UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC REVITALISATION AND SUSTAINABILITY OF INDIGENOUS AKAN FEMALE MUSIC IN GHANA: A STUDY OF “ADENKUM” BY AWURA-AMA AGYAPONG 10577857 THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN MUSIC DEGREE OCTOBER, 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I, Awura-Ama Agyapong, hereby declare that this thesis is entirely my original work produced from research undertaken under supervision. Wherever sources have been quoted or used, full acknowledgments have been made. Candidate Awura-Ama Agyapong ………………………… Date…30th January, 2023…………… Supervisors Prof Daniel Avorgbedor ……………………………………… Date…30th January 2023……………. Dr. Adwoa Arhine ………………………………….. Date…30th January 2023……………. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION In loving memory of Mary Abena Korankyewaa and all emerging female performers hoping to carve a niche for themselves in their respective industries. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to thank God Almighty for the sufficient mercy, health, grace, and wisdom to complete this research work. I would also like to thank my supervisors: Professor Daniel Avorgbedor and Dr. Adwoa Arhine (Head of Department, Music) for their support and guidance, for supervising my work, and also for introducing me to the Mapping Africa’s Identities project grant, which is funded by the Andrew Mellon Foundation. The grant facilitated and covered my tuition fee for this MPhil programme and provided funding for my research work. I would also like to thank Dr. Eric Sunu Doe for his motivation, corrections, and assistance with this research work. Also, thank you to all my coursemates as well as lecturers and faculty members of the music department that contributed directly or indirectly to the completion of my thesis. Finally, I thank my family and the Korankye family for their love, support, and prayers. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ABSTRACT This thesis examines the revival and sustainability of indigenous Akan female musical traditions. It focuses on adenkum music to understand how various existing and emerging ensembles revitalise the performance practices of the adenkum music in contemporary Ghanaian musical soundscape, which consequently fosters its sustainability. In indigenous Ghanaian communities, women have always played important roles in various contexts of music and cultural traditions. One such musical tradition is the adenkum, which, besides its function as entertainment, also serves as a communicative and educational tool. A recent phenomenon in the Ghanaian musical soundscape reveals that Ghanaian traditional musical practices such as the palm wine, borborbor, and Adowa are being re-engaged and rapidly being accepted by the youth. However, personal engagement and interaction with the adenkum musical practice reveal that a lot of music consumers or audience think of the adenkum as “old school”, “archaic”, “primitive”, and “not very interesting”. However, the Ghana Dance Ensemble, situated at the University of Ghana Campus, Legon, and the Dɔkɔdɔkɔ (pronounced; “dorkordorkor”) Ensemble, at the University of Education, Winneba, include the adenkum in their performances. In this thesis, I examine these ensembles' performance practices to understand how they re-engage the adenkum music to revitalise and sustain it in contemporary Ghanaian soundscape. In doing this, I discovered that the primary means by which the adenkum is sustained is by continuous engagement with the musical practice and/or revitalising. I further teased out issues of the revitalisation and sustainability that emerged as a result of re-engaging the adenkum. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v Table of Contents DECLARATION............................................................................................................................ i DEDICATION............................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iii ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iv GLOSSARY OF AKAN WORDS .............................................................................................. ix LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ x LIST OF PICTURES ................................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Background ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Statement of the problem. ......................................................................................................... 4 1.2 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Objectives of the study.............................................................................................................. 5 1.4 Scope of the study. .................................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Significance of the study ........................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Justification of the study ........................................................................................................... 8 1.7 Research method (Methodology) .............................................................................................. 9 1.7.1 Reflexivity.............................................................................................................................. 9 1.7.2 Preliminary research ............................................................................................................ 13 1.7.3 Primary Data Collection ...................................................................................................... 14 1.7.4 Secondary data ..................................................................................................................... 15 1.7.5 Tools for data collection. ..................................................................................................... 16 1.7.6 Data transcription and analysis ............................................................................................ 16 1.8 Literature Review.................................................................................................................... 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 1.8.1 Female Indigenous musical practices in Ghana and beyond. .............................................. 17 1.8.1.1 The history of the adenkum musical practice in Akan societies in Ghana ....................... 21 1.8.3 Revitalising Ghanaian female indigenous music in post-colonial Ghana. .......................... 23 1.9 Theoretical framework ............................................................................................................ 24 1.9.1 Music revitalisation. ............................................................................................................ 25 1.9.2 Music Sustainability............................................................................................................. 26 1.10 Limitations of the Study........................................................................................................ 30 1.11 Organisation of the study ...................................................................................................... 31 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 33 WOMEN AND THE ADENKUM MUSICAL TRADITION OF THE AKAN ..................... 33 2.1 History of women in indigenous Akan musical practices. ..................................................... 33 2.2 Context of origin of the adenkum ........................................................................................... 36 2.3 Etymology of adenkum ........................................................................................................... 38 2.4 Performance practices of adenkum ......................................................................................... 42 2.4.1 The adenkum musical instrument. ....................................................................................... 43 2.4.2 The techniques involved in playing the adenkum. ............................................................... 49 2.5 The adenkum songs ................................................................................................................. 60 2.5.1 The adenkum dance .............................................................................................................. 61 2.6 The dissemination and decline of the adenkum ...................................................................... 62 2.6.1 The dissemination ................................................................................................................ 62 2.6.2 The decline ........................................................................................................................... 63 2.6.2.1 The Influx of Christianity and Formal Education ............................................................. 64 2.6.2.2 Pregnancy and child-rearing ............................................................................................. 64 2.6.2.3 Affirmative Action Paradigms .......................................................................................... 66 2.6.2.4 Technology ....................................................................................................................... 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 68 REVITALISING AND SUSTAINING ADENKUM MUSIC IN SOUTHERN GHANA USING TWO CASE STUDIES ................................................................................................. 68 3.1 Emergence of music revitalisation and sustainability in Ghanaian nationalism ..................... 68 3.2 The Ghana Dance Ensemble ................................................................................................... 70 3.3 The Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensemble ......................................................................................................... 71 3.3.1 A brief biography of Nana Osei Twum Barima................................................................... 73 3.4 Revitalising Processes by the Ghana Dance and Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensembles ................................. 75 3.4.1 Maintaining some of the original contexts with females leading the adenkum. .................. 75 3.4.2 Teach and perform the adenkum on various platforms. ....................................................... 76 3.4.3 Incorporating Various Musical Cultures. ............................................................................. 79 3.4.4 Other emerging adenkum performers and ensembles .......................................................... 80 3.4.5 Care and preserving the adenkum gourd. ............................................................................. 82 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 84 ISSUES OF REVITALISATION AND SUSTAINABILITY OF ADENKUM ..................... 84 4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 84 4.1 Relatability toward the Adenkum Musical Practice ................................................................ 84 4.2 Our beautiful thighs. ............................................................................................................... 86 4.3 The necessary alterations ........................................................................................................ 88 4.4 The different adenkum variations ........................................................................................... 90 4.5 Inadequate adenkum lessons ................................................................................................... 90 4.6 Acoustics and audibility. ......................................................................................................... 