ADOPTION OF ANIMAL TRACTION TECHNOLOGY IN 
THE BUILSA DISTRICT OF 
UPPER EAST REGION OF GHANA
BY
CHARLES AKANGOA AKPEINTUIK
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, 
LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR 
THE AWARD OF M.PHIL AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION DEGREE
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
LEGON 
DECEMBER 2003
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£374159
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DECLARATION
•i, CHARLES -AKANGOA AKPEINTUIK, do hereby declare that the materials covered in 
this thesis are the results of my own investigations, which was supervised by Dr. P. B. 
Atengdem. None of the materials contained herein, has been presented either in whole or in 
part for a degree of this University or elsewhere. Work by other authors, which served as 
sourcesy&f information have duly been acknowledged by references to them.
]
(SUPERVISOR)
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DEDICATION
Behind every successful man is a woman. This work is dedicated to my beloved wife, Mrs. 
Amankai Akangoa, my children, Agollie, Abayamibanoapo, Asupagsalie and 
Aninakanmwailewai.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I first of all give thanks to the Almighty God for giving me the strength and ability to 
achieve this objective.
I wish to express my sincerest gratitude to my dedicated Supervisor, Dr. P. B. Atengdem 
whose critical and constructive advice has made this thesis a success. To him, I have to say 
"Kobiik aem kalejik akaro allege mabiik (Fi) aen ma mwegsi. Nkaliya. Ma nye fi gyeam. 
Bob dila atanla. Fe zuk ale peinte agaam mway".
I also wish to express my gratitude and thanks to Dr. F. Y. M. Fiadjoe, Dr. O. Sakyi-Dawson 
and Mr. J. N. Anaglo, all lecturers at the Department of Agricultural Extension for their 
guidance and encouragement during the study.
Initially, Mr. Dankyi Boateng was my supervisor but had to leave for further studies. I am 
grateful to him. May God bless him in his studies.
I thank Mr. James Madakena, Madam Beatrice Manko and all the supporting staff of the 
Department of Agric Extension for their cordiality and support.
My course mates, Francis Oyeh, Ababu Afelibiik and Victoria L. Tsekpo deserve special 
gratitude for the friendly manner we shared experiences and supported each other. Especially, 
Ababu Afelibiik who has instilled in me the culture of confidence and endurance.
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I am highly indebted to Mr. Thomas Anaam of the Ministry of Ports, Harbours and 
Railways, Accra, for his diverse assistance without which this thesis would not have been 
successful. "Tom! Ma nye gyeam. Won le maafo".
My sincerest thanks are also due Mr. & Mrs. Aputiik of Ghana Education Service, Sandema 
for accommodating me during my data collection.
I am also grateful to Dr. Quist, district director of Agriculture, Sandema, and his staff 
especially Messrs. Francis Alando, Martin Akanko, Edward Achumbey and Cletus Amodiok, 
for their co-operation and support. The farmers of Builsa Traditional Area are also 
acknowledged for their patience and understanding during the data collection.
The chief of Sandema, Nab Ayieta Azantilow and Messrs. Johnson Atekinla of Sandema 
Youth Centre and Cliff Trowell, Program Manager - Partners in Rural Development, Ottawa, 
Canada also deserve acknowledgement for providing me with some information on the 
history of animal traction in the Builsa District.
Special gratitude goes to Messrs. Stephen Agalic of MoFA, Tamale and Thomas Anisapo of 
Animal research, SARI, Tamale, for their moral support.
Finally, I wish to express my sincerest gratitude and thanks to my lovely, dedicated and 
dutiful wife and children for their prayers and patience during my study at the University of 
Ghana, Legon. To them I say "Mi gyeanta nga meena ka nama ale soa".
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ABSTRACT
The Builsa district is a peasant farming community. It had a problem of recurrent food 
shortage. The use of animal traction was one of the suggested solutions to this problem, 
hence its introduction in 1937. Reports suggested its low adoption. The study was to verify 
the veracity and the causes of the low adoption. A conceptual framework was developed. The 
concepts include: the farmers' sieve system, characteristics of animal traction technology and 
environmental influences.
Adoption was found to be high (91%). At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed 
test showed no significant difference by ages, family size, ownership of donkeys, credit 
received, use of lecture method of training, demonstration/lectures and demonstration/group 
discussion categories and adoption. Those variables that showed significant difference 
include ownership of cattle, farm size, those who received training in AT, those who received 
training through demonstration alone and those who received training through group 
discussion alone.
It is recommended that when introducing a new technology into a peasant farming 
community like the Builsa District beneficiaries should express the need for the technology.
Traditional leaders should be involved. Financial institutions should get to the doorsteps of 
farmers and educate them, on how to access credit facilities.
Further research should look into the effects of the use of AT on the environment and 
schooling in the study area.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Declaration ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abstract vi
Table of Contents vii
List of Tables xiii
List of Figures xv
Abbreviations xvi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background Information 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Research Questions 5
1.4 Hypothesis 5
1.5 Main Objective 5
1.6 Specific Objectives 6
1.7 Key Concepts of the Research Study 6
1.7.1 Technology 6
1.7.2 Animal traction technology 7
1.7.3 Adoption o f technology 7
1.7.4 Communication of information o f a technology
for adoption. 8
1.7.5 Extension 8
1.7.6 Extension methods 9
1.8 Conceptual framework 10
1.9 Significance of the study in the Builsa District 12
CHAPTER TWO: BACKGROUND OF STUDY AREA
2.0 Introduction 14
2.1 Location 14
2.2 Population 14
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2.3 Age Distribution
2.4 Distribution of Households by size
2.5 Topography
2.6 Climate
2.7 Soils
2.8 Vegetation
2.9 Economic Activities
2.10 Farming System
2.11 Agricultural Extension
14
15
15
15
16 
16 
17
17
18
CHAPTER THREE: THE HISTORY OF ANIMAL 
TRACTION IN GHANA
3.0 Introduction 19
3.1 Origin of Animal Traction 19
3.2 The Genesis of AT in Ghana 19
3.3 Current state of AT in Ghana 21
3.4 A historical development of AT in the Builsa District 21
3.4.1 Pre-Independence 21
3.4.2 Post Independence 25
CHAPTER FOUR: LITERATURE REVIEW
4.0 Introduction 27
4.1 Meaning of Animal Traction 27
4.2 Contribution of AT to Agricultural Development 28
4.2.1 Animal Traction and Crop Yields 28
4.2.2 Animal Traction and Farming Systems o f Farmers 28
4.2.3 Animal Traction and Farmer Preferences for animals
4.2.4 Animal Traction and Different Ages and
29
Gender o f Farmers 29
4.2.5 Animal Traction and Ownership o f Draft Animals 30
4.2.6 Animal Traction and Quality o f life o f Farmers 31
4.2.7 Animal Traction and Animal Population 31
4.3 Meaning of Communication 31
4.4 Adoption and the adoption process 34
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4.5 Meaning of Extension 36
4.6 Extension Agent and Technology Transfer 40
4.7 Extension Teaching Methods and Adoption 41
4.8 Technology Characteristics and Adoption 43
4.8.1 Relative Advantage o f the Technology 44
4.8.2 Compatibility o f Technology 44
4.8.3 Complexity o f the Technology 45
4.8.4 Trialability o f the Technology 45
4.8.5 Observability o f the Technology 45
4.9 Socio-economic Factors and Adoption 45
4.10 Socio-cultural Factors and Adoption 46
4.11 Constraints to the Adoption of AT Technology 46
CHAPTER FIVE: METHODOLOGY
5.0 Introduction 49
5.1 Research design 50
5.2 Population of the study 50
5.3 Procedure and selection of sample 50
5.4 Agricultural Extension Agents (AEAs) 52
5.5 Instrument development 52
5.6 Data gathering process 54
5.6.1 Initial Arrangements 54
5.6.2 Interview Schedule 54
5.6.3 Group Discussion 55
5.7 Data Management 55
5.8 Storage and Handling of Data 56
5.9 Data Analysis 56
CHATPER SIX : CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY POPULATION
6.0 Introduction 58
6.1 Characteristics of Farmers 58
6.1.1 Personal Characteristics 58
6.1.2 Socio-economic characteristics 62
6.1.3 Socio-cultural characteristics 70
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6.1.4 Summary: Characteristics o f Farmers 74
6.2 Characteristics of Extension Agents 75
6.2.1 Number o f In-service Trainings 76
6.2.2 Duration o f In-service Training 76
6.2.3 Source o f In-service Training 77
6.2.4 Methods used in Training AEAs 77
6.2.5 Reasons for inability o f AEAs to make visits
to Farmers 78
6.2.6 Problems farmers face in adoption of
animal traction 78
6.2.7 Summary: Characteristics o f Extension Agents 79
CHAPTER SEVEN : EXTENSION METHODS USED IN PROMOTING 
ANIMAL TRACTION
7.0 Introduction 81
7.1 Awareness of Animal Traction (AT) 82
7.2 Source of Awareness 82
7.3 Source of Training 83
7.4 Methods Used in Training 84
7.5 Duration of training 85
7.6 Adequacy of training 86
7.7 Whether respondents were trained in groups 87
7.8 Level of respondent’s participation in bullock
handling during the training 87
7.9 Level of respondent’s participation in yoking and
Nose ringing 87
7.10 Follow-up visits by trainers 88
7.11 Frequency of visits by AEAs 88
7.12 Effectiveness of Extension Methods 88
7.13 Factors hindering the adoption of animal traction 90
7.14 Summary: Extension methods used in promoting AT 92
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CHAPTER EIGHT : USES, PERCEPTIONS AND EFFECTS OF ADOPTION 
OF ANIMAL TRACTION ON SELECTED ASPECTS OF 
THE FARMING SYSTEMS
8.0 Introduction 94
8.1 Awareness of the Usefulness of AT 94
8.1.1 Haulage activities that bullocks are usedfor 94
8.1.2 Traction activities that bullocks are used for 95
8.1.3 Haulage activities that donkeys are used for 95
8.1.4 Traction activities that donkeys are used for 95
8.2 Perceptions about animal traction technology characteristics 96
8.2.1 Relative Economic Advantage 96
8.2.2 Compatibility o f animal traction technology 96
8.2.3 Ease with which technology was understood and used 97
8.2.4 Ease with which technology can be experimented 98
8.2.5 Whether results o f technology are visible for others
to observe 98
8.3 Effects of Adoption of AT on selected aspects of the farming
systems 98
8.3.1 Type o f Crops grown 100
8.3.2 Land Preparation 100
8.3.3 Selection o f farm sites 101
8.3.4. Mixture o f crops 101
8.3.5 Planting Pattern 102
8.3.6 Size o f farms 102
8.3.7 Crop yields 103
8.3.8 Cost o f production 104
8.4 Summary: Uses, perceptions and effects of adoption
of AT on selected aspects of the farming systems 104
CHAPTER NINE : ADOPTION OF ANIMAL TRACTION TECHNOLOGY 9.0
Introduction 107
9.1 Categories of adoption 107
9.2 Personal characteristics on adoption 108
9.3 Socio-economic factors on adoption 110
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9. 4 Extension methods used in promoting animal traction on adoption 112
CHAPTER TEN : SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
10.0 Introduction 118
10.1 Summary 118
10.2 Conclusion and Implications 122
10.3 Recommendations 127
List of References 130
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 - Questionnaires for farmers of villages where animal traction
technology has been introduced in the Builsa Districts. 137
Appendix 2 -  Questionnaires for agricultural extension agents working
in the Builsa District 145
Appendix 3 -  Some important events used in estimating the ages of
some of the respondents. 150
Appendix 4 -  Enstoolment of some chiefs within the study area 151
Appendix 5 -  A map of Ghana showing the location of Builsa District 152 
Appendix 6 - A map of Builsa District 153
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Level of credit acquisition in the Builsa district 17
Table 2.2: Number of households who have contacts with AEAs 18
Table 3.1: Livestock owned by six (6) compounds in Wiagah 22
Table 3.2: Areas farmed (in acres), number of men faming and
number of dependants 23
Table 3.3: Camparison of AT input sales for 1974 ad 1975 26
Table 6.1: Distribution of respondents by age 59
Table 6.2: Distribution of respondents by family size 60
Table 6.3: Distribution of respondents by educational level 61
Table 6.4: Distribution of respondents by type of Ownership of Cattle 63
Table 6.5: Distribution of respondents by ownership of donkeys 64
Table 6.6: Distribution of respondents by size of farms 69
Table 6.7: Distribution of respondents by their perception of the
level of respect given to cattle (bullock) owners 71
Table 6:8: Distribution of respondents by their perception of
Level of respect given to donkey owners 72
Table 6:9: Distribution of respondents by the category of people
Who manage work animals 73
Table 6:10 Distribution of respondents by number of in-service
Training received by AEAs 76
Table 6:11 Distribution of respondents by source of in-service training 77
Table 6:12 Distribution of respondents by the methods used in
Training them 78
Table 6:13 Distribution of respondents by reasons for their inability
To make visits to farmers 79
Table 6:14 Distribution of respondents by problems farmers face
In adoption of animal traction 79
Table 7:1 Distribution of respondents by their source of
Awareness about AT. 82
Table 7:2 Distribution of respondents by their source of training
in AT 83
Table 7:3 Distribution of respondents by the methods used in
training them 85
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86
89
100
108
109
109
110
111
111
112
113
113
114
115
115
116
Distribution of respondents by adequacy of training 
Distribution of respondents by factors hindering the 
Adoption of animal traction
Distribution of respondents by the effects of adoption of 
AT on selected aspects of farming system 
Distribution of respondents on adoption by age 
Distribution of respondents on adoption by family size 
Distribution of respondents on adoption by 
educational level
Distribution of respondents on adoption by ownership 
Of cattle
Distribution of respondents on adoption by ownership 
Of donkeys
Distribution of respondents on adoption by size of farms 
Distribution of respondents on adoption by those who 
Received credit
Distribution of respondents on adoption by those who 
Received training
Distribution of respondents on adoption by 
Demonstration method
Distribution of respondents who received lecture method 
Distribution of respondents on adoption by 
group discussion
Distribution of respondents on adoption by those who 
Received training in demonstration /lecture methods 
Distribution of respondents on adoption by demonstration 
and group discussion method
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 A diagram showing the conceptual framework of animal 
Traction Technology
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ABBREVIATION
AEA - Agricultural Extension Agent
AIAEE - Association for International Agricultural and 
Extension Education 
AT - Animal Traction
ATT - Animal Traction Technology
BDA - Builsa District Assembly
DCE - District Chief Executive
DDA - District Director of Agriculture
DDO - District Development Office
EA - Extension Agent
FASCOM - Farmers Services Company
FFS - Farmer Field School
FLS - Front Line staff
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GGADP - Ghanaian German Agricultural Development Project
ILCA - International Livestock Centre for Africa
MoFA - Ministry of Food and Agriculture
MTADP - Medium Term Agricultural Development Programme
NA - Native Administration/Authority
NAEP - National Agricultural Extension Project
NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation
NOC - National Onchocerciasis Committee
NOCR - National Onchocerciasis Committee Report
NR - Northern Region
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OA - Operational Area
PRA - Participatory Rural Appraisal
RAAKS - Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems
RAOA - Regional Administration Office Archives
SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
TIF - Tamale Implement Factory
UER - Upper East Region
URADEP - Upper Regional Agricultural Development Programme
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH STUDY 
1.0 Introduction
Chapter one presents background information of the research study. It also presents the 
problem statement, research questions, hypothesis, main objective of the study, specific 
objectives, key concepts, conceptual framework and the significance of the study.
