9g was supported. Taken together, the variables explained 5.6 percent of the change in interpersonal deviance, R = 0.237, R2 = 0.056, Adjusted R = 0.050, F (3,429) = 8.520, p < 0.001. All the significant moderators showed a quasi-moderation or partial moderation effect as all the moderators showed direct effects on the criterion variables (Aguinis, 2004; Helm & Mark, 2012). What is the moderating role of continuance commitment (CCT) in the relationship between employee cultural orientations (individualistic (IND), collectivistic (COL), power distance (PDO), and uncertainty avoidance (UAO) and organisational deviance (OD)? Hypotheses Testing The results are shown in Table 6.6.6.1 in Appendix 4 with plots displayed in Appendix B. H9b: CCT moderates the negative relationship between IND and OD such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low CCT rather than those with high CCT From Table 6.6.6.1, individualistic orientation (M = 2.95, SD = 1.03, Coef. = -0.210, SE = 0.052 Beta = -0.192, t = -4.066, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance and continuance commitment (M = 4.43, SD = 1.54, Coef. = 0.078, SE = 0.035, Beta = 0.107, t = 2.231, p < 0.05) also significantly predicted organisational deviance. Similarly, the interaction term was also significant (M = -0.18, SD = 1.65, Coef. = -0.092, SE = 0.033, Beta = -0.135, t = - 234 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.821, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H9b was supported. Taken together, the variables accounted for 7 percent of the variance in organisational deviant behaviour, R = 0.265, R2 = 0.070, Adjusted R = 0.064, F (3,429) = 10.784, p < 0.001. H9d: CCT moderates the negative relationship between COL and OD such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low CCT rather than those with high CCT As shown in Table 6.6.6.1, collectivistic orientation (M = 3.63, SD = 0.98, Coef. = -0.059, SE = 0.055 Beta = -0.051, t = -1.069, p > 0.05) did not significantly predict organisational deviance and continuance commitment (M = 4.43, SD = 1.54, Coef. = 0.054, SE = 0.035, Beta = 0.074, t = 1.535, p > 0.05) did not also significantly predict organisational deviance. However, the interaction term was statistically significant (M = -0.20, SD = 1.53, Coef. = 0.115, SE = 0.035, Beta = 0.157, t = 3.269, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H9d was supported. The variables explained 3.6 percent of the change in organisational deviance when put together, R = 0.190, R2 = 0.036, Adjusted R = 0.030 F (3,429) = 5.383, p < 0.05. H9f: CCT moderates the negative relationship between PDO and OD such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low CCT rather than those with high CCT From Table 6.6.6.1, the interactive term (PDOXCCT) did not show significant effect on organisational deviance when entered into the regression model. Hence, H9f did not receive support from the empirical data. H9h: CCT moderates the positive relationship between UAO and OD such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low CCT rather than those with high CCT From Table 6.6.6.1, uncertainty avoidance orientation (M = 3.05, SD = 1.01, Coef. = 0.311, SE = 0.051, Beta = 0.280, t = 6.052, p < 0.05) significantly predicted organisational deviance and continuance commitment (M = 4.43, SD = 1.54, Coef. = 0.087, SE = 0.033, Beta = 0.119, t = 235 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.620, p < 0.05) did not also significantly predict organisational deviance. In the same vein, the interaction term was also statistically significant (M = -0.08, SD = 1.60, Coef. = 0.090, SE = 0.033, Beta = 0.128, t = 2.770, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H9h was supported. Put together, the variables explained 11.6 percent of the change in organisational deviance, R = 0.433, R2 = 0.119, Adjusted R = 0.112, F (3,429) = 19.241, p < 0.001. All the significant moderators showed a quasi- moderation or partial moderation effect as the all the moderators showed direct effects on the criterion variables except the moderating effect of CCT on COL-OD relationship which appeared to have pure or full moderation because the moderator variable did not have any direct effect on the criterion (Aguinis, 2004; Helm & Mark, 2012). On effect sizes, the current study recorded small effect sizes as reported by extant studies (Aiken & West, 1991; Helm & Mark, 2012; Cohen et al., 2003). Cohen (1988) provides thresholds which have become conventionally established for the evaluation of the effect size in moderation analysis which are expressed by the values of the f2, including 0.02 = low; 0.15 medium; and 0.35 = high. In the current study, the effect sizes recorded ranged from 0.002 to 0.02 consistent with extant studies (Aguinis, Beaty, Boik, & Pierce, 2005; Cohen, 1988; Cohen et al., 2003; Dawson. 2014). These small effect sizes recorded might be attributable to low reliabilities of the interaction terms which are affected by factors associated with measurement errors as noted by extant studies (Cohen et al. 2003; Jaccard & Turrisi, 2003). The chapter sought to provide results from the empirical study which hypothesized that employee cultural orientation significantly related with WDBs both interpersonal and organisational dimensions. Using data from 433 respondents working in multinational companies operating in Accra, the capital city of Ghana, both multiple regression and moderated multiple regression analysis were conducted to assess the data. The main results of the current study are illustrated in 236 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.7.1.0 and Table 6.7.1.1 in Appendix 4. Based on the results from the empirical study, the next chapter presents the qualitative findings to enrich the quantitative results presented by comparing and contrasting to ensure corroboration and validation of results. 237 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SEVEN PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE RESULTS 7.0 Introduction This chapter presents the results of the qualitative interviews gathered from ten (10) participants of the study to enrich and provide deep insights and illustrate the quantitative findings in order to develop a complete understanding of the role of cultural orientation in workplace deviance which constituted research question three (3) in the current study. 7.1.0 Background of Participants MOL: A Ghanaian female Housekeeping Executive manager at a Five-Star international Hotel (Movenpick Ambassador International Hotel) operating in Accra, Ghana. She has worked in three international hotels both in Ghana and Dubai for twelve (12) years. She has been with the current international hotel for nine (9) years. She started as a floor supervisor and rose to become the Executive Manager of Housekeeping and Food and Beverage. She has occupied this position for four years. The Hotel provides an atmosphere of ease and convenience to both domestic and international visitors and guests. It is situated at Independence Avenue in the central business district of Accra where guests and visitors can have access to the Accra Financial Centre, World Trade Centre, International Conference Centre, and Government Ministries and Departments. It has recently been acquired by the Accor Group of companies. It has 260 rooms and suites, conference rooms, events rooms, a pool, gardens, a lounge, WiFi, a fitness centre, restaurants, bars, a bank, a beauty salon, a spa, a pharmacy, an electronics shop amongst many others. LM: She is a supervisor at the food and beverage department of Movenpick Ambassador hotel. She has worked for six (6) years. The food and Beverage Department is a part of the hotel that 238 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh manages foods and beverages and is also responsible for providing food and beverage services necessary to guests both in-house guests and those who walk in. MG: She is a local cabin crew manager at Africa World Airline (AWA). AWA is a privately owned airline incorporated on the 15th of November 2010. It commenced its first revenue flight on the 21st of September 2012. The airline has consistently seen growth in both frequencies of flights and route networks making it profitable. Africa World Airlines is a full member of IATA since the year 2017 and is also IOSA certified. The company has signed partnerships with various International Airlines such as South African Airways, Emirates, Brussels Airlines, ASKY Airlines and Ethiopian Airlines. By doing this our aim of connecting more passengers will be achieved. She teaches trainees all the matters regarding the operations in aircraft cabins. They teach, depending on the type of aeroplane, the operation carried out in the aircraft, the pre- and post-flight checks, the safety procedures, the service equipment, and client service procedures and formalities. CO: A female local executive manager of Servair Ghana Company Limited, a subsidiary of a Leading French airline catering and cabin-cleaning company. It is located in Accra, near Airport Clinic, Kotoka International Airport. It is a catering services firm that operates in Ghana. The company provides catering services, restaurants, bars and food services. It targets both domestic and international companies and other institutional and corporate firms. Servair, the leading airline catering and logistics provider in France and Africa and a member of gategroup. Its 115 employees produce 2,500 meals for seven airlines every day. Alongside the provision of inflight catering services. The company also provides food solutions to VIP lounges, schools or company canteens and other non-airline clients. She has worked with the firm for eight (8) years. She started as a kitchen clerk and rose to become a manager. 239 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh JJP: An Indian Chef is a restaurant manager at Movenpick Ambassador Hotel. He is in charge of the Chef department at Movenpick international Ambassador Hotel. He has worked with the organisation for six (7) years and has been the manager for three years now. Before working in the current organisation, He had worked in international Hotels in Rwanda, Ethiopia, Seychelles, India, and Dubai. A chef manager works at a restaurant, cafeteria, catering company, hotel, or any other establishment that serves food. The Chef Manager is responsible for coming up with menus that offer quality meals to customers. JAB: A Ghanaian Local branch manager at AirtelTigo, a telecommunication firm operating in Ghana. She has worked with the firm for ten (10) years. She has worked from the headquarters for four years and currently is the Branch Manager of the firm in Accra. HYM: An Ethiopian who is the Manager of the Engineering department at Movenpick Ambassador Hotel, Accra. Before working in the current organisation, He has worked at Radisson International Hotel located in Kenya. He has also worked in Ethiopia, London, and South Africa. ABE: She is the Human Resource Manager at Golden Tulip International Hotel, Accra, a Four- Star International Hotel. The Hotel is located at Liberation Road, Accra. It was built in 1991 and it is owned by the Ghana Government and the Ghana-Libyan Arab Holding Company which owns 60% of the shares while the Ghana government owns 40% of the shares. It has a total room capacity of 234 rooms, including chalets, suites and junior suites. She has worked with the organisation for five years at the time of the interview. DL: He is a general employee at Coca-Cola Bottling company located at Spintex Road, Accra. Equatorial Coca-Cola Bottling Company (ECCBC) was created in 1997 to combine the operations of all these countries and serve as a platform for future growth. Last two decades we have expanded 240 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh our operations to new territories in Africa, such as Ghana, Morocco and Algeria, and today Equatorial Coca-Cola Bottling Company (ECCBC) operates the Coca‑Cola Company portfolio in 13 Africa countries, reaching over 100 million consumers and serving more than 200,000 points of sales. He has worked for six years. DG: A male bar manager at Kempinsky Hotel Gold Coast City, Accra. Kempinski Hotel Gold Coast City Accra is a five-star luxury hotel in the city, offering the largest meeting facilities, with 2,500sqm of event and meeting space. Conveniently located in the downtown business district and proximity to Accra International Conference Centre and the National Theatre. Kempinski Hotels is Europe's oldest luxury hotel group which was established in 1897. Kempinski's rich heritage of impeccable personal service and superb hospitality is complemented by the exclusivity and individuality of its properties. Kempinski now consists of a portfolio of 76 five-star hotels and residences in 34 countries and continues to add new properties in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Asia and the Americas. It started operating in Accra in 2014 and has continued to provide enviable quality service delivery to both domestic and international guests. It features 269 luxury guest rooms and 24 elegantly designed suites as well as a variety of culinary offerings inspired by local and international flavours. He has worked for five (5) years. I interviewed ten (10) participants purposely drawn from multinational companies operating in Accra, Ghana who worked in the hospitality industry, telecommunication industry, manufacturing industry, and airline industry as provided above. Apart from the purpose for which they were selected, consideration was also given to availability and willingness to participate in the interview. Out of the ten interviews conducted, only two were done via telephone due to the COVID-19 outbreak and its attendant lockdowns which left the researcher with the choice of resorting to telephone interview. Though the study had from the outset settled on interviewing fifteen (15) 241 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh participants to supplement the quantitative study, the outbreak of the COVID-19 resulted in obtaining eight interviews before the lockdown strategy imposed by the national government. The telephone interview was therefore undertaken for the subsequent participants who had agreed to respond to the questions during the face-to-face interview. Since the two subsequent telephone interviews did not provide any new insights which were different from those already undertaken, the researcher settled on the ten (10) participants for the analysis. Eight of those participants occupied supervisory and or managerial roles including human resource managers, departmental or line managers, and branch managers whilst the remaining were not supervisors. Four of the participants were males and the rest were females. Among the four males, three were drawn from the hospitality industry and one from the manufacturing industry. The six females who participated in the interview were drawn from hospitality firms, airline companies, telecommunication companies, catering and restaurant companies. The participants had worked with their current respective organisations for at least 5 years except for one participant who had just been transferred from one affiliate international hotel to the current establishment for one year at the time of the interview. Despite staying with the current organisation for one year, he was still interviewed because, before his transfer to the current establishment, he was working with an affiliated establishment in Kenya for ten years. The participant had had 27 years of working with that brand of international hotel operating in 38 countries in Africa and 102 countries globally. For this reason, he was considered qualified given his background with the affiliates of the current establishment he was working with at the time of the interview. The participants’ ages ranged from 30 years to 52 years. Table 6.1 presents the background characteristics of the participants in the interview. The next section provides the results from the analysis of the transcripts. 242 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 7.1 Background characteristics of participants Pseu. Age Gender Org. Position Local/Foreigner Industry in ten. staff years (Years) MOL 42 Female 11 Departmental Local Hospitality Manager LM 30 Female 6 Supervisor Local Hospitality MG 43 Female 5 Cabin Crew Local Airline Instructor CO 35 Female 10 Outdoor Local Hospitality/Airline Delivery manager JJP 39 Male 6 Restaurant Foreigner Hospitality Manager (Indian) JAB 36 Female 9 Branch Local Telecommunication Manager HYM 52 Male 1 Chief engineer Foreigner Hospitality (Ethiopian) ABE 44 Female 5 HR Manager Local Hospitality DL 35 Male 6 General Local Manufacturing employee DG 34 Male 5 Bar Manager Local Hospitality (Source: Fieldwork, 2020) Pseu. – Pseudonym, Org. ten. – Organisational tenure 243 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.2.0 Results from the interviews The emphasis in this part of the study was more on highlighting participants' voices to make sense out of the meanings and interpretations inductively from the data, as well as enrich the quantitative findings with the deep insights and illustrations from the qualitative results in order to provide a more complete understanding of the role of cultural orientation in workplace deviance. This section is therefore organized into the major themes and subthemes that emerged from the responses of participants which illustrate employees’ perspectives on how cultural orientation can cause employee deviance as observed from the quantitative findings. The main themes were meanings of workplace deviance, prevalence and manifestations, forms, causes and consequences, and measures in addressing workplace deviance. Sub-themes that emerged were presented accordingly under the major themes. The themes and sub-themes are displayed in a thematic map below (Figure 7.1) followed by a detailed analysis of each. Workplace deviant behaviour Reasons Meaning Forms of WDBs (More Prevalence of WDBs employees of WDBs serious and less serious (Occurs in all the engage in deviations) organisations) WDBs Personal factors Family demands Convergence of views Divergence of views (E.g. (E.g., stealing, not reporting wrong Socialization deficiency lateness, absenteeism doing, reticent etc.) etc.) Cultural perspective Suggested Opportunity based factors Remedies Organisational factors Figure 7.1 Diagrammatical representation of themes and Discriminatory based factors Reactionary Proactive sub themes Strategies Strategies Oval Major theme, Rectangular Subthemes 244 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.2.1 Meaning and interpretation of WDBs The participants interviewed shared their understanding of workplace deviance as behaviours that employees engage in which are not sanctioned by the organisation. In particular, some indicated that when employees fail to abide by the rules and regulations of the company as spelt out by the policies and procedures, then they are engaging in deviance. Others also averred that deviance occurs when employees deviate or fail to do what the policies are requiring of them to do. HYM had this to say: For me, workplace deviant behaviours are unacceptable behaviours that go contrary to organisational norms, practices, and policies. That is, they are the improper ways of behaviour that are against organisational expectations The interviews revealed that workplace deviance is prevalent in their organisations, contrary to the quantitative finding from the descriptive statistics which indicated that workplace deviance seldom occurs. The participants in the qualitative study shared that deviance is a recurring problem that MNCs consider as challenging, and it affects their reputation, profit, and productivity. MOL states: These behaviours are one of the major challenges in the organisation. These behaviours go contrary to the work’s expectations or the organisation’s norms found in the company’s protocols. I mean you can’t get a hundred per cent (100%) organisation whereby things are done by the book. We still get the odd ones. Other participants expressed that workplace deviance was not defined only by the company's rules and regulations, but also, it was seen as behaviours that contravene the policies and rules of the industry under which the company falls. With the Airline industry, in particular, deviance was not only those behaviours that contravened organisational rules and regulations, but also when certain behaviours were seen to be at odds with the policies and rules of international regulatory bodies such as the International Air Transportation Association (IATA) and civil aviation codes of conduct. MG elaborated as follows: 245 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Deviance is when employees do what is not expected of them in the organisation. For instance, as a cabin crew manager, I have regulations from the International Air Transportation Association (IATA), the international regulatory body that bind me in addition to my company’s rules. I will be deviant if I fail to abide by these rules and regulations. The policies and regulations are definite and are circulated to everybody’s mail including uniform policy, make up policy, your physical appearance, your hair colour and all that. So, if you behave differently from what is written down then you are deviant. The observation seems to contradict the quantitative finding from the descriptive statistics showing that workplace deviance seldom occurs among employees of MNCs. Though both findings indicate that deviance occurs in MNCs, the qualitative finding seems to provide more insight about the extent of deviance that employees of MNCs are involved with in their daily lived experiences in multinational work setting. These are critical comments that must be considered seriously by management of MNCs in particular, and organisations in general. ABE puts it bluntly: I think deviant behaviours are behaviours that people fail to abide by to the expectations of the organisation as reflected in the policies of the organisation. Such people are deviants. So, for me, deviants mean employees not following the policies of the organisation. Another striking discovery from the qualitative finding is that participants were divided on behaviours that qualified to be viewed as deviance. Some participants indicated that some behaviours were generally deviant (convergent views) whilst other participants diverged on other behaviours which could not qualify as deviant behaviours (divergent views). These differences in perspectives about behaviours that can be considered as deviance might have been influenced by the cultural orientation of employees with diverse backgrounds in the multicultural work setting, which subsequently affects their involvement or non-involvement in deviance. It was found that the deviant label may not be applied to all supposed deviations at all times. With the convergent view, participants intimated that some deviations like stealing, fighting, insulting, destroying company equipment or property, failing to record complete receipts, inflated invoices and so on, 246 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are seen everywhere as bad. These behaviours were generally agreed to qualify as workplace deviance. However, other behaviours could not be seen to qualify as deviance because the person who is behaving may not know that what they are doing is tantamount to negative behaviours. They may seem to express how they may have been brought up in a particular way of life which makes it difficult for them to view such behaviour as norm-violating. For example, not exposing your coworker or stepping in for an absent coworker to complete a task is more of helpful behaviour than harming behaviour especially where we have to be there for one another. Though the quantitative data gave a broad snapshot that workplace deviance rarely occurs among employees of MNCs, they did not reveal how different employees were divided on how they perceive different behaviours to qualify to be viewed as workplace deviance, which subsequently can explain their involvement in such negative behaviours or otherwise. Participants pointed out that some behaviours such as not expressing your emotions or being reticent do not constitute workplace deviance but might be seen as such by individuals who are not brought up in that way. This data provide insight about understanding how cultural orientation can influence workplace deviance, as shown by the quantitative finding. For instance, employees who are socialized into individualistic, low power distance, and low uncertainty avoidance may view failing to observe company policies that require that employees report everything they see to management as deviant behaviour, and subsequently respond negatively to that person or the organisation. But, to another who is socialized to be discreet and save the face of members depicting collectivistic cultural traits, high power distance, and high uncertainty avoidance orientation may not view such behaviours as a norm-violation. It was therefore not surprising that a quantitative study revealed an association between cultural orientations and workplace deviance. Deviance may be subject to the peculiar surroundings one is nurtured. HYM narrated below: 247 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Culture is just a norm that has been accepted by a community and the way you grow up; you take this culture from the community. It does influence our behaviour even in the workplace. Let me give you an example, in my country, Ethiopia, we are not that outspoken. We normally do not express ourselves and are more reserved. That means we may not be speaking out about everything we see in our workplaces even if it is wrong unless we are asked to. So, we may be seen as supporting wrongdoing by others especially among the whites, and being seen as deviants. Imagine, how the reserved person will see the outspoken person, and going forward how these two will relate? So, you see, here it will be difficult to accept that all are deviants. Based on the narrations above, the understanding of deviance among participants suggested how their socialization in particular, and cultural orientation in general, influence their perception and lived experience of workplace deviance, which subsequently affect how they respond to organisational events associated with workplace deviance. It becomes more obvious in workplaces where there are different people from different cultures working together. This observation confirms the quantitative finding that found that individualistic, collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientation relate with workplace deviance. The statements above show the varied meanings employees assign to their understanding of 'workplace deviance', which in turn, can influence how they behave about organisational goals consistent with extant studies (Resick et al., 2011). 7.2.2 Prevalence and manifestation of WDBs From the study, almost all participants acknowledged that workplace deviance happens or occurs at their respective workplaces. Some indicated that employees engage in deviant behaviours a lot in their workplaces whereas others, stated that some deviant behaviours mostly occur daily. This finding contradicted with the quantitative data that suggested that deviance seldom occurs among employees of MNCs. HYM had this to say to illustrate above: Though I relate with them nicely I wonder why they keep coming late or sometimes being absent without any tangible reason. So, I sit them down in my office for them to help me understand it so that I will not refer the person to higher authority for strict punishment… and still, it happens sometimes twice or thrice in the organisation. 