91 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 93 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................. 93 5.1 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 5.2 Findings................................................................................................................................... 95 5.2.1 There are currently no adenkum bands or ensembles. ......................................................... 96 5.2.2 The adenkum is no longer a female-ascribed musical practice. ........................................... 96 5.2.3 Most Ghanaian music listeners have no affinity for the adenkum musical tradition. .......... 97 5.2.4 The dilemma of rhythmic instruments. ................................................................................ 98 5.2.5 The sexual ascriptions attached to the adenkum render it as ‘unserious’. ........................... 98 5.3 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 98 5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 99 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 101 WEB SOURCES ....................................................................................................................... 106 APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................ 107 INTERVIEWS........................................................................................................................... 107 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix GLOSSARY OF AKAN WORDS Akan: A tribe/ethnic group in Ghana; Languages: Twi, Fante, Bono, Akuapem. Adenkum: An indigenous musical practice that emerged among women from the Akan areas of Ghana. Agya: Akan word for Father/ Elderly man. Nana Hemaa: Akan word for Queen mother. Seprewa/seperewa: An indigenous stringed musical instrument that emerged among the Akan people of Ghana. Palm wine: A local beverage obtained from a palm tree. Palmwine music: A Ghanaian traditional music style. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Adenkum classification………………………………………………………………45 Table 2. Names of Adenkum rhythm variations……………………………………………….49/50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi LIST OF PICTURES Image 1… Research areas in Focus………………………………………………………. Image 2… Image of my adenkum performance. (Photo by Awura-Ama.)………………….. Image 3… Adenkum Hollow type (Photo from Google Images.)……………………………. Image 4 …Enmeshed type. (Photo from Google Images.)………………………………….. Image 5… Round container type. (Photo from Google Images.)……………………………… Image 6… adenkum playing technique, (Photo by Awura-Ama)………………………….. Image 7… adenkum playing technique, (Photo by Awura-Ama)………………………….. Image 8… adenkum playing technique, (Photo by Awura-Ama)……………………………… Image 9… adenkum playing technique, (Photo by Awura-Ama)…………………………… Image 10… adenkum playing technique, (Photo by Awura-Ama)………………………. Image 11… adenkum playing technique, (Photo by Awura-Ama)…………………………… Image 12 …adenkum playing technique, (Photo by Awura-Ama)…………………………….. Image 13… adenkum playing technique, (Photo by Awura-Ama)………………………… Image 14….. Image of Nana Osei Twum Barima (Photo by Nana Osei)…………………… 6 12 45 46 46 50 51 52 53 54 55 58 60 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background Ghanaian traditional music literature has suggested that women have played a significant cultural and functional role in various indigenous musical practices. Aning (1964) documents the adenkum, pronounced; (ah-den-koom) music as Akan indigenous music usually practiced by women in some Akan-speaking areas of Ghana. His thesis suggests that several adenkum bands in the 1960s performed commercially in the said regions of Ghana. He further documents the songs and some performance practices of these adenkum bands. In-depth literature on adenkum disappeared on the literary shelf until about a decade ago when Sarpong (2020) began his ethnographic research on adenkum music in the North-Western part of Ghana in the Sefwi-Ntakam community. There, Sarpong confirms that these adenkum bands are no longer in existence, and its remnant practitioners are now old and have resorted to performing the adenkum music in the comfort of their rural homes for personal recreational purposes (Sarpong, 2020). The terms indigenous, traditional, and neo-traditional music have been contested by various scholars of ethnomusicology. Akin Euba asserts that traditional music is pre-colonial African music that has survived to date. He also continues to posit that neo-traditional music is traditional music that is performed out of its original context. (Euba, 1974). Euba (1975) also asserts that neo- traditional music is music that consists of material taken intact from the old traditional repertoire University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 and fitted into new surroundings. John Collins describes neo-traditional music as one that has been influenced by popular highlife music (Collins, 2007). However, John Blacking argues that these labels; 'folk', 'art', and 'popular' do not necessarily provide us with a concrete differentiation about different styles of music, but the values these categories carry can be applied to any kind or type of music. He also asserts that “the most pressing tasks are to understand the musical process and ensure that no human beings are deprived of their right to make music….”(Blacking, 1981). Fiagbedzi thereby describes tradition as a term used to describe handing over (Fiagbedzi, 2010). From this line of thought, I will refer to traditional music as the music of indigenous people that has been passed on from generation to generation. However, Gyekye asserts that the new generation will keep taking out and adding to the various particular musical values that are of importance to them at the particular time. He further claims that these alterations can change the authenticity and originality of the particular musical practice in question. (Gyekye, 1997). I, therefore, use these inferences to make the assertion that all folk and indigenous music is traditional music, but not all traditional music is folk or indigenous music. I will therefore describe neo- traditional music in my understanding as indigenous music that has been recontextualised under influences of time, space and creativity. For the purpose of clarification, I will refer to adenkum music described and used in my thesis as indigenous music practiced by Akan women in its original context. Where necessary, the term ‘neo-traditional’ will be used if the term is used to describe the adenkum performed or staged in a different context. I posit that, during this timeline, when the indigenous adenkum bands declined, from the late 1960s to the early 2000s, John Collins discovered a hybrid of indigenous music styles with Western influences. Popular examples are the borborbor and Wolomei groups (Collins, 2005). These hybrid University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 music styles are what we have come to know as neo-traditional music. To clarify and create a focal point for the context of this thesis, I support Eric Sunu’s suggestion that due to the influx of these hybrid music groups over the last 50 years, present contact with indigenous musical practices usually receives reception as archaic, primitive, or 'old school'. (Sunu Doe, 2011). Therefore, in this thesis, I refer to the adenkum musical practice I examine as an indigenous one performed by women in various Akan areas of Ghana. To exemplify, my first encounter with indigenous Ghanaian music was during my undergraduate days in 2017 at the University of Ghana, music department. I attended a workshop on songwriting on campus with Agya Sei Korankye1, the seperewa2 instructor at the music department. He was the principal tutor for the workshop. Agya Sei performs indigenous Ghanaian tunes with the seperewa and other indigenous instruments with his group. The audience at this workshop, my age mates, though intrigued by the sound and musical style of the seperewa, concluded that, "This is a beautiful old school music style." Agya Sei introduced his daughter, Angela Abena Serwaa Korankye, to the attendees. Serwaa played the adenkum alongside her father. The following year, I again encountered the adenkum musical practice in a Traditional Music in Ghana course. There, I learned that the adenkum is an Akan musical practice that has an instrument as well as songs and dance, which emerged and is usually performed by women in some Akan areas of Ghana. Due to fascination, I decided to experiment with playing the adenkum instrument and songs at one of my performances at the Jango club3. Over the past decade, I have observed that the audience's appreciation for indigenous Ghanaian 1 Agya Sei Korankye - the seperewa instructor at the music department, UG, Legon. 2 Seprewa - a mini hap lute instrument that emerged among the Akan people in the 18th century 3 Jango club – A night club in Accra, Ghana University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 and neo-traditional music and dance practices is on the rise. The Legon Palm wine and Kwan Pa bands are typical examples of those who have recontextualised and revitalised palm wine music among the youth in Accra. These groups perform commercially for entertainment and information purposes to large audiences. I also have also observed other professional and amateur groups performing various traditional Ghanaian dances at social events; that is to say, they perform these indigenous music and dance styles in different contexts. When I began my investigations on the adenkum, I discovered that the Ghana Dance Ensemble4 and the Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensemble5 include the adenkum musical practice in their repertoire. Therefore, there is a need to examine these ensembles to understand how they are re-engaging the adenkum musical tradition and the implications of this re-engagement for issues of sustainability. 1.1 Statement of the problem. The recent phenomenon is that various Ghanaian indigenous and neo-traditional music and dance forms are gaining popularity and rapidly being accepted by the youth; as mentioned earlier, the Legon Palm wine band and the Kwan Pa bands have recontextualised and revitalised Ghanaian palm wine music. However, the adenkum musical practice is usually tagged as “old school” or “archaic”. Nonetheless, the Ghana Dance Ensemble, situated at the University of Ghana Campus, 4 Ghana Dance Ensemble – This is a state-owned group under the auspices of the Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana that specialises in the performance of various Ghanaian indigenous and contemporary dance practices. 5 Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensemble – This is a privately owned musical ensemble that specialises in the performance of various indigenous Ghanaian musical practices, situated at the University of Education, Winneba. The group is formed and led by Nana Osei Twum Barima. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Legon, and the Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensemble, at the University of Education, Winneba, include adenkum music repertoire in the performances, as well as a vast number of Ghanaian indigenous musical practices for an all-round commercial, educational and recreational purpose. Therefore, I intend to examine these ensembles' performance practices to understand how they re-engage the adenkum music to revitalise and sustain it in contemporary Ghanaian soundscape. The following questions guide the study; 1.2 Research Questions a. What are the performance practices of the adenkum and what are the factors that led to its decline over the last half-century? b. How do the emerging ensembles re-engage the adenkum musical practice to revitalise and sustain the music style? c. What are the pertinent issues that emerge from re-engaging the adenkum musical practice by the emerging ensembles? 