1.1 Background Information
Agriculture remains the principal occupation of the majority of the people in Africa. An 
average of 32% of GDP is produced by agriculture and the sector constitutes the largest 
productive sector in Africa (Kevin, 1993). Kevin pointed out that economic growth of at least 
4% per annum in each African country will require agricultural growth at the same level in 
most countries.
Without agricultural growth at 4% per annum the generally most competitive industrial sector 
(agro-industry) will not be supplied with the raw materials to permit it to grow by its target 
rate of 5-7% per annum. According to the report, agricultural growth is the most important 
contributor to the growth of manufacturing and services in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, 
most agricultural operations in Sub-Saharan Africa are done by hand, and seasonal labour 
shortage is one of the main factors contributing to low agricultural productivity in the region. 
This is because smallholders have too little capital to invest in tractors (International 
Livestock Centre for Africa, {ILCA}, 1994). Hence, the low level of growth in agricultural 
production is primarily due to the low level of investment and technological improvement in 
the sector. The Government's Medium Term Agricultural Development Plan (MTADP) has
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set a target of 4% annual growth in agricultural production (MTADP: An agenda for 
Sustained Growth and Development, (MOFA 1991).
A strengthened national agricultural extension system is one key factor in achieving this 
growth through dissemination of agricultural technology, especially among the small-scale 
farmers (Kevin, 1993). However, Ghana's agriculture has relied on the small-scale farming 
sector to produce the bulk of the nation's food requirements. The investments being made 
lead to problems of logistics and lack of farm power. The use of human power in agriculture 
still predominates over other sources of farm power such as draft animal power and tractors 
(Bobobee, 2003 www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/ags/agse/3ero/namibia/c7.htm'): Dibbits and
Bobobee (1997) noted that one important way in which agricultural output can be increased is 
by providing more efficient means of production that saves labour and reduce drudgery. With 
the government's unattained tractorisation programme in 1957 (Korang-Amoako, Donkor and 
Amoah, 1994; Munzinger, 1982), fresh approaches to the promotion of sustainable and 
appropriate agricultural technologies are required to reduce the drudgery of the smallholder 
farmers and increase productivity. Hence, the need to intensify the use of animal traction that 
can release farm labour for activities other than cultivation and provide opportunities for 
raising farm income. However, according to ILCA's programme (1994), if the use of animal 
traction is to persist, once introduced, a number of conditions must be met. These include:
♦ Investment costs for both animals and implements must be low.
♦ There must be opportunities for intensifying and diversifying the applications of animal 
traction
♦ Farmers will have to learn animal management skills in addition to cultivation techniques.
♦ Extension staff will have to be trained in the use of animal traction if they are to provide 
useful advice.
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♦ Problem of animal nutrition will have to be addressed through low-eost inputs to increase 
the efficiency of animal traction and
♦ Appropriate animal health package will be needed to protect them against diseases.
Starkey (1988) also observed that constraints to animal traction may include
♦ Lack of appropriate implements.
♦ Limited credit
♦ Insufficient animals
♦ Animal health problems
♦ Inadequate animal nutrition
♦ Uncleared fields
♦ Farmer traditions
♦ Lack of technical knowledge
♦ Poor infrastructure and
♦ Limited marketing possibilities.
Therefore, the identification of a district specific farmer's needs is necessary to be able to 
propose policies and measures to the situation.
1.2 Problem Statement
In 1934, the Ministry of Agriculture of the colonial government of the Gold Coast conducted 
a survey in the then North Mamprusi District to investigate the causes of recurrent food 
shortages in the area, to suggest and implement better measures to arrest the situation. Among 
other suggestions, they recommended that the introduction of animal traction was an obvious 
answer (Lynn, 1937). Hence, in 1937, animal traction was introduced into the Builsa District 
(Lynn, 1937). The farmers embraced the technology since they would increase their
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cultivated areas considerably by the use of bullock power; and at the same time improve the 
yields of their crops. The chiefs of Sandema and Nakon were among the first 19 influential 
converts (Department of Agriculture, Gold Coast, 1938 - 1939).
There were also interventions by the Catholic and Presbyterian churches in 1969 and 1974 
respectively (Cliff Trowell, Personal communication, January 20, 2003) and Upper Region 
Agricultural Development Programme (URADEP) in 1976 (Korang-Amoakoh, Donkor and 
Amoah, 1994) to boost the technology.
The Ministry of Agriculture report of 1934 had indicated that five out of every six 
compounds in the Builsa district had cattle and that land was also in abundance (Lynn, 1937). 
A report on the socio-economic survey of the Builsa District indicated that the district has a 
total of 38,101 cattle with a total of 7,830 households (National Onchocerciasis Committee 
Report, 1992). This implied that each household had an average of five cattle. However, after 
several years of implementing animal traction technology with the district's high potential in 
it, there are suggestions of low adoption. What could be the cause?
Munzinger (1982) said the economic situation of the individual farmer was a decisive factor 
determining whether he wanted to use draught oxen or not. Bah (1988) said farmers attach 
great importance to the social division of labour, cultural identity and compatibility with 
traditional patterns of life, de Graaf (1992, pp 117) citing Ellis (1988) said farmers' decisions 
on adopting or enhancing the use of animals on their farms are not necessarily based on 
financial profitability. Those tangible social and cultural benefits also play a significant role 
in the adoption process.
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The National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP) Annual report (MOFA, 1997) had it 
that most of the Frontline Staff (FLS) have inadequate skills and confidence in training 
farmers and animals. Besides, animal traction extension materials are in limited supply.
Which of these factors mentioned may be the causes of a low adoption, if any, of animal 
traction in the Builsa District? The research questions and objectives are based on these.
1.3 Research Questions
The study therefore intends answering the following questions:
1. Have the socio-economic factors of farmers affected their adoption of animal traction?
2. Have socio-cultural factors of farmers affected their adoption of animal traction?
3. Have the extension methods used so far affected the adoption of animal traction?
4. What influence do the characteristics of animal traction technology have on farmers' 
adoption of the technology?
1.4 Hypothesis
1. Socio-economic factors of farmers have not affected their adoption of animal traction
2. Socio-cultural factors of farmers have not affected their adoption of animal traction
JPV\
3. Extension methods used so far have not affected the adoption of animal traction
4. The characteristics of animal traction technology do not have influence on farmer's 
adoption of the technology.
1.5 Main Objective
To verify and substantiate the speculation of low adoption of animal traction in the Builsa 
District.
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1.6 Specific Objectives
1. To find out the historical development of animal traction in the Builsa District.
2. To find out farmers' personal characteristics and their effects on the adoption of animal 
traction
3. To determine the socio-economic factors of farmers which influence the adoption of 
animal traction.
4. To examine how socio-cultural factors of farmers affect adoption of animal traction
5. To find out farmers opinions on the importance/usefulness of animal traction
6. To determine the compatibility of animal traction within the fanning system of the Builsa 
District
7. To find out the various levels of adoption of animal traction.
8. To find out the effectiveness of the extension methods used in promoting animal traction.
1.7 Key Concepts of the Research Study
The key concepts, which determine the scope of the research study, include: technology, 
animal traction technology, adoption of technology, communication of information on a 
technology for adoption, extension and extension methods.
1.7.1 Technology
Technology is the combination of knowledge, inputs and management practices which are 
deployed together with productive resources to produce a desired output (Reijntjes, Haverkort 
and Waters-Bayer, 1992). A technology usually has two components:
1. Hardware: consisting of the tool that embodies the technology as material or physical 
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2. Software: consisting of the information base for the tool (Conroy, Gordon and Marter, 
1995, Rogers, 1995).
1.7.2 Animal traction technology
Animal traction is the use of draught animals for tillage, seeding and other activities (Barret, 
Lassiter, Wilcock, Baker and Crawford, 1982). Munzinger (1982) also described animal 
traction as the employment of animals for draught activities. However, the first definition will 
suit the context of the study.
1.7.3 Adoption o f  Technology
Adoption is the decision to apply an innovation and continue to use it. Early studies in 
adoption found that in the process of adoption an individual goes through five stages. These 
are; awareness, interest, evaluation, trial and adoption (Maunder, 1972). Later studies re­
stated that these stages correspond to knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation and 
confirmation (Rogers, 1995). He argued that the latter stages are less inspired by normative 
decision-making theory, and supposedly reflect better what happens in actual practice.
Animal traction technology adoption has two main meanings:
1. Transfer of ideas, techniques or implements from an area, where they have worked 
effectively, to another.
2. The dissemination of knowledge or skills - transferring or communicating ideas and 
techniques to the intended clientele.
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1.7.4 Communication o f information o f a technology for adoption
There are various definitions of communication. For example, Nnadi (1997) defined it as the
process of establishing a commonness or oneness of thought between a sender and a receiver.
Rolings and Leeuwis (2002) defined it as the process through which people exchange
meanings.
For the purpose of this study, communication of information of a technology for adoption 
may be described as the process of transmitting or exchanging information through a medium 
between a sender and a receiver to reach a mutual understanding with the intent of receiving a 
response through a feedback, either rejecting or adopting the technology.
Communication can be in the form of written, oral or non-verbal. Communication has five 
elements:
Communication can be in the form of written, oral or non-verbal. Communication has five 
elements:
1. The sender/source
2. The message - the message may be oral, written, or non-verbal.
3. The medium - mechanism through which the message is transmitted to the intended 
audience
4. The receiver - this is the intended audience of the message.
5. Feedback - this indicates the two-way nature of effective communication (Nnadi, 1997; 
Rogers and Kincaid, 1981 and Swanson, 1984).
1.7.5 Extension
There is no simple definition of extension, which is universally accepted. It is a dynamic 
concept and its interpretation is always changing. Rolings and Leeuwis (2002) criticised
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earlier definitions of extension as normative in that they prescribe what the authors would 
like extension to look like ideally. For this reason, they have defined extension as "a series of 
professional communicative interactions that is meant amongst others, to develop and/or 
induce novel patterns of co-ordination and adjustment between people, technical devices and 
natural phenomena, in a direction that supposedly helps to resolve problematic situations, 
which may be defined differently by different actors involved".
1.7.6 Extension methods
-   #■$ #
This refers to methods of communication, which can be used in extension for influencing the 
target groups (Maunder, 1972, Oakley and Garforth, 1985; van den Ban and Hawkins, 1996). 
Extension methods can be seen as a particular mode of using media and media combinations 
(Leeuwis and van den Ban, 2002)
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1.8 Conceptual framework
Figure 1.1 A diagram showing the conceptual framework of animal traction 
technology adoption
A. CHARACTERISTICS 
OF ANIMAL TRACTION 
TECHNOLOGY
•Importance of technology 
•Need for technology 
•Cost of technology 
•Cultural appropriateness 
•Profitability 
•Respect for tradition
B. ENVIRONMENTAL 
INFLUENCES ON THE 
FARMER
•Extension Agents Teaching 
method/communication skills,e.g. 
What is taught, how, when and 
where and who does it. —
availability of resources/logistics 
•Extension Agents’ 
knowledge in Animal Traction (AT) 
•Government policies
C. SIEVE SYSTEM OF 
THE FARMER
Personal Characteristics 
e.g. age, education,
Family size
•Socio-economic factors 
e.g. ownership of cattle/ 
Donkeys, farm size, labour, 
credit etc.
•Socio-cultural factors e.g norms, 
values, taboos, attitudes 
•Farming systems e.g. mixed 
cropping, row planting, 
mix farming, compound faming 
bush farming
FA
NA
Source: Adapted from Rogers, 1983, p 233 
Key
FA = Full Animal Traction Adoption 
AA= Average Animal Traction Adoption 
NA= No Animal Traction Adoption
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In this section, the conceptual framework of the study, the basis on which the study has been 
developed is discussed. The study is developed on the following concepts as shown in Figure 
1.1. These are:
1. Characteristics of animal traction technology
2. Environmental influences
3. The sieve system of the farmer and
4. Adoption
Literature has various factors that influence farmers' adoption or rejection of technologies. 
Rogers (1995) has identified some of these factors as characteristics of the technology, age, 
education, socio-economic and social system of farmers and the Extension Agent.