248 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A sub-theme that emerged from the interviews involved serious versus trivial deviations. Participants shared that those two categories of deviations occur in their organisations. First, serious deviations included those deviations that their organisations described as serious because their organisations do not take them lightly when it comes to the sanctions proffered to such deviations. Such offences included fighting, sexual abuse, property destruction, and theft. These sanctions usually involve outright dismissal. The second category of deviance, termed trivial deviations involved those deviations that organisations consider as minor infractions, and only warrant ordinary sanctions like a warning and receiving the query. They included lateness, abusive language, slacking, using guest items without permission, not reporting items given by guests, before keeping them. Nevertheless, when employees continuously engage in them, they received harsh sanctions like a dismissal. DL narrates: Some deviations put up by employees are considered minor deviations and can be easily forgiven like eating at the buffet which is strictly forbidden. The highest sanction involves a query or warning for you not to repeat it. But if you keep doing that, there are serious consequences like sacking. But, in other deviations like theft, management considers them as a non-negotiable offence, which requires outright dismissal. The ‘why’ you did it doesn’t matter to us. What matters is for us to make sure that we send a message across for other employees to learn from. 7.2.3 Forms of WDBs Further, the interviews revealed several forms of workplace deviance that participants indicated occur in their respective organisations. These forms of deviance are consistent with prevailing forms of deviance as identified by extant studies (Robinson & Bennett, 2003). The result showed that employees of multinational companies engage in organisational deviance such as lateness, withdrawal behaviours, slacking, absenteeism, sharing of passwords with coworkers, disobeying simple instructions, covering up the mistakes of others, and calling in sick when not sick, stealing 249 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh money and items, eating at unauthorized places, using guest items without permission, failing to report items given by guests to authorities before keeping them, failing to report missing items, failing to account for monies received. Property-related deviance received harsh sanctions such as dismissal or termination of appointment and even resort to legal proceedings in courts for further sanctions. MG had this to say: lateness is one big deal, especially when it comes to the airline. For us, in the airline industry, when you are late, you are delaying about 50 passengers. So, the lateness is a big deal when it comes to us, yet it happens. DL passionately added: Theft is a non-negotiable offence. I mean we can't negotiate it. Once it is theft, even when we are asking you questions, it is not necessarily to reinstate you, but we want to know who is involved, who is not involved, and how we can solve it. At that point, we only sack you. Additionally, participants indicated that employees also tend to engage in interpersonal deviance such as gossiping, organisational politics, unequal treatment, backbiting, favouritism, demeaning behaviours towards others, abusive language like talking harshly to coworkers or negative remarks, fighting, telling lies, begrudging, and sexual abuse occurs in their respective organisations etc. MG had this to say regarding gossiping and favouritism: Gossip, … as I mentioned earlier about women, happens a lot in the workplace. There will be, and are gossips around. And then favouring some over others, or when people think others are being favoured above them or another. But mostly these behaviours happen a lot in the workplace. MOL narrated an incidence of fighting that happened in her company: She had this to say: Fighting? We don’t condone it at all. It is considered a serious offence. The recent one involved two casual workers who fought and hurt each other with blood all over place. Both of them are out. This is crazy. Interestingly, some participants indicated that sexual abuse happens in their organisation even though it is one of the non-negotiable offences especially when an investigation reveals that the perpetrator misbehaved sexually with a coworker or customer. MG had this to say: 250 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sexual abuse happens because men and women are working in an enclosed confined area so it does happen. But mostly, it is once in a while that it becomes sexual abuse. The rest are consensual because they are adults working in an environment. From the above, the study has revealed the two dimensions of deviance as established by extant studies including interpersonal deviance and organisational. This finding confirms the quantitative result of the descriptive statistics indicating that these dimensions occur among employees of MNCs. 7.2.4 Causes and consequences of WDBs The researcher sought to find out the reasons why participants engage in workplace deviance as well as ascertaining how participants think cultural orientation can influence deviance in their respective organisations in order to provide insight into understanding the quantitative data in the current study. The participants shared several reasons which can be categorized into personal factors, family demands, socialization deficiency, cultural perceptions, opportunity-based factors, organisational factors, and discriminatory-based factors. Firstly, participants attributed personal or personality factors as one major reason for workplace deviance. These personality factors emanated from largely how one is brought up and the general value systems according participants. Participants shared that some employees have a predisposition to self-centered western affluent lifestyles which cannot be supported by their meagre salaries. They tend to be in competition with themselves which sometimes drive them to engage in deviant behaviours. This is popular among the youth where some employees want to get quick money or what one participant terms “fast life inclinations”. They admitted that sometimes family networks and meeting family demands sometimes drive them to engage in deviance. This ultimately jeopardizes their careers when apprehended. Some also placed the blame on personal 251 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh choices that employees undertake which results in deviance. DL shared his opinion about employee choice resulting in workplace deviance: I think people engage in deviant behaviours because of personal choice. I say this because we make choices at every point in life. People choose to do things without regard to how such things can affect people around them or the organisation they work. We can choose right just as we can choose wrong. So, I can best describe it as a personal choice to deviate but not anything else. Secondly, some participants noted that family demands also cause people to engage in deviance in the organisation. The participants mentioned that family pressures or excessive family demands including picking their kids from school, taking care of their larger family, helping extended family members etc. may result in deviance such as leaving work before closing time or not coming to work early or even taking company property such as stealing to support family needs or even covering up certain misdeeds. This is especially typical of employees whose cultural orientation revolves around kinship ties. Thus, employees’ quest to meeting family obligations, even where they are less capable, compel them to look for ways to meet such demands regardless of whether it will flout organisational norms. This is especially pronounced where there are discouraging workplace conditions that sometimes make it impossible to find time and effort to meet family obligations. MOL shared her experience about when one culprit appeared at the disciplinary committee for engaging in theft: Some people, after they are apprehended, reveal that there are countless family demands upon them which make them do that. For instance, we had cases where the culprit said that the uncle or the parents are in London and the money sent to the fellow does not come in time and so he stole to make ends meet. Similarly, HYM added: They may have some financial or family problems they are facing that we may not know. For instance, some of the family members may be sick. I have encountered those things where my mum was in the hospital there, and I went to the office to work. Anytime I got 252 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh instruction from my boss and my response was harsh or abnormal, I tried to explain the situation I found myself to the boss. Some bosses understood whilst others disagreed. Some people might not be able to disclose their internal problems but may be burdened with family problems that make them engage in deviance. A third reason according to participants was how one is socialized which can make employees engage in deviance. The participants noted that how people are brought up can make them predisposed to committing deviance. They mentioned that some people are brought up to be discreet whilst others are brought up to be outspoken which may find expression in the larger cultural values. They may be seen to have bad habits and poor child upbringing for being reticent. Sometimes, by their socialization, no matter what, they will always have the penchant to deviate at the workplace. Others also mentioned that sometimes they behave in response to denigration or ethnocentric remarks experienced from coworkers and other superiors especially when they portray those locals as being inferior to expatriates, and that they are competent to take decisions for the company and disregard any decision from the locals. JAB had this to say: Naturally, some people are like that. It may be from home or they may be socialized into that from their home countries. It happens particularly when you get to a different environment, you see people around you have a different style of upbringing, and they exhibit them. When you are someone who is maybe 25 years or 35 years and is fond of behaving defiantly across situations and events, you will see that the person started from infancy. It is in-bred. Also, MOL narrated this below: I mean naturally, it is also from your upbringing and the environment you are brought up. It is common see people miscommunicate or denigrate others or put-up ethnocentric remarks regardless of mechanisms put in place to prevent them. It is probably within you or that is how you were brought up. It is inherent or inbred. It is just unbelievable. They learn it and relearned it over and over again which becomes a norm like something inbred. Another participant had this to say about how the way locals are socialized make them endorse deviance at the workplace. JJP had this to say: 253 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I have been here for a little over five years now, and have worked in two international hospitality companies in Ghana, and my previous workplaces at Dubai, Djibouti, and Seychelles, I am tempted to say that the locals particularly in the African countries have certain beliefs and attitudes that are very hard to cope with. They are generally lazy, untrustworthy, and they find covering up of their coworkers’ wrongs as normal. I see this in most of the locals I work with. I can say that it is the culture that makes them that way. Another cause of employee deviance emanates from discriminatory-based factors. Participants pointed out that sometimes employees engage in deviant behaviours out of the discrimination, mistreatment, and denigration they experience at the workplace especially when it comes from expatriate managers and expatriate employees. The participants noted that some local staff and managers are discriminated against by expatriate managers to the extent that expatriate managers express misgivings about the competency of local staff in the organisation. The local managers have often been seen to lack exposure and the proper ways of doing things by their expatriate counterparts such that the local staff and managers are mostly questioned about their competency in delivering certain tasks. Also, the local staff have often been seen as incompetent because they always want directions from their supervisors. Some expatiates consider the culture of local people as making them amenable to such treatments. Hence, local managers were noted to have difficulty in rising through the ranks especially when the top management is made up of more expatriate managers even in the local context. Since expatriates are more sceptical about chances of success by local managers, and hence denigrate the credibility of local managers and other staff, local managers most often remain silent or put-up withdrawal behaviours even where their intervention could have averted the harm that might be caused. This is where the expatriates turn around and blame local staff for incompetency, slacking, withdrawal, or destruction of company properties. Meanwhile, the expatriates deliberately or inadvertently look down upon local managers' ability to do the right thing when 254 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh they are not around. They usually tend to impose their decisions and deny local managers the opportunity to express their opinion on certain matters during decision making. Expatriates mostly communicate rudely to local staff by making them feel less important at the workplace or even at the task assigned to them. The participants explained that when working with expatriates especially Europeans and Chinese expatriates, a local manager has to do more than expected to earn their trust, otherwise, they are always going to look down upon your ability and credibility as well as doubt your chances of success. They are more likely to make you feel helpless, and sometimes, verbally abuse you even in the presence of your subordinates. HYM shared his experience as a local manager in his organisation: This is the reality because when I worked in my previous companies and even here, I confronted such a situation. If you are from Africa, most of the time, they think that we don't know anything. We don't have any exposure. They believe our culture programs us to be that way. They are sceptical about your chances of success. I have worked for four multinational companies including this one. For the first time, yes, no one wants to accept you because you are from Africa and you lack exposure. They cannot trust your ability. MOL added: They (expats) feel like we have earned it. I have earned it so I can take this but (for you, the local employee you cannot take it). This is discrimination. We used not to search our expats and hence they used to take anything they wanted without authorization, but for a local staff to do same, heaven will break loose. She recounted her experience as a local manager rising through from floor supervisor to the manager of the food and Beverage department. MOL narrated below: I have been here from the beginning, from 2011 and I have seen quite a lot. We have passed through a lot of management. It is an international hotel and our level one positions are expats. So, the tendency for us to be looked down upon is high and the tendency to speak us as we are black is kind of normal. We are seen as being dumb or we just can't do anything. They feel that they are here to take care of you and stuff like that. When you start 255 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh seeing that top management doesn’t have belittles you, it becomes worrisome and difficult, which sometimes compel us to retaliate in other ways we can. From the above, it is obvious that employees tend to engage in deviance in response to perceived mistreatment which may end up affecting not only the employees but also the organisation. This finding provide insight into the participants’ involvement in workplace deviance. This is important because it extends understanding beyond what the quantitative finding indicated to why they engage in workplace deviance. This explains the quantitative finding about the relationship between cultural orientation and workplace deviance among employees of MNCs. More so, participants also mentioned cultural perspective as causing workplace deviance. The culture of the person largely makes them engage in negative behaviours like use of abusive languages, discreet, withdrawal behaviours, not reporting bad behaviours to management, covering up mistakes, disrespecting, and not giving up one another when one does wrong. This is because people are brought up in different ways in different cultures, and that, what you are not accustomed to from your culture and you are exposed to it, you are more likely to see it as deviating from appropriate norms than otherwise, and subsequently respond negatively to it. HYM had this to say drawing on his local cultural trait and comparing that with foreign cultures: For example, in my culture, I mean, Ethiopians, we do not express our emotions unless we are asked by someone else. With that trait, it will be reflected in our work output in the workplace. Our culture makes us reserved and reticent. Even if we are going through a lot of challenges, it may cause you to behave in ways that people from different cultures might see you as not doing your job well. This trait will be carried over to the workplace. But when you go to Europe or America, they are very outspoken. So, when an outspoken person meets a reticent person at the workplace, there tend to arise tensions and strains affecting their work relationship. Hence, the environment or culture you are grown up in will be reflected in your working environment. JJP also stated: 256 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I have observed, for some time now, that the local staff mostly accept everything their supervisors and other coworkers tell them. They find it hard to question supervisors about proper ways of doing things even when they know best ways or ideas than their supervisors. You only get to know this after the harm is caused. I wonder why whether they are afraid or fear their leaders. From the above submissions, additional insight is provided in explaining how cultural orientation can cause workplace deviance. Thus, people from cultures where they are not extroverts are likely to be seen by introverted people from different cultures as hiding information or keeping information away from them or even covering up thereby attracting the deviant label. This deviant label may engender deviance expressed in withdrawal behaviours, abusive language, acting rude etc. Fourthly, apart from the cultural-related reasons that participants shared as reasons in explaining how cultural orientation motivate workplace deviance, other participants drifted to other factors beyond cultural orientation. They indicated that organisational factors such as organisational support, good (ethical) leadership style, and employee commitment have major influence on workplace deviance. These factors that emerged from the qualitative finding provide insight into how relational constructs at the workplace can have enhancing or inhibitive influence on workplace deviance as shown by the quantitative findings. They noted that management mistreatment of employees makes them feel unhappy, and unhappy employees become less committed which make them to engage in behaviours that will hurt or harm the source of the mistreatment. Participants stated that support from the organisation plays a critical role. Where there is an unsupportive work environment expressed in managers not valuing, caring and respecting the contributions of employees, they tend to feel belittled and become discouraged to put in more effort. Also, they feel that they cannot sacrifice for the organisation since there are no opportunities for personal growth. As a result, they may try to find ways to pursue such 257 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh opportunities to upgrade and develop themselves such as taking time off work to attend to further studies, feigning sickness, lateness, absenteeism or even using company resources to meet personal goals without authorization. Unsupportive work conditions make employees susceptible to theft or aggressiveness, which may result in behaving in ways that physically harm or abuse others. Also, some participants thought that when management fails to appreciate and recognize the contributions of hard work of employees as well as improperly communicate with one another, it can result in deviance. Despite this finding which appears to me cited frequently by participants in the interview, the quantitative finding only showed modest support of organisational support altering the impact of cultural orientation on workplace deviance. Finally, unethical leadership traits like dishonesty, untrustworthiness, inability to lead by example, showing favouritism, lacking the will to discipline subordinates who violate organisational rules, belittling subordinates, use of undignified language, leaders lacking the will and knowledge of empathizing with employees' situations and conditions at the workplace as well as not respecting the rights and dignity of others can make employees engage in workplace deviance. HYM shared his opinion: Maybe, they might not be happy about the treatment they are getting from the hotel. That will be reflected in their day-to-day activities. And sometimes, the way you treat them, whether you treat them fairly, respectfully, or honourably. But if you don't do that and rather belittles them, they become demotivated, less committed because they no longer find it worthy to work there or believe in the goals of the organisation, and they are likely to do a whole lot of things such as deviance. Additionally, MG recounted below: It mostly depends on how your boss or company relates to you. If the organisation treats you well or provides opportunities to develop yourself or educate yourself, you feel that the company cares about you and wants you to become better than you are, you become more committed to the organisation. Also, when leaders respect your rights and dignity, you try to put more effort to make the organisation achieve its target. Again, when 258 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh leaders are approachable, you can share problems or difficulties with them. But when leaders appear high and mighty and unapproachable, then it’s difficult. Then people look for other ways to solve the problem and mostly it might lead to deviance. The quantitative findings which showed how perceived ethical leadership, organisational support and employee commitment have enhancing or inhibitive influence on workplace deviance seems to be reflected in the qualitative finding presented here by explaining how these relational constructs play crucial role cultural orientation play in understanding workplace deviance. From the qualitative finding, if employees are treated well and they find the organisational setting as supportive, as well as leaders demonstrating moral, empathetic leadership, they are less likely to behave in ways that violate organisational norms even where their cultural orientation stipulates otherwise, and the opposite holds true. JJP had this to say: I believe that if we can make our employees feel at home at work, or make them see that management cares for their well-being, they can easily change their views about how they see things even those brought up in a particular way different from what the organisation expects them to do. They can go extra mile for the company even at the expense of how their culture has thought them. Finally, participants mentioned opportunity-based factors as reasons for employee deviance. This is closely related with the organisational factors mentioned above. That is, where the opportunity presents itself, employees take it without consideration of the potential ramifications. Opportunistic employees are people who use their expertise or skill or knowledge, for example on financial technology, to not account for certain monies which benefits them personally rather than the organisation or coworkers. They tend to see gaps or lapses in their organisations’ way of doing things and then they decide to exploit it to their advantage. MOL puts it this way: People try to cut corners by exploiting the lapses in the system to their gain at the expense of the company. For example, some of our employees sell air tickets to themselves at rebait prices and subsequently sell to customers at high prices. They exploit the lapses to their benefit by having fictitious travel and tours companies. These people see a gap and decide to exploit it. Even though it is a dismissible act when apprehended, some people still try to take that opportunity. 