1.3 Objectives of the study. i. Identify the performance practices of the adenkum and what factors led to its performance decline over the last half-century. ii. Examine and analyse how the emerging ensembles re-engage the adenkum musical practice to revitalise and sustain the music style. iii. Analyse the pertinent issues that emerge from re-engaging the adenkum musical practice by the emerging ensembles. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1.4 Scope of the study. This study focuses on adenkum music performance practices, issues of its revitalisation, and its sustainability in contemporary Ghanaian musical soundscape. I, therefore, focus on two urban centres—Accra and Winneba, where my case studies are located. I choose the Ghana Dance Ensemble, situated on the University of Ghana campus, and the Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensemble on the University of Education, Winneba campus. I also focused my literature review and interviews on adenkum music, revitalisation, sustainability, and oral accounts from adenkum music practitioners. It is also vital to note that engaging with Aning (1964) and some of my participant observations revealed that there are different variants of the adenkum from the other Akan areas. So in order to create a focal point for my analysis, I focused my investigations and data analysis on the hollow gourd adenkum instrument, known to be performed by the Sefwi and the Asante. Another reason for choosing this variant is that both of the ensembles used as case studies also perform the adenkum variant in question. I elaborate further on the adenkum variants in my next chapter. Image 1. Research areas in Focus. NOT TO SCALE. (image from Google location images) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 1.5 Significance of the study Revitalisation and sustainability are interdisciplinary concepts that have been thoroughly discussed and analysed on many levels. In Ghanaian ethnomusicology, revitalisation sustainability materials have examined various musical careers of famous musicians with less attention to endangered Akan female indigenous practices. In addition, existing literature on adenkum music has explored its history and its performance practices without thoroughly exhausting issues concerning its revival and sustenance. Furthermore, as part of the statutory movement of The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) on safeguarding intangible cultural heritage in 2006 (Heritage et al., 2019; Stefano et al., 2014), this work will contribute to community involvement and academic participation policies. There are three related UNESCO Conventions on Culture and Heritage namely, the convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972), Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003), Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005). These Conventions allow the various states to list music; like the adenkum as an intangible cultural heritage. My research, therefore, bridges these gaps and will subsequently contribute to the academic knowledge on the revitalisation and sustainability of adenkum music, and other declining female indigenous music across all global music disciplines. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 1.6 Justification of the study Literature on adenkum has suggested that it is one of the Ghanaian female-dominated indigenous musical practices to have moved from the socio-cultural walls, i.e., original context, to the commercial space. Literature on Akan female traditional music in Ghana has focused on musical traditions like the adowa and nnwomkrɔ, among others, without paying attention to the adenkum musical practice. The other aforementioned Akan female-dominated musical practices also suggest that the women in these ensembles usually leave the instrumental resources to the men in the ensemble. At the same time, they focus on the songs and dances. However, women in the adenkum ensembles actively participate in the instrumental resource of the adenkum ensemble by playing the adenkum instrument and other rhythmic instruments to accompany themselves while they sing and dance. Other studies on Akan female musical practices examine songs and their accompanied dances and instrumental resources without thoroughly engaging issues of their revitalisation and sustenance. In addition, the adenkum musical practice has been understudied compared to the other Akan female musical practices mentioned earlier. This research thus fills these gaps. Huib Schippers and Dan Bendrups also suggest that there is a global phenomenon supporting the sustainability of various arts and cultural forms which includes highlights in the ‘millennium development goals’ and the ‘sustainable development goals’ (Schippers & Bendrups, 2015). This justifies the importance of my research work in contributing to the global phenomenon of sustaining indigenous musical practices. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 1.7 Research method (Methodology) The methodology I used to facilitate this research work is the qualitative mode of inquiry. I used the case study approach and employed ethnographic participant observation backed by secondary sources. Creswell et al. (2007) posit that the qualitative research design uses non-numerical data to analyse and arrive at conclusions. They also suggest that the case study approach is an exploration of a case over time. The case study approach was essential to this work because it aided in building a focal point on what I aimed to examine, i.e., understanding how various ensembles revitalise or re-engage the adenkum musical practice to foster its sustainability. I participated in the rehearsal and performance schedules of the ensembles, as mentioned earlier that are known to include adenkum in their performances. This served as one of the main sources for my primary data due to the scarcity of literature on the adenkum. It also created grounds for my participant observation and focused group discussions. I also used other instruments, such as open-ended questions for interviews, informal conversations, and personal communications with the adenkum music practitioners, ensemble leaders, members, and traditional music enthusiasts to collect data for the study. 1.7.1 Reflexivity The qualitative research approach usually includes comments by the researcher about their role and their self-reflection in the research work (Creswell & Creswell, 2003). This statement supports my experiences of how I attempted to re-engage the adenkum musical practice after my University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 encounter with it during my undergraduate days in 2017 and 2018 at the University of Ghana, Music Department, as narrated in the background of the study. In early 2018, I had begun attaching myself to various cover bands to gain some grooming and mentorship to improve my stage presence as a performing artiste. In my quest to create a unique niche and musical identity for my craft, I decided to experiment with playing the adenkum instrument and songs at one of my performances at Jango club in Accra the following year to set the tone for what my audience should expect, and also introduce my identity to my audience as an artiste. As I prepared for my performance days ahead of the set date, 24th September 2019, I discussed with my then significant other, a medical doctor by profession, about opening my performance with the adenkum performance for 5 (five) minutes or less. He asked that I demonstrate to him what I intended to do as he was not sure about what I had explained to him. So I performed to him one of the adenkum songs as I played one of the adenkum rhythms with the gourd as accompaniment. He rather expressed a disappointed face and continued to comment, “yɛse bra bɛbɔ yɛn nwom a, wo bɛbɔ yɛn ntontrowa?” which loosely translates as, “We need you to come and give us music, and you are here playing with empty tin cans.” He suggested that I discard the adenkum with its accompanied songs and go straight to perform the contemporary songs I had rehearsed. Since I was new in the performance scene and was still University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 trying to find my feet and discover my identity as an artiste, I resorted to seeking validation about my craft from others, including the non-musically inclined. His response about the adenkum performance I had just displayed to him discouraged and traumatised me. It made me begin to doubt my capabilities and the strength of my imagination. I, however, decided not to express my sentiments facially or verbally and continued to sing a few contemporary cover songs using the guitar as an accompaniment. He gave me positive feedback on what I did with the guitar and even went ahead to suggest a costume that he thought would complement my craft on the stage. It should be noted that until about a decade ago, in the Ghanaian social context, female children between the ages of 3 (three) and 7 (seven) years old would often play in the mud, where they conceptualised empty tin cans as cooking utensils. They used sand, ornamental leaves, and flowers as food ingredients to create their imaginary kitchen. They played. This implies that my partner insinuated that playing the adenkum gourd with the songs resembled children playing with empty tin cans. In other words, descriptors such as ‘childish,’ ‘not serious,’ and ‘primitive.’ Nonetheless, I followed my instincts, and on the 24th of September 24th, 2019; I began my performance with the adenkum instrument alongside two friends (also classmates) as backing vocalists. The reception we received after the performance varied. They included statements like: "This is a very old type of music", "Eei, you've gone deep" and "It is amazing how a young lady like you know knows such old songs performed by old people" and "You have done your research". University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 Image 2. Image of my adenkum performance on September 24th, 2019. Jango club; justmusic show. (Photo by Awura-Ama) Even though I was not familiar with approaches to ethnomusicological studies, I discovered in the work of (Barz & Cooley, 2008) that, “ethnographers attempt reflexively to understand their positions in the cultures being studied and to represent these positions in ethnographies, including their epistemological stances…”. They further mentioned that,‘‘we get to know other people by making ourselves known to them, and through them to know ourselves again, in a continuous cycle,’’. I realise that this was my way of engaging the adenkum musical practice while trying to create a niche and an identity for myself as a musical artiste. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 Since then, I have mobilised a few friends. We occasionally meet to rehearse and strategise how to situate and perform adenkum music in contemporary times should the opportunity arise. 1.7.2 Preliminary research I began my preliminary research on adenkum music by scheduling interview sessions with members of the Ghana Dance Ensemble and Agya Sei Korankye since I was unable to find many materials on adenkum after visiting the traditional and online libraries; most of the materials with adenkum writings covered only snippets of the adenkum musical practice. Agya Sei Korankye and members of the Ghana Dance Ensemble were chosen due to my interactions with them when they were invited as resource persons on traditional music, and in the Traditional music in Ghana course in my third year of undergraduate studies. My interactions with Agya Sei Korankye and members of the Ghana Dance Ensemble created a snowball effect, which led to my discovering Nana Twum Barima6 and his Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensemble. I further accessed Aning’s material on adenkum at the reserved section of the Institute of African Studies library on the University of Ghana campus. I also visited the JH Nketia Archives at the same institute to watch and listen to audio-visuals of the adenkum musical practice. I discovered several adenkum music recordings but only one video of the musical practice which was staged by members of the Ghana Dance Ensemble. 