From the diagram it can be seen that the decision of the farmer to adopt or not to adopt the 
technology is conditioned by the characteristics of the animal traction technology and the 
environmental influence acting on the farmer under his prevailing situation (age, education, 
socio-economic, socio-cultural and farming system). For example, if animal traction 
technology is costly, difficult to understand, has little or no respect for tradition and not 
appropriate to the farming system, no farmer is likely to adopt it. Even if adopted then it is 
likely to be the young, wealthy or educated farmers, van den Ban and Hawkins (1996) noted 
that innovators tend to be relatively young, better educated and "better o ff . Urasa (1994) also 
found that any new technology to be introduced into rural areas must be as simple and cheap 
as possible if it is to be widely adopted. He went further to say that a new technology will not 
be accepted to the target group if it is not compatible with existing farming principles and 
cultivation practices.
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The Extension agents' knowledge in animal traction, his communication skills thus his 
behaviour, and attitude towards farmers, his respect for farmers norms, values and taboos can 
influence the farmers' decisions. When the farmer is convinced by the extension agent and 
combining this with his prevailing situation (age, education, family size, socio-economic 
status, socio-cultural an fanning system) he/she can decide to adopt animal traction. Gibbons 
and Schroeder (1983) noted that the types of innovation-decisions made by farmers are all 
dependent on the extension agent's ability to influence them.
Government policies can also act on the farmers' system to result in adoption or rejection. For 
example, prices of implements, resource allocations for extension staff training in AT and 
government's attitudes towards AT itself. Bwalya (1988) noted that for animal draft power 
technology transfer programme to be effective, management and organisation of agricultural 
credit schemes, training of extension system, economic and political factors need serious 
consideration.
Omoding (1994) observed that chiefs and rulers sometimes use coercion to implement 
programmes in order to please their master, which probably accounted for unsustainable 
adoption of ox cultivation in some areas in Uganda. Hence, from the various literature cited 
and on Roger’s (1983) attributes of innovation and their rate of adoption model, the adoption 
of animal traction technology (A) can be seen as a variable which is a function of:
1. The characteristics of animal traction technology itself (Cf) as perceived by the farmer 
under his prevailing conditions
2. The environmental influences (Ef) as perceived by the farmer under his prevailing 
conditions
3. The farmer sieve system (Sf).
Thus A=f (Cff Eft- Sf)
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1.9 Significance of the study
The Government of Ghana has over the years invested money and human resources towards 
promoting AT. However, evidence of low adoption still exists. There is very little 
understanding of why the low adoption. The government of Ghana and NGOs are still 
undertaking AT promotion without full understanding of why the low adoption of earlier 
efforts.
Therefore this study will provide:
1. Government and NGOs who provide extension services to farmers a feedback on the 
impact of the method of technology transfer they use.
2. It will also provide more in-depth understanding of rural circumstances so that any future 
interventions would be more effective.
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CHAPTER TWO  
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA 
2.0 Introduction
This chapter gives an overview of the study area. These are: location, population, age 
distribution, distribution of household size, education and literacy levels. The others are 
topography, climate, soils and vegetation. The rest are economic activities, farming systems 
and agricultural extension in the Builsa District.
2.1 Location
The Builsa District is one of the six districts in the Upper East Region (UER) of Ghana. It 
falls between longitudes 10°.05'N and 10°.30'N and latitudes 10°.15'N and 10°.30'N. It is 
bounded on the north and east by the Kassena-Nankana district, on the west by the Sissala 
district and on the south by the West Mamprusi district. The district has an area of 2,220 sq. 
km. which is 25.1% of the total area of the UER (Builsa District Assembly, 2000).
2.2 Population
The Builsa district has a population of 75,375 which is 8.2% of the total population of the 
UER in 2000 as against 66,357 in 1984. This is an increase of 13.6% over 1984 which 
represents a growth rate of about 0.73% over the 16-year inter-censal period. It presently has 
a population density of about 34.0 persons per sq. km. (Ghana Statistical Service, 2002).
2.3 Age Distribution
The 0-14 age group constitutes 43.4 of the total population while those aged 65 and above 
make up only 6.4. The economically active population of 15-64 age cohort is about 50.2 
(Ghana Statistical Service, 2002).
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2.4 Distribution of Households by size.
According to the 2000 Ghana population census the Builisa District has about 4,700 
households. With a population of 75,375, the average household size stands as 16.0 persons. 
On the whole V3 of the population of the district live in household with more than 6 persons, 
while 2/3 live in households with not more than 6 persons. (Ghana Statistical Service, 2002).
2.5 Topography
The topography is undulating. Slopes ranging from 200 to 300m are found in the northern 
part of the district. In the valleys of the Sissili, Kulpawn and the White Volta in the south, the 
slopes are more gentle and range from 150 to 200m. In general the low-lying nature of the 
land makes the greater part of it liable to flooding in years of copious rains. The district falls 
within the Volta Basin and is heavily dissected by the White Volta and its tributaries namely: 
Sissili, Kulpawn, Belipieni, Bukpegi and Asebelika. Most of these streams are seasonal and 
dry up during the extended dry season with an adverse effect on the supply of water for both 
agricultural and domestic use (Builsa District Assembly, 2000; National Onchocerciasis 
Committee Report, 1992).
2.6 Climate
The climate of the Builsa district is similar to the climate generally experienced in the Upper 
regions of Ghana. Mean monthly temperatures range between 22°C and 35°C. The highest 
temperatures are recorded in March/April and can rise to 45 °C, whereas the lowest 
temperature is recorded in January. The dry season is characterised by dry hammattan winds 
and wide diurnal temperature ranges. The critical factor in the climate is rainfall for farming. 
There is only one rainy season, which builds up gradually from little rain in April to a 
maximum in August-September. It then declines sharply to a complete halt in mid-October
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when the dry season sets in. Rainfalls are very torrential and erratic and range between 85mm 
and 1150mm with irregular dry spells occurring in June or July (Builsa District Assembly, 
2000; (National Onchocerciasis Committee Report, 1992).
2.7 Soils
The greater part of the soils in the district comprises of ground water laterite, developed over 
the granite formation. Soil textures vary within the district but coarse textured soils 
predominate with various amounts of loosely packed stones and concretions. These soils 
develop to depths, which make them cultivable. On upland, savannah ochrosols of various 
depths and inherent low fertility prevail. Alluvial soils with high caolinitic clays ranging from 
sandy clay loams to silty clay are found in most parts of the valley bottoms of the south. 
These alluvial soils are comparatively higher in fertility but are most difficult to work and 
subject to seasonal water logging and floods. In general, greater parts of the soils are poorly 
drained. Intense erosion overtime has contributed to serious reduction in soil depth and 
thereby to loss of arable land surface (Builsa District Assembly [BDA] 2000; National 
Onchocerciasis Committee Report [NOCR], 1992).
2.8 Vegetation
The vegetation is characterised by parkland savannah. This contains economic trees such as 
shea, baobab, acacia and dawadawa. This woodland savannah satisfies domestic requirements 
of fuel wood and timber for house construction, kraals, vegetable garden fences and materials 
for handicrafts. The grasses and shrubs provide pasture for the livestock population, mainly 
goats, sheep and cattle. In the dry season, however, annual bush fires decimate the grasses 
and shrubs and as a result pasture for livestock is largely destroyed (Builsa District 
Assembly, 2000, National Onchocerciasis Committee Report, 1992).
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2.9 Economic Activities
The people of Builsa are predominantly farmers. Very few are engaged in the fields of 
manufacturing, industries, trade and hunting. Crops grown include millet, sorghum, 
groundnuts, beans, rice, maize, vegetables, sweet potatoes and fara-fara potatoes. According 
to the National Onchocerciasis Committee Report (1992), majority of farm households 
(87.9%) cultivate up to 20 acres, although the average acreage per household was 12 acres, 
and that 12% cultivated between 20 and 60 acres. Livestock and poultry are also kept. These 
include cattle, donkeys, sheep, goats, pigs, fowls, guinea fowls, turkeys and ducks.
The availability and proper use of credit is important for increased agricultural productivity. 
However, in the Builsa district, there is only one source of institutional credit - the Builsa 
Community Bank. The other nearest banks are at Navrongo (29 km) and Bolgatanga (58 km). 
Figure 2.1 shows credit acquisition in the Builsa District.
Table 2.1 Level of credit acquisition in the Builsa District
Item No of Households %
Yes 12 7.3
No 136 82.4
Not Stated 17 10.3
Total 165 100
Source: National Onchocerciasis Committee Report (1992)
2.10 Farming System
Mixed cropping is the main practice alongside sole cropping. Both distant and compound 
farming is practised. Livestock and poultry production forms an integral part of crop 
production system. It plays a central role in soil fertility restoration in addition to the 
immediate utility in the form of meat, milk, cash outlays and of household ceremonies.
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u I) /2.11 Agricultural Extension y f ' S -
Agricultural extension is that vital link between agricultural research^and farmers. They take 
research findings necessary for agricultural development to farmers. They also make known 
to agricultural research stations, problems encountered by farmers for investigation and 
solution.
The Builsa district is divided into 17 operational areas (OA) for extension activities. Each OA 
is headed by a District Development Officer (DDO). The District Director (DDA) of the 
Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) is the over all boss. Every AEA has at least forty 
(40) farmers with whom regular contact is maintained. In the Builsa district, like any other 
rural area, the AEAs operate far from ideal conditions. These include lack of transportation 
and logistics support, non-payment of transport claims, delays in promotion and low AEA- 
farmer ratio. This contributes to low extension-farmer contact (DDA, personal 
communication, 24th February 2002, NOC, 1992). Table 2.2 shows the number of households 
that had contacts with AEAs.
Table 2.2 Number of Households who had contacts with AEAs
Period of contact No of Households %
Never 70 42.4
Under 1 month 30 18.2
2-3 months 22 13.3
4-6 months 17 10.3
7-12 months 2 1.2
Over 1 year 22 13.3
Not stated 2 1.2
Total 165 100
Source: NOC, 1992
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CHAPTER THREE  
THE HISTORY OF ANIMAL TRACTION IN GHANA
3.0 Introduction
This chapter, reviews the history of AT in Ghana. These include its origin, genesis, current 
state and a historical development in the Builsa district.
3.1 Origin of Animal Traction
Animal traction was first started in Asia thousands of years ago. It was introduced into sub- 
Saharan Africa through European settler farmers, early development programmes and 
migration of workers within the region during the colonial period (Starkey, 1990).
3.2 The Genesis of AT in Ghana
The first pairs of working bullocks in Ghana were introduced at the Pong-Tamale 
Agricultural Station in 1922 (Seifert, 1992). However, the technology was first adopted by 
farmers in the early 1930's in the Upper East Region (Seifert, 1992). From 1934, the British 
colonial government made more systematic attempts to introduce the use of draught oxen 
with the purpose of increasing the area under cultivation. Demonstration farms were set up 
and the use of draft oxen was generally encouraged (Seifert, 1992).
In those days, interested farmers were trained at stations set up at places like Tamale, 
Zuarungu and Babile (Dibbits and Bobobee, 1997; Munzinger, 1982). Farmers in places like 
Nakpanduri and Langbensi have used the technology for quite a long time. The use of the 
technology was catching up well until the independence in 1957. At this time, due to the 
government's expansion programme in agriculture, tractors were imported on a large scale to 
the towns and surrounding areas where AT training centres had been set up. The relative
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speed for doing work with tractors and the lower (subsidised) cost of tractor services in those 
days reduced interest considerably in the use of the AT technology. Since then AT 
technology had been supported and promoted mainly by church NGOs for many years with 
training and credit facilities to farmers to get animals and implements (Bobobee, 2003 
www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/ags/agse/3ero/namibia/c7.htm'): Dibbits and Bobobee, 1997,
Munzinger, 1982).
The promotion of AT continued in the 1970s when the Ghanaian-German Agricultural 
Development Project (GGADP) intervened to give it a new boost. This project, realising the 
existing tillage problems in the region, decided to encourage AT. In this regard, training 
stations were opened in places like Gushiegu, Nyankpala, Savelugu, Sawla, Damongo, 
Zabzugu, Bimbilla, Navrongo and Nakpanduri by GGADP (Dibbits and Bobobee, 1997; 
Munzinger, 1982). These GGADP stations were stocked with the necessary training materials 
and implements to train interested farmers. Trained farmers were given implements like 
bullock ploughs on very liberal terms of payments. Some stations e.g. Nyankpala, served also 
as bullock banks where bullocks were bred and later sold to farmers on similar soft terms. 
Interest in the technology rose again and the demand for the implements and tools became 
high. To address the rising demand for implements (which until then were wholly imported 
from Germany) the GGADP set up the Tamale Implement Factory (TIF) as a subsidiary to 
assemble animal traction implements (Bobobee, 2003
www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/ags/agse/3ero/namibia/c7.htm~): Dibbits and Bobobee, 1997, 
Munzinger, 1982).
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3.3 Current state of AT in Ghana
Animal traction is widely used only in Northern, Upper East and Upper West Regions. In 
these regions, cattle are common and AT has been used for many years. In a few localities in 
Volta, Brong Ahafo, Ashanti and Greater Accra regions, AT is being introduced. Constraints 
in these localities include limited ownership of cattle, small number of bullocks, lack of 
knowledge of AT, extensive farming systems based on shifting cultivation and difficulty in 
clearing shrubs and difficult grasses. Here proper selection, training and guidance of 
motivated farmers and financial assistance seem necessary for quite some time before a 
momentum for continuous AT development can take place (Bobobee, 2003 
www.fao.org/waicent/faomfo/aaricult/ags/agse/3ero/namibia/c7.htm'):~)
Most work animals are bullocks, but in the UER, many farmers also use donkeys. Donkeys 
are mainly used for transport, but the interest to use donkeys also for ploughing and ridging is 
increasing especially in the Upper regions. Working cows have been observed in the 
Nakpanduri area. Bullocks are harnessed with very inefficient (cruel) double withers and 
donkeys pulling carts with a simple kind of collar harness and a simple saddle (Dibbits and 
Bobobee, 1997).
3.4 A historical development of AT in the Builsa District.
3.4.1 Pre-Independence
Recurrent food shortage in the then North Mamprusi district came to the notice of the 
Department of Agriculture in the late 1920s. In 1931, an Agricultural Superintendent was 
sent to Zuarungu the then capital of the district to investigate the causes of these food 
shortages and to make recommendations as to what should be done to alleviate the situation.