259 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From these submissions, it is obvious that some employees take the slightest opportunity they get to engage in deviances that affect the organisation adversely. It must be noted that these factors were cited throughout the interviews with the participants of the study. Based on the factors that emerged as reasons for employee deviance in multicultural setting, the qualitative finding has shown that cultural factors together with organisational factors are critical to understanding deviance among employees of MNCs. These factors lend support to the quantitative findings by illustrating the association between cultural orientation expressed by socialization, personality, families’ ties, homophilous relationship, discrimination, values, and practices, and workplace deviance both interpersonal and organisational, with organisational factors such as organisational support, ethical leadership and employee commitment enhancing or inhibiting the relationship as depicted in the diagram below: Organisational Factors (E.g. ethical leadership, organisational support, and commitment levels of employees) Cultural orientation Factors (E.g. socialization, Workplace deviance personality, families (Interpersonal deviance ties, homophilous and organisational relationships, deviance) discrimination, values, and practices) Figure 7.2 Diagrammatical representation of qualitative results of thea ssociation between cultural orientation and workplace deviance 260 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.2.5 Some remedies to address WDBs The theme above addressed what management of MNCs have been employing to deal with the menace of deviance at their respective organisations. The interviews revealed some ways that multinational companies can adopt in addressing the recurrent deviant behaviours according to participants of the study. The following sub-themes emerged: reactionary strategies and proactive strategies Reactionary Strategies It was confirmed that organisations overwhelmingly stress reactionary strategies which are defined in this study as those strategies which are employed after the disparaging action or inaction has already occurred, resulting in injury, damage, wastage, loss of items or money. MNCs then proffer sanctions such as verbal warnings, written warnings, suspensions, dismissals, and even court litigations. HYM had this to say: I think the organisation rather should focus attention on preventing deviations from happening in the first place than being strict in punishing wrongdoers or deviants. This will save the organisation from enormous waste, cost, and time from having to sit at disciplinary committees or avoid going to court. Proactive strategies Proactive strategies are those employed by companies to deal with potential deviations before they occur. Management of MNCs has more to gain by emphasizing proactive strategies that target employees even before they get the incentive to commit deviations. For instance, the participants believed that when organisations direct most of their effort to mechanisms that disincentivize employees from engaging in workplace deviance, it mostly helps organisations as they spend little effort, time and resources to tackle the deviations. Participants pointed out that, multinational companies can emphasize the following: first, regularly organizing cultural sensitivity programs 261 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and cross-cultural communication training programs and promote workplace diversity programs directed at orienting employees to inter-cultural interactions in addition to the orientation programs they organize for recruits. Secondly, participants indicated that organisations can support their employees by showing and treating them with respect and dignity. Organisations must show determination and commitment in valuing employees and providing opportunities for career growth, which makes employees feel appreciated. Organisations can frequently engage their employees to find out about their needs and challenges, which, in turn, communicates to employees that their organisations care about them. Also, MNCs can engage employees even beyond work duties to understand and know more about the challenges and strengths that can be harnessed to help both the employee and the organisation at the workplace. ABE stated: You need to let your employees feel valued and appreciated. This makes it better in reducing deviance than looking at the punishments you give when the person has already committed the act. If I don't feel valued, welcomed, respected, and my opinions are not respected, how do I transfer them to the team? And how can they also shun deviating behaviours, if they are not valued? Thirdly, participants indicated that good leadership and management styles where employees feel welcomed to express their ideas and concerns are relevant in discouraging employees from engaging in norm-deviating behaviours. Additionally, supervisors must lead by example so that employees can emulate the good deeds as they are more likely to influence the behaviour of employees than just the written rules and regulations. Some participants shared that ethical leadership is very important as leaders who observe or respect themselves by doing or aspiring to do what is right, communicates to employees that their leader is a role model worthy of emulating. JAB had this to say: 262 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh But what I have also learnt from my time being here is that as a manager, you need to lead the way. Leaders can always try to ask them; how do they think we should do it? The leadership skills create an impact by discouraging deviating behaviours from employees. If you let people bring out their opinions, and they see that their opinion counts or the manager value them, employees tend to feel that they should be at the forefront of behaving acceptably. Fourthly, effective background checks on employees should be a priority before recruitment which can help pick the right people for the right job. Also, MNCs can undertake employee profiling, which is very important, through proper recruitment channels, proper retention channels, proper recruitment management process, especially person-organisation fit. DA stated that: I think it should always start from the beginning where the new person enters the company, the right recruitment management processes must be strictly looked at although sometimes, it is not easy to get the right person to fill the right position at the right time. That will help us from the entry points to avoid people who have a predisposition to deviate based on their history. So, if we work aggressively on those things, then it will be best. Finally, employee participation must be encouraged so that management can see employees as part of not only the problem but also the solution. This enables employees to embrace decisions that stem from the bottom-up rather than the top-down. Again, listening to the ideas, insights, and views of employees about how best to move forward regarding the attainment of organisational goals. This helps make employees feel that they must observe the decisions and goals which are jointly made with management to prove that they have the best interest of the organisation. DL had this to say: Allowing employees to participate in decision making is, in a way, helping them to take responsibility. If they are always at the receiving end, they will not show you how they can be creative or share their wonderful ideas with the organisation. They tend to see themselves as not part of the organisation. And that even if they have bad intentions, you will not know, or because you didn’t seek their opinion so that you can know what they think about a particular work, they can end up deviating from certain important things in the company which could have been prevented if his/her opinion was requested. From the narrations above, it is obvious that efficient ways of tackling deviant behaviours must take all-inclusive strategies, including before a recruit enters the organisation through to 263 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh developing strict but clear rules for sanctioning deviant behaviours and more importantly, emphasizing relational dimensions of workplace behaviours between the organisation and its employees in terms of caring and appreciating employees, good management styles and role modelling or mentoring worthy of emulating. Also, fostering employee participation, discouraging discrimination and favouritism, respecting and valuing diverse employee cultural orientations and finally, organizing regular cross-cultural communication training and other cross-cultural sensitivity programs are vital to promoting inter-cultural interactions in a multinational work setting. Key findings of the qualitative study a. Employees of MNCs were found to hold varied views and interpretations of what is considered 'workplace deviant behaviours, and this is critical to understanding workplace behaviours associated with deviance. b. Both serious and less serious forms of deviant behaviours, as well as production, property, political and personal aggression forms of deviance were found to occur in MNCs. c. Cultural orientation was found to be one of the major causes of workplace deviant behaviours in addition to organisational factors. d. The qualitative finding showed that deviance is pervasive among employees of MNCs which contradicted with the quantitative finding which showed that deviance rarely occurs. Also, the quantitative finding did not show the crucial role of perceived organisational support influencing the relationship between cultural orientation and workplace deviance but with the qualitative data, organisational support seemed to play crucial role in understanding employee deviance regardless of their cultural orientation. 264 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh e. Local managers were viewed with scepticism in the execution of tasks by their expatriate managers. As a result, local managers were considered to lack exposure as well as limited knowledge in performing their assigned tasks and duties. f. Relational attributes such as good (ethical) leadership, organisational support, recognition, appreciation and acknowledgement of unique cultural orientation were found to be critical in understanding workplace deviance. g. Participants were divided on some behaviours as constituting workplace deviance (convergent view) but could not agree on other behaviours as constituting workplace deviant because of cultural or socialization reasons (divergent view). h. Seven main factors were identified as reasons for employees engaging in workplace deviant behaviours in MNCs, which were subsequently put in a diagrammatical representation depicting the association between cultural orientation and workplace deviance together with the inhibitive or enhancing influence of organisational factors such as organisational support, perceived ethical leadership and employee commitment. i. MNCs embark upon reactionary strategies in dealing with workplace deviant behaviours rather than proactive strategies recommended in addressing workplace deviant behaviours to cut down cost, time, and other organisational resources. The results from the qualitative data showed momentous complementary and contrasting views with the quantitative findings in providing a more complete understanding of the role of cultural orientation in workplace deviance. The discussion of the quantitative and qualitative results is presented in chapter eight. 265 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER EIGHT DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS 8.0 Introduction This chapter presents a discussion of the main results of the study in relation to prior studies. A summary of the quantitative and qualitative data results is presented followed by the discussion of the main findings in terms of showing convergence and or divergence of findings from the qualitative and quantitative data to provide a rich and comprehensive understanding of the role of cultural orientation in workplace deviance. 8.1.0 Summary of Quantitative Findings The patterns from the descriptive statistics revealed that there were more males than females who participated in the study, and hence accounted for their majority in participation of the current study. This may be explained for two major reasons; first, gender wage disparity (World Bank, 2014; van der Straaten, Pisani, & Kolk, 2020), and second, the attitudes and beliefs about a woman's role in society and the attributes and experiences that make an individual labour market entrant competitive for hire (Agyemang, 2017). Finally, females are noted to reject international assignments relative to males which account for their underrepresentation in MNCs staffing. Also, the quantitative finding showed that workplace deviance rarely occurs among employees of MNCs based on the descriptive statistics of the construct items contrary to the qualitative findings on the prevalence of deviance among employees of MNCs. This may be because research in WDBs is often clouded in secrecy making it difficult to admit in a survey that employees have committed deviance consistent with extant studies (Stewart, Bing, Davison, Woehr, & McIntyre, 2009; Johns, & Miraglia, 2015) but are more likely to open up in an interview. Lee (1993) observed that people 266 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tend to underreport or provide incomplete information on sensitive topics in surveys because of fear of reprisal, fear of being identified for punishment, or negative label attached to their identity in the organisation. It was not surprising that the qualitative finding provided a contrasting view that WDBs is pervasive and it almost occurs daily as was the case in the current study. More so, the quantitative finding indicated that the youth were found to rarely engage in WDBs in a multinational setting. This may be explained by the fact that WDBs are more likely to be committed by young people than other age brackets (Farhadi et al., 2015; Pletzer, Oostrom, & Voelpel, 2017; Peng, Ma, Zhang, & Jex, 2021). Again, the quantitative study showed that respondents displayed attributes of low PDO (M = 1.97, SD = 1.06) but showed attributes of (high) collectivistic orientation (M 3.63, SD = 0.98). However, respondents were indifferent on the scores of individualistic (M = 2.95, SD = 1.03) and UAO (M = 3.05, SD = 1.01). This was not surprising given that though extant studies have largely suggested that Sub-Saharan Africa countries, Ghana is no exception, display high uncertainty avoidance, low individualistic (or high collectivistic), and high power distance orientations (Hofstede, 2001), the multicultural setting of the study might explain differences in levels of agreement or otherwise of the statements measuring these cultural orientations. The finding from the quantitative study suggests that there are within-country differences or heterogeneity of cultural orientations among people within the same country (Hofstede, 2011; Pinxteren, 2019). From the study, within-country differences were observed from the reports given by respondents of the study. The quantitative finding suggests that respondents placed more emphasis on the relationships in the group by embracing interdependence and thereby placing the welfare of the group above that of individual members (Wilczewski, et al., 2017) and that respondents could thrive in uncertain and ambiguous 267 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh situations on the one hand, and feel uncomfortable and apprehensive in uncertain and ambiguous situations on the other hand as revealed by the results More so, the quantitative data showed that respondents were indifferent on scores of perceived ethical leadership (M = 2.71, SD = 1.25), perceived organisational support (M = 3.03, SD = 0.86), continuance commitment (M = 4.43, SD = 1.54), affective commitment ((M = 3.05, SD = 1.48), and normative commitment (M = 3.80, SD = 1.63). This might be due to cultural and individual differences because respondents perceived differently what they consider as ethical leadership traits as noted by extant studies (Kimura & Nishikawa, 2018; Ozbag, 2016) given that respondents showed indifference about what they considered as ethically oriented behaviours from their supervisors, and how their organisations value and respect their contributions to the sustenance of organisational life. The quantitative data sets were subjected to CFA and reliability tests, and the results showed adequate fit and favourable results. Both convergent and discriminant validity met the adequate and acceptable threshold since the Maximum Shared Variance (MSV) was found to be less than the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for the individual variables, indicating the attainment of discriminant validity on the one hand, and the values of the AVE were all greater than 0.05 indicating the adequacy of convergent validity in the current study. The reliability test had all the values above 0.70. The test of normality was also carried out using mean, standard deviation, maximum, minimum, skewness and kurtosis consistent with extant studies (Pallant, 2011). Further, the quantitative result presented to answer research question one showed that individualistic orientation did not significantly relate to interpersonal deviance of employees (r = 0.071, p > 0.05) although there was a positive relationship, there was a significant negative association between individualistic orientation and organisational deviance (r = -0.216, p < 0.05) 268 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh implying that highly individualistic employees are less likely to engage in organisational deviance and vice versa. Also, there was no significant association between collectivistic and both interpersonal (r = 0.086, p > 0.05) and organisational (r = -0.054, p > 0.05) deviance. Similarly, there was no significant relationship between PDO and interpersonal deviance (r = 0.077, p > 0.05) but PDO significantly and negatively related with organisational deviance (r = -0.204, p < 0.05). This means that employees who believe that power relationships should reflect vertical relationships were less likely to engage in organisational deviance such as lateness, absenteeism, withdrawal behaviours, or engage in property-related deviations at the workplace. Finally, UAO significantly and positively related with both interpersonal deviance (r = 0.161, p < 0.05) and organisational deviance (r = 0.298, p < 0.05). The implication is that people who have high uncertainty beliefs and values were more likely to engage in workplace deviant directed at the organisation and coworkers, and vice versa. The quantitative finding showed that only uncertainty avoidance orientation correlated significantly and positively with interpersonal deviance although there was an insignificant positive correlation between the other cultural orientations and interpersonal deviance. Organisational deviance (OD) negatively correlated significantly with individualistic orientation (IND) (r = -0.216, p < 0.01) and power distance orientation (PDO) (r = -0.204, p < 0.01) but positively correlated significantly with uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) (r = 0.298, p < 0.01). It did not show any significant correlation with collectivistic orientation (r = -0.054, p > 0.05) although the correlation was negatively weak. The quantitative finding showed that only collectivistic orientation (B = -0.167, t = -3.483, p < 0.05), power distance (B = -0.281, t = -5.407, p < 0.05), and uncertainty avoidance (B = 0.438, t = 8.794, p < 0.05) explained organisational 269 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh deviance but only uncertainty avoidance orientation (B = 0.162, t = 2.944, p < 0.05) explained interpersonal deviance. The quantitative data also showed patterns of correlations between the dependent and independent variables. From the result, perceived ethical leadership significantly correlated negatively with organisational deviance (r = -0.364, p < 0.05) implying that employees who hold a positive perception of ethical leadership were less likely to engage in organisational deviance. Similarly, perceived ethical leadership correlated significantly and positively with individualistic (r = 0.434, p < 0.05), positively with collectivistic (r = 0.432, p < 0.05), and positively with power distance (r = 0.480, p < 0.05). POS only correlated strongly with collectivistic (r = 0.128, p < 0.05) and power distance (r = -0.128, p < 0.05) orientations. Affective commitment had significant positive correlation with interpersonal deviance (r = 0.291, p < 0.05) and organisational deviance (r = 0.179, p < 0.05). The implication is that employees whose values and goals were in line with organisational goals showed the likelihood of engaging in workplace deviance unlike those whose goals and values are incongruent with the organisational goals of their respective organisations. Normative commitment had significant negative correlation with interpersonal deviance (r = - 0.307, p < 0.05), organisational deviance (r = -0.337, p < 0.05), and collectivistic orientation (r = -0.162, p < 0.05). The implication is that employees high in normative commitment are less likely to engage in workplace deviance and vice versa. They tend to shun negative behaviours towards the organisation and other coworkers because they think that is the right thing to do. Finally, continuance commitment negatively correlated significantly with interpersonal deviance (r = - 0.112, p < 0.05) but positively with organisational deviance (r = 0.103, p < 0.05). This implies that employees high in continuance commitment showed little tendency to engage in interpersonal 270 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh deviance but become more likely to engage in organisational deviance. Continuance commitment also correlated significantly and negatively with individualistic orientation (r = -0.112, p < 0.05). The quantitative finding presented to answer research question two showed some interaction effects in the relationship between cultural orientation and workplace deviance. Perceived ethical leadership interacted with collectivistic (B = -0.184, p < 0.05), power distance (B = -0.191, p < 0.05), and uncertainty avoidance orientation (B = -0.124, p < 0.05) to influence workplace deviance on the one hand, and interacted with individualistic (B = 0.142, p < 0.05), collectivistic (B = -0.219, p < 0.05), and uncertainty avoidance orientation (B = -0.235, p < 0.05) to influence organisational deviance on the other hand. Perceived organisational support also interacted with only collectivistic orientation (B = -0.090, p = 0.067) to influence interpersonal deviance on the one hand, but it interacted with individualistic orientation (B = 0.123, p = 0.060) to influence organisational deviance on the other hand. The quantitative finding showed that affective commitment interacted with collectivistic (B = -0.073, p < 0.05) and PDO (B = -0.079, p < 0.05) to influence interpersonal deviance on the one hand, but it interacted with PDO (B = -0.099, p < 0.05) and UAO (B = 0.078, p < 0.05) to influence organisational deviance on the other hand. Further, the quantitative finding indicated that normative commitment interacted with individualistic (B = 0.070, p < 0.05), collectivistic (B = 0.061, p < 0.05), power distance (B = 0.105, p < 0.05) and UAO (B = 0.053, p < 0.05) to influence interpersonal deviance on the one hand, but it interacted with individualistic (B = 0.121, p < 0.05), power distance (B = 0.113, p < 0.05), and UAO (B = -0.140, p < 0.05) to influence organisational deviance. Finally, the quantitative finding showed that continuance commitment interacted with collectivistic (B = 0.106, p < 0.05), power distance (B = 0.053, p < 0.05), and uncertainty avoidance (B = 0.080, p < 0.05) to influence interpersonal deviance on the one hand, but it interacted with individualistic 271 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (B = -0.092, p < 0.05), collectivistic (B = 0.115, p < 0.05), and uncertainty avoidance orientations (B = 0.090, p < 0.05) to influence organisational deviance on the other hand. Finally, the significant interaction plots observed from the quantitative analysis are displayed in Appendix B. 8.1.1 Exploration of significant interactive plots For cultural orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship, Figure 6.3.0 in Appendix B shows a substantial difference in organisational deviance between employees with high PEL and low PEL at both low and high collectivistic orientation. This implies that the relationship between collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance is more pronounced among employees with low rather than high PEL. This is an interesting finding given that collectivistic orientation did not significantly relate with interpersonal deviance but with the interaction of PEL. This pattern of finding provides support to studies that investigated the moderating roles of culture on the relationship between ethical leadership and unethical behaviours in organisations (Mayer et al., 2009). Second, Figure 6.3.1 shows that when power distance orientation is low, the difference in interpersonal deviance between those with high perceived ethical leadership and low perceived ethical leadership is substantially small indicating a negligible difference in interpersonal deviance between employees with high and low perceived ethical leadership. However, at high power distance orientation, the difference between persons with high perceived ethical leadership and those with low perceived ethical leadership is considerably high. This also implies that the relationship between power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance is more pronounced among employees with low rather than high perceived ethical leadership as illustrated in Appendix B. This suggests that ethical leadership can guide employees by shaping their behaviours regarding interpersonal deviant behaviour consistent with extant studies (Mayer et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2012; 272 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Presbitero & Langford, 2013). Lastly, the quantitative finding showed that at high UAO, high perceived ethical leadership falls below low perceived ethical leadership suggesting that employees with high perceived ethical leadership reduce their likelihood to commit interpersonal deviance as compared to low perceived ethical leadership counterparts. Similarly, at low UAO, low perceived ethical leadership falls below high perceived ethical leadership indicating that low perceived ethical leadership employees are less likely to commit interpersonal deviance compared to high perceived ethical leadership employees. This is shown in Figure 6.3.2 in Appendix B. People who hold strong ethical leadership perceptions can regulate and control their high uncertainties to shun behaviours that are inconsistent with organisational expectations or the expectation of the social environment they find themselves consistent with extant studies (Brown & Mitchell, 2010; Mayer et al., 2012). Regarding cultural orientation and organisational deviance relationship, Figure 6.3.3 shows that as one’s individualistic orientation, measured on a continuous scale, increases from 1 to 5, organisational deviance decreases for employees with low perceived ethical leadership (negative slope) but it slightly increases for those with high perceived ethical leadership (positive slope). The relationship is more pronounced among high rather than low perceived ethical leadership employees. Thus, perceived ethical leadership strengthened the influence of individualistic orientation on organisational deviance. This is illustrated in Appendix B. Second, the effect of collectivistic orientation on organisational deviance decreases among people with high perceived ethical leadership (negative slope) than for those with low perceived ethical leadership (positive slope). This is illustrated in Figure 6.3.4 in Appendix B. People high in ethically orientated behaviours tend to possess full awareness about the negative actions on organisational success and hence, are less likely to commit behaviours that endanger organisational well-being compared to 273 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh low ethically oriented employees. Finally, the impact of UAO on organisational deviance rises faster among people with low perceived ethical leadership than for those with high perceived ethical leadership at high uncertainty avoidance orientation. Perceived ethical leadership tends to strengthen the positive relationship between UAO and organisational deviance. This is shown in Figure 6.3.5 in Appendix B. This finding is also expected because positive perceptions of ethical leadership expose employees to the dangers of their actions and inactions on organisational sustenance and well-being. The more ethically oriented they are, the less they will engage in behaviours that affect the organisation detrimentally even where their cultural values are compromised. For cultural orientation and interpersonal deviance relationships, the plots of significant interactions of the effects of collectivistic orientation on interpersonal deviance are displayed in Appendix B. From Figure 6.3.6, the effect of collectivistic orientation on interpersonal deviance increases among people with low perceived organisational support (positive slope) whilst it flattens for those with high perceived organisational support at high collectivistic orientation. This is because employees who hold negative perceptions of organisational support are likely to harbour bad feelings and sentiments about the organisation and may not exert their fullest potential in carrying out organisational tasks and activities. They may develop low self-esteem because they feel their organisations do not value their contributions and are less likely to be supported to reach their fullest potential. As a result, they are more likely to become frustrated, agitated and may displace their anger and frustration to their coworkers rather than the organisation itself, especially where there are no accessible means to vent their frustration to the organisation. Hence, they are more likely to engage in interpersonal deviance even where they are high in collectivistic cultural values. From Figure 6.3.7, it can be observed that at low individualistic orientation, low perceived 274 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisational support employees commit more organisational deviance relative to their high perceived organisational support counterparts but at high individualistic orientation, it remains constant for those with high perceived organisational support but decreases for those with low perceived organisational support employees. This is shown in Appendix B. This finding could be expected because employees who hold positive perceptions of organisational support feel valued by their organisations and tend to give off their best to the organisation than those who hold negative perceptions consistent with social exchange principles (Eisenberger & Rhodes, 2002). This is even more so when such employees hold high individualistic orientations where they are preoccupied with the need for personal achievement, self-enhancement and to be praised more alone than being in a group. To reciprocate the value organisations repose in employees with high perceived organisational support, with the hope of building a strong positive employer-employee relationship, they may end up behaving in ways that are inconsistent with organisational demands (Eisenberger et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2018; Choi et al., 2018). Concerning