6 Nana Twum Barima– Founder of Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensemble University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 1.7.3 Primary Data Collection Primary data were geared towards the adenkum musical practice. Therefore, visits to the locations of the primary sources in Aning (1964)’s material were crucial in contributing to my findings since the last in-depth research carried out in those areas was in the 1960s-1980s until Sarpong (2020) presented his research findings on the adenkum in the Sefwi Ntakam area. Even though I interviewed some adenkum music practitioners, the snowball research effect led me to Madam Magdalene Fynn7, a queen mother from Abura Abuase in the Central region. Popularly known as Nana Afua I or Nana Hemaa (Queen Mother), she is currently an employee of the Abibigromma Resident Theatre Group (from the School of Performing Arts, University of Ghana). Through her referrals and recommendations, I was able to visit Elmina Chapel Square8 in the early parts of June 2022 to interact with some adenkum performers. I spent the whole day moving around the Chapel Square neighbourhood, talking to the adenkum performers I had been referred to. The adenkum performers had initially agreed to stage a short performance for me to witness. There, I took the necessary notes and recordings I needed. They, however, told me that due to the spontaneity of the performance, there were no men available to play the dondo9 to accompany them, an instrument they considered vital in an adenkum performance. I spent the night at Eden Lodge Hotel10 and returned to my residence the following morning. I excluded the Sefwi Ntakam area because Sarpong’s recent data were within the last decade. In my defence, I had the same resource persons he interacted with from within my proximity: Agya Sei 7 Madam Magdalene Fynn - A queen mother from Abura Abuase in the Central region of Ghana 8 Elmina Chapel Square – A suburb in Elmina (a town in Central Region) 9 Dondo - Talking drum, which is known to have emerged in northern Ghana 10 Eden Lodge Hotel -A guest house located in Cape Coast, Central Region, Ghana University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 Korankye, his mother, Mary Abena Korankyewaa11, (who is rumored to have been an adenkum performer in her youthful days), and his nephew, Nana Osei Twum Barima who formed the Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensemble at the University of Education, Winneba. I also had informal conversations with Angela Abena Korakye, Agya Sei’s daughter, whom I also observed performing the adenkum alongside her father. The Korankye family seemed to have created a generational chain of adenkum performers. I also participated in the rehearsal sessions of both ensembles and witnessed some of their performances. I further had online interactions with a focused group using the WhatsApp messaging application medium by asking questions using the broadcast message technique and collecting individual answers. 1.7.4 Secondary data I consulted direct and indirect scholarly and non-scholarly materials on female Akan indigenous music and performance in Ghana, adenkum materials, and materials on revitalisation, sustainability, and recontextualisation. I also watched YouTube videos to access and investigate adenkum materials and performances. I followed up with frequent visits to the JH Nketia archives at the Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, to collect audiovisual materials on the adenkum musical practice. This was done to ensure the viability of primary data and enhance my research's theoretical backing. Due to the specifications of my study toward understanding the ways in which the adenkum is being revitalized, I adopted the purposive sampling technique to be able to contact and interview specific individuals so as to facilitate my research questions. The sample population thus was 11 Mary Abena Korankyewaa – Mother of Agya Sei Korankye University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 limited to members in the ensembles used in the study, the adenkum practitioners, some female live music performers, and other musically inclined individuals. 1.7.5 Tools for data collection. I drafted open-ended questionnaires that provided the opportunity for follow-up questions, some of which extended to further ‘WhatsApp’ (messaging software application) chats and phone calls. I also had a jotter where I made notes of crucial points during interviews and observations. I used my Android smartphone for most of the images and audio-visual recordings. I also used other instruments, such as open-ended questions for interviews, informal conversations, and personal communications with the adenkum music practitioners, ensemble leaders, members, and traditional music enthusiasts, to collect data for the study. 1.7.6 Data transcription and analysis The data collected from the primary sources were transcribed using my jot book and pen. I transcribed relevant information using Microsoft Word software. Akan dialects were transcribed using the local Twi12 font application (which I downloaded from Google Playstore13) and were transliterated from the Twi dialects to the English language using my computer. Photos captured were also placed in the appropriate places in my writing to facilitate visual effects of the adenkum music practitioners and their performance practices. Where necessary, I downloaded images from 12 Twi - dialect of the Akan people of Ghana 13 Google Playstore - an online store operated by Google where people go to find their favourite apps, games, movies, TV shows, books, and more. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 the internet to facilitate and speed up the research process. I also used ‘Finale’ 14 , a music transcription software to transcribe some of the adenkum rhythms discovered in my research. The data collected were analysed using approaches such as my personal narratives, as well as those of the interviewees, phenomenology while juxtaposing these with the revitalisation and sustainability concepts to tease out my findings, reflections, and recommendations. 1.8 Literature Review The review of related literature for this thesis explores written materials on adenkum music, post- colonial (notion of cultural change) music revitalisation, and music sustainability. The design I apply in reviewing related literature is criticizing previous works on adenkum, Akan female musical practices, music revitalisation, and music sustainability while building bridges between related topics to be able to identify central issues in the aforementioned areas as suggested by (Cooper et al., 2018; Creswell & Creswell, 2003). 1.8.1 Female Indigenous musical practices in Ghana and beyond. Kwasi Ampene further examines the female song traditions and the Akan people of Ghana by focusing on the nnwomkrɔ musical practice. His work explored the creative processes involved in executing these songs. He confirms that the musical practice was primarily for recreational purposes since its inception but became a commercial ensemble over the years (Ampene, 2005). 14 Finale - a music transcription software University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 I relate and compare this to Akosua Anyidoho’s contribution to the study of nnwomkrɔ in Ghanaian ethnomusicological studies. She investigates the innovations of the performance of nnwomkrɔ to understand the ways verbal art forms like the nnwomkrɔ musical practice are being modified in contemporary contexts of performance. Some of the key highlights in her writing include the factors causing the decline of nnwomkrɔ musical performances. Others include the male participation and categorisation of songs for performance by exclusive bands of men or women in the musical organisation in Ghana. She asserts that the nnwomkrɔ performance has been modernised and is now performed in various contexts, including state functions for information and entertainment. It is no longer a leisure-driven musical practice that was performed by women in rural Akan areas on leisure days to release stress and boredom. She concludes that the ambiguity in society's attitude towards change in verbal art might be the result of male conservatism, which, in turn, helps to maintain the status quo (Anyidoho, 1994). I infer and use these works to inform my analysis of the decline of the adenkum in my next chapter. I am able to lend ideas and synthesize to aid in my anaylsis of the decline and dissemination of the adenkum musical practice. Similarly, Adowa Arhine establishes and contributes to the literature on indigenous Akan female music with her work on the adzewa in the Fante society of Ghana. She contends that the adzewa is a female complementary performance to a male warrior group, known as the Asafo. Her research investigates how adzewa songs offer Fante women a way to use the musical resources available to them to address issues that may usually be deemed permissible to discuss in public as well as navigate social realities within the framework of play (agro) where women lay claim to a social license to sing about issues that normally may not be deemed permissible to discuss openly all in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 the context of agro. She concludes that gender is fluid among the Fante due to the flexibility of roles she discovers in the performance of the Adzewa (Arhine, 2016). Arhine’s work aids me to synthesize the musical and performance features of the adenkum musical practice due to the similarities in the original performance context of verbal expressionism. These inferences guide my analysis in situating the adenkum musical practice in contemporary and sociocultural gender binaries in the adenkum musical practice, as far as re-engaging the adenkum musical practice is concerned. Since the adenkum has been asserted by various scholars to be a female-ascribed genre, gender issues are inevitable in my work. Researchers such as (Ndah et. al, 2021) have investigated the performance of some traditional music in Ghana such as the warrior ensembles like Akpi and Adevu in the Logba area in the Volta region. They thought the general perception was that it is the only men who got involved in Akpi and Adevu performances. However, their findings revealed that women have talent in the performance of these traditional musical types and their related arts, just like their male counterparts. What hindered their participation in these performances was the societal restrictions imposed on them. These include taboos that forbid women from the performance of traditional music since the people believed that it could cause barrenness as well as ridicule from society towards female performers. The perception was that female performers were irresponsible wives and mothers who could not cook for their husbands and take care of their children and the household, yet strangely found time to indulge in music performances. They concluded by encouraging traditional authorities to work on removing the superstitious barriers hindering women from the performance of Akpi and Adevu musical types in the Logba area (Ndah et al, 2021). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Hence, I argue in my second chapter, that the factors stated above contribute to the decline of the adenkum musical practice. Similarly, Berta Adom investigates the Avatime women’s cradle songs to document the voices of women who, through singing to their babies, speak to society at large. A trace of this concept is found in Arhine's (2016) work of Adzewa. Bertha continues to suggest that besides the tradition of oral transmission of songs and other aspects of culture, women create their songs for their babies. Such texts are meant to reassure a baby of a mother’s love and affection but some of the songs have no direct bearing on babies at all but are rather aimed at society. However, a woman may perform any of them as a cradle song due to the concept of not being able to discuss these issues openly. Due to the patriarchal nature of Avatime society, cradle songs enable women to express thoughts about their environment that may otherwise be perceived as inappropriate. She concludes that the Avatime women’s sentiments, concerns, beliefs, and values are enshrined in cradle songs (Adom, 2006). Manolete Mora (2008) suggests that gender relations in island Southeast Asia are often characterised in terms of binary opposites or complementarities. She focuses on the T’boli music- making style and observes that it reproduces patterns of gender difference. She also asserts that it provides avenues for women to participate in aesthetic realms. In other words, T’boli music- making can be said to reproduce patterns of gender difference. She concludes with thoughts that traditional lifestyles have become disrupted, thus, the gender differentiation informed by the T’boli University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 provides an avenue for representing and reinforcing gender relations to become eminent in the T’boli’s changing cultural dynamism. (Mora, 2008). I use these assertations on female expressive arts and the socio-cultural implications of women in these indigenous societies to serve as a pivot to analyse the importance of the adenkum musical performance in the various Akan and other indigenous societies across the globe. 1.8.1.1 The history of the adenkum musical practice in Akan societies in Ghana J.H Nketia's work on Ghanaian folk songs examines some Akan female traditional musical practices like the nnwonkoro, assadua, adowa, and apoo. His work focuses on the history and socio-cultural aspects of these feminine music traditions and their performance practices. He further examines the mode of transmission of these musical traditions using oral and aural means. He states that musical practices are performed for cultural and economic purposes (Nketia, 1963). Although the adenkum music was excluded from his study, Aning(1964) subsequently fills this gap by examining the adenkum bands. He introduces the bands and discusses that women dominate the adenkum band, with a few men playing other rhythmic instruments to accompany them while the women sing. He also writes that as an instrument, it is usually played by hitting, stamping, and slapping it on the palms, forearms, and thighs. Each part of the instrument produces a different sound when used on a particular part of the body. As a musical genre, the adenkum songs, usually sung in unison, in two-part and three-part harmony, have themes of love and address other social issues in particular societies. The themes of the songs also document and educate younger ones on historical occurrences. He conducted his field research among three Akan Areas; the Fante, the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Akuapem, and the Ashanti. He further collected songs of the bands, transcribing and analysing them. There, he traced the origin of the adenkum music to belong to the Mampong of the Ashanti region due to the adenkum song texts that mostly had themes of appellations to the King Atakora of the Mampong in the Ashanti region. He also categorized the instrumental resource in the adenkum ensembles in the three areas. He also revealed that the adenkum instrument used in the various areas varied depending on the clan of the Akan people staging the performance. He concludes that the King introduces the dondo (talking drum from the north) to the people; thus, the inclusion of the talking drum is a significant part of the adenkum performance (Aning, 1964). Suhtherland-Addy (1998) opined that the wives of the Ashanti kings hailed and sang appellations to them while they played the adenkum around the 1800s. Her research focused on women and verbal arts in the Ogua Edina Area in the Central region of Ghana. She conducted her research on adenkum and Adzewa musical practices. On the adenkum, she focused on a group in Elmina called Akonkar adenkum group. Even though she could not provide the etymology of the adenkum, the group members confirmed that they inherited the adenkum musical practice from their mothers and that it had been part of their lives for over a hundred years. She also confirmed the use of the dondo in the adenkum performances and linked it to the probable cause of trade between Elmina and Kumasi during the period. Sutherland observed that the adenkum gourds these women performed with were usually wrapped with threaded beads, small stones, and seeds to create a rattle. She also mentioned that even though all the women in the ensemble played the adenkum rattle during the performance demonstration, the ensemble leader had two rattles which she performed with (SutherJand-Addy, 1998). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 Sarpong (2020)’s work on adenkum focuses on the concept of music and communication. He conducted ethnographic research in Sefwi Ntakam, a town in the North-Western part of Ghana. Sarpong’s investigations on the adenkum debunk Aning's claim about the origin of the adenkum musical practice. Sarpong provides evidence of how the women used music to communicate complex and delicate issues and address societal issues. He also gave detailed information about the etymology of the musical style from his ethnographic days in Sefwi in 2011. However, he did not thoroughly explore issues of sustainability of the adenkum music. He confirms that the said music style practitioners are old and currently perform the music in their homes for recreational practices. Granted that his information is valid, what is left to be examined is how the bands and the performance styles of adenkum are being presented in contemporary times to tease out issues of its revitalisation and sustainability as far as staging an indigenous music style in contemporary Ghanaian musical soundscape is concerned. 1.8.3 Revitalising Ghanaian female indigenous music in post-colonial Ghana. Wallace (1956) posits that members of a society engage in revitalisation movements to construct a more satisfying culture. While Levine (1993) affirms this claim and continues to suggest that music revitalisation provides an avenue to “reshape, reinterpret and redefine a musical culture." This theory was utilise by the late Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, who began his revitalisation movement in Ghanaian nationalism. Ghana had just obtained independence but various indigenous music, dance, and cultural practices were being lost and replaced due to foreign influences and religion University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 during colonial times. To reshape, redefine and reinterpret these cultural practices in order to foster their sustainability and create a more relatable avenue and context for these cultural practices, he implemented statutory policies that sought to pave the way for the establishment of various state- owned institutions to propagate and disseminate Ghana’s cultural policies through entertainment and education. These institutions include the Centre for National Culture and the Institute of Arts and Culture. From these was birthed the Institute of African Studies at the University of Ghana and The Ghana Dance Ensemble (GDE) at the School of Performing Arts (SPA) as a means of propagating Ghanaian culture into the Ghanaian education system. Others include the Centre for National Culture in Accra, Cape Coast, and National Theatre (Botwe-Asamoah, 2013; Schauert, 2015). My focus thus remains on the GDE for my research. I synthesize Titon (2009)’s assertation about applying sustainability to music, so as to sustain people making music in Nkrumah’s statutory cultural policies to contribute to sustaining Ghana’s cultural practices. Through his established institutions, Ghanaians can reconnect and reclaim their history and heritage while providing the citizens with an identity. 1.9 Theoretical framework This study explores how the emerging adenkum ensembles present the performance practices of adenkum music to understand the revitalisation processes and issues of its sustainability. The theories of sustainability and revitalisation frame the research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 1.9.1 Music revitalisation. The literal meaning of revitalisation is to bring life to something or an idea. Anthony Wallace published a paper called "Revitalisation Movements" in 1956 to describe how cultures change themselves. He describes a revitalisation movement as an organised conscious effort by members of a society to construct a more satisfying culture" (Wallace, 1956). Levine (1993) argues that "music revitalisation has been a strategy for cultural survival..... It is a conscious effort made by the members of a community to construct a more satisfying culture. It provides an avenue to reshape, reinterpret and redefine a musical culture" (Levine, 1993). Livingston defines music revival as any social movement to preserve a musical tradition believed to be declining or completely relegated to the past. She also proposed a model or factors that scholars should use to help understand the revival of a particular music phenomenon (Livingston, 1999; 2016). I used a few of the points to guide and help analyse this work. “1. An individual or small group of "core revivalists:" - This informs the use and choice of the case studies, which is be examined in my third chapter. The case studies used will aid in my analysis of how various individuals are the reasons why the adenkum is being revitalized. “2. Revival informants and/or original sources (e.g., historical sound recording)”.: – This informs the use of primary sources to provide information passed down through oral tradition, hence the use of personal interviews. It also informs my visits to the JH Nketia Archives at the Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, to gather materials and information on the adenkum. This is also exemplified through my visits to the various research areas where adenkum is being practiced. “3. A revivalist ideology and discourse.” University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 Even though Justyna Olko and Julia Sallabank’s work on revitalisation was geared towards languages, they assert that connecting with the past may not alone be a sufficient motivation for instigators to revitalise, but understanding history and heritage is an important part of claiming identity. They also provide other areas of motivation for embarking on revitalisation movements; these include healing and well-being, building community and social change, knowledge, and culture as well as cognitive benefits (Olko & Sallabank, 2021). I infer from this idea which is employed in my theoretical framework to analyse this work, i.e., revitalisation and sustainability. Sunu Doe agrees with Levine (1993) that revitalisation means to reshape, reinterpret and/or redefine, as his research used an action research approach in applied ethnomusicology to understand how palm wine music is revitalised. He instigated the Nsadwase performance circle, which served as an avenue to sustain palm-wine music and revive it in contemporary Ghanaian musical soundscape (Sunu Doe, 2020). This framework highlights my idea of examining the emerging adenkum ensembles as a conscious way of understanding how they re-engage the adenkum musical practice in contemporary times. This will help me to understand how the musical practice is revitalised to understand its sustainability issues. 