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It was not until 1934 that the investigation actually started due to lack of staff (Lynn, 1937).
The findings among others were:
1. Farming practices were not sufficiently intensive for these conditions. A system of 
"fixed" cropping was followed and manuring was quite inadequate.
2. The innate distaste of the people for consistent labour. That is, lack of effective cultural 
practises.
3. Years of living on the margin of subsistence had sapped the energy of the people and 
predisposed them to disease; many of them were physically incapable of hard work, 
which was necessary to bring an improvement in their conditions.
4. Land was in abundance
5. About five out of every six compounds had cattle.
Table 3.1 Livestock owned by six (6) compounds in Wiagah
Livestock I II III IV V VI Total Mean
Cattle 7 3 0 8 5 3 26 4.3
Donkey 1 1 0 1 0 1 4 0.7
Sheep 0 0 0 6 3 5 14 2.3
Goat 8 4 0 4 8 7 31 5.2
Total 16 8 0 19 16 16 75 12.5
Source: Adapted from Lynn, 1937, pp 72
Based on these findings some suggestions were made towards alleviating the recurrent food 
shortage and among them were:
1. Improving the existing system of farming
2. Cultivation of soil prior to planting
3. Growing crops on ridges instead of flats
4. Planting in lines
5. Contour ridging to check erosion
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6. Rough cultivation after harvest
7. Controlled burning and
8. Increasing the area of land under cultivation.
Table 3.2 shows areas fanned (in acres), number of men farming and number of dependants 
to support this last point (8).
Table 3.2 Areas farmed (in acres), number of men farming and number of 
dependants.
Name o f 
fanner
Area farmed (acres) Number 
o f men 
farming
Area per
man
(acres)
No of
dependa
nts
Area per
person
(acres)
Compound
farm
Separate 
not bush
Bush
farm
Total
Abasu 3.12 0.76
0.46 4.34 3 1.45 10 0.43
Akulbalmi 4.62 0.89 -
0.77 -
0.57 - 6.85 2 3.43 8 0.86
Anisedi 1.07 3.20 - 4.27 1 4.27 4 1.07
Amanyidi 3.99 2.03 - 6.02 4 1.51 9 0.67
Azurumi 2.86 1.01 - 3.87 2 1.94 12 0.32
Ansoadi 1.87 0.37 - 2.24 1 2.24 9 0.25
TOTAL 17.83 10.06 - 27.59 13 — 52 —
MEAN 1 - -- - 4.59 2.1 2.21 3.6 0.53
Source: Lynn, 1937, pp 69
The introduction of AT was an obvious answer to these suggestions. Animal Traction was 
therefore introduced into the Builsa District in 1937. A demonstration was started by 
establishing mixed farming units attached to the Native Administration school, the then only 
primary school in the Builsa district (Old Primary). This farm consisted of 8 acre units ran by 
two paid labourers (Mr. Agazeri and Mr. Alung) working with the Native Administration 
using a pair of bullocks, a plough and a locally made cultivator. The purpose of the school 
farm was a dual one; firstly to produce food as economically as possible to reduce the school 
mess expenses and secondly as a practical demonstration of improved methods of farming 
(Lynn, 1937).
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Sufficient interest was shown by the chiefs of Sandema and Nakon and their people in the 
work of the plough and the mixed farming methods practised in the demonstration station that 
they sent in bullocks and men including themselves (the chiefs) for training at Tono Farm 
Centre. The chiefs of Sandema and Nakon were therefore among the first 19 influential 
converts. The chief of Sandema - Chief Azantilow and the chief of Nakon were even quoted 
as saying, "We will never return to the old and traditional methods" (Department of 
Agriculture, Gold Coast, 1939-1940). Hence people began to realise that with the use of 
bullock power, they would increase their cultivated areas considerably and at. the same time 
improve the yields of their crops.
In 1940 the Builsa Native Administration started a loan scheme referred to as the Agricultural 
Loan Scheme to provide farmers with bullocks and ploughs (Department of Agriculture, 
Gold Coast, 1939-1940). Farmers from the Builsa district continued to take their bullocks to 
Tono Farm Centre for training. The Tono Farm Centre was by then being financed by both 
Navrongo and Builsa Native Administration. However, in 1945, it was agreed to layout a new 
Native Authority Farm Centre between Sandema and Wiagah. Three hundred and twenty 
pounds (£320) was voted to cover initial capital expenditure. Four (4) bullocks and two (2) 
donkeys were purchased. An instructor's house, a large half-roofed cattle shed, a donkey 
shed, a labourer's quarters, an office and some stores were put up. Two wells were sunk by 
the Native Authority. Two acres each of sun hemp and groundnuts were planted to provide 
fodder. In all hundred acres of land was acquired. Also one Grade 1 instructor assisted by two 
Grade II instructors supervised the cultivation and building. Bullock and bullock men began 
training at the Builsa Farm Centre (Department of Agriculture, Gold Coast, 1945-1946).
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3.4.2 Post Independence
Much attention was being paid to animal traction until Ghana's Independence in 1957. At this 
time, due to government's expansion programme in agriculture, tractors were imported on a 
large scale to the towns and areas where AT training centres had been set up. The relative 
speed for doing work with tractors and the lower (subsidised) cost of tractor services in those 
days reduced interest considerably in the use of AT (Bobobee, 2003 
www.fao.org/waicent/faomfo/agricult/ags/agse/3ero/namibia/c7,htm'): Dibbits and Bobobee, 1997;
Munzinger, 1982). The few farmers who still used AT had difficulties in getting ploughs and 
spare parts. For example, in 1971, eighty-nine (89) farmers from the Builsa district applied 
for bullock and plough loans but were told that such a scheme was not in operation. Again on 
8th March 1972, Chief Azantilow on behalf of thirty-six (36) farmers applied for ploughs but 
to no avail (Ministry of Agriculture, 1971).
Food shortage in the district continued to be a major problem, yet there was abundant land 
and almost every household had cattle. This prompted some churches to intervene by giving 
AT a new boost. Notable among them were the Roman Catholic and Presbyterian churches 
who started AT in 1969 and 1974 respectively. The Presbyterian church concentrated its 
activities within Sandema. The Catholic church covered areas like Wiaga, Kadema, Uwasi, 
Gbedema, Kanjarga, Siniensi, Doninga and Fumbisi. In 1973, twenty-one (21) pairs of 
bullocks were trained. The cost of housing and feeding became difficult because of increased 
number of farmers wanting to be trained. The training was therefore shifted to the community 
levels; hence the demand for AT implements continued increasing. Table 3.3 shows a 
comparison of input sales for 1974 and 1975.
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Table 3.3 Comparison of AT input sales for 1974 and 1975
ITEM 1974 1975
Bullock ploughs 37 172
Donkey ploughs 4 7
Cultivators and carts 8 5
Source: Wiagah Agric Project, 1975.
The Catholic Church ended its project in the district in 1980 (Atekinla, personal 
communication, February 25, 2002; Trowel Cliff, personal communication, January 20, 
2003)
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CHAPTER FOUR  
LITERATURE REVIEW
4.0 Introduction
Chapter four deals with literature on animal traction and adoption. Areas reviewed are 
meaning of AT, contribution of AT to agricultural development, adoption and the adoption 
process, meaning of communication, meaning of extension, the extension agent and 
technology transfer. Others are extension teaching methods and adoption, technology 
characteristics and adoption. The rest are socio-economic factors and adoption, socio-cultural 
factors and adoption and obstacles to the adoption of AT technology. These areas are 
reviewed because they influence adoption. Before a farmer adopts a technology he must 
know its characteristics. Panin and Ellis (1992) said farmers are likely to adopt a technology 
if they perceive the technology to be profitable. In the same vein the choice of extension 
teaching methods and the ability to communicate effectively taking into consideration the 
socio-economic and socio-culture of farmers play a significant role when introducing a 
technology for adoption (Leagons, 1960; Maunder 1972).
4.1 Meaning of Animal Traction
Animal traction is the use of draft animals for tillage, seeding and other draft activities 
(Barret, Lassister, Wilcock, Baker and Crawford, 1982). Munzinger (1982) described an' 
traction as the employment of animals for draft activities. A variety of animals are used in 
different parts of the world for animal traction. These include bullocks, cows bull 
buffaloes, horse, mules, donkeys and camels. In Ghana, only bullocks, bulls and donkeys ar 
mostly used for AT. In the Nakpanduri area of the Northern Region, the use of cows for AT 
is being practised. Implements used for AT include ploughs, harrows, ridgers cultivate 
planters, harvesters, millers, carts and water lifting equipment.
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4.2 Contribution of AT to Agricultural Development
This section has the following sub-headings under it. These include AT and crop yields, AT 
and fanning systems, AT and farmer preferences, AT and different ages and gender o f 
farmers, AT and ownership of draft animals and lastly, AT and animal population.
4.2.1 Animal Traction and Crop Production and Yields
Animal traction may assist farmers to increase the total production of their crops. One of the 
clearest ways to achieve this is through increase in area cultivated (Starkey, 1988). According 
to him, there is very often a conelation between farm size and ownership of draft animals 
although this does not necessarily mean that the animals are the cause of the large area of 
cultivation. It may be that farmers who have big farms are the ones wealthy enough to use 
draft animals. He observed that records on farmed areas before and after the adoption of draft 
animals indicated that where land was available, farmers cultivated more land when they had 
draft animals so that total yield over farm increased. However, in some areas there were 
drops in yield per unit area as fanners tended to farm more extensively rather than j 
intensively. Also, the use of AT can result in better timing due to faster and better land 
preparation, seeding and weeding which may give rise to higher yields and less crop failures 
(Seifert, 1992).
4.2.2 Animal Traction and Farming Systems o f Farmers
Animal traction is associated with the tendency to move from bush fallow cultivation 
involving mixed cropping in partially cleared areas still containing stumps, to permanent 
systems, in which single crops are grown in cleared fields. Animal traction may lead to 
extensive farming with large areas being less intensively managed. One of the more notable 
ways AT affects farming system is through the integration of crop and livestock enterprises
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(Starkey, 1988). Also, AT may lead to changes in the crop mix, and therefore may have 
differential effects on crop production. Starkey noted that AT has often been promoted in 
West Africa for mono cropping in areas where inter-cropping was traditional. It was earlier 
thought that AT led to increased production of cash crops to the detriment of food crops. 
However, according to him, surveys have not found marked differences in crop mix 
associated with AT.
4.2.3 Animal Traction and Farmer Preferences fo r  Animals 
In common with most aspects of life, AT both benefits and suffers from long standing 
preferences and the vagaries of more rapidly changing "fashions". Animals often have 
prestige status unrelated to their working abilities, so that one sickly horse may have higher 
social status than a pair of strong oxen. In some countries and communities the colours of 
animals and implements may be very important influencing decisions relating to adoption 
even though it is unlikely that these factors would influence performance. Such preferences 
that appear illogical may have a technical justification that is not immediately apparent to an 
outsider. Nevertheless, farmer prejudice can be as important as farmer judgement, when it 
comes to selecting animals, implements, harnesses or management regimes. In such 
circumstances any reduction in possible technical efficiency may have to be set against the 
pleasure associated with the choice, since "fashion' may sometimes be viewed as a social 
benefit of animal traction (Starkey, 1988).
4.2.4 Animal traction and Different Ages and Gender o f  Farmers.
The social costs and benefits of AT vary considerably between people of different ages and 
gender in farm households. Men and children usually train the animals, work with them and 
herd them. These people have the initial problems associated with first use of animals and
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area expansion, but may later benefit from easier and more fulfilling work. In some 
communities, men consider it appropriate to cultivate land for the crops usually grown by 
women, in others, they do not. Women and children often have the tasks of weeding and 
harvesting and their work may be increased if cultivated areas are expanded. Children often 
tend draft animals and because of these their educational prospects can suffer, either due to 
limited school attendance or due to fatigue when school is combined with looking after 
animals. In some small survey in Sierra Leone, it was found that children of daft animal 
owners were less likely to attend primary school. On the other hand, the general correlation 
between draft animals and wealth might make it easier for animal owners to afford secondary 
school fees (Allagnat and Koroma, 1984; Gboku, 1988).
4.2.5 Animal Traction and Ownership o f Draft Animals
In some parts of West Africa, AT has been introduced through communal ownership, often 
encouraged by governments and Aid agencies. While there have been examples of successful 
village associations for AT, many have experienced major social and organisational problems 
associated with conflicting interests for access during the animal working hours and 
responsibility for maintaining the animals at other times (Starkey, 1988). With individual 
ownership, it is clear who is responsible for both costs and the benefits of animal 
management. One of the costs is grazing supervision, and if this is not carried out with 
dedication, the animals may suffer from insufficient food, accident or theft. Alternatively 
growing crops can be eaten, causing much social conflict and expense (Starkey, 1988) 
Corbel (1988) said in one survey in Sierra Leone a quarter of farmers reported that they had 
to pay out significant sums in compensation as a result of the alleged misbehaviour of their 
work oxen.
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4.3.6 Animal Traction and Quality o f life o f Farmers
Animal Traction may well have a direct impact on the quality of life of farmers by reducing 
drudgery of personal transport. It also provides opportunities for social and economic benefits 
such as
♦ Enhanced possibilities for collecting and distributing harvest, water, building materials 
timber, farm implements and other goods.
♦ Increased marketing opportunities for farm produce and
♦ Greater ease of utilising crop residues, compost and manure (Starkey, 1988).
4.3.7 Animal Traction and Animal Population
Starkey (1988) observed that castrated bulls remain the dominant draft animals in West 
Africa. However, in some areas such as Northern Nigeria, uncastrated males are used for 
work. In Sine Saloum in Senegal, cows are increasingly being worked. Reh and Horst (1982) 
reported that N'dama cows used for draft purposes actually had higher reproductive 
characteristics than similar cows kept in traditional herds. This was attributed to the fact that 
the better husbandry associated with draft animal, more than compensated for the stresses 
imposed by the work. In countries where work oxen come from small local herds, the "best" 
males that seem large and strong are selected for work and so are castrated and are therefore 
unable to breed. Thus the breeding bulls may be genetically inferior in terms of body size and 
conformation (Starkey, 1988).