cultural orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship, Figure 6.3.8 shows that the effect of collectivistic orientation on interpersonal deviance increases among people with low affective commitment (positive slope) than for those with high affective commitment (negative slope) at high collectivistic orientation since there is noticeable little difference in interpersonal deviance between employees with high affective commitment and those with low affective commitment. This is shown in Appendix B. This can be expected given that employees whose beliefs, values and goals are in sync with their organisations are less likely to engage in behaviours that harm the organisation, and the opposite holds. Hence, high affective commitment employees tend to avoid any behaviour that the organisation considers as norm-violating. Finally, Figure 6.3.9 shows that the effect of PDO on interpersonal deviance increases among people with low affective 275 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh commitment (positive slope) whilst it decreases for those with high affective commitment (negative slope) at high collectivistic orientation. This suggests that the impact of power distance on interpersonal deviance is more pronounced among low affective rather than high affective committed employees. This is illustrated in Appendix B. But with employee cultural orientation and organisational deviance relationship, Figure 6.4.0 shows that employees who hold high affective commitment relative to their low affective commitment counterparts are less likely to commit organisational deviance when they hold low power distance values than when they score high in power distance. This is illustrated in Appendix B. This finding is expected given that highly affective committed employees find their values, goals, and beliefs to be in sync with their organisations, they tend to be emotionally attached and more involved with their organisational activities than people who are low in affective commitment. Even where they face high uncertainties, their strong emotional attachment with their organisations will repress their proclivity to behave contrary to organisational norms such as lateness, absenteeism, slacking, display of aggression and anger towards the organisation or management even where they are high or low in PDO. Affective commitment tends to regulate the behaviour of employees relative to work outcomes (Resmi et al., 2014). Second, from Figure 6.4.1, it can be seen that at high levels of affective commitment, the relationship between UAO and organisational deviance is more pronounced compared to at low levels of affective commitment where UAO had a significant effect on organisational deviance. This is shown in Appendix B. This finding can be expected given that people who are emotionally attached to their organisations are always driven to do more for their organisations because they share a similarity in terms of values, beliefs and goals. In their quest to do more for the organisation especially when there are high uncertainties, they may end up behaving in ways that the organisational norms frown upon such 276 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as committing mistakes during the execution of tasks, overreporting or underreporting figures which might cost the organisation adversely. For low affective committed employees, they are less likely to rush through during the execution of tasks, underreporting or overreporting of figures which might harm the organisation. Consequently, their involvement in organisational deviance is lowered compared to high affective committed employees. Regarding cultural orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship, Figure 6.4.2 shows that the effect of individualistic orientation on interpersonal deviance increases among people with high normative commitment (positive slope) but those with low normative commitment remains fairly above it. The implication is that employees who feel an obligation to remain with the organisation because of the actual or potential benefits enjoyed by them, make it a rightful choice to give back to the organisation rather than move elsewhere, and hence will be less likely to engage in the workplace deviance unlike those low in normative commitment. Second, Figure 6.4.3 shows that when collectivistic orientation is low, the difference in interpersonal deviance between those with high normative commitment and low normative commitment is substantially large indicating that at low individualistic orientation, high normative commitment employees reduce their likelihood of committing interpersonal deviance compared with low normative commitment counterparts. However, at high collectivistic orientation, there is minimal difference in interpersonal deviance between high and low normative commitment. This is displayed in Appendix B. This finding is also expected because collectivistic individuals are more driven by collective interests over self- interest, and that collectivists are more likely to resist any attempt to subordinate collective interest to self-interest which might result in interpersonal deviance especially when the target is outside that collectivity. Also, Figure 6.4.4 shows that the effect of PDO on interpersonal deviance increases among people with high normative commitment (positive slope) whilst it decreases for 277 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh those with low normative commitment (negative slope) at high collectivistic orientation. This is illustrated in Appendix B. This finding is expected given that employees with high normative commitment are more likely to remain with an organisation because of compatibilities of personal goals with organisational goals and they tend to feel responsible and enthusiastic in staying with the organisation (Jaros, 2017) compared with their counterparts with low normative commitment irrespective of any perceived mistreatment arising out of power differentials in the organisation. Finally, Figure 6.4.5 shows that the impact of UAO on interpersonal deviance increases among people with high normative commitment (positive slope) but those with low normative commitment remains fairly flat. This is shown in Figure 6.4.5 in Appendix B. This relationship is expected since high normative committed employees would shun any behaviour pattern that will jeopardize the relationship they have established with their organisation when they commit interpersonal deviance for fear of the unknown which might endanger their status in the organisation than low normative committed employees who may be unconcerned about what might happen or uncertainties characterizing the relationship they have with their employers by behaving in ways that affect coworkers and management at the workplace. But with cultural orientation and organisational deviance relationship, Figure 6.4.6 shows that the effect of individualistic orientation on organisational deviance decreases sharply among people with low normative commitment than for those with high normative commitment. The finding is expected because high normative committed employees will be more concerned with preserving their reputation with their organisations by behaving by organisational expectations. They are less likely to risk the relationship they have established with their employer even more so when they have high individualistic values. They are more likely to engage in norm conforming behaviours to enhance their reputation than to behave in ways that will jeopardize their relationship with the 278 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employer. For low normative committed employees, they may have nothing to lose when they engage in behaviours that harm the organisation, especially where they have strong individualistic values. Second, Figure 6.4.7, shows that the effect of PDO on organisational deviance decreases more among people with high normative commitment than it decreases for those with low normative commitment at high PDO. This is shown in Appendix B. This finding is expected in that the more normatively committed employees are, the less they are to deviate from organisational norms even where they accept that power should be unequally distributed in the organisation. They will always want to submit to the dictates of authority figures because of their strong dependence on their supervisors for direction, guidance and rewards (Hofstede, 2001; Lian et al., 2012; Khan, 2014). Finally, Figure 6.4.8 shows that employees with low normative commitment are more likely to commit organisational deviance when UAO is high than their high normative commitment counterparts. However, at low UAO, there is a substantial difference between high and low normative commitment employees’ likelihood of committing organisational deviance. This is shown in Appendix B. This finding can be expected because employees with low normative commitment tend to lack the motivation to exert more effort into their organisational activities since their values, goals, and beliefs are largely incongruent with organisational goals. This makes them feel more of an outsider in the organisation and consequently may not feel it as obligatory to remain with their current employers. As a result, they tend to commit less to their organisations by exhibiting behaviour patterns that might affect the organisation especially when they find themselves in highly uncertain situations. They may resort to being late to work, spending working time to pursue personal goals outside the organisation, or may exhibit withdrawal behaviours that can affect the organisation badly. 279 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Concerning cultural orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship, Figure 6.4.9 shows that the effect of collectivistic orientation on interpersonal deviance increases among people with high continuance commitment (positive slope) whilst it decreases among those with low continuance commitment (negative slope) where the slopes cross at high collectivistic orientation. This finding can be expected because persons with high continuance commitment tend to behave by organisational expectations so that they will continue to enjoy the benefit of staying with their current organisation to continue enjoying the benefits they derive. Even if it were to their advantage, they will subordinate collective interest over personal interest by behaving by organisational expectations so that they will continue to meet the needs of their dependents. Unlike employees with low continuance commitment who might have several alternatives for their services and higher rewards, they are less likely to shun interpersonal frictions that can degenerate into aggression, violence or confrontations which affect coworkers even if they hold high collectivistic values (Choi et al., 2015; de Sardan, 1999). Second, Figure 6.5.0 shows that the effect of PDO on interpersonal deviance increases among people with high continuance commitment (positive slope) whilst it remains stable for those with low continuance commitment as shown in Appendix B. The implication is that employees who think they lack alternative job placement apart from their current organisations are less likely to engage in interpersonal deviance as that may cost them dearly especially where they have more dependents. Finally, Figure 6.5.1 shows that at high values of UAO, the influence of UAO on interpersonal deviance is stronger for people with high continuance commitment than at low values of UAO. This is shown in Appendix B. This finding can be expected because when uncertainties become more pronounced in job tasks and activities which may drive some people to behave in contravention to organisational norms, continuance committed employees tend to repress their predispositions to deviating behaviours against their 280 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh coworkers because they may lose greatly if such misbehaviours might result in termination of their appointment with the current organisation. As a result, continuance commitment employees, regardless of whether high or low, are less likely to engage in interpersonal deviance at high UAO (de Sardan, 1999). For employee cultural orientation and organisational deviance relationship, Figure 6.5.2 shows that high continuance committed persons are more likely than their low continuance committed counterparts to engage in organisational deviance when individualistic orientation is high. This is shown in Appendix B. The implication is that the lack of a readily alternative job to absorb employees in the event of discontinuance of job places great pressure on employees' decisions to behave in ways that will not expose them to such uncertainties even where they hold varying individualistic cultural orientations. Second, Figure 6.5.3 shows that at high levels of continuance commitment, the relationship between collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance is less pronounced compared to at low levels of continuance commitment where collectivistic orientation had a statistically significant effect on organisational deviance. This is shown in Appendix B. This finding is unexpected for high continuance committed employees given that one would have thought that the lack of readily available alternatives which compel them to remain with their current organisation would have been a disincentive for them to behave in ways that flout significant organisational norms directed at the organisation. Nonetheless, it is possible that at high collectivistic orientation, high continuance committed employees may not want to risk losing their relationships with coworkers who share collective sentiments by reporting their misbehaviours, such as withholding effort or lateness, to management for appropriate sanctions as this may result in the loss of job of that coworker. It is given this that high continuance committed employees might engage in organisational deviance at high collectivistic orientation (Jang et al., 2018). 281 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Finally, Figure 6.5.4 shows that employees with high continuance commitment are more likely to commit organisational deviance when UAO is high than their low continuance commitment counterparts. That is, employees high in continuance commitment are more likely than their low continuance commitment counterparts to engage in organisational deviance. This is shown in Appendix B. This finding supports the finding above given that high collectivistic orientation is associated with high UAO (Hofstede, 2001). Hence, high continuance committed employees are more likely to engage in organisational deviant behaviours such as covering up, overlooking shirking responsibilities of other coworkers, lateness, withholding efforts and failure to report misbehaviours of other employees to management for appropriate sanctions especially where such sanction will result in termination of appointment of that coworker. 8.1.2. Summary of Qualitative Findings This phase of the study is aimed at answering research question three to provide complementary insight to the quantitative findings to produce a complete understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. Below are some of the findings: First, the qualitative findings revealed participants’ understanding of deviant workplace behaviour. This is very crucial since it shows employees varied views and interpretations of workplace deviance which might influence their involvement at the workplace, unlike the quantitative finding which could not provide this important insight to appreciate the complex and deep-seated reasons that shape the lived experiences of employees of MNCs about workplace deviance. From the interviews, it became apparent that some participants viewed some behaviours to generally qualify as acts of deviance whilst others showed contrary opinions on such behaviours. 282 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Second, the qualitative data also provided deeper insight into the extent or prevalence of workplace deviance among the employees of MNCs, and that deviance almost always occurs on daily basis, unlike the quantitative finding where the descriptive statistics showed that deviance seldom occurs among employees of MNCs. Apart from the prevalence, the qualitative data also showed the two dimensions of deviance investigated in the quantitative study, interpersonal deviance and organisational deviance given the views shared by participants to support the quantitative finding. Third, the qualitative data showed how the management of MNCs categorize workplace deviance into serious and trivial forms of deviant behaviours such that some deviations were considered non-negotiable because they were considered very serious deviations like theft, sexual harassment, and fighting or physical abuse, which attracted serious sanction like termination of contract, retribution or resorting to litigation. Whilst some deviations were considered trivial like lateness, absenteeism, denigration, slacking, withdrawal behaviours or verbal abuse. These behaviours were considered trifling because they attracted mild sanctions like queries. More so, the qualitative data showed that the cultural orientation of employees which are expressed in how people interpret, understand and act towards events at the workplace was crucial in understanding employee's workplace deviance beyond organisational factors. This was observed when participants were asked to mention what they think motivates people to engage in deviance in their respective multinational work settings. Additionally, the qualitative finding explained how the cultural orientation of employees can influence workplace deviance. The participants were asked to give reasons for employee involvement in workplace deviance at their respective workplaces. Most of the reasons they gave reflected cultural factors like socialization, personality, mindset, homophilous relationships which 283 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh describe the tendency for employees to associate and bond with people they share similar cultural orientation, kinship ties, discrimination, value orientation, and practices; and organisational factors like organisational support, employee commitment, and good (ethical) leadership style of managers thereby providing in-depth insight on how cultural orientation influence workplace deviance as well as understanding the role perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership and employee commitment can play in this relationship. Further, local managers were viewed with scepticism in the execution of tasks by their expatriate managers. As a result, local managers were considered to lack exposure as well as limited knowledge in performing their assigned tasks and duties. This finding is insightful as it helps to understand the intricate and complex issues characterizing multicultural work settings which can explain certain negative behaviours arising from such realities to enrich the findings on the role of cultural orientation in workplace deviance among employees of MNCs. Moreover, most of the issues that ran across participants perspectives in the qualitative data on how organisational factors influence workplace deviance revolved around these relational attributes such as good (ethical) leadership, organisational support, and employee commitment beyond an appreciation and acknowledgement of unique cultural orientation to be critical in understanding workplace deviance. This finding seems to confirm the quantitative findings on how these constructs can alter the relationship between cultural orientation and workplace deviance in the multicultural work setting. In addition, the qualitative data provided seven main factors emanating from cultural orientation and organisation as reasons for employees engaging in workplace deviance, which were subsequently put in a diagrammatical representation depicting the association between cultural 284 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh orientation and workplace deviance together with the inhibitive or enhancing influence of organisational support, perceived ethical leadership and employee commitment. Finally, the qualitative data showed how management of MNCs embarks upon reactionary strategies in dealing with workplace deviance rather than proactive strategies recommended in addressing such menace to cut down cost, time, and other organisational resources. 8.2.1 Convergence of Quantitative and Qualitative Findings First, both the quantitative and qualitative data indicated that employees of MNCs engage in workplace deviance in varying degrees ranging from interpersonal deviance to organisational deviance. The qualitative data provided insight regarding how employees’ understanding of workplace deviance influences their involvement in workplace deviance. This finding support other empirical studies that found that employees of MNCs engage in deviant behaviours (Hayford, 2019; Korletey & Caesar, 2018; Andoh et al., 2018). In particular, Hayford (2019) found that employees of MNCs mostly engage in lateness, absenteeism, theft, slacking, and withdrawal behaviours. Second, both the quantitative and qualitative data provided evidence of how cultural orientation influence WDBs. The quantitative finding showed that whether employees who are more or less concerned about self-interest and prioritize personal achievement rather than collective interest or whose values and attitudes about power or hierarchy in organisations, were not more likely or less likely to engage in interpersonal deviance at the workplace. But employees’ values about risk or uncertainties triggered by unknown and ambiguous situations were more likely to engage in interpersonal deviance. The more uncertain and risk-taking behaviours an employee demonstrates the more they are likely to engage in interpersonal deviance and the opposite holds. This is 285 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh expressed by the significant positive relationship between UAO and interpersonal deviance from the statistical findings. This finds support in the study by Power and colleagues (2013) that power distance negatively correlated with incivility behaviours at the workplace. Higher uncertainties may increase stress levels leading employees to become apprehensive and subsequently behave rigidly in ways that may result in interpersonal strains, conflict, aggression, or use abusive language on coworkers or superiors (Kobayashi et al., 2008; Giebels et al., 2017). The qualitative data showed the underlying motivations and experiences to explain how cultural orientation might make people engage in interpersonal deviance beyond the broad statistical snapshot given by the quantitative data. It was apparent that employees who were more self- centered and prioritized personal achievement over collective achievement were less likely to engage in organisational deviance. Such employees tended to avoid behaviours that might affect the attainment of personal accomplishments which contributes to meeting organisational goals consistent with extant studies (Billing et al., 2014) and make them appear in the eyes of management as people who care for the organisation to elicit positive appraisals from management. They explore and exploit their self-enriching potentials by shunning deviance (Wilczewski e al., 2017). Also, higher PDO employees were more likely to engage in deviance directed at the organisation and vice versa. High PDO employees are less likely to challenge authority, but more likely to stay obedient and display submissiveness as well as cooperate with organisational expectations in exchange for favourable treatments, both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, hence avoid behaviours that tend to volitionally harm the organisation. In contrast to high PDO employees, low PDO employees show more inclination to engage in organisational deviance because they are more likely to respond to psychological contract breaches with exit behaviours (Zagenczyk et al., 2015). 286 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Again, the more employees’ tolerance for uncertainties and ambiguities, the more they are likely to engage in organisational deviance and vice versa. This is because feelings of uncertainties and ambiguities result in anxieties which can translate into increasing stress levels thereby eliciting deviant behavioural tendencies directed at the organisation. This is consistent with the finding that high uncertainty avoidance people are likely to feel uncomfortable in uncertain and ambiguous situations while low uncertainty avoidance people are likely to thrive in more uncertain and ambiguous situations and environments (Ugwuzor, 2016). Additionally, high uncertainty avoidance employees might display aggressive tendencies at the workplace because of their high levels of intolerance to opposing views, they are more likely to be viewed as difficult to work with and consequently, their response to such negative perceptions might result in interpersonal deviance with other employees on the one hand, and organisational deviance such as withdrawal behaviours on the other hand. The qualitative finding showed how feelings and experiences emanating from cultural differences placed them in stressful situations, and their responses to such stressful situations could provoke deviance directed at the organisation. Finally, both the quantitative and qualitative findings indicated that employees’ experiences and perceptions about commitment, organisational support, and ethical leadership play a crucial role in understanding the culture-workplace deviance link. Although the qualitative data did not directly explore interactions of commitment, organisational support, and ethical leadership in the cultural orientation-workplace deviance link among employees, the experiences and feelings shared by participants in the qualitative data seem to be reflected in the quantitative findings on interactions. These findings are significant as they show that people rationalize their behaviour in organisations in concert with their cultural beliefs which ultimately influence how they relate with organisational 287 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh events (Gonzalez & Perez-Floriano, 2015; Cho & Payne, 2016), implying that cultural orientation matters in understanding workplace deviance. Although the quantitative data demonstrated in broad statistical terms regarding the extent to which low and high perceptions of organisational support and ethical leadership as well as levels of commitment can facilitate or inhibit the impact of culture on workplace deviance, they do not tell the underlying motives, experiences, and feelings associated with the numerical findings. These motivations, experiences, and feelings shared by participants seem to explain why and how employees experience organisational realities and subsequently show the different ways that employees respond to events and situations at the workplace. In this regard, both the quantitative and the qualitative findings converge on the importance of the perceptions of organisational support, ethical leadership and levels of commitment in influencing cultural orientation-deviance association which seems to reflect in the findings of extant studies (Mourouzidou-Damtsa et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2014; Lin et al., 2013; Khatri, 2009; Takyi-Asiedu; 1993). 