1.9.2 Music Sustainability The concepts of ‘sustenance’ and ‘sustainability’ have been thoroughly argued and explained in literature and various contexts. Various literature on music sustainability focuses on how various musical practices in various contexts can be maintained. Music literature on sustainability has also covered the importance of safeguarding various musical traditions in our sociocultural lives. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 The dictionary also differentiates that when the words ‘sustenance’ and ‘sustainability’ are being used as nouns, the difference is that, "sustainability is the ability to sustain something while sustenance is something that provides support or nourishment." For comprehensive purposes of my thesis, the word ‘sustenance’ may be used occasionally as an adverb to qualify and modify the word ‘sustainability’. Therewith, the main aim of my research focuses on how the adenkum musical practice is being sustained or maintained in contemporary contexts. I have been able to achieve this by locating and outlining particular resources, strategies, and related arguments that revealed how various ensembles sustain the adenkum music which revitalises and ensures the continuity of the adenkum musical tradition even in contemporary Ghanaian music soundscape. Even though this research was not perceived to be an advocacy, or under the auspices of applied ethnomusicology (Harrison et al., 2010), by virtue of understanding the performance practices of the adenkum and how it is being sustained provides and highlights the opportunity to explore my interest in critical theory of (Regelski, 1994) and applied ethnomusicology. This will subsequently inform my further studies on vying for advocacy of the adenkum by applying all the knowledge and findings discovered in this first stage of my research work. Titon (2009) suggests that, "applying sustainability to music is important because even though music is not a natural resource like air and water, it is a biocultural resource and a product of human life....... Therefore, sustaining music means to sustain people making music." We reconnect and reclaim our history, and provide a people with an identity. (Titon, 2009) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 Catherine Grant defines music sustainability as the ability of a music genre to endure without implications of either a static tradition or preservationist bearing (Grant, 2013). However, (Gyekye, 1997) argues that "what is not easy to decide, however, is how long a practice or belief must last for it to mature or to be regarded as tradition." He then states that to call a particular cultural value or social practice a tradition, it should have been practiced by and for about three generations, which is approximately 90 years considering our generation has a life span of over 30 years according to the description in the thesis. He then describes tradition as any cultural product created by a past generation and is still practiced and preserved, whether in part or whole, by the successive generation, which is still being maintained to the present. With these inferences, my findings from investigations on adenkum practices over the last half- century would suggest if the music style qualifies to be called a 'tradition' or not. Grant and Titon's concept of sustainability will facilitate my understanding of how the performance practices of adenkum have evolved over the last half-century. I also consider (Kubik, 1986) and (Lomax, 1962) suggestions on how to approach the study of musical practices. Both authors suggest that the cultural history of the society and the particular music context should be examined. Therefore, the Akan and the socio-cultural context of the origin of the adenkum music performance will be examined to facilitate my understanding of the adenkum musical practice in the Akan society. I will subsequently engage Titon (2009)’s idea of the significance of music sustainability as a way to sustain the people performing the music. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 However, Kagan & Kirchberg (2016) also question the credibility of studies on music sustainability. They assert that a specific focus on music is lacking in sustainability science. They investigate the specific potentials of music and its importance. Some of their findings include group cohesion and social creativity. They suggest that both of these are important resources for organisational resilience. Their findings and conclusions subsequently contribute to the cultural aspects of sustainability in communities, organisations, and society (Kagan & Kirchberg, 2016). Schippers & Grant’s (2016) investigate and develop a systematic framework (the scientific approach as stated by Kagan & Kirchberg), to help understand the main forces impacting music sustainability in many cultures. They categorised them into five domains, as so: 1 . Systems of learning music: This domain assesses the learning processes that are central to acquiring music knowledge to facilitate the sustainability of various music cultures. This helps to broaden my scope of merging the revitalization processes of the adenkum music practice for issues of sustainability in this research project. This domain aids my understanding of the learning process of the adenkum. I explore various ways in which the adenkum musical tradition is assimilated by various practitioners for issues of its sustainability. The case studies used also provide the platform to view this through the lens of learning the adenkum musical tradition in established and non-established institutions. 2. Musicians and communities: This domain aids the researcher in examining the roles and interactions of musicians within their communities. Hence, I am able to merge the career life of some of the practitioners, to understand how their career life informs their musical practices and their choice of repertoire in their respective groups. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 3. The "Contexts and Constructs" domain explores how social and cultural factors influence musical traditions, including factors like personal and societal preferences, aesthetics, identity, gender, and the often underestimated role of prestige. Here, analysing the career life of the various adenkum practioneers helps in my understanding of the ways in which their socialization in reflected in their various ways of the adenkum revitalization. 4. The "Regulations and Infrastructure" domain focuses on the physical aspects of music, such as venues and resources required for music to thrive. It also assesses the impact of regulations on music, including grants, artists' rights, copyright laws, and challenges arising from authoritarian regimes or civil unrest. 5. Media and the industry. This domain addresses the wide range of dissemination and commercial music industry aspects of music other aspects also include musical survival and the impact of technology on music and the media at large. (Schippers & Grant, 2016). In my subsequent chapters, I use this domain in my analysis of the ways in which the practitioners of the adenkum music use social media as a platform to revitalize the adenkum by creating various awareness of the history, performance practices, and other contextual aspects of the adenkum. The technological advantage of social media helps to spread the musical tradition to various parts of the world with a click of a button. The information is also stored in the cloud web which will hence be available for many years to come. 1.10 Limitations of the Study The main limitation I encountered in my research was the absence of in-depth literature on adenkum. As a result, I over-depended on Aning (1964), Sarpong (2020), and Sutherland Addy (1998) due to the scanty written materials on the adenkum. However, contact with the adenkum University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 resource persons and interactions with the ensembles provided me with enough relevant information needed for this research. In addition, due to the unpopular nature of the adenkum musical practice compared to adowa and nnwomkrɔ, I always had to explain the nature and context of the adenkum musical practice to my interviewees to have logical interactions with them. 1.11 Organisation of the study The format of the presentation of the thesis for the music department at the University of Ghana is five chapters. The first chapter includes the research purpose, objectives, methodology, and literature review, while the last chapter focuses on findings, conclusions, and recommendations. My first chapter, therefore, covered my research objectives and motivations, which were primarily to examine various ensembles to understand how they re-engage the adenkum musical practice to revitalise and sustain its contemporary Ghanaian musical soundscape. I also gave a detailed account of my methodology and also devoted a section to reviewing, directly and indirectly, related literature to this work while framing it within my theories of revitalisation and sustainability. The second chapter examined the historical background of women in indigenous Akan performance spaces to understand the socio-cultural significance of their presence in the indigenous musical practices in Akan communities. It further explored the origin, etymology, and performance practices of the adenkum musical tradition to understand its relevance to its practitioners in their respective Akan indigenous societies. I also engaged existing literature on University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 adenkum as well as oral accounts to tease out the origin, etymology, and performance practices of the adenkum musical practice. This aided me in tracing the dissemination and decline of the adenkum musical practice in its origin and performance contexts. The third chapter discussed how the adenkum musical practice is being revitalised, ensuring its sustenance. To achieve this, I examined the concept of revitalisation in Ghanaian nationalism which led me to examine and partition my case studies into two categories; Statutory and non- statutory. This influenced the choice of my two case studies, which are; the Ghana Dance Ensemble (GDE), situated on the University of Ghana (UG) campus (Statutory), and the Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensemble (DE), on the University of Education, Winneba (UWE) campus (Non-Statutory). In chapter four, I discussed the pertinent issues that emerge as a result of the revitalisation and sustainability of the adenkum musical practice by the selected ensembles. From there, I was able to draw rational conclusions and provide recommendations in the last chapter. Through the qualitative method, case study approach used, and the research tools applied, I was able to fulfill the aim and objectives of my research, to understand how the Ghana Dance and Dɔkɔdɔkɔ Ensembles re-engage the adenkum musical practice to revitalise and subsequently sustain it. The revitalisation, sustainability, and recontextualisation theories also helped make reasonable arguments and rational conclusions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 CHAPTER TWO WOMEN AND THE ADENKUM MUSICAL TRADITION OF THE AKAN This chapter examines the historical background of women in indigenous Akan performance spaces to understand the socio-cultural significance of their presence in the indigenous musical practices of Akan communities. It further explores the origin, etymology, and cultural practices of the adenkum musical practice to trace the decline in its performance and also to understand its relevance to its practitioners in their respective Akan indigenous societies. 