4.3 Meaning of Communication
Communication has been defined in several ways by different authors, van den Ban and 
Hawkins (1996) defined communication as the process of sending and receiving message1 
through channels, which establish common meaning between a source and a receiver Nnand'
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(1997) sees it as a process of establishing a commonness or oneness of thought betw een a 
sender and a receiver. Rolings and Leeuwis (2002) defined it as the process th rough  which 
people exchange meanings.
According to Rolings and Leeuwis (2002), communication has the following ingredients and
distinctions:
Communication is about using symbolic signals 
Symbolic signals are transferred through channels and media.
It can be through more or less verbal and intentional 'messages'.
It takes place between people that are aware of each other
Communication takes place in a historical and relational context - people that 
communicate with each other do so in the context of previous communications and 
experiences.
• Communication can be more or less interactive
• Communication can be synchronical, that is, when on telephone or a-synchronical
that is, when using letters, articles etc.
• Communication messages have different levels and layers - messages can be imbi d
with various more implicit meanings and connotations
• It goes along with selection processes because of people's culture pre exist' 
knowledge, goals, aspirations and interest.
According to them, there are three models of communication. These are:
1. The 'objective' or 'transmission model'. In this model, there is a sender who corn 
a 'message' and sends through a 'channel' to a 'receiver'. In this process informat' 
in the message has a fixed objective. The receiver provides the same informat' 
intended by the sender unless something goes wrong in the channel Th*.
j. ne weakness of
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this model is that even if nothing is wrong with the channel, the sender and receiver 
(i.e. the Extension Agent and farmer) would not end up with the same meanings and 
information.
2. The 'subjective' or 'receiver-oriented' model. This is a refinement of the transmission 
model. In this model, the personal history and context of the sender e.g. (Extension 
Agent) and receiver (farmer) are seen as having a different 'lifeworld' or 'stock of 
knowledge'. When a sender encodes a message, there is a high probability that the 
receiver will use a different stock of knowledge to decode the message vis-a-vis if 
roles are changed. Thus because meanings and information are constructed by 
subjective individuals, effective communication can only occur if a sender makes an 
effort to anticipate the frame -of reference of the receiver. This, an EA would for 
example, have carefully studied farmers' perspectives and modes of thinking in order 
to get their messages attuned and adapted to them. Hence, there is the need for 
intensive interaction between EAs and farmers in which both parties become both 
senders and receivers. Rolings and Leeuwis (2002) also noted that despite EA's 
efforts to anticipate farmers' frame of reference and modes of thinking farmers would 
in a number of cases still refuse to accept the meanings proposed by EAs and /or 
would ignore their advice.
3. The 'Social' or ‘network-negotiation transaction' model. This model focuses on the 
influence of communication in the wider social network of the sender (EA) and 
receiver (farmer) since the EAs are not the only ones communicating. Thus the 
meaning constructed by a farmer in interaction with an EA may be influenced 
directly or indirectly by others such as other farmers, religious leaders, family, local 
leaders, traders etc. Also the meanings constructed by farmers can be influenced by
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politics, social relationship, struggle for resources, social interests and aspirations of 
various kinds. (Rolings and Leeuwis, 2002).
4.4 Adoption and the Adoption process.
Rogers (1995) defined adoption as a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best 
course of action available. Adoption process is the changes that take place within individuals 
with regard to an innovation from the moment that they first became aware of the innovation 
to the final decision to use it or not (Wilkenning, 1953). In Wilkenning's view, an individual's 
decision to adopt an innovation is a process, which comprised of learning, deciding and 
acting over a period. He further stated that the adoption of a specific practice is not the result 
of a single decision to act but a series of actions and decisions. Bohlen (1966) noted that the 
adoption of a new idea is not a single unit but a rather complex pattern of mental activities 
combined with "actions" before the individual fully accepts or adopts the idea.
In the adoption process, an individual goes through five stages (van den Ban and Hawkins, 
1996, Leeuwis and van den Ban, 2002: Rogers, 1995 ). These stages are:
1. Awareness: the individual first hears about the innovation
2. Interest: the individual seeks further information about the innovation he has heard about.
3. Evaluation: the individual weighs up the advantages and disadvantages of using the 
innovation in his own circumstances.
4. Trial: the individual applies the innovation on a small scale.
5. Adoption: the individual applies the innovation on a large scale.
These stages were later elaborated by Rogers (1995), into knowledge, persuasion, decision, 
implementation and confirmation.
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Knowledge: This occurs when an individual or other decision making unit is exposed to the 
innovation's existence and gains some understanding of how it functions. Knowing about an 
innovation is often quite different from using the ideas. Most individuals know about many 
innovations that they have not adopted because individuals may not regard it as relevant to 
his situation or as potentially useful.
Persuasion: occurs when an individual forms a favourable or unfavourable attitude towards 
the innovation. Here the individual becomes more psychologically involved with the 
innovation, and he or she actively seeks information about the new idea. Here the important 
behaviours are where he seeks information, what messages he receives and how he interprets 
the information that is received. Thus selective perception is important here in determining 
the individual behaviour. Relative advantage, compatibility and complexity are important at 
this stage.
Decision: occurs when an individual or other decision-making unit engages in activities that 
lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation. Innovations that can be divided for trial use 
are generally accepted more rapidly.
Implementation: Problems in exactly how to use the innovation may crop up at the stage of 
implementation. For example, unavailability of innovations. Questions to ask here include 
where to obtain the innovation, how to use it, how it works, operational problems likely to be 
encountered and how to solve them. Active information seeking takes place here. 
Implementation ends when innovations become a routine or is institutionalised.
Confirmation: During this stage the individual wants supportive messages that will prevent 
dissonance from occurring.
The elaboration of the adoption process to include knowledge, persuasion, decision, 
implementation and confirmation is to provide for the fact that the new idea can possibly be
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rejected at any point of the adoption process. They further indicated the idea that a change in 
information is followed by a change in behaviour is no longer accepted as a pattern. Thus the 
normative-decision-making model is no longer considered to provide an adequate explanation 
of the way people make decisions.
4.5 Meaning of Extension
The term 'extension' has evolved over time, and has different connotations in different 
countries. Hence there is no simple definition of extension, which is universally 
accepted. It is a dynamic concept and its interpretation is always changing. According to 
Rolings and Leeuwis (2002), the term extension itself is more recent; it originates from the 
academia, and it's common use was first recorded in Britain in the 1840s in the context of 
'university extension' or extension of the university. But now, it is applicable to other sectors 
such as industry, health, energy and education. In their view the various definitions of 
extension are in essence, normative definitions, in that they prescribe what the authors would 
like extension to look like ideally. They also noted that alternatively, when extension is 
defined more descriptively in terms of what Extensionists actually do, then its definition 
might not correspond with normative definitions. This is because when taking a closer look at 
what Extensionists do in actual practice, one might, for example, discover in some cases that 
their work has little to do with 'help' but rather with imposing technologies and/or enhancing 
state control over farmers. They went further to argue that extension in the 1980s could be 
problematically regarded as 'help' and being in the interest of the recipients. That extension is 
in many ways also an intervention that is undertaken and/or paid for by a party who is 
interested to influence people in a particular manner. This often created tension between the 
interest of the extension organisation (and/or its funding agency) and the interest of the 
recipients.
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However, the situation where extension derives from (semi-state) institution that is concerned 
with the public interest or public policy is rapidly changing in view of the emergence of 
private and NGO-based extension. Thus, it can be assumed that the interests and policies that 
are pursued by extension are nowadays often more individual and/or localised than in the 
1980s.
Rolings and Leeuwis (2002), citing Ison and Russel (2000) feel the word 'extension' itself is 
already misleading and that it is practically impossible to stretch the meaning of the concept 
in the necessary fashion; that, some senior authors in the field of extension no longer use the 
concept in many of their writings. However, they maintained that if one is to use the concept 
for the meantime then one should among others"
• Shift away from a focus on individual behaviour change, which has characterised most 
of the definitions so far, and incorporate the idea that extension is about fostering new 
patterns of co-ordination.
• Move away from the idea that extension works mainly on the basis of pre-defined 
directions, policies and innovations and emphasise on generative dimensions.
• Indicate that changes usually have a dual (material-technical and social organisational) 
component.
• Transcend the idea that extension is mainly concerned with decision-making, and 
emphasise the importance of social learning and negotiation in extension process
• To define extension as a two-way (or multi-way) process, in which several parties can 
be expected to contribute relevant insight, and which may have action implications for 
all parties (not only farmers, but also researchers, Extensionists, policy makers, etc) 
involved in the process. They have thus defined extension as:
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"A series of professional communicative interventions amidst related interactions that is 
meant - among others - to develop and/or induce novel patterns of co-ordination and 
adjustment between people, technical devices and natural phenomena, in a direction that 
supposedly helps to resolve problematic situations, which may be defined differently by 
different actors involved" (Leeuwis and van den Ban, 2002 p. 19).
Earlier studies by Axinn (1988) and Rivera, Seepersad and Pletsch (1989), citing Malassis 
(1976) categorised extension into three dimensions, namely
• Approach - different styles of action within an extension system
• Model - systems held to be worthy of transference to other situations e.g. Training and 
visit
• Type - similarity among certain systems e.g. similar purposes among different 
commodity specific extension systems.
However, later studies by Rolings and Leeuwis (2002) categorised extension into six 
different dimensions namely:
• Extension strategies/or services
• Extension functions
• Extension approaches
• Extension methodologies
• Extension methods
• Extension tools and techniques
Extension strateeies/or services: This refers to a wider intervention purpose of the 
organisation (Extensionists), that is whether the organisation is problem solving, knowledge 
exchange, diffusion of innovation etc. The different extension strategies include
• Advisory communication
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• Supporting horizontal knowledge exchange
• Generation of (policy and/or technical) innovations
• Facilitating conflict resolution
• Supporting organisational development and capacity building
• Persuasive transfer of (policy and /or technological) innovations
Extension functions: Functions relate to different communicative sub-goals that are deemei 
useful as part of the wider strategy. Four of such functions are
• Awareness raising/conscientisation
• Exploration of views and issues
• Information provision
• Training
Extension approaches: This refers to the basic planning philosophy that is being adopted b] 
Extensionists e.g.
• commodity -  focused approach
• training and visit approach
• the technical innovation -  centered approach
Extension Methodologies: These are more or less pre-defined series of steps or procedures, 
whereby each step can involve the use of one of several methods e.g.
• Farmer Field School (FFS)
• Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
• Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems (RAAKS)
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Extension Methods: Methods can be seen as a particular mode of using media and media 
combinations. Examples of methods include
• Farm visits
• Workshops
• Group discussion
• Priority ranking
Tools and Techniques: Tools and techniques are particular ways of operating a method. 
However, whether something is considered a method or a tool is often debatable; thus no 
sharp boundaries exist between them.
4.6 Extension Agent and Technology Transfer
The role of the extension agent is to disseminate new ideas; practices and knowledge to 
farmers to enable them improve their productivity. Two main types of technology transfer 
have been in use; formal and informal. The national extension services have generally 
provided formal top-down training. This has effectively taught farmers to start to use work 
animals in areas where AT was not known. However, the availability of resources to allow 
frequent extension agent-farmer contact for technology being transferred and the agent's 
ability to diagnose the farmers felt needs have affected the adoption of technologies (Starkey, 
1988). He observed that once AT has started in a region, much transfer has been informal, 
within families, from farmer to farmer or from regional immigrants to local farmers. Farmer- 
led innovation has often been much more significant than formal extension advice. He 
therefore concluded that formal extension is important for introduction of AT technology but 
thereafter it does not keep up with the evolution of farming systems.
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Public sector researchers have developed "improved" AT technologies on research stations. 
These have then been promoted by the extension services, often to be rejected by farmers as 
technically or economically inappropriate to their farming systems (Starkey, 1990). Whale 
(1989) indicated that a technology is transferred if
a. The information is conveyed such that it fulfils a particular need of the client and
b. It can be effectively applied by the client to his own situation.
The farmers' decision to adopt or reject the technology depends to a large extent on the 
extension agent's ability to convince the farmer, van den Ban and Hawkins (1996) observed 
that the message has to be presented such that the client understands it and he is assisted to 
balance the advantages and disadvantages of the new practice. In most countries in the 
region, development programmes have tried to promote animal-drawn wheeled tool-carriers 
but the transfer process has not succeeded; the technology has been "perfected yet rejected" 
(Starkey, 1988). Successful farmer-to-farmer transfer appears to have been responsible for 
the increase in the use of donkeys and working cows in several countries in Southern Africa. 
This adoption has sometimes been against the advise of extension agents (Starkey, 1988).
4.7 Extension Teaching Methods and Adoption
Learning is an active process on the part of the learner. Unless he becomes interested to the 
point of putting forth mental and physical effort to learn, nothing is accomplished. Leagans 
(1960) observed that it is the task of the extension worker to:
a. provide farmers with an opportunity to learn
b. stimulate mental and physical activity that produces the desired learning
The choice of extension teaching method and the ability to communicate effectively therefore 
plays a significant role when trying to influence the adoption of technologies. Maunder
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(1972) observed that each culture and sometimes a region or community within a culture, has 
its peculiar means of communication as well as those common to other cultures. It must not 
be taken for granted that the channels and techniques of one culture necessarily exist in 
another or that they would function effectively if they were introduced, for example, written 
literature is of little value among groups that are highly illiterate.
According to Kang and Song (1984), a good number of proven educational methods or 
techniques exist from which the extension agent may choose to set up learning situations and 
maximise the transfer of information and skills to farmers from a broad perspective. These 
methods are classified in terms of the target group into three main categories namely; 
individual methods, group methods and mass methods (Kwarteng and Zinnah, 1994, van den 
Ban and Hawkins, 1996).