8.2.2 Divergence of the Qualitative and Quantitative results Though there were no quite several significant differences observed from both the quantitative and qualitative data, this section seeks to reveal the seemingly contrasting findings from the quantitative and qualitative data and provide further insight on the need for the qualitative data in eliciting deep-seated motives, experiences, and feelings that cannot be discovered using only the statistical analysis in this study. This helps to offer a holistic account of the role of culture in workplace deviance among employees of MNCs. The interesting differences are provided below. First, unlike the quantitative findings that discovered that workplace deviance rarely occurs among employees of MNCs as shown by the descriptive statistics, the qualitative findings expanded 288 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh further as participants recounted the frequency of deviance they encounter in their respective workplaces. The qualitative data provided insight into specific deviant behaviours that were prevalent as well as the processes involved in the manifestation of such deviance. For example, participants mentioned that theft was the most occurring deviance, which manifested in an organized fashion where it involved two or more syndicate conniving to steal or take a company property. Also, it can be argued that people are more likely to open up on sensitive issues like workplace deviance in an interview than in survey administration (Stewart et al., 2009). But for the qualitative data, the quantitative findings provided the pattern and relationships without details involving which specific behaviours are most occurring and how these deviations manifest to inform inclusive approaches to address them. This finding is interesting and insightful as it invokes group dynamics in workplace deviance, which was silent in the statistical analysis. Second, the quantitative data directly demonstrated the impact of perceptions of ethical leadership and organisational support as well as levels of employee commitment on cultural orientation and workplace deviance relationship because they were objectively measured using standardized scales. But the qualitative data succeeded in making them emerge from participants’ views, experiences, and feelings as they shared their opinions during the interviews. Participants felt good opening up about their involvement if they felt uncared for, less valued, discriminated against, denigrated, disrespected, and mistreated. Another area of difference observed from the quantitative and qualitative data was that the qualitative data was able to uncover the experiences and feelings associated with culturally motivated deviance as well as how these experiences and feelings affected their daily routines at the multinational workspace. Some shared that differences in cultural orientation provoke maltreatment from those who feel that their ways of life superimpose the ways of life of others 289 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh thereby adding further demands of having to do more to prove one's competency and ability at the workplace. It became apparent that being looked down upon because you are local staff made one feel inadequate and subsequently affected their decisions to remain committed to the organisation. Again, the qualitative data showed that participants felt overburdened by ethnocentric remarks which attacked their dignity as well as the constant doubts and scepticisms from expatriate employees towards the local staff about their competency and abilities. In addition to the above, the qualitative data explained in detail the reasons employees assign to their deviations beyond the statistical analysis which only showed a pattern of correlations. The qualitative data revealed personal factors, family demands, socialization, cultural perspective, opportunity-based deviations, organisational factors, and discriminatory-based factors which are broadly categorized into cultural and organisational factors underlying employee deviations at the workplace consistent with extant studies that have investigated antecedents of workplace deviance (Bennett et al., 2018; Chiu et al., 2015). These motivations explained how these relationships observed in the quantitative data may come about. Further, a striking finding observed in the qualitative data which was not captured by the quantitative data has to do with how cultural backgrounds affect what people consider as deviations or otherwise. The result revealed that participants were divided about certain behaviours which might be defined as workplace deviance like not reporting wrongdoing, covering up mistakes of others, not giving up a wrongdoer, shirking, talking back, and perceived derogatory remarks were seen to be more of the environmental influences rather than the act being a deviation in itself. Some people may define shirking or avoiding one another as deviant behaviour because such behaviours may threaten collegial relationships among employees at the workplace and subsequently, affect organisational output. However, other people may not define such acts as 290 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh deviations since being outspoken may equally be defined as deviations by people whose cultural orientations stress reservedness. Hence, people from cultures that stress reservedness or rigidity are likely to be viewed as deviants by people whose cultural orientations emphasize outspokenness and flexibility at the workplace consistent with extant studies (Peterson & Barreto, 2014). This observation supports studies that indicate that people respond to certain workplace behaviours based on their interpretations of what is considered negative workplace behaviours (Beauregard et al., 2018; Patterson et al., 2017). Further, the qualitative data showed beyond the patterns and relationships demonstrated by the quantitative data to include how the management of MNCs are dealing with the recurring menace in their respective work settings. The participants interviewed shared their perspectives about how the management of their respective organisations have been using reactionary interventions rather than proactive interventions which can quell deviant tendencies before any harm is caused. The insight from the qualitative data points to the fact that organisations have more to gain from respecting the dignity and well-being of employees than for employees to be provoked by mistreatment to engage in deviance at the workplace. For example, MNCs must place more emphasis on the recruitment of new employees by paying critical attention to the background information of recruits to do proper screening to select desired candidates. Management of MNCs must stress more on the relational aspect including good leadership styles through ethical leadership, listening to employees' views, valuing and appreciating employee contributions, discouraging discriminatory tendencies which were found to motivate various kinds of workplace deviant behaviours. Finally, it emerged that employees’ perceptions, interpretations, and experiences of organisational interventions are very cardinal to achieving success otherwise they tend to display little concern 291 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to helping such interventions achieve their desired objectives at the workplace. This finding could not be discovered by the statistical analysis from the quantitative data. This finding is crucial in that it enables an appreciation of how employees' experiences of deviance and culturally motivated discrimination can affect employee negative behaviours. 8.3.0 Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative results This study sought to explore the role of cultural orientation in workplace deviance among employees of MNCs. The study has synthesized and interpreted both the quantitative and qualitative data obtained in this mixed-methods study. The quantitative data was employed to provide a broad snapshot by discovering the patterns and correlations between cultural orientation and workplace deviance as well as demonstrate how these relationships can be inhibited or enhanced by employee commitment, perceptions of ethical leadership and organisational support. The qualitative data was employed to assist in capturing meanings, experiences and feelings from the broad snapshots to help explain why these relationships may occur. This study has provided an in-depth and richer understanding of the impact of cultural orientation on workplace deviance. The results from both the quantitative and the qualitative data show that workplace deviance is one of the main challenges facing MNCs, which affect both employees and the organisation detrimentally. As a result, managers of MNCs have always been adopting strategies to address them. The results from the quantitative data showed that MNCs have been recording workplace deviance among their employees as shown by the mean results of interpersonal deviance and organisational deviance. The qualitative data showed how these behaviours occur as expressed in the experiences, feelings, and opinions of participants. In this light, the qualitative results corroborated the results of the quantitative data in showing that workplace deviance among employees of MNCs is more of a reality than a myth. 292 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Also, whilst extant literature has underexplored how cultural orientation might explain workplace deviance of employees of MNCs, the findings of this mixed-methods study has shown the relevance of understanding cultural orientation in workplace deviance. In the current study, there was evidence of individualistic orientation explaining interpersonal deviance whilst collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations explaining organisational deviance of employees. A pattern of correlations was observed around cultural orientations of uncertainty avoidance and interpersonal deviance on the one hand, and individualistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations and organisational deviance on the other hand. The current study has shown a negative correlation between individualistic, collectivistic and power distance orientations and organisational deviance but a positive correlation between uncertainty avoidance and deviance both directed at the organisation and other coworkers consistent with extant studies (Power et al., 2013). In particular, Power and colleagues found a negative relationship between power distance and incivility behaviours of employees. Also, Ansah (2015), observed that the cultural context in which organisations function is critical to understanding norm-conforming and norm-deviating behaviours. This finding reechoes Kitayama (2002) submission that culture enables and structures individual behaviour without them being aware of it. Additionally, there was evidence that the relationship between some cultural orientations including collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations and workplace deviance was stronger for employees who hold negative perceptions of ethical leadership and organisational support than those with positive perceptions. The relationship between cultural orientation and workplace deviance was weaker for employees higher in affective commitment than their low counterparts to engage in workplace deviance. The researcher relied on the narratives to unearth the experiences, feelings, and motivations behind the range of the relationships observed. The 293 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh responses reflected the nuanced and varied motivations as well as the processes that help explain the association between cultural orientation and workplace deviance among employees of MNCs. In several cases, participants indicated that values and socialization practices embraced in one culture has a corresponding influence on a person's behaviour even at the workplace which might explain deviance at the workplace (Zoogah, 2018). The stories and experiences shared by participants provided additional insight into how these relationships may occur consistent with extant studies (De Sardan, 1999; Ralston et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2018). Again, the quantitative results compared relationships and verified the hypotheses that were formulated in demonstrating the influence of differential cultural orientation on workplace deviance of employees. However, they do not tell the whole story to appreciate the nuanced and complex ways cultural orientation bring about deviance at the workplace. In the qualitative study, participants shared experiences and views that show how differential cultural orientation of employees can elicit a differential response to organisational events, and subsequently leading to workplace deviance. By delving into motivations and experiences, the current study has provided a rich and complex set of motivations, experiences, and feelings which help to corroborate the quantitative results. The qualitative data which allowed participants to discuss their day-to-day lived experiences at the multinational work setting was considered crucial to unravelling the influence of cultural orientation on workplace deviance by going beyond the numbers to unearth the stories for complete understanding. Also, participants indicated that how management treats their employees in terms of valuing employees, caring for their needs, respecting their dignity and opinions regarding work processes is vital to reducing WDBs among employees. They reasoned that when employees feel that management respects, values, and trusts them, they tend to do best to help the organisation achieve 294 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh its goals. Similarly, the results from the quantitative data showed that organisational support, ethical leadership and commitment are relevant factors that can affect employee involvement in WDBs in the work setting. Therefore, the qualitative phase of the current study adds more meaning to the role of the moderating variables in the relationship between cultural orientation and WDBs by showing how employees' experiences and feelings resulting from expatriates' mistreatment and ethnocentric as well as undignified remarks can provoke negative retaliation among employees at the workplace consistent with extant studies (Power et al., 2013). Despite the burgeoning role of culture in work outcomes, there is limited discussion in the role of cultural orientation in explaining workplace deviance among employees of MNCs in particular, and organisations in general in deviance, HRM, and cross-cultural literature. This modest attempt at employing a mixed methods approach has provided a complete understanding of the need to invite societal cultural analysis in the deviant behaviour, HRM, and cross-cultural literature. This chapter discussed the empirical findings from both the qualitative and quantitative results. Some of the findings confirmed results of extant studies whilst others could not support the findings from extant studies. Those findings that were consistent with extant studies further provided evidence of the relationship established but those that were not consistent suggested a new piece of information that was adding to knowledge in the field of workplace deviant behaviour in particular and cross-cultural management in general. The qualitative study corroborated and amplified the quantitative findings by bringing out the rich and complex stories underlying the observed relationships. The next chapter provides the summary of the thesis, contributions of the thesis to knowledge and implications for theory, practice and policy, limitations of the study and suggestions for future research, and conclusions. Finally, recommendations based on the findings were considered. 295 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER NINE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH 9.0 Introduction This is the last chapter of the thesis which provides a summary of the thesis, contributions of the study to knowledge in areas including theoretical, conceptual and methodology, and policy implications for MNCs and researchers. Further, the limitations of the study and interesting findings that invite research interest for further studies, conclusions and recommendations have been provided. 9.1 Summary of the study This study was about employee cultural orientation and WDBs in multinational companies operating in Accra, Ghana. The main objective was to ascertain the role of cultural orientation in WDBs in multinational companies. Three specific objectives guided the study, namely: 1. To assess the relationship between the following employee cultural orientations and WDBs of employees: i. Assess the relationship between employee’s individualistic cultural orientations and workplace deviant behaviours ii. Assess the relationship between employee’s collectivistic cultural orientations and WDBs iii. Assess the relationship between employee’s power distance cultural orientations and WDBs iv. Assess the relationship between employee’s uncertainty avoidance cultural orientations and WDBs 296 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. To ascertain the moderating roles of perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership and employee commitment in the relationship between employee cultural orientation and WDBs. 3. To explore how MNCs employees interpret and understand workplace deviant behaviours Social exchange theory, workplace deviant behaviour framework and Hofstede’s cultural theory from literature review guided the current study. The literature review resulted in the design of the conceptual framework which guided the empirical quantitative aspect, which is the first part of the current research. A mixed-method research approach with a focus on concurrent triangulation design was employed which allowed a focus to be placed on both the quantitative and qualitative data consistent with the objectives of the thesis. This helped to understand both the numerical and world outlook of the problem under investigation. This resulted in designing survey instruments and interview guides, sampling designs, data collection, data analysis and data reporting procedures consistent with both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The investigation was piloted and conducted among some selected graduate students of University of Ghana Business School graduate programs, who work in multinational companies in Ghana. Also, experts and faculty members were relied upon to further ascertain the correctness of the instruments developed for the actual study from established scales. Likert scale questions and interviews were used as strategies in gathering data. Six hundred and twenty-five questionnaires were administered with 510 returned representing 81.6 per cent. Four hundred and thirty-three (433) out of 510 questionnaires returned were considered useful after data cleaning representing 85% were used for the analysis in the current study. Confirmatory factor analysis, and moderated multiple regression analysis using SPSS, version 22 and AMOS version 21, were used for the quantitative study. The 297 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fit indices suggest that there is a good fit between the measurement model and the data: (χ2 = 2.165, df = 154, p < 0.05; SRMR = 0.047; TLI = 0.945; CFI = 0.963; RMSEA = 0.052, PCLOSE = 0.329). Both convergent validity and discriminant validity were achieved. Ten (10) participants were purposely selected to participate in the qualitative interviews. Thematic analytical framework and Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis was relied upon for the qualitative study. Based on the data presented and analyzed, the main findings established from the study are organized under the research objectives as follows: 9.1.2.1 Relationship between employee’s cultural orientations and WDBs a. Individualistic orientation (M = 2.95, SD = 1.02; r = 0.071, p > 0.05) related positively with interpersonal deviance but the relationship was not significant, however, individualistic orientation (r = -0.216, p < 0.05) related negatively and significantly with organisational deviance. Hence, the hypothesis (H1a) was not supported but H1b was supported by the empirical data. Nevertheless, individualistic orientation did not explain both interpersonal deviance ( = 0.078, p > 0.05) and organisational deviance ( = -0.032, p > 0.05) based on the result of the multiple regression. b. Collectivistic orientation did not significantly relate with both interpersonal deviance (r = 0.086, p > 0.05) and organisational deviance (r = -0.054, p > 0.05). Hence, H2a and H2b were not supported although the directions of the hypotheses were supported. Accordingly, collectivistic orientation was not found to explain employee interpersonal deviance ( = 0.010, p > 0.05). However, it did explain employee organisational deviance ( = -0.167, p < 0.05) from the result of the multiple regression analysis. c. Power distance orientation did not significantly relate with interpersonal deviance (H3a) (r = 0.077, p > 0.05) even though it was positively correlated, but there was a negative 298 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh significant relationship with organisational deviance (H3b) (r = -0.204, p < 0.05). Hence, H3a was not supported but H3b received support. As a result, power distance orientation did not explain interpersonal deviance of employees ( = -0.005, p > 0.05) but it did significantly impact employee organisational deviance ( = -0.281, p < 0.05). d. Uncertainty avoidance orientation was significantly related to both interpersonal (r = 0.161, p < 0.05) and organisational deviance (r = 0.298, p < 0.05) of employees at the workplace. Hence, H4a and H4b received support. Consequently, uncertainty avoidance orientation explained both interpersonal deviance ( = 0.162, p < 0.05) and organisational deviance ( = 0.487, p < 0.05) of employees. 9.1.2.2 The moderating roles of perceived ethical leadership 1. Perceived ethical leadership (PEL) moderates individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationships such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative PEL than employees with positive PEL. H5a was not supported ( = -0.032, p > 0.05). 2. Perceived ethical leadership (PEL) moderates individualistic orientation and organisational deviance relationships such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative PEL than employees with positive PEL. H5b was supported ( = 0.142, p < 0.05). 3. Perceived ethical leadership (PEL) moderates collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationships such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative PEL than employees with positive PEL. H5c received support ( = -0.184, p < 0.05). 4. Perceived ethical leadership (PEL) moderate collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative PEL than employees with positive PEL. H5d was supported. ( = -0.219, p < 0.05). 299 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. Perceived ethical leadership (PEL) moderates power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationships such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative PEL than employees with positive PEL. H5e was supported ( = -0.191, p < 0.05). 6. Perceived ethical leadership (PEL) moderates power distance orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative PEL than those with positive PEL. H5f was not supported ( = -0.027, p > 0.05). 7. Perceived ethical leadership (PEL) moderates uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative PEL than employees with positive PEL. H5g was supported ( = -0.124, p < 0.05). 8. Perceived ethical leadership (PEL) moderates uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is strong among employees with negative PEL than employees with positive PEL. H5h was supported ( = -0.235, p < 0.05). 9.1.2.1 The moderating roles of perceived organisational support a. Perceived organisational support moderating individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative POS than those with positive POS. H6a was not supported. b. Perceived organisational support (POS) moderates individualistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative POS than those with positive POS. H6b was supported ( = 0.123, p < 0.05). 300 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh c. Perceived organisational support (POS) moderates collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationships such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative POS than those with positive POS. H6c received support ( = -0.090, p < 0.05) d. Perceived organisational support (POS) moderating collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative POS than those with positive POS. H6d did not receive support. e. Perceived organisational support (POS) moderating power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative POS than those with positive POS. H6e was not supported. f. Perceived organisational support (POS) moderating power distance orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative POS than those with positive POS. H6f was not supported. g. Perceived organisational support (POS) moderating uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative POS than those with positive POS. H6g was not supported. h. Perceived organisational support (POS) moderating uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for those with negative POS than those with positive POS. H6h was not supported. 9.1.2.2 The moderating roles of employee affective commitment i. Affective commitment moderates individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationships such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment. H7a was not supported ( = -0.030, p > 0.05). 301 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii. Affective commitment moderating individualistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment. H7b was not supported ( = -0.058, p > 0.05). iii. Affective commitment moderates collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationships such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment. H7c was supported ( = -0.073, p < 0.05). iv. Affective commitment moderating collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment. H7d was not supported ( = -0.049, p > 0.05). v. Affective commitment moderates power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment. H7e was supported ( = -0.079, p < 0.05). vi. Affective commitment moderates power distance orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment. H7f was supported ( = -0.099, p < 0.05). vii. Affective commitment moderates uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment. H7g was not supported ( = -0.038, p > 0.05). viii. Affective commitment moderates uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for employees with low rather than high affective commitment. H7h was supported ( = 0.078, p < 0.05). 302 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9.1.2.3 The moderating roles of employee normative commitment i. Normative commitment moderates individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationships such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment than those with high normative commitment. H8a was supported ( = 0.070, p < 0.05). ii. Normative commitment moderating individualistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment than those with high normative commitment. H8b was supported ( = 0.121, p < 0.05). iii. Normative commitment moderating collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationships such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment than those with high normative commitment. H8c was supported ( = 0.061, p < 0.05). iv. Normative commitment moderates collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment than those with high normative commitment. H8d was not supported ( = - 0.032, p > 0.05). v. Normative commitment moderating power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment than those with high normative commitment. H8e was supported ( = 0.105, p < 0.05). vi. Normative commitment moderates power distance orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative 303 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh commitment than those with high normative commitment. H8f was supported ( = 0.113, p < 0.05). vii. Normative commitment moderates uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment than those with high normative commitment. H8g was supported ( = 0.053, p < 0.05). viii. Normative commitment moderates uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low normative commitment than those with high normative commitment. H8h was supported ( = -0.140, p < 0.05). 