2.1 History of women in indigenous Akan musical practices. Various Ghanaian literature have concluded that women in Akan indigenous societies play significant roles in the socio-cultural life of their communities. I posit that women are revered in the Akan community because of the Akan mythology of creation. They believe that creation is a birthing process; that is, pregnancy and birthing, which can only be biologically made possible by a woman. In effect, the political system of the Akan is headed by a Queen mother (Nana Hemaa) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 who appoints chiefs and members of the court. The political system is made up of several ranks which come with different responsibilities to the different people based on their ranks. However, I grew up learning that women in various indigenous contexts or spaces were forbidden from expressing themselves verbally in various performance contexts. The primary means of self- expression for women in these spaces, therefore, was through the use of songs and other musical practices, probably as a result of the influx of hegemonic masculinity practices in the various communities (Donaldson, 1993; Morrell et al., 2012). Other perspectives, like (Jones, 1993) elaborate on the role of women in warfare during the nineteenth century in the Gold Coast, drawing examples from the Fante/Akan community. He observes that even though women rarely appeared on the battlegrounds, they played a significant role as a support system to motivate their men. The 'mombomme' ceremony was introduced, which involved rituals like dance, prayer, praise and execration, symbolism, obscenity, and inversion. These women subjected themselves to these rituals while their husbands and brothers were at war. The activities displayed in these rituals were believed to have magical significance in helping the men defeat their enemies. If they lost the war, it meant that the women did not carry out certain rituals at the time they should have. In other words, the inversion and symbolic rituals the women practiced complemented the men in war (Jones, 1993). Some common Akan female indigenous music styles include nnwomkrɔ, adowa, adzewa, apoa, and adenkum (Ampene, 2005; Nketia, 1963). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 During my field investigations, I discovered that Agya Sei Korankye's mother, the late Mary Abena Korankyewaa, is rumored to hail from a musical family in the Sefwi Ntakam community that practices various musical traditions like the sɛprɛwa and adenkum. I, therefore, interviewed her, fortunately, before her demise as well as Agya Sei Korankye himself, his nephew, Nana Twum Osei Barima, and his daughter, Angela Abena Serwaa Korankye15 on the etymology and history of the adenkum musical practice since they seem to have created a generational chain of adenkum performers. Agya Sei Korankye and his now, late mother, Mary Abena Korankyewaa gave their opinion on the emergence of women in indigenous music when I interviewed them. They both talked about the times when there were many wars in the Gold Coast. Agya Sei stated that men were trained to fight in wars while women were obliged to stay at home, take care of the children, and run the household. Music was one of the means many women entertained themselves. They also entertained their children and taught them moral values through music lullabies and children's songs. There were also special songs for special occasions to groom and usher young people into adulthood. Apart from these musical functions, women sang and chanted prayers to support their husbands and brothers at war. 15 Angela Abena Serwaa Korankye – Daughter of Agya Sei Korankye University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 Agya Sei also refers to the Bible, where women sang and chanted praise songs when men were victorious in war. “When the men were returning home after David killed the Philistine, the women came out from all the towns of Israel to meet King Saul with singing and dancing, with joyful songs and with timbrels and lyres.” (1st Samuel 18:6, New International Version). His suggestion supports Jones (1993) where women complimented men by creating or inverting roles, praying, and going through several rituals to support their husbands and brothers while they were at war. Agya Sei states that the adenkum, therefore, was probably also discovered during war periods, probably due to experimental exploits by women to find a percussive device to support their singing since they were banned from handling drums and other percussive instruments. The context of music-making in the Akan society is primarily for religious, recreational, economic, and political activities (Nketia, 1974). Every occasion comes with its type of music, which has a different and specific function; that is to say that most of the musical activities in the Akan areas are functional. Bands are formed in the communities to cater for the various musical activities, but the most important ones are their Abofuo (Hunters) and Asafo (warriors) organisations, even though many people usually have informal musical activities and informal spaces. 2.2 Context of origin of the adenkum There have been several contentions about what adenkum is. As stated earlier in my introductory chapter, Nketia (1963), Aning (1964), Suhtherland-Addy (1998), and Sarpong (2020) confirm that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 adenkum is a type of genre, a musical instrument, and a type of dance that is performed by older women in some Akan speaking areas of Ghana. My observations about the adenkum musical practice reflect that the instrument, songs, and dance is named after the adenkum instrument. It is made from a calabash gourd with a long neck and two openings at each end. For my research, I will refer to the adenkum musical instrument, the songs, and the dance collectively as “a musical practice” for easy comprehension. I will also occasionally refer to the adenkum instrument as the “adenkum gourd” for comprehensive effect. As mentioned earlier, Aning (1964) traced the origin of the adenkum to have emerged among Mampong in the Ashanti region of Ghana, around the 1800s. Sutherland-Addy (1998) supports Aning’s claim and analyses women’s expressive arts in the Central region of Ghana. Sarpong (2020) subsequently opined that his research led him to believe that the adenkum musical practice traces its origin to the Sefwi Ntakam people. This is because, unlike the other Akan areas, the Sefwi Ntakam history curator was able to provide him with the myth or legend about the adenkum from which he was able to trace the etymology of the adenkum. Agya Sei Korankye and his mother, Mary Abena Korankyewaa’s account of the era of the emergence of the adenkum instrument is similar. Even though they admit that they are unaware of the specific time or period in which the musical tradition sprung up, as Sarpong (2020) stated, the era of the origin of the adenkum instrument was around the 1800s, evidently the era of colonialism and wars in the Gold Coast. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 This supportive or complementary role still exists in sports, among other fields. An example is when cheerleaders sing and dance to motivate basketball players and brass bands as they play in America and other parts of the world. 2.3 Etymology of adenkum According to Sarpong (2020), the curator of history in the Sefwi Ntakam area narrated to him the legend or myth about the adenkum instrument, from which the etymology of the adenkum came about. He wrote, In an oral account, Gilbert Kwadwo Kobiri (chief curator of history and culture in the Sefwi province) opined that the adenkum instrument was discovered by an anonymous 65-year- old woman around 1805. She lived in a small village called Sefwi-Yawkuro, a suburb of Sefwi-Bodi, and decided to plant seeds of a fruit locally known as frɛ (Sefwi dialect). She received the seeds as a gift from her grandmother on her deathbed and decided to plant them after her death. The frɛ outwardly resembles a watermelon but is internally dissimilar. The primary distinction is in their preparation and consumption; watermelon is eaten raw whilst frɛ is cooked before eaten. According to the myth, after seven weeks of planting, the woman saw a different product than the frɛ. At the time, superstition was common and she could easily be associated with an evil spirit. Therefore, in order to escape the suspicion that she was a witch, she rushed to inform her people about what she had seen, which she termed musue, a Sefwi word which is translated as "abomination" in English……………Strangely, the report rather projected her as a strange woman and she was shamelessly labeled as a witch……... This compelled most of the natives to distance themselves from the woman. In effect, the woman was banished from the community. (Sarpong, 2020, p. 26-27) He further documented that the woman did not lose hope but emptied the gourd by making two openings at each end to eject the edible substance out of the gourd even though she did not consume University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 it. After it dried, she experimented with the empty gourd and realised it created different sounds when struck on various body parts. She then named it, “ɔde gua nu” (Sefwi dialect) or “adeԑ yi deԑ ԑgye gum” (Twi dialect), which literarily translates as, “this thing makes a “gum” sound. This means "self-resounding instrument" in the English language. Sarpong (2020) further revealed that what we hear as ‘adenkum’ is an adulterated version of the “odeguanu” in the Sefwi dialect, which is now casually pronounced “adengum” through originality and to claim ownership of the instrument. Hence, “adenkum” as a gourd-based musical instrument is peculiar to the Sefwi people of Ghana. (Sarpong, 2020). I thereby posit, that the name ‘adenkum’ emerged through trade and migration between the Sefwi people and the other Akan groups that performed the adenkum. I will back his findings with data from my personal experience visiting Elmina in the Central region to interview some adenkum performers. The performers could not tell me precisely the etymology of adenkum, but rather, “yɛbɛ to yɛ” “which translates, “we came to meet it,” as their mothers thought them. In answering the question about the etymology of adenkum, Agya Sei formulates his theory from how the name for the Seprewa instrument was formed, which is a three-word syllable; se-pre-wa. Which translates, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 Se- to speak, pre- to touch or play, wa- something small. Meaning, "something small that speaks when touched or plucked". He states that the adenkum could also be coined from two words, Adie, Kum. Adie- something, kum- the sound or exclamation the instrument makes when struck; kum. Meaning, "something that makes the 'Kum' sound". He also mentioned, that, in the past, many of such instruments were discovered during the war periods, and the individuals or soldiers who chanced upon such instruments named them by their nature and how they could identify or recognise them. This sparked the similarities between Sarpong (2020)’s information about the adenkum’s etymology and that of Agya Sei and his mother’s. On the contrary, his nephew, Nana Osei Twum, also describes the etymology of the instrument as an Akan word that he is familiar with. He states that the adenkum is an Akan word that means "long and nice,"; a popular Akan word used to describe the feminine beauty of a woman's