According to Kang and Song (1984) and Kwarteng and Zinnah (1994) to create a conducive 
atmosphere for effective extension delivery, a number of factors need to be considered in 
deciding on the method to use. These include:
1. People learn best in different ways; some by listening, some by seeing, some by doing 
and some by discussions. A combination of methods may be required to bring about the 
desired learning in the target group. Studies have shown that the more different extension 
methods are used the more people change their practice (Kang and Song, 1984; Maunder, 
1972).
2. A number of teaching methods can overlap in trying to attain an objective. In this regard 
special attention must be given to the stage of the adoption process at which the target 
group is. It has been indicated that mass methods are most effective at the awareness 
stage, while the individual and group methods may stimulate interest and play a major
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role in farmer's opinion and decision-making (Bohlen, 1966; Maunder, 1972; Leeuwis 
and van den Ban, 2002, van den Ban and Hawkins, 1996).
3. It has also been established that no extension method is better than the other. The 
extension agent should choose the technique best suited to the situation (Kwarteng and 
Zinnah, 1994).
4. A good knowledge and understanding of the audience, especially their differences and 
similarities with respect to their age, level of education, available resources and their 
entire social environment helps the extension agent select the most suitable method or a 
combination of methods to suit the target group.
5. The characteristics of the message, the teaching and learning objectives and what the 
participants are expected to be able to do with the content of message should also be 
considered. For example, if the aim of the communication is to provide knowledge, the 
extension agent may use the lecture, if the aim is to teach a skill, demonstration method 
may be more appropriate.
6. Extension agents' ability to identify audience needs and involving them in the decision­
making process may encourage the adoption of technologies. Conroy, Gordon and Marter 
(1995), observed that the limited effectiveness of technologies is often associated with an 
inadequate involvement of target beneficiaries, limits to multi-disciplinary technology 
development process and insufficient allowance for the adaptive fine tuning necessary to 
meet the end user's needs.
4.8 Technology Characteristics and Adoption
Various literature, Bohlen (1966) and Rogers (1983) have identified five main characteristics
of an innovation from the point of view of farmers, which affect their rate of adoption. These
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1. Relative advantage
2. Compatibility
3. Complexity
4. Trialability
5. Observability
4.8.1 Relative Advantage o f  the Technology 
This is the degree to which a technology is perceived to be better than the ideas it supersedes 
in terms of economic, profitability, social prestige, physical convenience, low initial cost, 
lower perceived risk, decreasing discomfort, psychological satisfaction or saving time 
(Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education [AIAEE], 1998). Panin 
and Ellis (1992) said farmers are likely to adopt a technology if they perceive the technology 
to be profitable, by either reducing costs and increasing income without necessitating major 
changes in their farming systems.
4.8.2 Compatibility o f  Technology.
This refers to the degree to which technology is perceived to be consistent with the farmer's 
goals and aspiration, socio-cultural values, past experiences, needs and existing farm 
practices (Association for International Agriculture and Extension [AIAEE], 1998). An 
individual's perception is influenced by his beliefs, values, and attitudes and these can affect 
adoption. Innovations, which are compatible with previous experiences usually, catch on 
faster and are usually adopted more quickly than unusual ones (Adams, 1982).
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4.8.3 Complexity o f  the Technology
This refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to 
understand and use (AIAEE, 1998). Innovations, which are relatively simple usually, catch 
on faster and are usually adopted more quickly than the more complicated ones (Adams, 
1982).
4.8.4 Trialability o f  the Technology
This is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis 
(Kwarteng and Zinnah, 1994). If a farmer can try an innovation without committing much of 
his resources he will adopt it more readily, also if its performance meets his objectives.
4.8.5 Observability o f  the Technology
This refers to the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. Some 
results are easily observed and communicated to others whereas others are difficult to 
describe to others. Farmers learn much from observing and discussing their colleagues' 
experiences, their observations often being a reason to start a discussion (van den Ban and 
Hawkins, 1996). Bohlen (1966) noted that people who have low ability to mentally handle 
abstract ideas tend to be more reluctant to adopt practices, which do not produce visible 
outcomes when used.
4.9 Socio-economic Factors and Adoption
When introducing a technology due consideration should be given to the availability and 
resource endowments of the potential adopter such as labour, land and capital. These can 
permit the rejection or adoption of the technology that is being introduced. A technology can 
be rejected due to the inadequacy of the farmer's resources, making him incapable of meeting
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the requirements of the technology being promoted. Fliegel (1984) noted that some farmers 
may be inclined to be innovative that is, psychologically predisposed to accept innovations 
quickly but unable to act because of situational constraints such as insecure land tenure, lack 
of access to credit and lack of access to markets.
4.10 Socio-cultural Factors and Adoption
A farmer's willingness to adopt a technology is also largely influenced by socio-cultural 
factors such as beliefs, norms, values and taboos of the social system. Shaner, Philipp and 
Schmehl (1982), citing Beal and Sibley (1967) said characteristics such as knowledge, 
beliefs, attitudes, behaviour and goals of farmers are the most important factors to consider 
when introducing new technologies to farmers. Bah (1988) said farmers attach great 
importance to factors such as the social division of labour, cultural identity and compatibility 
with traditional pattern of life when adopting a technology.
4.11 Constraints to the Adoption of AT Technology
There are difficulties that make the spread and adoption of AT problematic. These are:
Lack of appropriate implements.
(Bobobee, 2003 www.fao.org/waicent/faomfo/agricult/ags/agse/3ero/namibia/c7.htm'): said, lack of 
appropriate implements could be an important constraint to the use of AT and farmers have 
sometimes found it difficult or impossible to obtain suitable equipment.
Harnessing. Several people had suggested that harnessing was a major constraint. Starkey 
(1988) named these people as Mucuta (1985), Smith (1988) and Vietmeyer (1982). They 
strongly advocated the use of head/horn yokes, withers/shoulder yokes, collars, breast bands 
single yokes or double yokes.
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Human labour. Human labour can be a critical constraint in a family and AT may ease or 
exacerbate this. Farm households that do not have sufficient labour to manage draft animals 
throughout the year may be unable to adopt AT. Stumping fields to allow the use of animal 
drawn ploughs itself requires much labour, and in some areas, this may be a critical constraint 
to adoption (Seifert, 1992).
Lack of capital and/or credit. The adoption of AT can be highly dependent on the 
availability of these resources. The market cost of oxen, cultivation implements and carts in 
West Africa is high, relative to average farm incomes (Starkey, 1988). Seifert (1992) noted 
that it would be impossible for poor peasants to introduce AT due to lack of funds, or it 
would be inappropriate due to small acreage or family size.
Limited availability of animals. This can be a serious constraint to the employment of draft 
animal power in some areas. In the humid and sub-humid zones of West and Central Africa, 
there are very few cattle. Elsewhere, civil unrest or wars can restrict animal availability 
(Starkey, 1988).
Social traditions. Starkey (1988) observed that in areas where AT is still a highly innovative 
technology, it is common to hear someone argue that the technology is appropriate to one 
tribal group, but not to another. Theft of animals or fear of this can affect AT users. In 
Gambia, a reason given for using donkeys rather than oxen was the reduced risk of theft with 
donkeys. In some countries, draft animals give prestige to their owners but they may also 
cause jealousy and friction within communities (corbel, 1988).
National policies. National development policies can act as a major constraint to the 
adoption of AT. Interventions at national level can greatly influence decisions at farm-level. 
If AT is discouraged by governments as the case for Ghana in the late 1950's and early 1960's 
(Munzinger, 1982), the necessary implements may become unavailable to the farmers. There
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will not be allocation of resources for the provision of national services such as credit, 
extension research and training.
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CHAPTER FIVE  
METHODOLOGY
5.0 Introduction
This chapter presents how the data for the study was collected, managed and processed. 
There are various types of methodologies used in research. According to Sarantakos (1993) 
the choice of any methodology depends on some factors. These factors are:
♦ The appropriateness of the method for the theoretical goals
♦ The adequacy of the method regarding the research objective
♦ The realisation of methodological rules which determine its structure, possibilities and 
limitations and
♦ The examination of the prerequisites and conditions, which must be considered for the 
performance of mathematical - statistical tests.
Survey was therefore found to be the most appropriate. Survey studies are studies that ask a 
sample of respondents questions (often about opinions but commonly about factual matters as 
well). Such survey generally interviews respondents in the field, mail questionnaires to the 
respondents, households, or pass out questionnaires to a group (Bailey, 1987).
The discussion in this chapter falls under the following headings:
1. Research design
2. Population of the study
3. Procedure and selection of sample
4. Instrument development
5. Data gathering
6. Data management
7. Analysis of data
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5.1 Research design
Since the study is a fact-finding exercise as stated earlier, a survey of the descriptive type was 
used to collect the data. The design is cross-sectional. A cross-sectional study is one that 
studies a cross-section of the population at a single point in time. Hence, a broad sampling of 
persons of different ages, different educational and income levels, different races and 
different religions is done for study (Bailey, 1987).
According to Bailey (1987), the basic advantage of a cross-sectional study is that data can be 
gathered from a large number of people and these data are comparable since they are not 
affected by changes over time. This suggested that although the field data was collected 
within a short period of time, they were not significantly affected by the changes in time 
between collection of information from a respondent to another.
5.2 Population of the study
The target population was taken as all farmers and Agricultural Extension Agents (AEAs) in 
the Builsa traditional area. The target population is the unit for which the information is 
required (Sarantakos, 1993). The "Unit of analysis" is the individual respondents in the 
Builsa district. According to Bailey (1987) the unit of analysis refers to the different 
characteristics of an individual person in the target population being studied.
5.3 Procedure and selection of sample
The Builsa district was selected as a case study. This is because AT was introduced into the 
Builsa district around the same period with Navrongo, Bawku and Zuarungu which were all 
under then North Mamprusi District. The study should have therefore covered the whole of 
Upper East Region, but because of time, financial and language barriers, it restricted itself to
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only the Builsa district and also because the researcher hails from Builsa District. Two-stage 
random sampling was carried out to get a sample size of one hundred (100) respondents. This 
sample size was chosen because of statistical analysis purpose. Bailey (1987) citing 
Champion (1970) said for statistical data analysis to be done a sample size should not be less 
than thirty (30) cases.
Firstly, four (4) villages were randomly selected from thirteen (13) villages. Only four 
villages were selected because of time and financial constraints and also for easy supervision. 
The selection was done by writing the names of villages on pieces of paper and rolling them 
thoroughly. The rolled pieces of paper were then spread on the floor. Four persons were 
asked to pick any of the rolled pieces of paper on the floor. The names of villages picked 
became the four selected villages.
Secondly, one hundred (100) respondents (house) were also randomly selected from one 
thousand and twenty-eight (1,028) houses using the same procedure for the selection of the 
villages. The only difference was, instead of names of villages, names of houses were written 
on the pieces of paper. House heads were interviewed.
Random sampling was done because the study population has the same cultural 
characteristics and this was to give each respondent in the study population an equal 
probability of being chosen for the sample. Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of 
some pre-determined size from a population. According to Bailey (1987), sampling has the 
following advantages:
1. Saves money
2. Saves time
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3. Easy to supervise interviews
5.4 Agricultural Extension Agents (AEAs)
For the AEAs, the "complete survey" was used to collect data because they were only 
seventeen (17) of them. The questionnaires were given to them to fill and return them within 
two weeks.
5.5 Instrument development
A research instrument is "any type of written or physical device which is purported to 
measure variables" (Sproul, 1988, cited in Atengdem, 1997). The choice of specific 
instruments is influenced by some factors. According to Atengdem (1997) citing Sproul 
(1988), the instruments should:
♦ Measure the variable appropriately
♦ Be sufficiently valid and reliable
♦ Yield the appropriate level of measurement for each variable
♦ Require an appropriate amount of time
♦ Be easy to acquire a response
♦ Be easy to administer
♦ Be easy to interpret and
♦ Incur costs within the researcher's budget
The following instruments and methods were therefore identified as the most appropriate for 
the data collection:
1. Questionnaires
2. Informal interview and group discussions
3. Literature and documentary review formats
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Data required and instrument used
MAIN CONCEPT DATA REQUIRED SOURCE OF 
DATA
INSTRUMENT
USED
PERSONAL 
CHARACTERISE 
CS OF FARMERS
♦ Age of farmer
♦ Family size
♦ Educational 
level
♦ Farmers ♦ Questionnaires
♦ Interviews
♦ Group 
discussion
SOCIO­
ECONOMIC
FACTORS
♦ Ownership of 
cattle
♦ Ownership of 
donkeys
♦ Access to credit
♦ Source of labour
♦ Affordability of 
AT services
♦ Availability of 
AT services
♦ Farmers
♦ AEAs
♦ Office records
♦ Questionnaires
♦ Interviews
♦ Group 
discussion
SOCIO­
CULTURAL
FACTORS
♦ Values
♦ Norms
♦ Beliefs
♦ Attitudes
♦ Taboos
♦ Farmers
♦ AEAs
♦ Literature
♦ Questionnaires
♦ Interviews
♦ Group 
discussion
TECHNOLOGY
CHARACTERISE
CS
♦ Importance
♦ The need
♦ Costs
♦ Profitability
♦ Cultural 
appropriateness
♦ Appropriateness 
to some aspects 
of farming 
systems
♦ Farmers
♦ AEAs
♦ Literature and 
documents
♦ Questionnaires
♦ Interviews
♦ Group 
discussion
EXTENSION
TEACHING
METHODS
♦ What is done, 
e.g., weight 
pulling
♦ How it is done
♦ When it is done
♦ Where it is done
♦ Who does it
♦ Why it is done
♦ Frequency of 
visits
♦ Farmers
♦ AEAs
♦ Office records 
and reports
♦ Questionnaires
♦ Interviews
♦ Group 
discussion
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5.6 Data gathering process
The questionnaires and interview schedules were constructed. In order to ensure the validity 
and reliability of the questionnaires, they were pre-tested.