9.1.3.4 The moderating roles of employee continuance commitment a. Continuance commitment moderates individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment. H9a was not supported ( = -0.018, p > 0.05). b. Continuance commitment moderates individualistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment. H9b was supported ( = -0.092, p < 0.05). c. Continuance commitment moderates collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationships such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment. H9c was supported ( = 0.106, p < 0.05). 304 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh d. Continuance commitment moderates collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment. H9d was supported ( = 0.115, p < 0.05). e. Continuance commitment moderates power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment. H9e was supported ( = 0.053, p < 0.05). f. Continuance commitment moderates power distance orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment. H9f was not supported ( = -0.039, p > 0.05). g. Continuance commitment moderates uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment. H9g was supported ( = 0.080, p < 0.05). h. Continuance commitment moderates uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with low continuance commitment rather than those with high continuance commitment. H9h was supported ( = 0.090, p < 0.05). The summary of the major findings from the current study is represented in Table 9.2 in Appendix 4. 305 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9.2.2.0 Exploring how MNCs employees interpret and understand WDBs i. Employees of multinational companies held varied interpretations of workplace deviance by noting that workplace deviance refers to those behaviours that violate organisational rules, expectations, policies, and procedures designed by management to achieve organisational goals. ii. Participants provided deeper insight into the extent or prevalence of workplace deviance among the employees of MNCs, and that deviance almost always occurs on daily basis contrary to the findings from statistical analysis which reported that deviance seldom occurs among employees of MNCs. iii. Participants views converged on certain behaviours like stealing, lateness, and absenteeism, but diverged on other behaviours such as withholding efforts, withdrawal behaviours, shirking, not reporting to management about supposed wrongdoing of coworkers, silence, and not talking to people who look down on you even if you are assigned tasks together constituting workplace deviance. iv. Participants shared that the cultural orientation of employees which are expressed in how people interpret, understand and act towards events at the workplace was crucial in understanding employee's workplace deviance beyond organisational factors confirming the cultural orientation-workplace deviance relation from the statistical findings. v. Participants explained how the cultural orientation of employees can influence workplace deviance by stating factors they think motivate deviance of employees including personal factors, organisational factors, cultural and socialization factors, opportunity-related factors, discriminatory-based factors and family demands. These factors broadly reflected 306 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cultural orientations and organisational factors which can lead to deviance supporting the statistical findings. vi. Local managers were viewed by their expatriate managers with scepticism in the execution of tasks. As a result, local managers were considered to lack exposure as well as limited knowledge in performing their assigned tasks and duties which sometimes resulted in retaliation. vii. Participants shared perspectives on how organisational factors such as good (ethical) leadership, organisational support, and employee commitment influence workplace deviance beyond an appreciation and acknowledgement of unique cultural orientation, which supported the statistical findings on the interactive effects. viii. Some offences were considered non-negotiable offences such as theft, fighting and sexual abuse which MNCs take a strong disdain against such deviations which elicit outright dismissal. ix. Management of MNCs focuses more on reactionary strategies directed at recalcitrant employees after they have committed the deviations, which makes fighting workplace deviance an endemic problem. Rather, MNCs could shift their attention to proactive strategies to repel deviant tendencies even before they occur. 9.2.1 Contributions to Research The study adds to research in the field of human resource management in particular, and management science in general with specific reference to workplace deviant behaviour research. From the point of view of empirical findings, the study made the following contributions: The study has: 307 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a) provided evidence of the positive relationship between uncertainty avoidance orientation and both interpersonal deviance and organisational deviance, and a negative relationship between cultural orientations of individualistic and power distance and organisational deviance. b) evidenced that there were no significant relationships between cultural orientations of individualistic, collectivistic, and power distance and interpersonal deviance. c) shown that perceived ethical leadership moderated the relationships between collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations and employee interpersonal deviance. d) demonstrated that perceived ethical leadership moderated the relationships between individualistic, collectivistic, and uncertainty avoidance orientations and employee organisational deviance. e) shown evidence of perceived organisational support moderating the relationship between collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance on the one hand, and individualistic orientation and organisational deviance, on the other hand. f) established that affective commitment moderated the relationships between collectivistic and power distance orientations and interpersonal deviance on the one hand, and power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations and organisational deviance on the other hand. g) shown that normative commitment moderated the relationships between individualistic, collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations and interpersonal deviance of employees. 308 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh h) shown the moderating role of normative commitment in the relationships between individualistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations and organisational deviance. i) established the moderating role of continuance commitment in the relationships between collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations and interpersonal deviance. j) established the moderating role of continuance commitment in the relationships between individualistic, collectivistic, and uncertainty avoidance orientations and organisational deviance. k) explored multiple and varied views regarding how employees of multinational companies perceive workplace deviance at the workplace l) provided deeper insight based on the reflections, stories, experiences and feelings shared to aid a complete understanding of the role of cultural orientation in workplace deviance. m) added to the literature in considering societal culture as one of the antecedents of workplace deviance. Some of the findings of the current study support other findings in the existing literature, which have been captured and reported in this study, whilst other findings of the current study, were found to be inconsistent with the findings from existing literature. This is an exceptional addition to extant studies on workplace deviance. 9.2.2 Contributions to Theory From a general point of view, the current study has made the following contributions to theory: a. The findings provide novel insight for the creation and extension of knowledge on societal cultural-workplace deviance nexus in cross-cultural research which is lacking, as it extends workplace deviance to international business research. It is therefore imperative that 309 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh research focus is directed at how differences in norms affect workplace deviance of which this study has attempted to fill the knowledge gap. b. The findings also invoke the significance of considering societal cultural analysis in workplace deviance research as one of the contextual antecedents of workplace deviance. For multicultural work settings to efficiently and effectively address workplace deviance, the significance of the cultural orientation of employees cannot be underestimated. This is because having the mindfulness of the unique and differential cultural backgrounds can foster positive work attitudes and strengthen multicultural work teams towards the attainment of organisational goals. c. The findings from the current study have provided novel insight into the direct role of societal culture in explaining workplace deviance which is under-researched in extant studies. The findings have shown that organisations should not only consider organisational factors but also the societal cultural orientation of employees, particularly in a multinational context. This endeavour will provide direction for future research to replicate this study in other contexts preferably western and Asian contexts to ascertain the impact of culture in workplace deviance research. d. The methodology employed in the current study allowed the researcher to consider not only the quantitative study which provided significant relationships between the predictor and criterion variables employed in the current study but also the experiences, views, opinions, stories and thought processes of employees as shown by the qualitative phase to provide a monumental insight and deep-seated rationale to enhance complete understanding of the problem under investigation. It has therefore contributed to the methodological aspect by employing pragmatic methodologies which are lacking in 310 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh workplace deviance research in particular, human resource management in general, to offer a holistic view of the role of the cultural orientation of employees in workplace deviance in multicultural work settings. This view was motivated by Miles, Huberman and Saldana (2014) submission that both numbers and words will largely help us understand better the complex world in which we live and make sense of. e. The findings from the current study have also shown the boundary conditions of the ‘when’ and ‘how’ cultural orientations of employees can explain workplace deviance by employing perceived ethical leadership, perceived organisational support, affective commitment, normative commitment, and continuance commitment, which can be used to effectively address workplace deviant behaviours of employees. The findings indicate that these relational constructs matter in addressing workplace deviance in multicultural work settings as supported by the stories and experiences from the qualitative data. f. The findings have also provided additional insight into the theoretical background of the current study which drew on social exchange theory and Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory to show that employees reciprocate their treatment from organisations and other organisational agents back to the source(s) of such treatment such that if the treatment is perceived as good by employees, they are more likely to reciprocate with good deeds and vice versa. g. Finally, the contextual focus of the study, which is Ghana, has in recent times continued to attract FDI for her stable sociopolitical environment and provides a conducive and enabling environment to MNCs operations. If the context is relevant to understanding global strategies and proffering remedies to addressing organisational challenges such as workplace deviance within and across borders, then it cannot be gainsaying that the study 311 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contributes to providing insights from under-researched settings such as Ghana in the SSA context. It is with no doubt that the current study contributes immensely to multinational business operations in the area of international human resource management. 9.2.3 Contributions to Practice This research has implications for human resource managers of multinational companies in particular, and HR managers of organisations in general as well as policymakers concerned with attracting foreign direct investment. a) Firstly, MNCs can develop regular socialization and community gatherings programs where members can share their cultural norms and values to reorient and resocialize employees to allow them to learn from one another. This can foster positive and harmonious interpersonal relations and strengthen work teams in the attainment of organisational goals b) Second, human resource managers of multinational companies in particular, and managers in general, could effectively control workplace deviant behaviours of employees by leveraging on the cultural orientation of employees to design culturally fit tasks and activities to reduce employee workplace deviant behaviour involvement, and subsequently increase the profitability of the company. MNCs training must emphasize cultural synergy by combining cultural differences to create more effective and efficient execution of tasks, activities and systems in multicultural work settings. c) Thirdly, this study is useful in helping international HR managers to strengthen strategies such as cultural diversity and inclusion training programs which can be very useful to cross-cultural interactions. This may include, first, personal training to help them realize and recognize as well as manage their values at the workplace about others; second, social 312 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh training that enables them to perceive the values and beliefs of other employees as attractive and advantageous to leverage on these differences to achieve task performance; and finally, cultural training to understand, manage, and assess cultural differences consistent with the suggestion of Rosen (2000). In doing so, employees of MNCs can learn and relearn from one another's values and beliefs which can be integrated to achieve the common goals of the company. d) The findings suggest a greater need for MNCs and their subsidiaries to develop, sustain and monitor cross-cultural awareness programs that aim at equipping local staff and expatriates the knowledge, skills and an understanding so that they will be able to deal with potential difficulties arising out of differential cultural backgrounds of employees. e) Also, the findings provide HR managers with an opportunity to understand and develop awareness about how certain tasks, activities, and interventions developed by management have failed to see the light of day. Employees' perception and interpretation of these interventions are very cardinal to achieving success, and hence, where people find such interventions inconsistent with their cultural values, they tend to display little concern to help such interventions achieve their desired objectives at the workplace f) More so, the findings provide HR managers in particular, and management in general about the need to deepen cross-cultural communication competence which can enable them to communicate efficiently and appropriately with their culturally diverse workforce who have differing value orientations and communication codes that they consider as acceptable and appropriate, thereby fostering peaceful coexistence and deployment of concerted and coordinated efforts to work towards achieving organisational goals. 313 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh g) In addition, the study provides practical insight into how the management of MNCs can improve their relational constructs to elicit a committed workforce. From the study, employee commitment was found to matter significantly in controlling workplace deviance since committed employees are less likely to engage in deviance. h) Further, demonstrating strong moral principles and ethical values in terms of how they relate and interact with their employees can inspire their followers to emulate them in their day-to-day activities at the workplace. These standards can discourage employee involvement in workplace deviant behaviours. i) Finally, it provides awareness to potential investors in the Ghanaian business landscape with information on the useful role cultural backgrounds can be leveraged to enhance profitability capacities of these foreign companies in the provision of quality goods and services to both local and international markets. 9.3.0 Limitations of the study and future research direction Despite the contributions to theory, practice and methods, few limitations are worth noting to direct future research. First, the study was conducted at multinational companies operating in Accra, Ghana, and may not apply to other organisations beyond multinational companies that participated in the current study. This is because MNCs operations and structures in the organisation may make the finding from the current study incapable of universal generalizations of the findings due to unique and distinct cultural context. Hence, generalizing the findings to another context must be done with great circumspect. Consequently, future research could investigate cultural orientation and workplace deviance relationships in another context including another African society, Western, Asia, or Europe. 314 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Second, the study mainly focused on employees of multinational companies operating in Accra, Ghana and hence, the findings may not be able to extend to MNCs that are operating beyond the context of this study. Dynamisms associated with a unique cultural base in which MNC subsidiaries operate in another local context might display different adaptation strategies to offset the challenge of multicultural workforce integration. Future research can correct this limitation by adopting broader data collection instrumentation to focus on MNCs operating in multiple countries. This could enable the findings to be applied to a broader context in ascertaining how societal culture explains workplace deviant behaviours in general. Thirdly, the study also focused on societal culture rather than organisational culture, and as a result, the findings must be seen in the light of the societal cultural backgrounds of employees and these backgrounds may explain their involvement in workplace deviant behaviours in their respective multicultural work settings. Future research can explore the interaction of societal culture and organisational culture in explaining workplace deviant behaviours in organisations particularly in a multinational context. Also, the study used a self-report rating scale which could be biased due to social desirability effects especially in cultural studies where there is the tendency for people to present their cultural values in a positive light and the possibility of ethnocentric sentiments instead of giving an actual or real answer to the questions posed by the researcher. Nevertheless, efforts were made to check such limitations by using several measures including assuring employees of confidentiality, questionnaires could not be identified with names or respondents, and checking common method bias to gauge against potential effects which could affect the findings. Also, combining interviews and questionnaire administration helped offset the weaknesses associated with each of the methods 315 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh if adopted singly. Future research can consider other behavioural rating scales to minimize the potential of social desirability. Additionally, the study measured cultural orientation of individualistic, collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance at the individual level of analysis although Hofstede cautions against using societal level measures at the individual level. Nonetheless, extant studies have employed these measures at the individual level of analysis which inspired the current study to adopt these societal level measures at the individual level of analysis (Sharma, 2010). Future research can consider the societal level analysis of employee cultural orientation and its impact on workplace deviant behaviours. Another limitation worth mentioning is the fact that the study relied upon simultaneous entry multiple regression analysis (or univariate multiple regression analysis) rather than multivariate multiple regression analysis which entails hierarchical multiple regression analysis which might have provided differing findings from the analysis. Nevertheless, robustness checks using hierarchical regression analysis did not provide any significant differing findings from what was achieved using univariate multiple regression analysis. Future research can consider multivariate multiple regression analysis to ascertain the observation in the current study. Finally, this study employed individualistic, collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations from Hofstede's cultural theory in determining their impact on workplace deviant behaviours. Future research could explore other cultural dimensions of Hofstede cultural framework such as masculine versus feminine cultural orientation to determine the extent to which masculine and feminine traits in culture predispose employees to commit workplace deviance. This is because workplace deviance research has demonstrated that males are predominantly 316 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh represented in workplace deviant behaviour commission, hence, employing masculine and feminine dimensions of Hofstede's cultural theory could provide insight to explaining the overrepresentation of males in workplace deviant behaviours. In furtherance to the above, the study considered cultural orientations of employees in a multinational context but future research could be undertaken to investigate how workplace deviance behaviour may be motivated by Ghanaian cultural values in public organisations given that the Ghanaian society is comprised of diverse ethnicities and ethnicities to strengthen the role of societal culture in workplace deviance. 9.4.0 Conclusion of the study This section concludes this thesis which was motivated by theoretical, conceptual, methodological, contextual and empirical knowledge gaps identified from the review of extant research. In particular, the qualitative study has demonstrated that employees possess varied meanings and interpretations of workplace deviant behaviours as they mentioned that some behaviours qualify to be described as workplace deviant behaviours whereas other behaviours may not be seen as workplace deviant behaviours such as avoidance, withdrawal behaviours etc. Again, the quantitative study has established the impact of uncertainty avoidance orientation of employees on both interpersonal deviance and organisational deviance. It has also shown the effect of individualistic and power distance orientations on organisational deviance. It has also demonstrated that individualistic, collectivistic and power distance orientations did not significantly relate with interpersonal deviance of employees. However, individualistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance orientations related significantly with organisational deviance. In addition, the study has provided evidence of the moderating roles of perceived ethical leadership, perceived organisational support, affective commitment, normative commitment, and continuance commitment in the relationship between employee cultural orientations of 317 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh individualistic, collectivistic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance, as predictors, and interpersonal and organisational dimensions of workplace deviance as criterion variables. In sum, findings from both the qualitative and quantitative study have shown that societal cultural orientation of employees matters in discussions of workplace deviance especially as one major antecedent of workplace deviance. 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Paper presented at the Africa Academy of Management Annual Conference, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Zoogah, B. D., & Zoogah, B. R. (2020). Benevolence and Negative Deviant Behaviour in Africa: The Moderating Role of Centralization. Journal of Business Ethics, 161(4), 783-813. Zoogah, D. B., Zoogah, R. B., & Dalaba-Roohi, F. (2015). Riding the tide: Management in Africa and the role of High-Impact Research. Africa Journal of Management, 1-30. 389 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX A Figure 6.1. Initial Measurement Model Standardized estimates 390 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 6.2. Final Measurement Model Standardized Estimates 391 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 4 Table 2.1: Study constructs and theoretical frameworks employed. Construct Theoretical Framework Purpose Justification Reference Workplace deviant Robinson and Bennett typology Expressed as interpersonal Robinson and Bennett’s ID- Robinson, S. L., & Bennett, R. behaviour of workplace deviant deviance and organisational OD typology is widely cited J. (1995). A typology of behaviours deviance is employed as effect and used in understanding deviant workplace behaviours: variable in the study. undesirable workplace A multidimensional scaling behaviours of employees in study. Academy of organisations Management Journal, 38, 555- 572. Cultural orientation Hofstede cultural dimension Employee cultural orientation Societal culture influences Hofstede, G. (2001). Cultured (Hofstede, 1980, 2001), Sharma consisting of individualistic, every aspect of individual in a consequences (2nd ed.). (2010) personal cultural collectivistic, power distance and unique and distinctive way Thousand Oaks, C.A: Sage. orientation uncertainty avoidance orientations (Schwartz, 2014). Sharma, P. (2010). Measuring as causal or predictor variables in personal cultural orientations: this study. scale development and validation. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Sciences (2010) 38, 787 – 806 Perceived Perceived Organisational It is proposed that the extent of When employees perceive Eisenberger, R., Huntington, Organisational support theory (Eisenberger et the influence of employee cultural supportive behaviours from R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. Support al., 2001) orientation on workplace deviant management, supervisors and (1986). Perceived behaviours is dependent upon coworkers, they are less likely organisational support. Journal how employees perceive to engage in undesirable of Applied Psychology, 71, favourable or unfavourable behaviours even if 500–507. supportive environment in the organisational practices are organisation such that favourable inconsistent with cultural support perception of employees backgrounds, the opposite will inhibit workplace deviant holds true, too. behaviour commission and vice versa. Employee The Three-Component theory It is proposed that the extent of The more committed Meyer, J., & Allen, N. (1991). Commitment of commitment Meyer and the influence of employee cultural employees are to an A three-component Allen (1991) orientation on workplace deviant organisation, the less the conceptualization of behaviours is dependent upon likelihood of behaviour organisational commitment. how employees perceive contrary to organisational Human Resource Management favourable or unfavourable expectations they are to Review, 1(1), 61-89. supportive environment in the 392 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisation such that favourable engage themselves in and vice support perception of employee versa. will inhibit workplace deviant behaviour commission and vice versa due to the employees’ perceived positive commitment they hold towards their organisations. Perceived ethical Ethical leadership Theory It is proposed that the extent of Ethically-endorsing Brown, M. E., Trevino, L. K., leadership Brown et al., (2005) the influence of employee cultural behaviours of management & Harrison, D. A. (2005). orientation on workplace deviant and coworkers are more likely Ethical Leadership: A Social behaviours is dependent upon to inhibit undesirable Learning Perspective for how employees perceive their behaviour tendencies of Construct Development and leadership to be ethically correct employees as employees pick Testing. Organisational or incorrect in the organisation ethical clues from their Behaviour and Human such that ethically correct managers, supervisors and Decision Processes, 97, 117- leadership perception held by coworkers to ensure that they 134. employees will discourage behave consistently with employees from engaging in ethical demands of the workplace deviant behaviours and organisation but ethically- vice versa. bereft behaviours enhance organisationally unsanctioned behaviours of employees. Source: Author’s review of theoretical frameworks, 2017 393 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.1 Some justifications for the selection of mixed methods research design Qualitative design Quantitative research design Mixed methods research design Emphasizes words, textual Stresses numbers to understand Employed both in this study because information patterns and cause-effect analysis of the research objectives and research questions by providing multiple views and perspectives of respondents’ views Stresses the participant’s Emphasizes researcher’s Allowed the investigator to combine interpretations of their lived interpretation and discussion of both participant’s and researcher’s experiences findings from the numerical data interpretations to enhance understanding of the observed relationships from the numerical data Close connection between the Investigator remains separate from The qualitative data further researcher and the participant respondents by reporting patterns understanding of the patterns and and relationships relationships from the numerical data Affords the investigator contextual Embraces generalizations from Allowed the researcher to provide understanding of lived representative sample across multiple views in terms of experiences, values, beliefs, and population but fails to account for quantitative results about patterns norms that people employ in how differences in context, and cause-effect inferences and the making sense of their world in the socialization, beliefs might affect contextual understanding that give workplace replication relevance to the observed numerical findings. Allowed the investigator to Numerical data allowed the Combining or integrating the results uncover deep-seated, rich, detailed generation of patterns of workplace of these separate approaches in this meanings employees assign to deviant behaviours and how study to help provide broader organisational norms which employees’ cultural orientations perspectives on the role of cultural subsequently influenced their predispose them to deviating or orientations of employees in attitudes, perceptions and conforming behaviours to workplace deviant behaviours as behaviour towards these significant organisational norms well as unearthing underlying significant organisational norms. reasons for their commission and or non-commission of these undesirable behaviours Source: Bryman & Bell, 2011; Sekaran & Bougie, 2016; Neuman, 2014, Saunders et al, 2019; Creswell, 2011 394 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.0 Demographic attributes of respondents (N = 433) Details Frequency Percentage (%) Gender Male 246 56.8 Female 187 43.2 Total 433 100.0 Age 21-30yrs 210 48.5 31-40yrs 168 38.8 41-50yrs 48 11.1 51-60yrs 6 1.4 61+yrs 1 0.2 Total 433 100.0 Level of education SSS 69 15.9 BA 242 55.9 Masters 71 16.4 Professional 45 10.4 Ph. D 6 1.4 Total 433 100.0 General work experience 1-5yrs 211 48.7 6-10yrs 161 37.2 11-15yrs 44 10.2 16-20yrs 9 2.1 21+yrs 8 1.8 Total 433 100.0 Organisational tenure 1-5yrs 259 59.8 6-10yrs 154 35.6 395 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11-15yrs 12 2.8 16-20yrs 3 .7 21+yrs 5 1.2 Total 433 100.0 Level of management Senior level managers 38 8.8 Middle level managers 90 20.8 Lower-level managers 103 23.8 General employees 185 42.7 Others 17 3.9 Total 433 100.0 Sector of Organisation Manufacturing 93 21.5 Hotel, restaurant, hospitality, and catering 116 26.8 Banking and finance 35 8.1 Insurance and marketing companies 29 6.7 Telecommunications 98 22.6 Energy, oil and gas 49 11.3 Others 13 3.0 Total 433 100.0 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Table 6.4: Harman’s single-factor test Extraction method: Principal Component Analysis Total Variance Explained Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Var. Cum. % Total % of Var. Cum. % 1 4.789 21.768 21.768 4.789 21.768 21.768 2 3.820 17.363 39.131 3.820 17.363 39.131 3 2.039 9.270 48.401 2.039 9.270 48.401 4 1.774 8.064 56.465 1.774 8.064 56.465 5 1.554 7.064 63.528 1.554 7.064 63.528 6 1.178 5.356 68.885 1.178 5.356 68.885 7 1.133 5.148 74.033 1.133 5.148 74.033 8 0.988 4.492 78.525 0.988 4.492 78.525 9 0.698 3.171 81.696 0.698 3.171 81.696 10 0.596 2.709 84.405 0.596 2.709 84.405 11 0.534 2.425 86.830 0.534 2.425 86.830 396 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 0.412 1.873 88.703 13 0.389 1.767 90.470 14 0.343 1.557 92.027 15 0.313 1.425 93.452 16 0.273 1.241 94.692 17 0.261 1.186 95.879 18 0.224 1.019 96.898 19 0.217 0.985 97.882 20 0.171 0.778 98.660 21 0.155 0.706 99.366 22 0.139 0.634 100.000 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) NB: Var. – variance, cum. – cumulative Table 6.5.0: Summary of multiple regression analysis of interpersonal deviance of employees Construct Standardized Beta t-test Individualistic orientation (IND) 0.078 (0.71, 1.41) 1.377 Collectivistic orientation (COL) 0.010 (0.81, 1.24) 0.180 Power distance orientation (PDO) -0.005 (0.70, 1.45) -0.096 Uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) 0.162 (0.75, 1.33) 2.944* R 0.178 R2 0.032 F-test 3.518** (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) ***Significant at 0.1% (0.001); **significant at 1% (0.01); *significant at 5% (0.05), Tolerance and VIF-Variance inflation factor are in parentheses. Table 6.5.1: Summary of multiple regression analysis of organisational deviance of employees Construct Standardized Beta t-test Individualistic orientation (IND) -0.032 (0.71, 1.41) -0.630 Collectivistic orientation (COL) -0.167 (0.81, 1.24) -3.483** Power distance orientation (PDO) -0.281 (0.70, 1.45) -5.407*** Uncertainty avoidance orientation (UAO) 0.438 (0.75, 1.33) 8.794*** R 0.452 R2 0.204 F-test 27.420*** (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) ***Significant at 0.1% (0.001); **significant at 1% (0.01); *significant at 5% (0.05), Tolerance and VIF-Variance inflation factor are in parentheses. Table 6.6.1 Interactive effects of PEL on employee cultural orientations (ECO)-interpersonal deviance (ID) relationship Construct Unst. coef. S. E t-test 397 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh INTERCEPT 0.018 0.047 0.380 INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION (IND) 0.101 0.048 2.095* PERCEIVED ETHICAL LEADERSHIP (PEL) -0.059 0.039 -1.515 INDXPEL -0.032 0.032 -0.952 R 0.106 R2 0.011 F-test 1.641 INTERCEPT 0.097 .046 2.098* COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION (COL) .105 .047 2.227* PERCEIVED ETHICAL LEADERSHIP (PEL) -.028 .038 -0.737 COLXPEL -.184 038 -4.856*** R 0.253 R2 0.064 F-test 9.792*** F2 0.0118 INTERCEPT 0.122 0.048 2.533* POWER DISTANCE ORIENTATION (PDO) 0.161 0.046 3.466** PERCEIVED ETHICAL LEADERSHIP (PEL) -0.117 0.040 -2.954** PDOXPEL -0.191 0.038 -5.076*** R 0.260 R2 0.068 F-test 10.351*** F2 0.0290 INTERCEPT 0.015 0.042 0.351 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE ORIENTATION (UAO) 0.120 0.042 2.868* PERCEIVED ETHICAL LEADERSHIP (PEL) -0.019 0.034 -0.573 UAOXPEL -0.124 0.030 -4.158*** R 0.256 R2 0.065 398 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh F-test 9.997*** F2 0.0193 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Significant (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001), Unst. coef. – Unstandardized coefficients Table 6.6.2 Interactive effects of PEL on ECO-OD relationship Construct Unst. coef. S. E t-test INTERCEPT -079 .054 -1.459 INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION (IND) -.130 .056 -2.338* PERCEIVED ETHICAL LEADERSHIP (PEL) -.270 .045 -6.008*** INDXPEL .142 .039 3.647*** R 0.403 R2 0.163 F-test 27.804*** F2 0.0131 INTERCEPT .116 .054 2.143* COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION (COL) .140 .055 2.529* PERCEIVED ETHICAL LEADERSHIP (PEL) -.341 .044 -7.781*** COLXPEL -.219 044 -4.955*** R 0.438 R2 0.192 F-test 33.992*** F2 0.0149 INTERCEPT .017 .058 .299 POWER DISTANCE ORIENTATION (PDO) -.032 .056 -.564 PERCEIVED ETHICAL LEADERSHIP (PEL) -.319 .048 -6.655*** PDOXPEL -.027 .046 -.599 R 0.367 R2 0.135 F-test 22.236*** INTERCEPT .028 .045 .627 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE ORIENTATION (UAO) .325 .045 7.281*** 399 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PERCEIVED ETHICAL LEADERSHIP (PEL) -.333 .036 -9.298*** UAOXPEL -.235 .032 -7.397*** R 0.574 R2 0.330 F-test 70.357*** F2 0.1239 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Significant (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001), Unst. Coef. – Unstandardized coefficients. Table 6.6.3.1 Interactive effects of POS on employee collectivistic orientation-interpersonal deviance (ID) relationship Construct Unst. coef. S. E t-test INTERCEPT 0.010 0.043 0.224 COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION (COL) 0.092 0.044 2.073* PERCEIVED ORGANISATIONAL SUPPORT (POS) -0.085 0.051 -1.656* COLXPOS -0.090 0.049 -1.837* R 0.139 R2 0.019 F-test 2.821* F2 0.0092 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Significant (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001), Unst. coef. – Unstandardized coefficients Table 6.6.3.2 Interactive effects of POS on employee individualistic orientation-organisational deviance (OD) relationship Construct Unst. coef. S. E t-test INTERCEPT 0.001 0.053 0.010 INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION (IND) -0.239 0.051 -4.643*** PERCEIVED ORGANISATIONAL SUPPORT (POS) -0.036 0.062 -0.578 INDXPOS 0.123 0.065 1.889* R 0.234 R2 0.055 F-test 8.276*** F2 0.0508 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Significant (*p < 0.01 (10%), **p < 0.05 (5%), ***p < 0.001), Unst. coef. – Unstandardized coefficients 400 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.6.4.0 Interactive effects of ACT on ECO-ID RELATIONSHIP Construct Unst. coef. S. E t-test INTERCEPT -0.001 0.041 -0.021 INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION (IND) 0.072 0.040 1.776 AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT (ACT) 0.180 0.028 6.429*** INDXACT -0.030 0.028 -1.053 R 0.304 R2 0.093 F-test 14.605*** INTERCEPT 0.027 0.042 0.626 COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION (COL) -0.001 0.044 -0.032 AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT (ACT) 0.167 0.029 5.785*** COLXACT -0.073 0.029 -2.498* R 0.313 R2 0.098 F-test 15.515*** F2 0.0001 INTERCEPT 0.031 0.042 0.746 POWER DISTANCE ORIENTATION (PDO) 0.004 0.040 0.110 AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT (ACT) 0.187 0.029 6.484*** PDOXACT -0.079 0.025 -3.111** R 0.324 R2 0.105 F-test 16.739*** F2 0.0001 INTERCEPT 0.019 0.044 0.430 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE ORIENTATION (UAO) 0.070 0.044 1.594 AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT (ACT) 0.150 0.031 4.840*** UAOXACT -0.038 0.031 -1.221 401 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh R 0.304 R2 0.095 F-test 14.512*** (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Significant (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001), Unst. coef. – Unstandardized coefficients. Table 6.6.4.1 Interactive effects of ACT on ECO-OD RELATIONSHIP Construct Unst. coef. S. E t-test INTERCEPT -0.002 0.052 -0.030 INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION (IND) -0.222 0.051 -4.339*** AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT (ACT) 0.140 0.035 3.948*** INDXACT -0.058 0.036 -1.609 R 0.288 R2 0.083 F-test 12.935*** INTERCEPT 0.018 0.055 0.329 COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION (COL) -0.131 0.056 -2.327* AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT (ACT) 0.152 0.037 4.079*** COLXACT -0.049 0.038 -1.308 R 0.216 R2 0.040 F-test 6.980*** INTERCEPT 0.039 0.052 0.752 POWER DISTANCE ORIENTATION (PDO) -0.281 0.050 -5.664*** AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT (ACT) 0.202 0.036 5.627*** PDOXACT -0.099 0.032 -3.127** R 0.345 R2 0.119 F-test 19.304*** F2 0.0749 402 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh INTERCEPT -0.039 0.055 -0.715 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE ORIENTATION (UAO) 0.283 0.055 5.200*** AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT (ACT) 0.091 0.039 2.360* UAOXACT 0.078 0.038 2.032* R 0.323 R2 0.105 F-test 16.701*** F2 0.0637 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Significant (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001), Unst. coef. – Unstandardized coefficients Table 6.6.5.0 Interactive effects of NCT on ECO-ID relationship Construct Unst. coef. S. E t-test INTERCEPT -0.000 0.041 -0.010 INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION (IND) 0.097 0.042 2.325* NORMATIVE COMMITMENT (NCT) -0.169 0.025 -6.806*** INDXNCT 0.070 0.025 2.741** R 0.339 R2 0.115 F-test 18.588*** F2 0.0124 INTERCEPT 0.016 0.041 0.381 COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION (COL) 0.011 0.043 0.248 NORMATIVE COMMITMENT (NCT) -0.168 0.025 -6.622*** COLXNCT 0.061 0.027 2.272* R 0.326 R2 0.107 F-test 17.048*** F2 0.0011 INTERCEPT 0.024 0.040 0.583 POWER DISTANCE ORIENTATION (PDO) 0.045 0.038 1.190 403 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh NORMATIVE COMMITMENT (NCT) -0.162 0.025 -6.544*** PDOXNCT 0.105 0.023 4.627*** R 0.373 R2 0.139 F-test 23.052*** F2 0.0035 INTERCEPT 0.028 0.043 0.649 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE ORIENTATION (UAO) 0.070 0.043 1.625 NORMATIVE COMMITMENT (NCT) -0.151 0.026 -5.716*** UAOXNCT 0.053 0.025 2.103* R 0.328 R2 0.108 F-test 17.298*** F2 0.0067 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Significant (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001), Unst. coef. – Unstandardized coefficients Table 6.6.5.1 Interactive effects of NCT on ECO-OD RELATIONSHIP Construct Unst. coef. S. E t-test INTERCEPT -0.001 0.049 -0.012 INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION (IND) -0.176 0.050 -3.519*** NORMATIVE COMMITMENT (NCT) -0.233 0.030 -7.789*** INDXNCT 0.121 0.031 3.976*** R 0.435 R2 0.190 F-test 33.451*** F2 0.0296 INTERCEPT -0.008 0.051 -0.159 COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION (COL) -0.116 0.054 -2.156* NORMATIVE COMMITMENT (NCT) -0.243 0.032 -7.710*** COLXNCT -0.032 0.033 -0.953 R 0.357 404 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh R2 0.128 F-test 20.905*** INTERCEPT 0.025 0.049 0.521 POWER DISTANCE ORIENTATION (PDO) -0.252 0.046 -5.486*** NORMATIVE COMMITMENT (NCT) -0.251 0.030 -8.391*** PDOXNCT 0.113 0.027 4.118*** R 0.455 R2 0.207 F-test 37.405*** F2 0.0694 INTERCEPT -0.074 0.051 -1.446 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE ORIENTATION (UAO) 0.213 0.051 4.175*** NORMATIVE COMMITMENT (NCT) -0.198 0.032 -6.265*** UAOXNCT -0.140 0.030 -4.679*** R 0.441 R2 0.195 F-test 34.622*** F2 0.0410 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Significant (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001), Unst. coef. – Unstandardized coefficients Table 6.6.6.0 Interactive effects of CCT on ECO-ID RELATIONSHIP Construct Unst. coef. S. E t-test INTERCEPT -0.003 0.043 -0.075 INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION (IND) 0.054 0.042 1.286 CONTINUANCE COMMITMENT (CCT) -0.057 0.029 -2.008* INDXCCT -0.018 0.027 -0.670 R 0.130 R2 0.017 F-test 2.466 INTERCEPT 0.021 0.042 0.497 405 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION (COL) 0.056 0.043 1.282 CONTINUANCE COMMITMENT (CCT) -0.075 0.028 -2.695** COLXCCT 0.106 0.028 3.818*** R 0.223 R2 0.050 F-test 7.519** F2 0.0042 INTERCEPT 0.029 0.045 0.645 POWER DISTANCE ORIENTATION (PDO) 0.041 0.043 0.957 CONTINUANCE COMMITMENT (CCT) -0.066 0.030 -2.212* PDOXCCT 0.053 0.027 1.973* R 0.152 R2 0.023 F-test 3.387* F2 0.0020 INTERCEPT 0.006 0.042 0.145 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE ORIENTATION (UAO) 0.114 0.042 2.682** CONTINAUNCE COMMITMENT (CCT) -0.060 0.027 -2.197* UAOXCCT 0.080 0.027 2.985** R 0.237 R2 0.056 F-test 8.520*** F2 0.0169 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Significant (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001), Unst. coef. – Unstandardized coefficients Table 6.6.6.1 Interactive effects of CCT on ECO-OD RELATIONSHIP Construct Unst. coef. S. E t-test INTERCEPT -0.016 0.053 -0.310 INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION (IND) -0.210 0.052 -4.066*** CONTINUANCE COMMITMENT (CCT) 0.078 0.035 2.231* INDXCCT -0.092 0.033 -2.821** 406 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh R 0.265 R2 0.070 F-test 10.784*** F2 0.0387 INTERCEPT 0.023 0.054 0.427 COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION (COL) -0.059 0.055 -1.069 CONTINUANCE COMMITMENT (CCT) 0.054 0.035 1.535 COLXCCT 0.115 0.035 3.269** R 0.190 R2 0.036 F-test 5.383** F2 0.0021 INTERCEPT -0.021 0.056 -0.381 POWER DISTANCE ORIENTATION (PDO) -0.205 0.053 -3.865*** CONTINUANCE COMMITMENT (CCT) 0.035 0.037 0.947 PDOXCCT -0.039 0.033 -1.165 R 0.215 R2 0.046 F-test 6.904*** INTERCEPT 0.007 0.051 0.137 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE ORIENTATION (UAO) 0.311 0.051 6.052*** CONTINAUNCE COMMITMENT (CCT) 0.087 0.033 2.620** UAOXCCT 0.090 0.033 2.770** R 0.344 R2 0.119 F-test 19.241*** F2 0.0863 (Source: Fieldwork, 2021) Significant (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001), Unst. coef. – Unstandardized coefficients 407 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.7.1.0: Results of Hypotheses Testing of Main Effects Hypotheses Statement Standardized Std. Error t-value p-value Remark Result Beta values Hypothesis 1a: Individualistic orientation .078 .057 1.377 .169 Not significant Not Supported (IND) relates positively with interpersonal deviant (ID) behaviours Hypothesis 1b: Individualistic orientation -.032 .043 -.630 .529 Not significant Not supported (IND) relates negatively with organisational deviant (OD) behaviours Hypothesis 2a: Collectivistic orientation .010 .053 .180 .857 Not significant Not supported (COL) relates positively with interpersonal deviant (ID) behaviours Hypothesis 2b: Collectivistic orientation -.167 .048 -3.483 P < .05 Significant Supported (COL) relates negatively with organisational deviant (OD) behaviours Hypothesis 3a: Power distance orientation -.005 .057 -.096 .924 Not significant Not supported (PDO) relates positively with interpersonal deviant (ID) behaviours Hypothesis 3b: Power distance orientation -.281 .052 -5.407 P < .001 Significant Supported (PDO) relates negatively with organisational deviant (OD) behaviours Hypothesis 4a: Uncertainty avoidance .162 .055 2.944 P < .05 Significant Supported orientation (UAO) relates positively with interpersonal deviant (ID) behaviours Hypothesis 4b: Uncertainty avoidance .438 .050 8.794 P < .001 Significant Supported orientation (UAO) relates positively with organisational deviant (OD) behaviours. (Source: Fieldwork, 2020) 408 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 9.1 Summary of major research finding Research Objective Main Finding 1.To explore how MNCs 1. MNCs employees’ understanding of workplace deviance is limited to employees interpret and deviation of organisational rules, policies, expectations and procedures understand workplace deviant 2. Deviant behaviours are sometimes perceptual rather than reality as they may behaviours result from differences in cultural background 3. Seven key factors were identified to motivate employee workplace deviant behaviours 4. Proactive interventions such as background checks of employee history are more likely to address workplace deviant behaviours than reactionary interventions such as sanctions. 2i. Assess the relationship 1. Individualistic orientation was not found to significantly relate between employee’s positively with employees’ interpersonal deviance (H1a) individualistic cultural 2. Individualistic orientation was also found to significantly relate orientations and workplace negatively with employee organisational deviance (H1b) deviant behaviours 2ii. Assess the relationship 1. Collectivistic orientation was not found to significantly relate between employee’s positively with employees’ interpersonal deviance (H2a) collectivistic cultural 2. Similarly, collectivistic orientation was not found to significantly orientations and workplace relate negatively with employees’ organisational deviance (H2b) deviant behaviours 2iii. Assess the relationship 1. Power distance orientation did not significantly relate positively with between employee’s power employees’ interpersonal deviance (H3a) distance cultural orientations 2. Power distance orientation was rather found to significantly relate and workplace deviant negatively with employees’ organisational deviance (H3b) behaviours 2iv. Assess the relationship 1. Uncertainty avoidance orientation was found to significantly relate between employee’s uncertainty positively with employees’ interpersonal deviance (H4a) avoidance cultural orientations 2. Uncertainty avoidance orientation was also found to significantly and workplace deviant relate positively with employees’ organisational deviance (H4b) behaviours 3i. To ascertain the moderating 1. Perceived ethical leadership was not found to moderate individualistic role of perceived ethical orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H5a) but it was leadership in the relationship found to moderate individualistic orientation and organisational between employee cultural deviance relationship (H5b) such that the relationship was stronger for orientation and workplace employees low in perceived ethical leadership than those high in deviant behaviours directed at perceived ethical leadership. either the organisation itself or 2. Perceived ethical leadership was found to moderate collectivistic other coworkers orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H5c), and also collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H5d) suggesting that the relationship is weaker for employees who hold positive rather than negative perceived ethical leadership 3. Perceived ethical leadership was found to moderate power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H5e) indicating that the relationship is weaker for those high in perceived ethical leadership than for those low in perceived ethical leadership but it could not moderate power distance orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H5f) 4. Perceived ethical leadership was found to moderate uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H5g), and also uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H5h) suggesting that the relationship is weaker for employees who hold strong or positive perceived ethical leadership rather than weak or negative perceived ethical leadership 409 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3ii. To ascertain the moderating 5. Perceived organisational support was not found to moderate role of perceived organisational individualistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship support in the relationship (H6a) but it was found to moderate individualistic orientation and between employee cultural organisational deviance negative relationship (H6b) implying that the orientation and workplace relationship was stronger for employees who hold negative perceptions deviant behaviours directed at of organisational support rather than those who hold positive either the organisation itself or perceptions. other coworkers. 6. Perceived organisational support was found to moderate collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance positive relationship (H6c) suggesting that the relationship tends to be stronger for those employees low rather than high in perceived organisational support, but it was not found to moderate collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H6d) 7. Perceived organisational support was not found to moderate power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H6e) and also it could not moderate power distance orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H6f) 8. Perceived organisational support was not found to moderate uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H6g), and also uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H6h) 3iii. To ascertain the moderating 9. Affective commitment was not found to moderate individualistic role of employee affective orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H7a), and also commitment in the relationship individualistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship between employee cultural (H7b) orientation and workplace 10. Affective commitment was found to moderate collectivistic orientation deviant behaviours directed at and interpersonal deviance positive relationship (H7c) indicating that either the organisation itself or the relationship is stronger for those employees low rather than high in other coworkers. affective commitment but it could not moderate collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H7d) 11. Affective commitment was found to moderate power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance positive relationship (H7e) implying that the relationship tends to be weaker for employees high in affective commitment compared with those low in affective commitment, and also moderate power distance orientation and organisational deviance negative relationship (H7f) suggesting that the relationship stronger for those employees who scored low in affective commitment than those who scored high in affective commitment. 12. Affective commitment was not found to moderate uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H7g), but it was found to moderate uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance positive relationship (H7h) implying that employees low in affective commitment are more likely than their high affective commitment counterparts to engage in organisational deviance at high uncertainty avoidance orientation. 3iv. To ascertain the moderating 13. Normative commitment was found to moderate individualistic role of employee normative orientation and interpersonal deviance positive relationship (H8a) on commitment in the relationship the one hand implying that highly normative committed employees are between employee cultural less likely to commit interpersonal deviance compared with their lowly orientation and workplace normative committed employees when individualistic orientation is deviant behaviours directed at high, and also found to moderate individualistic orientation and either the organisation itself or organisational deviance negative relationship (H8b) suggesting that other coworkers. the relationship is stronger for those employees low in normative commitment rather than high in normative commitment. 14. Normative commitment was found to moderate collectivistic orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H8c) that the 410 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh relationship is stronger for those employees low in normative commitment rather than high in normative commitment, but it could not moderate collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H8d) 15. Normative commitment was found to moderate power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance positive relationship (H8e) suggesting that the relationship is weaker for those employees high in normative commitment rather than low in normative commitment, and also moderate power distance orientation and organisational deviance negative relationship (H8f) implying that the relationship is stronger for those employees low in normative commitment rather than high in normative commitment 16. Normative commitment was found to moderate uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H8g) suggesting that the relationship is weaker for those employees high in normative commitment rather than low in normative commitment, and also uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H8h) implying that the relationship is stronger for those employees low in normative commitment rather than high in normative commitment. 