neck, which is slender and beautifully adorned with round lines. He also shares a similar account concerning the origin and history of the adenkum with his uncle, Agya Sei Korankye. He also referred to women's roles during warfare as the main reason the adenkum became a social practice. He stated that his grandmother, who was once an active singer, dancer, and instrumentalist in her time, recounted this oral information to him as a teenager. He also stated that she confirmed that women were not allowed to play percussive instruments due to fear of possible contamination University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 through their menstrual cycle or blood (Adom, 2006; Collins, 1989). The women, therefore, improvised the use of the adenkum instrument to accompany themselves while they sang prayers and chants for the men during warfare. I agree that the adenkum musical practice originated from the Sefwi Ntakam community. This is because, unlike them, none of the resource persons from the other Akan areas could trace the origin of the musical practice. The Sefwi people also provided a myth about the adenkum instrument and its original context of performance. I propose, that the main character in the myth about the adenkum invented the surrogate feature of the gourd to be able to communicate with the other women in the society in a coded language since she was banned from the community; which subsequently became a norm amongst the women in the town to be able to express their sentiments on sensitive issues using the speech surrogate language (Arhine, 2009; Nketia, 1974). This influenced and characterised it as a feminine musical practice. Sarpong (2020) also posits that due to the exposure of the thighs when playing the instrument, young women and men were not permitted in this performance space, leaving it for the older women. However, the musical practice has evolved over the years and is now open to any gender, age, or race due to improvisation, modernity, and re-contextualisation of the performance practice. It should also be noted; however, that data collected from my interviews revealed that the adenkum hollow gourd is peculiar to the people of the Sefwi Ntakam area and the Asante. The current performers in the Fante land, however, could not recognise or relate to the adenkum instrument University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 but could instead perform some songs they know as adenkum. Even though they could trace a link to the source of the music and dance through trade and migration, they could not provide me with any history, etymology, or performance context of the adenkum. Having considered all the accounts and theories formulated about the adenkum's etymology and origin, I side with Agya Sei and Sarpong (2020)’s accounts due to the similarities in their description and having had both accounts from the Sefwi Ntakam origin. The closest valid etymology of the adenkum is from the Sefwi dialect, Adengum. Kindly see Sarpong (2020) for further studies and notes on the adenkum gourd, instrumental resource information, and other details on the instrument. He also conducted extensive research on the organology and ecology of the adenkum in his thesis. 2.4 Performance practices of adenkum The free music dictionary defines performance practice as the study of “musical techniques employed in specific musical genres during specific musical eras”. Quite often, performance practice refers to techniques that are implied, and not written or notated. https://www.freemusicdictionary.com/definition/performance-practice/. However, Gerard Behague in his recent writing on performance and listener music analysis asserts that performance practice has tended to be treated separately from the main musical parameters that retain the analyst's attention. Yet performance practice is an essential aspect of the concerns of researchers who work with orally transmitted repertories. A clear example is the adenkum, thus, he continues to clarify that the concept of performance practice needs to be expanded because the study of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://www.freemusicdictionary.com/definition/performance-practice/ 43 performance is inseparable from musical analysis as a whole, regardless of the specific tradition or the historical period under consideration. He continues to mention that Steven Feld proposed six broad areas of approaching performance practice in musical studies in totality. These areas were: competence, form, performance, environment, theory, value and equality. Some of the tools for studying performance practice include primary sources such as manuscripts, instruction books, historical accounts of performances, and surviving examples of musical instruments, images and iconographical sources (Béhague, 2006; Béhague & Béhague, 1984). Bowen further supports this in his writing on a similar area of performance practice and performance analysis. He mentions that performance practice is the subdiscipline of musicology that studies performance, and how performance was practised (Bowen, 1996). The approaches: competence, form, performance, environment, theory, value and equality have therefore been considered. The following information about the adenkum, such as the adenkum instrument, the songs dance, context, theory, and techniques in playing the adenkum instrument, and other vital information on adenkum music will reveal the use of the model or approach employed in studying the performance practice of the adenkum, as well as the sample ensembles used for the case studies. 2.4.1 The adenkum musical instrument. As mentioned earlier, Aning (1964) spells out the various instrumental resources of the adenkum ensemble in the various areas of his study. He concludes that even though the adenkum is the principal instrument in the respective ensembles, the style, the shape of the gourd, and performance University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 practices differ from society to society in the Akan societies where he conducted his study. Below are the classifications. Table 1(Adenkum Classifications). Larteh adenkum (round container type) Kumasi adenkum (hollow type), castanet Elmina adenkum(enmeshed type), hourglass drum(dondo) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 Image 3 . adenkum Hollow type. (Photo from google images.) Image 4. Enmeshed type. (Photo from google images.) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 Image 5. Round container type. (Photo from google images.) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 The Sefwi Ntakam adenkum group shared similar traits of performance practice and instrumental resources with the Asante. Sarpong then cites Nketia (1974) in classifying the adenkum instrument. "All adenkum groups share common musical instruments that are categorized within the classification of idiophones and membranophones. adenkum is the primary instrument of the ensemble. It falls under the category of idiophones……” (Sarpong,2020, p.39). In an interview with Agya Sei Korankye, who also hails from the Sefwi Ntakam community, he mentions that the gourd can potentially replace a contemporary drum set, depending on how it is played, which is usually by hitting, stamping, and slapping it in the palms, forearm, and thighs. Each part of the instrument produces a different sound when used on a particular part of the body. Through my participation in the rehearsals of the current ensembles that perform adenkum, I can confirm this. Sarpong (2020) references Nketia (1974) in the classification of the adenkum musical instrument as follows: According to (Nketia,1974), the tip of the gourd is carved in an open-ended manner and cupped by the free hand during performance. A small hole is also cut at the base of the gourd for varying degrees of tone production by a performer. Thus, a tone is produced when the carved gourd is struck against the bare thigh. The sound produced is described as ‘tim’ from the drum language 41 syllables. Similarly, another tone is produced when the tip is hit against the cupped palm. This is labelled as ‘dum’ according to the drum language syllables. Also, a sound is made when the instrument is smashed against the arm (either left or right). The sound produced is termed ‘ta’ from the drum language syllables. Again, a sound is produced when the palm is smashed or brushed against the gourd. This is labelled as ‘ti’ in line with the drum language syllable. Lastly, a sound is made when the bulbous edge is hit with the fingers, which is termed ‘pa’ according to the drum language syllables. Hence, the adenkum instrument manifests five main timbres described as dum, tim, ta, ti, and pa according to Ghanaian drum language syllables. (Sarpong, 2020, p.41) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 The adenkum instrument also has a speech surrogate feature that was and is still being used by its practitioners to communicate incognito. Sarpong (2020) dedicates his thesis to analysing the adenkum as a communicative tool. The adenkum players used these means of coded communication skills to address sensitive issues that were difficult to express or otherwise forbidden to say in the specific societies, confirming my earlier claim that the most viable means of self-expression among women in the indigenous communities was through musical practices. In order to create a focal point for my analysis, I gear my investigations and data analysis on the hollow gourd type, which is known to be performed by the Sefwi and the Asante. It is also crucial to note that the case studies I examine in my subsequent chapters also perform the adenkum with the hollow gourd type. That is to say that the case studies I examine in my thesis perform the adenkum musical tradition by the Sefwi and the Asante, who use the adenkum hollow gourd. What separates the adenkum from the many Akan female musical examples is its customised strand and the nature of the songs, the instrument used, and its dances, all being called adenkum. Even though a variety of Ghanaian musical practices have this theme, with regards to similar names for their dance and musical traditions, what makes the adenkum different is the calabash gourd itself being named adenkum with women dominating in its performance practice. The unique nature of the customised adenkum ensemble brings to it a brand identity that promises a high chance of creating a market niche with a suitable plan in place. Even though the other ensembles may have a strict regimen of particular percussive instruments used, the changing times University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 and contextual circumstances can cause them to adjust and restructure. The adenkum, therefore, is most likely to retain consistency because of the use and dominance of the adenkum instrument. 2.4.2 The techniques involved in playing the adenkum. Even though Aning (1964) and Sarpong (2020) wrote about the techniques of playing the instrument and other performance practices, I will add to it by contributing what I learned during my participant observations in the adenkum ensembles and interviews with the adenkum practitioners. Angela Abena Serwaa Korankye (Mary Abena Korankyewaa’s granddaughter), who, in my opinion, is currently one of the most reliable sources of information on the adenkum and an embodiment of the adenkum music practice, revealed to me in an interview the appropriate and standard adenkum rhythms, variations, and techniques involved in playing, as her grandmother taught her. She demonstrated about six main rhythmic variations: ‘Kotwoletwa’, ‘Me kunu fira ntoma pa’a, sika’.., ‘Wo dɔ me papa a, me dɔ wo’, ‘ kwantikiti kensuo’, ‘Kapenta wobɛte atɔ nsuo'm’, ‘gyese abain mu’. Below is a guide key. Table 2. Names of Adenkum rhythm variations.