Validity is the ability of an instrument to produce accurate results and to measure what is 
supposed to be measured (Sarantakos, 1993). Reliability is the ability of an instrument to 
produce consistent results (Sarantakos, 1993). Sarantakos (1993) noted that pre-testing helps 
the researcher assess whether the interviewers understand and can administer the instrument 
effectively and whether the target respondents find the interview schedule adequate for its 
purpose. Bailey (1987) said pre-testing is done to remove ambiguous or extraneous questions. 
The pre-testing was conducted in Sandema. Corrections were made by re-framing of 
questions, deletions and additions.
5.6.1 Initial Arrangements
On arrival the researcher first visited the District Chief Executive (DCE) of the area to seek 
permission from him to operate in the district. A similar visit was made to the DDA of MoFA 
to seek permission from him to operate in the district, and to use some of his staff as research 
assistants. It was also to collect documentary and literature materials, list of villages, names 
of households and if possible names of farmers for sampling. Permission was also obtained 
from NGOs operating in the communities where data was to be collected.
5.6.2 Interview Schedule
Lindzey and Aranson (1968) as cited in Kalton and Moser (1971) outlined three broad 
conditions for a successful interview. These are:
♦ The accessibility of the information to the respondents
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♦ Cognition or understanding by the respondent of what is required and
♦ Motivation on the part of the respondent not just to answer the questions but give accurate 
answers.
The interview was conducted in the local dialect (Buli) since most of the respondents were 
illiterate. The researcher and his assistants also speak the same dialect hence no need for 
interpretation, which might distort information. The respondents were interviewed in their 
respective homes. This was meant to get the individual's views and opinions.
5.6.3 Group Discussion
There was no formal group discussion but occasionally the researcher had informal group 
discussions with the farmers. This was done to obtain a wide range of opinions as part of the 
research was historical. Sarantakos (1993) said group discussion is a way of gaining 
information in a short period of time about the breath or variation of opinions and of 
establishing a mechanism of opinion information.
5.7 Data Management
Completed questionnaires were received they were scanned through to ensure that 
information on the key concepts was collected. The responses for closed and open-ended 
questions were coded appropriately. Coding is a process in which statements and answers are 
translated into numbers (Sarantakos, 1993). Unlike the closed questions, the open-ended 
questions were put into pattern of categories after studying the responses. These categories 
are mutually exclusive and exhaustive and allow some degree of quantification if a 
quantitative framework is employed (Sarantakos, 1993). Research assistants were trained on 
how to administer the questionnaires.
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5.8 Storage and Handling of Data
In order to establish uniformity with the closed responses for the purpose of analysis, the 
open-ended responses were post-coded. The responses on the individual questionnaires were 
coded following the listing and categorisation of the responses. Data was then transferred to a 
sheet of paper for easy handling before entering it on to the computer. The data collected 
from the group discussions, documents and literature were compiled into notes to be used to 
support data during analysis, interpretation and discussion of results.
5.9 Data Analysis
The data was entered onto the computer using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 
(SPSS). Frequencies and cross tabulations were ran, analysed and the results interpreted.
Non-parametric statistical tests were used to test the level of significance of the hypothesis. 
Non-parametric tests are used when data is ordinal, nominal or when subjects are allocated to 
categories (Greene and d'Oliveira, 1988).
To determine whether the hypotheses stated earlier were true, the degrees of freedom was 
taken to be one (1) and the level of significance (critical value) as 0.05. The level of 
significance is a statistical test value whose associated probability of occurrence under the 
null hypothesis Ho is equal to or less than some small probability, usually denoted oc. The 
purpose of setting a significance level is to define a rare event under (Ho) when the null 
hypothesis(Ho) is true. Thus, if (Ho) were true, and if the result of the statistical test on the set 
of observed data has a probability less than or equal to oc, it is the occurrence of a rare event 
that would lead us, on a probabilistic basis, to reject (Ho) (Siegel and Castellan Jr., 1988).
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According to Bailey (1987) the chi-square (%2) and Fisher’s Exact Tests are used to test the 
level of significance, but that unless all expected values are at least 5, one cannot assume the 
distribution to be %2, hence the chi-square can not be used in this case. For this reason, the 
Fisher’s Exact Test was found more appropriate and was used. For the use of Fisher’s Exact 
Test, all tables were re-grouped into 2 x 2  tables (Siegel and Castellan Jr., 1988). The Fisher’s 
Exact Test Score was then compared with the level of significance, (0.05). If the Fisher’s 
Exact Test Score was found to be less or equal to the level of significance, the null hypothesis 
(Ho) was accepted. If it was found to be more than the level of significance, the null 
hypothesis (Ho) was rejected. Hence, symbolically, it can be represented as p < 0.05 = 
significant and p > 0.05 = not significant where p is the Fisher’s Exact Test Score.
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CHAPTER SIX  
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY POPULATION
6.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings, presentation and discussion on the characteristics of the 
study population. For ease of presentation the chapters is divided into two sections namely:
1. Characteristics of farmers
2. Characteristics of Agricultural Extension Agents.
SECTION ONE
6.1 Characteristics of Farmers
This section presents the findings, presentations and discussions on the personal, socio­
economic and socio-cultural characteristics of farmers. The section tries to find out whether 
the characteristics mentioned affect the adoption of AT as stated in Objectives 2, 3 and 4.
6.1.1 Personal Characteristics
Under this, only results of personal characteristics of respondents, which are relevant to the 
objectives of the research, are presented. These include
• ages of respondents
• their family size
• educational levels.
Age of respondents
The ages of most of the respondents, especially those who were forty years or above were 
estimated using important events in their years of birth. The percentage and age distribution 
of respondents is presented in Table 6.1.
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Table 6.1: Distribution of respondents by age
Age category (years) Frequency %
30 - 47 (Youth) 44 44.0
48 - 65 (middle age) 36 36.0
66+ (old age) 20 20.0
Total 100 100.0
Source: Field Survey 2002
The ages of respondents were classified into three categories, namely; the youth, (30-47) 
years, the middle age (48-65) years and the old age (66 or above) years. The mean age was
50.8 years whilst the minimum and maximum ages were 30 and 95 years respectively.
Majority of respondents (44%) were in the youth category, followed by the middle age
\
category (36%) and the old age category (20%). The economically active group in a nation is 
between 15-64 years (Ghana Statistical Service 2002; Barrett et al 1982). As indicated in 
Table 6.1, majority of the respondents fall within this range. Age can influence the adoption 
or rejection of a technology. For example a technology that looks complex or needs more 
labour and energy for an old person may be easy for a young person, van den Ban and 
Hawkins (1996) and Swanson (1984) noted that innovators tend to be relatively young. 
Atengdem (1997) also observed that age is an important factor in determining the working 
ability of any person.
Family size of respondents
On the size of family, children who were four years or below were not included because at 
those ages, children can neither farm nor tend livestock. The distribution of respondents by 
family size is presented in Table 6.2.
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Table 6.2: Distribution of respondents by family size
Family size (No. Of persons) Frequency %
1-5 9 9.0
6-10 50 50.0
11 -15 27 27.0
16-20 8 8.0
21+ 6 6.0
Total 100 100.0
Source: Field Survey 2002
The minimum number of persons per family was four (4) with twenty-six (26) as the 
maximum. The mean family size was ten (10). The average household size for the various 
electoral areas in the Builsa District for 2000 population and housing census ranged from 3.9 
to 6.9 persons (Ghana Statistical Service 2002). The mean for the study being more than the 
mean for the population and housing census could be that the study was conducted in areas 
with large compound houses.
Table 6.2 indicates that majority of respondents (59%) had family size between one and ten 
(1 - 10). These are respondents from the big towns who practice the nucleus family system 
due to pressure on land and other social amenities. The remaining respondents (41%) are 
from the villages (outskirts) who still believe in the extended family system and that the 
social status of a person is determined by the size of the family hence the need for large 
families Lynn (1937) noted that in North Mamprusi (of which Builsa district was then part) 
wealth and position are associated not with money but with the number of wives and children 
and livestock that a man has. The large number of persons per family can affect the adoption 
of a technology. A small family size is not likely to adopt a technology, which needs either 
division of labour or larger work force, whilst a larger family size may adopt. Barrett,
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Lassiter, Wilcock, Baker and Crawford (1982) observed that both oxen and donkey farmers 
have larger families and larger work force than their hoe-farmer counter-parts. Stumping 
fields to allow the use of animal-drawn ploughs itself requires much labour, and in some 
areas this may be a critical constraint to adoption (Reynolds, 1988). Farm households that do 
not have sufficient labour to manage draft animals throughout the year may be unable to 
adopt animal traction (Starkey, 1988).
Educational Level of respondents
The distribution of respondents by educational level is presented in Table 6.3. As shown in 
Table 6.3 majority of respondents (72%) had no formal education 25% had basic education 
whilst 3% had secondary/tertiary education. The majority of respondents had no formal 
education.
Table 6.3: Distribution of respondents by educational level
Educational Level Frequency %
No formal Education 72 72.0
Basic Education 25 25.0
Secondary/Tertiary Education 3 3.0
Total 100 100.0
Source: Field Survey 2002
Probably those who had formal education were in government work or migrated to the towns 
and cities to look for “white collar jobs” or greener pastures. Education plays an important 
role in the adoption process. An educated and literate person is likely to adopt an innovation 
faster than an illiterate person if literacy is required. He has access to a lot of information
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about the technology through reading. Urasa, (1994) said most smallholder farmers have had 
only very limited education and so any new technology to be introduced should be simple 
enough to be understood by the farmers. Swanson (1984) citing Rogers (1983) shows that 
innovators tend to be relatively young, better educated and “better o f’.
6.1.2 Socio-economic characteristics
This section presents the findings, presentations and discussions on the socio-economic 
characteristics of the study population. These include
• Ownership of cattle and donkeys
• Affordability and availability of Animal traction (A.T) services
• Source of A.T. services
• Availability of credit facilities
• Form and use of credit
• Adequacy and timeliness of credit
• Size of farms and
• Source of farm labour.
Munzinger (1982) observed that the economic situation of the individual farmer is the 
decisive factor in determining whether he goes over to the use of draught oxen.
Ownership of Cattle
The percentage of ownership of cattle by respondents is presented in Table 6.4.
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Table 6.4: Distribution of respondents by type of Ownership of Cattle
Type of Ownership Frequency %
Individual 21 21.0
Family 56 56.0
Both family and Individual 4 4.0
No Cattle 19 19.0
Total 100 100.0
Source: Field Survey 2002
Livestock, especially cattle play a vital role in terms of wealth of a person in the Builsa 
District. Lynn (1937) noted that in North Mamprusi (Builsa District inclusive), wealth and 
position are associated not with money, but with the number of wives and children and 
livestock that a man has. The study showed that (56%) majority of respondents had family 
cattle. This situation may reduce adoption of animal traction. This is because before some 
animals are trained all family members must agree. Even when animals are trained there may 
be conflicting interests for access during the crucial working hours and responsibility for 
maintaining the animals at other times. The study noted that access to work animals during 
the season was done according to seniority. The one maintaining the work animals may not 
get access to the bullock services early, if he is not a senior. Even if he gets, it could be too 
late. In this case even though there may be cattle, the individual prefers getting animal 
traction services from outside or using the hoe.
Ownership of Donkeys
The distribution of respondents by type of ownership of donkeys is presented in Table 6.5.
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Table 6.5: Distribution of respondents by type of ownership of donkeys
Type of Ownership Frequency %
Individual 7 7.0
Family 13 13.0
No donkeys 80 80.0
Source: Field Survey 2002
As shown in Table 6.5, majority of respondents (80%) did not have donkeys. The low 
ownership of donkeys could be attributed to the fact that donkeys are not used for payment of 
bride wealth and religious sacrifices hence their ownership is not prestigious.
The low ownership of donkeys can affect adoption because bullocks are very expensive and 
those who do not have cannot afford. As Fischer (1994) puts it, farmers must be able to use 
the new technology immediately after training, that is, they must have their own animals and 
implements and that training is ideally done with the farmers’ own animals and implements 
and on their own fields.
Affordability of Animal Traction Services
Affordability of AT services here refers to the ability of a farmer to play for the service of AT 
at any point in time. On affordability of animal traction services, 46% of respondents said 
few farmers could afford, 34% of respondents said most farmers could afford, whilst 20% 
said some fanners could afford.
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The 46% respondents who said few fanners could afford animal traction services were 
bullock owners. Some bullock owners complained that whenever they plough for people they 
refuse to pay them, an indication that they cannot afford the cost of the services. The other 
34% were bullock owners who have been paid for their services. This finding is consistent 
with Galjart (1971), cited by Fliegel (1984), who observed that in addition to unwillingness to 
adopt innovations one should raise questions about inability to adopt. Hawens and Flinn 
(1975) cited by Fliegel (1984) in support said laggards are not necessarily unwilling to adopt 
innovations, but are unable to implement their adoption decision.
Availability of Animal Traction Services
Availability of AT service is a situation where a farmer gets AT services any time he/she 
wants without difficulty. The study showed that 65% of respondents said animal traction 
services were not readily available, 22% said somewhat available whilst 13% said animal 
traction services were readily available.
The 65% who said animal traction services were not readily available are those who do not 
own bullocks or donkeys at all or those who have family ownership. In the case of the family 
ownership, one would have to wait until his turn since they would be ploughing according to 
seniority. In the case of those who do not own bullocks at all they will have to wait until the 
owners finish ploughing. Even that, it will depend on how close he is to the owner or the 
number of requests made before him. This can affect adoption since he might not see the 
benefits or advantages of animal traction over the use of hoe because of the late ploughing. 
Johnson and Kellogg's (1984) observed that farmers will accept new cultivated more land 
when they had draft animals so that total yield over farm increased.
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Source of Animal Traction Services
The study indicated that majority of respondents (69%) had their own animal traction 
services, 22% hired animal traction services whilst 9% had no source of animal traction 
services, hence they used the hoe. Of the nine (9) respondents who did not enjoy animal 
traction services, four (4) of them said they could not afford the cost of ploughing, two (2) 
said they feared disappointments, whilst three (3) said they had enough family labour and did 
not need animal traction services.