3v. To ascertain the moderating 17. Continuance commitment was not found to moderate individualistic role of employee continuance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H9a) but it was commitment in the relationship found to moderate individualistic orientation and organisational between employee cultural deviance negative relationship (H9b) implying that the relationship is orientation and workplace stronger for those employees low rather than high in continuance deviant behaviours directed at commitment. either the organisation itself or 18. Continuance commitment was found to moderate collectivistic other coworkers. orientation and interpersonal deviance positive relationship (H9c) implying tha4t the relationship is weaker for those employees high rather than low in continuance commitment, and also collectivistic orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H9d) implying that the relationship is stronger for those employees low in continuance commitment rather than high in continuance commitment 19. Continuance commitment was found to moderate power distance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H9e) such that the relationship is stronger for employees low rather than high in continuance commitment but it could not moderate power distance orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H9f) 20. Continuance commitment was found to moderate uncertainty avoidance orientation and interpersonal deviance relationship (H9g) such that the relationship is stronger for employees low rather than high in continuance commitment, and also uncertainty avoidance orientation and organisational deviance relationship (H9h) such that the relationship is stronger for employees low rather than high in continuance commitment. Source: Author’s construct 411 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B Significant Interaction Plots 5 Moderator 4 Low Perceived Ethical Leadership 3 High Perceived 2 Ethical Leadership 1 Low Collectivistic orientationHigh Collectivistic orientation Figure 6.3.0: PEL moderating COL-INTDEV relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 4 Low Perceived Ethical 3.5 Leadership 3 2.5 High Perceived Ethical 2 Leadership 1.5 1 Low Power Distance Orientation High Power Distance Orientation Figure 6.3.1: PEL moderating PDO-INTDEV positive relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 Low Perceived Ethical 4 Leadership 3.5 3 High Perceived Ethical 2.5 Leadership 2 1.5 1 Low Uncertainty Avoidance High Uncertainty Avoidance Orientation Orientation Figure 6.3.2: PEL moderating UAO-INTDEV positive relationship 412 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Moderator 4.5 Low Perceived ethical 4 leadership 3.5 High Perceived ethical 3 leadership 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low Individualistic High Individualistic Orientation Orientation Figure 6.3.3: PEL moderating IND-ORGDEV positive relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 Low Perceived Ethical 4 Leadership 3.5 3 High Perceived Ethical 2.5 Leadership 2 1.5 1 Low Collectivistic orientation High Collectivistic orientation Figure 6.3.4: PEL moderating COL-ORGDEV negative relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 Low Perceived Ethical 4 3.5 Leadership 3 2.5 High Perceived Ethical 2 Leadership 1.5 1 Low Uncertainty Avoidance High Uncertainty Avoidance Orientation Orientation Figure 6.3.5: PEL moderating UAO-ORDDEV positive relationship 413 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Moderator 5 Low Perceived 4.5 4 organisational support 3.5 3 High Perceived 2.5 organisational support 2 1.5 1 Low Collectivistic High Collectivistic orientation orientation Figure 6.3.6: POS moderating COL-INTDEV relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 4 Low Perceived 3.5 organisational support 3 2.5 High Perceived 2 organisational support 1.5 1 Low Individualistic High Individualistic orientation orientation Figure 6.3.7: POS moderating IND-ORGDEV relationship Moderator 5 4.5 Low Affective 4 commitment 3.5 High Affective 3 commitment 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low Collectivistic orientation High Collectivistic orientation Figure 6.3.8: ACT moderating COL-INTDEV positive relationship 414 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Moderator 5 4.5 Low Affective 4 Commitment 3.5 3 High Affective Commitment 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low Power Distance High Power Distance Orientation Orientation Figure 6.3.9: ACT moderating PDO-INTDEV positive relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 4 Low Affective Commitment 3.5 3 High Affective Commitment 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low Power Distance High Power Distance Orientation Orientation Figure 6.4.0: ACT moderating PDO-ORGEV negative relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 4 Low Affective Commitment 3.5 3 2.5 High Affective Commitment 2 1.5 1 Low Uncertainty Avoidance High Uncertainty Avoidance Orientation Orientation Figure 6.4.1: ACT moderating UAO-ORGDEV positive relationship 415 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Moderator 4.5 Low Normative commitment 4 High Normative 3.5 commitment 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low Individualistic High Individualistic Orientation Orientation Figure 6.4.2: NCT moderating IND-INTDEV positive relationship 5 4.5 Moderator 4 Low Normative commitment 3.5 3 High Normative 2.5 commitment 2 1.5 1 Low Collectivistic orientation High Collectivistic orientation Figure 6.4.3: NCT moderating COL-INTDEV positive relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 4 Low Normative 3.5 Commitment 3 2.5 2 High Normative Commitment 1.5 1 Low Power Distance High Power Distance Orientation Orientation 416 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 6.4.4: NCT moderating PDO-INTDEV positive relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 4 3.5 Low Normative commitment 3 2.5 High Normative 2 commitment 1.5 1 Low Uncertainty Avoidance High Uncertainty Avoidance Orientation Orientation Figure 6.4.5: NCT moderating UAO-INTDEV positive relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 Low Normative commitment 4 3.5 High Normative 3 commitment 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low Individualistic High Individualistic Orientation Orientation Figure 6.4.6: NCT moderating IND-ORGDEV negative relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 4 Low Normative Commitment 3.5 3 High Normative Commitment 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low Power Distance High Power Distance Orientation Orientation Figure 6.4.7: NCT moderating PDO-ORGDEV negative relationship 417 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Moderator 4.5 4 Low Normative 3.5 commitment 3 2.5 High Normative 2 commitment 1.5 1 Low Uncertainty Avoidance High Uncertainty Avoidance Orientation Orientation Figure 6.4.8: NCT moderating UAO-ORGDEV positive relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 4 Low Continuance commitment 3.5 3 High Continuance commitment 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low Collectivistic orientation High Collectivistic orientation Figure 6.4.9: CCT moderating COL-INTDEV positive relationship. 5 Moderator 4.5 Low Continuance 4 commitment 3.5 3 High Continuance 2.5 commitment 2 1.5 1 Low Power Distance High Power Distance Orientation Orientation Figure 6.5.0: CCT moderating PDO-INTDEV positive relationship 418 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Moderator 4.5 Low Continuance 4 Commitment 3.5 3 High Continuance 2.5 Commitment 2 1.5 1 Low Uncertainty High Uncertainty Avoidance Orientation Avoidance Orientation Figure 6.5.1: CCT moderating UAO-INTDEV positive relationship 5 Moderator 4.5 Low Continuance 4 commitment 3.5 High Continuance 3 commitment 2.5 2 1.5 1 Low Individualistic Orientation High Individualistic Orientation Figure 6.5.2: CCT moderating IND-ORGDEV negative relationship 5 4.5 Moderator 4 Low Continuance 3.5 commitment 3 2.5 High Continuance commitment 2 1.5 1 Low Collectivistic High Collectivistic orientation orientation Figure 6.5.3: CCT moderating COL-ORGDEV positive relationship 419 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Moderator 4.5 Low Continuance 4 Commitment 3.5 3 High Continuance 2.5 Commitment 2 1.5 1 Low Uncertainty High Uncertainty Avoidance Orientation Avoidance Orientation Figure 6.5.4: CCT moderating UAO-ORGDEV positive relationship 420 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX C Questionnaire Dear Participant, I am a PhD candidate at the Department of Organisation and Human Resource Management in the University of Ghana Business School investigating the role of the individual level cultural orientation of employees in undesirable behaviours of employees at the workplace. Information provided for this research will be treated with the utmost confidentiality and used solely for academic purposes. I kindly invite you to take a few minutes of your time to fill out this survey by providing appropriate responses where necessary. For any further questions, clarifications and enquiries, feel free to contact me via this email address- rbzoogah@st.ug.edu.gh/kzoogah@gmail.com and telephone number: +233 0208802677 Prevalence of Undesirable Workplace behaviours: The section seeks to determine the prevalence of undesirable behaviours that occur at the workplace by both supervisors and subordinates. As an employee in the organisation, you qualify to participate in the study by indicating your observation in the workplace. Kindly read the statements carefully and choose the option that you deem most suitable as a response, as honestly as possible, as there is no right or wrong answer, and your responses are STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL. Section One: Prevalence of Undesirable behaviours in the workplace Please indicate the extent to which you agree that the following behaviours in Part A and Part B occur in your organisation by writing your response in the space next to the behaviour. Use the following scale: 1=Almost never, 2=Seldom, 3= occasionally, 4= usually, and 5=Almost always. Part A: Undesirable interpersonal behaviours at the workplace 1. Making fun of someone at work ----- 2. Saying something hurtful to someone at work ----- 3. Making an ethnic, religious, or racial remark or joke at work ----- 4. Telling someone about the lousy way of thinking about work ----- 5. Losing one’s temper while at work ----- 6. Neglecting to follow the boss’s instructions ----- 7. Acting rudely toward someone at work ----- 8. Embarrassing a coworker in front of others at work ----- 9. Boss verbally abusing employee ----- 10. Boss showing favouritism ----- 11. Employee blaming co-worker for mistakes ----- Part B: Undesirable behaviours directed at the organisation 1. Taking property from work without permission ----- 2. Taking an additional or a longer break than is acceptable at the ----- workplace 3. Coming in late to work without permission ----- 4. Calling in sick when one is not sick ----- 5. Intentionally working slower than he/she could have worked ----- 6. Discussing confidential company information with an ----- unauthorized person 421 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7. Leaving work before closing without permission ----- 8. Putting little effort into one’s work ----- 9. Employee covering up mistakes at work ----- 10. Employee leaving while the job is in progress ----- Section Two: Individual-level Cultural Orientation of Employees at the workplace Individualism: This seeks to understand the extent to which you think members in your organisation should be independent of other members in the organisation. Please indicate the extent to which you agree to the following statement below on a scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, and 5=strongly agree. Kindly circle the appropriate response that best describes your behaviour in the options provided next to each item. 1. I would rather depend on myself than others 1 2 3 4 5 2. My personal identity, independent of others, 1 2 3 4 5 is important to me 3. I rely on myself most of the time, rarely on 1 2 3 4 5 others 4. It is important that I do my job better than 1 2 3 4 5 others 5. The well-being of my group members is 1 2 3 4 5 important for me 6. I feel good when I cooperate with my 1 2 3 4 5 group members 7. It is my duty to take care of my family 1 2 3 4 5 members, whatever it takes 8. Family members should stick together, even 1 2 3 4 5 if they do not agree Power Distance Orientation: This seeks an understanding of the extent to which you view the distribution of power in your organisation. Please indicate the extent to which you agree to the following statement below on a scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, and 5=strongly agree. Kindly circle the appropriate response that best describes your behaviour in the options provided next to each item. 1. I easily conform to the wishes of someone 1 2 3 4 5 in a higher position than mine. 2. It is difficult for me to refuse a request 1 2 3 4 5 if someone senior asks me 3. I tend to follow orders without asking 1 2 3 4 5 any questions. 4. I find it hard to disagree with authority figures 1 2 3 4 5 5. A person’s social status reflects his or her place 1 2 3 4 5 in the society 6. It is important for everyone to know their 1 2 3 4 5 422 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh rightful place in the society 7. It is difficult to interact with people from 1 2 3 4 5 different social status than mine 8. Unequal treatment for different people is 1 2 3 4 5 an acceptable way of life for me 9. I find it hard to do any important task 1 2 3 4 5 delegated to me by someone who is senior to me 10. I think people in higher positions should 1 2 3 4 5 not delegate important tasks to people in lower positions at the workplace Uncertainty Avoidance Orientation: This seeks understanding to the extent to which you use uncertain situations as a reference point in shaping your thoughts and actions to practices in the organisation. Please indicate the extent to which you agree to the following statement below on a scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, and 5=strongly agree. Kindly circle the appropriate response that best describes your behaviour in the options provided next to each item. 1. I tend to avoid talking to strangers 1 2 3 4 5 2. I prefer a routine way of life to an 1 2 3 4 5 unpredictable one 3. I would not describe myself as a risk-taker 1 2 3 4 5 4. I do not like taking too many chances to 1 2 3 4 5 avoid making a mistake 5. I find it difficult to function without clear 1 2 3 4 5 directions and instructions 6. I prefer specific instructions to broad 1 2 3 4 5 guidelines 7. I tend to get anxious easily when 1 2 3 4 5 I don’t know an outcome 8. I feel stressful when I cannot 1 2 3 4 5 predict consequences Section Three: Employee undesirable behaviours at the workplace This section seeks to determine the number of times you have engaged in any of the following behaviours in the last six months at your workplace. Please circle the number on the scale that best indicate the behaviours you have engaged in for the past six months at your workplace. Using the scale below, indicate, as honestly as possible, by circling the number that you deem best in the scales provided. Almost Never Seldom Occasionally Usually Frequently 1 2 3 4 5 Employee behaviours directed at co-workers and supervisors in the last six months 1. Made fun of someone at work 1 2 3 4 5 423 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. Said something hurtful to someone at work 1 2 3 4 5 3. Made an ethnic, religious, or racial remark or 1 2 3 4 5 joke at work 4. Told someone about the lousy way of thinking 1 2 3 4 5 about work 5. Lost my temper or refused to talk to a 1 2 3 4 5 coworker while at work 6. Neglected to follow the boss’s instructions 1 2 3 4 5 7. Acted rudely toward someone at work 1 2 3 4 5 8. Embarrassed a coworker in front of others at 1 2 3 4 5 work 9. Boss verbally abusing employee 1 2 3 4 5 10. Boss showed favoritism 1 2 3 4 5 11. Employee blaming co-worker for mistakes 1 2 3 4 5 Using the scale below, indicate, as honestly as possible, by writing a number in the space provided next to the item that you deem best in the scales provided. Almost Never Seldom Occasionally Usually Frequently 1 2 3 4 5 Employee behaviours directed at the Organisational in the last six months 1. ----- Took property from work without permission 2. ----- Taken an additional or a longer break than is acceptable at the workplace 3. ----- Came in late to work without permission 4. ----- Called in sick when I was not really sick 5. ----- Intentionally worked slower than I could have worked 6. ----- Left work before closing without permission 7. ----- Putting little effort into the work 8. ----- Covered up an employee mistakes at work 9. ----- Employee leaving while job is in progress 10. ----- Accepted a gift/favor in exchange for preferential treatment Section Four: Perceived organisational support, perceived ethical leadership and employee commitment Perceived Organisational Support: This seeks understanding about the extent to which you describe your organisation as supportive. Please indicate the extent to which you agree to the following statement below on a scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, and 5=strongly agree. Kindly write the appropriate response that best describes your behaviour in the options provided next to each item 1. This organisation values my contributions to its well-being ----- 2. This organisation strongly considers my goals and values ----- 3. The organisation is willing to help me when I need a special favour ----- 4. My organisation shows very little concern for me ----- 5. My organisation cares about my opinions ----- 6. My organisation takes pride in my accomplishments at work ----- Affective Commitment: This seeks understanding about the extent to which you describe your emotional attachment, identification with and involvement in the activities of your organisation. Please indicate the extent to which you agree to the following statement below on a scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree, 2=moderately 424 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh disagree, 3=disagree, 4=neutral, 5=agree, 6=moderately agree and 7=strongly agree. Kindly write the appropriate response that best describes your behaviour in the options provided next to each item 1. ----- I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with my organisation 2. ----- I enjoy discussing my organisation with people outside of it 3. ----- I really feel as if this organisation’s problems are my own 4. ----- I think that I could easily become as attached to another organisation as I am to this organisation 5. ----- I do not feel like “part of the family” at my organisation 6. ----- I do not feel “emotionally attached” to my organisation 7. ----- This organisation has a great deal of personal meaning for me 8. ----- I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my organisation Normative Commitment: This seeks to understand the extent to which you describe your decision, attitudes and behaviours to remain with your current organisation. Please indicate the extent to which you agree to the following statement below on a scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree, 2=moderately disagree, 3=disagree, 4=neutral, 5=agree, 6=moderately agree and 7=strongly agree. Kindly write the appropriate response that best describes your behaviour in the options provided next to each item 1. I do not feel any obligation to remain with my current employer ----- 2. Even if it were to my advantage, I do not feel it would be right to ----- leave my organisation now 3. I would feel guilty if I left my organisation now ----- 4. This organisation deserves my loyalty ----- 5. I would not leave my organisation right now because I have ----- a sense of obligation to the people in it 6. I owe a great deal to my organisation ----- Continuance Commitment: This seeks understanding to the extent to which you describe the reasons why you choose to stay or quit your current organisation. Please indicate the extent to which you agree to the following statement below on a scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree, 2=moderately disagree, 3=disagree, 4=neutral, 5=agree, 6=moderately agree and 7=strongly agree. Kindly write the appropriate response that best describes your behaviour in the options provided next to each item 1. I am afraid of what might happen to my dependents if I quit ----- my job without having another one lined up 2. It would be very hard for me to leave my organisation right ----- now even if I wanted to because of my obligations 3. Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided I wanted ----- to leave my organisation right now 4. It would not be too costly for me to leave my organisation ----- right now if I did leave 5. Right now staying with my organisation is a matter of ----- necessity as much as desire 6. I feel that I have too few options to consider leaving ----- 425 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh this organisation 7. One of the few serious consequences of leaving ----- this organisation would be the scarcity of available alternatives 8. One of the major reasons I continue to work for ----- this organisation is that leaving would require the considerable personal sacrifice-another organisation may not match the overall benefits that I have here Perceived Ethical Leadership: This section seeks understanding about how you describe your supervisor leadership style in your organisation as encouraging members to do the right thing and be ethically inclined. From the response scale given, 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = Agree, and, 5 = strongly agree, Kindly circle the appropriate response that best describes your supervisor behaviour in the options provided next to each item My supervisor . . . 1. Listens to what employees have to say 1 2 3 4 5 2. Disciplines employees who violate ethical 1 2 3 4 5 standards 3. Conducts his/her personal life in an ethical 1 2 3 4 5 manner 4. Has the best interests of employees in mind 1 2 3 4 5 5. Makes fair and balanced decisions 1 2 3 4 5 6. Can be trusted 1 2 3 4 5 7. Discusses business ethics or values with 1 2 3 4 5 employees 8. Sets an example of how to do things the right 1 2 3 4 5 way in terms of ethics 9. Defines success not just by results but also the 1 2 3 4 5 way they are obtained 10. When making decisions, asks “What is the 1 2 3 4 5 right thing to do?” Section Five: Demographics This section solicits responses for statistical control purposes Please circle or write your responses where the need be in the following; 1. General Work Experience 1-5yrs 6-10yrs 11-15yrs 16-20yrs 21+yrs 2. Your age 21-30yrs 31-40yrs 41-50yrs 51-60yrs 61+yrs 3. Your level of education SSS BA Masters Professional PhD 4. Marital status Married Single Widowed Cohabiting Other, please specify, …………… 426 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. Your gender Male Female 6. Religion Christianity Islam Traditional Other, please specify,………………. 7. Your position ………………………………………………………… 8. Organisational tenure 1-5yrs 6-10yrs 11-15yrs 16-20yrs 21+yrs 9. Your Job tenure 1-5yrs 6-10yrs 11-15yrs 16-20yrs 21+yrs 10. Industry type …………………………………………………………. 11. Country of residence ………………………………....................................... 12. Country of birth ………………………………………………………... 13. Ethnicity ……………………………………………………….. 427 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX D Interview Protocol I am a PhD candidate in the Department of Organisation and Human Resource Management at the University of Ghana Business School. I am investigating the relationship between cultural orientation and workplace deviant behaviour. Information provided for this research will be treated with the utmost confidentiality and used solely for academic purposes. I kindly invite you to take few minutes of your time (approximately 90 minutes) to participate in this interview. For further questions, clarifications and enquiries, feel free to contact me via this email address- rbzoogah@st.ug.edu.gh/kzoogah@gmail.com and telephone number: +233 0208802677. Section 1: Meaning, Prevalence, Causes and Consequences of undesirable workplace behaviours in organisations Meaning 1. What is your understanding of undesirable behaviour? What do terms like ‘undesirable workplace behaviour’ and ‘desirable workplace behaviour’ mean to you? Prevalence 2. Can you give examples of what you consider to be workplace deviant behaviour that has occurred in your workplace before? Have you done that before in your organisation? What about your co-workers, have you heard or seen them engage in behaviours you would consider as workplace deviant behaviours? And what behaviour was that? Causes 3. Do you think undesirable behaviours are attributable to innate characteristics or they are learned at the workplace? And how if they are learned at the workplace? 4. What, in your opinion, brings about workplace deviant behaviours? And why do you think so? 5. Where do you derive your knowledge of the causes of deviant behaviours from? Can you give examples? What are some of the consequences? Can you pinpoint any in your organisation? Consequences 6. Are there consequences of workplace deviant behaviours? Section 2: Influence of cultural orientation on workplace deviant behaviours 7. In your opinion, how do you think that the socialization that a person receives can make him/her engage in behaviours considered as deviance at the workplace? How does one’s upbringing influence his/her behaviour at the workplace? 428 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8. How do you think that the ethnic and social affiliations a person belongs can make him/her do certain things that the organisation considers deviant behaviours? And how about the family obligations of a person? How does that influence the person’s tendency to engage in deviant behaviours? 9. How do you think your values, beliefs, and traditional background can affect how you understand what is considered workplace deviant behaviours? 10. Would you say that culture can cause people to engage in behaviours in the workplace which management consider undesirable or unacceptable? How? 11. Do you work with people of different cultural backgrounds? What can you say about working with someone whose cultural background is different from yours? Section 3: Exploring factors that can reduce or increase the effect of personal cultural orientation on workplace deviant behaviours? 12. If you are not treated well in your organisation, what will make you avoid engaging in undesirable workplace behaviours as retaliation to the source of mistreatment in the workplace? 13. Assuming that you feel unhappy as a result of how your boss mistreats you but at the same time your coworkers always leap to your defence anytime the boss attempts to mistreat you and try to make you feel happy to continue working under your boss, how likely are you to respond in such a situation? 14. Consider that you work with a coworker who believes that it is not good to help another peer at the workplace complete an assignment or task, but you think it is good to do so, how would you relate with such a coworker especially when you are working with him on a task? 15. Where there are differences in terms of what is considered moral and or immoral between you and the organisation, how do you think that can make you behave in an undesirable way in the organisation? Section 4: Suggestions to control workplace deviant behaviours 16. How can workplace deviant behaviours be controlled in the workplace? THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION 429