This finding confirms Galjart (1971), as cited by Fliegel (1984), observations from his studies 
of smallholder farmers that in addition to unwillingness to adopt innovations one should raise 
questions about inability to adopt. Hawens and Flinn (1975) as cited by Fliegel (1984), also 
observed that laggards are not necessarily unwilling to adopt innovations, but are unable to 
implement their adoption decision. Beal and Sibley (1967) as cited by Shaner, Philipp and 
Schmehl (1982) said beliefs might influence the farmer’s attitudes, behaviour and goals. For 
example even though farmers may be treated fairly when seeking credit, the anticipation of 
being treated unfairly may keep them from seeking credit as in the case of those respondents 
who said they feared disappointments. Those who said they had enough family labour also 
confirms Brown’s (1966) citing Mead (1955) observation that the introduction of 
mechanisation of agriculture has either fallen through or encountered difficulties because the 
local population has considered it not only uneconomical (since human labour is considered 
cheaper) but also that it would leave the farmer “with even less of the creative work of which 
he now has too little”.
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Respondents who had access to credit facilities
The study conducted revealed that only (16) sixteen out of the hundred (100) respondents 
interviewed had credit facilities for AT from financial institutions either in cash or in kind. 
The remaining eighty-four (84) respondents did not get any credit facilities from any source 
(formal and informal). Reasons given for not getting the credit facilities included the 
following:
1) The procedures of getting credit is cumbersome.
2) They did not belong to any group or association, one of the criteria used in giving 
credit.
3) They feared getting government loans because of prosecution and disappointments.
4) They applied but were denied because they did not belong to the party of the ruling 
government.
5) The amount of loans approved were usually inadequate.
6) Could not use loan for its purpose because of late disbursement.
7) Others said they were self-sufficient and did not need any loan.
Credit can be a critical constraint to the adoption of animal traction. Some of the findings 
above confirm the observations made by Munzinger (1982) that National development 
policies can represent either an impetus to animal traction, or they can act as a major 
constraint. Interventions at national level can greatly influence decisions at farm-level.
Out of the sixteen (16) respondents who had the credit facilities, seven (7) used the credit to 
buy foodstuffs, whilst the remaining nine (9) used it for either funerals or payment of bride 
wealth. The inability of respondents to use credit for its purpose, that is purchase of draught 
animals or hiring of animal traction services was attributed to the inadequacy of the credit.
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This is because fourteen (14) out of the sixteen (16) who had the loan said the loan was not 
adequate. Another reason for using the credit for other purposes other than animal traction 
was the time they received the credit. This is because out of the hundred (100) respondents 
interviewed, ninety-five (95) of them said credit facilities were mostly late.
Availability of Credit Facilities
On the availability of credit facilities, the study showed that out of the hundred (100) 
respondents interviewed ninety five (95) said credit facilities were not readily available, five 
(5) said credit facilities were somewhat available. However, no respondent indicated that 
credit facilities were readily available. But from the reasons given earlier in the forgone 
paragraph for not getting the credit facilities, one is tempted to conclude that the problem of 
respondents was not availability of credit, but rather accessibility of credit facilities. For 
example reasons like procedure is cumbersome, do not belong to any group indicated that the 
credit was available but how to access it could be the problem.
The Farm Size of Respondents
Farm sizes of respondents were put into three categories for easy analysis. The farm size of 
each respondent was estimated using the then existing charges for ploughing one acre of land 
in the community and the number of man days used in weeding each plot of land. The 
distribution of respondents by size of farm is presented in Table 6.6.
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Table 6.6: Distribution of respondents by the size of farms
Size of farm Category (acres) Frequency %
1-5  (small scale farmers) 24 24.0
6-10  (Medium scale farmers) 42 42.0
11+ (Large scale farmers) 34 34.0
Total 100 100.0
Source: Field Survey 2002
The minimum farm size was two (2) acres with twenty-nine (29) acres as the maximum. The 
mean farm size was nine (9) acres. From Table 6.6 the medium scale farmers were the 
majority (42%) followed by the large scale fanners (34%) and the small-scale farmers were 
the least (24%).
When interviewed the small-scale farmers complained of either lack of land or no money to 
hire animal traction to increase their acreage. However, the medium and large scale farmers 
said apart from the large number of dependents they had to feed, land was not a problem. 
They also had their own bullocks or could afford the cost of ploughing. This confirms the 
findings of Gboku (1988). He noted that animal traction might assist farmers to increase the 
total production of their crops. One of the clearest ways in which this is achieved is through 
increase in area cultivated. He said there is very often a correlation between farm size and 
the ownership of draft animals, although this does not necessarily mean that the animals are 
the cause of the large area of cultivation; it may be that the farmers that have big farms are 
the ones wealthy enough to use draft animals, so that draft animals may be the result of large 
farms. Recorded farm areas before and after the adoption of draft animals tend to indicate 
that where land is available, farmers will cultivate more land when they have draft animals, 
so that total yield per farm increases (Barrett et al, 1982; Panin, 1986.
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6.1.3 Socio-cultural characteristics
Under this section, the results, presentations and discussions on the socio-cultural 
characteristics of the study population are presented. These are:
• The cultural acceptability of animal traction technology,
• The level of respect given to cattle owners, donkey owners,
• The category of people who manage work animals.
Cultural Acceptability
All the hundred (100) respondents interviewed said animal traction technology was 
acceptable in the community. However, the only reason why some cattle owners do not have 
working animals is to avoid jealousy and hatred. That because animal traction owners 
normally increase the total production of their crops through increases in area cultivated, 
people tend to hate them and can kill them through spiritual means. This observation is in 
line with Starkey (1988) who noted that the adoption of animal traction tends to increase 
income differences between farmers within villages.
The traditional beliefs and attitudes of the people can also make the introduction of 
technologies difficult in certain areas as the reasons given by some cattle owners for not 
having work animals. Brown (1966) citing, Edwin (1939) noted that in India the Baiya
refused to use an iron plough because they believe that the iron plough would repay with
harshness the generosity of the land.
Level of respect given to cattle (bullock) owners
The distribution of respondents by their perception of the level of respect given to cattle 
owners is presented in Table 6.7.
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Table 6.7: Distribution of respondents by their perception of the level of respect
given to cattle (bullock) owners
Level of respect Frequency %
Very high 34 34.0
High 56 56.0
Average 10 10.0
Low 0 0.0
Very low 0 0.0
Total 100 100.0
Source: Field Survey 2002
From Table 6.7 majority of respondents (56%) ranked level of respect given to cattle owners 
as being high, 34% ranked them as very high and 10% ranked them average. No respondent 
ranked them low or very low.
This shows the importance respondents attach to ownership of cattle. This is even shown in 
Table 6.4 where only nineteen (19) out of the hundred (100) respondents did not own cattle. 
This level of respect could be attributed to the fact that cattle is used for funerals, sacrifices 
bride wealth and for security purposes. Lynn (1937) noted that in North Mamprusi (Builsa 
District inclusive) wealth and position are associated not with money, but with the number of 
wives, children, and livestock that a man has. However, the eleven who ranked cattle owners 
as being average said the respect given to a cattle owner depends on the respect he gives to 
others. A cattle owner who does not respect people is not respected.
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Level of respect given to donkey owners
The distribution of respondents by their perception of the level of respect given to donkey 
owners is presented in Table 6.8. It can be seen from Table 6.8 that majority of respondents 
(54%) ranked the level of respect for donkeys as being high, followed by those who ranked 
them average (35%), very high 7% and low 4%. Nobody ranked them very low. Those who 
ranked respect given to donkey owners as being high or very high are likely to be those who 
own donkeys or have enjoyed the services of donkeys in one way or the other. Those who 
ranked donkey owners as average or low are likely to be those who do not own donkeys or 
have not enjoyed their services. And also for the mere fact that they are not used for 
sacrifices and payment of bride wealth, they are of low status.
Table 6.8: Distribution of respondents by their perception of level of respect given to
donkey owners
Level of Respect Frequency %
Very high 7 7.0
High 54 54.0
Average 35 35.0
Low 4 4.0
Very low 0 0.0
Total 100 100.0
Source: Field Survey 2002
As compared to the level of respect given to cattle in Table 6.7, more respect is given to cattle 
owners than donkey owners, probably due to the multiple functions it plays or because cattle 
is naturally preferred. As noted by Starkey (1988) that animal traction both benefits from, 
and suffers from long standing traditional preferences and the vagaries of more rapidly
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changing “fashions”. That animals often have prestige status unrelated to their working 
abilities, so that one sickly horse may have higher social status than a pair of strong oxen. In 
some countries and communities the colours of animals and implements may be very 
important influencing decisions relating to adoption, even though it is unlikely that these 
factors would influence performance.
Category of people who manage work animals
Table 6.9 presents the distribution of respondents by the category of people who manage 
work animals
Table 6. 9: Distribution of respondents by the category of people who manage work
animals
Category of people who manage work animals Frequency %(N=100)
Boys 100 100.0
Girls 56 56.0
Men 95 95.0
Women 14 14.0
Multiple response.
Source: Field Survey 2002
Table 6.9 indicates that all the respondents (100%) said boys manage work animals, 95% said 
men manage work animals whilst 56% and 14% said girls and women respectively.
The study indicated that there was no custom which prevents any gender from managing 
work animals. That in a family where there are no children or the children are attending 
school, then the men and women would manage the work animals. The reason why it is not 
common to see women managing work animals may be just out of fear and also because of 
the numerous roles women play in the household.
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Starkey (1988) observed that men and children usually train the animals, work with them and 
herd them. He said children often tend draft animals and because of this their educational 
prospects can suffer, either due to limited school attendance or due to fatigue when school is 
combined with looking after animals.
6.1.4 Summary: Characteristics o f  Farmers
In summary, it was found under the social characteristics of the respondents that most of 
them (44%) were the youth, 36% the middle age and 20% the old age. The study also 
revealed that most respondents (50%) had family size between 6-10 person, whilst those with 
21 or more persons were the least (6%). Out of the hundred (100) respondents interviewed 
seventy two (72) had no formal education.
On the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, the study indicated only 19% of 
respondents did not own cattle. Also 80% of respondents did not own donkeys. Out of the 
hundred (100) respondents interviewed on the affordability of animal traction services, 
majority of them said few farmers could afford On availability, a majority of 65% said animal 
traction services were not readily available, 22% said it was somewhat available. The study 
again indicated that 69% of respondents, used their own draft animals, and 22% hired. 
However, 9% did not use draft animals, either because they could not afford the cost of 
ploughing or had enough family labour. From the interview it was shown that 84% of 
respondents did not receive any credit facility, only sixteen (16) of the respondents had credit. 
Of the sixteen (16) seven (7) of them use the credit to buy foodstuff, whilst nine (9) used the 
credit for funerals, payment of marriage dowries with the reasons that either credit was 
inadequate or it was received very late and could not be used for the intended purpose. On 
availability of credit facilities 95 out of the 100 respondents said credit was not readily
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available. The study also revealed that medium scale farmers were 42; large-scale farmers 34 
and small-scale farmers were 24.
On the socio-cultural characteristics of respondents, all the hundred (100) respondents said 
animal traction technology was culturally accepted in the community. Jealousy and hatred 
might prevent people from owning draft animals. On respect given to bullock owners 56% of 
respondents rated high, 34% rated very high and 10% rated average. No body rated them low 
or very low. On the respect given to donkey owners those who rated them high was 54%, 
average 35%, very high 7%, and low 4%. The study also indicated that 100% of the 
respondents said boys manage work animals, 95% said men manage work animals, 56% said 
girls manage work animals and 14% said women manage work animals. All the respondents 
did indicate that there was no custom preventing women or girls from managing work 
animals.
6.2 Characteristics of Extension Agents
This section presents findings, presentations and discussions on the characteristics of the 
extension agents. This may help answer the research question whether the extension methods 
used so far affected the adoption of AT and to find out its effectiveness in promoting AT as 
demanded by Objective 8. Areas to look at therefore include:
• Number of in-service trainings
• Duration of the in-service training
• Source of in-service training
• Methods used in training AEAs
• Frequency of visits made by AEAs
• Reasons for inability to make visits to farmers
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• Problems farmers face in adoption of AT and
• Summary
6.2.1 Number o f  In-service Trainings
The distribution of respondents by number of in-service training received by AEAs is 
presented in Table 6.10
Table 6.10: Distribution of respondents by number of in-service trainings received by AEAs
Number of In-service trainings Frequency %
0 2 11.8
1 6 35.3
2 3 17.6
3 1 5.9
4 2 11.8
5 3 17.6
Source: Field Survey 2002
From Table 6.10 it is shown that majority of respondents had zero to two (0-2) trainings (11) 
whilst only six had three to five (3-5) trainings. This is because MoFA places less 
importance on AT as compared to other sectors of the ministry. Munzinger (1982) and 
Starkey (1988) said animal traction has sometimes been neglected in allocation of resources 
for the provision of national services such as credit, extension, research and training.
6.2.2 Duration o f In-service Training
Of the seventeen (17) respondents nine (9) said they had 1-2 days training, three (3) said 3-4 
days and the other three (3) respondents said 5-6 days. The nine respondents who had 1-2 
days of training still emphasises the less importance given to animal traction by MoFA.
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Those who had 3-6 days of training were those old staff who were in the ministry during the 
time animal traction was being promoted.
6.2.3 Source o f  In-service Training
The distribution of respondents by source of in-service training is presented in Table 6.11. 
Table 6.11: Distribution of respondents by source of in-service training
Source of training Frequency %
MoFA 15 88.2
NGOs 4 23.6
Farmers 5 29.5
Multiple Response N=17 
Source: Field Survey 2002
Table 6.11 shows that majority of respondents (88.2%) had their training from MoFA. 
Notwithstanding this, the 29.5% respondents who had their training from farmers indicates 
that AEAs can equally learn from farmers and that extension is a two way affair and not one
way.
6.2.4 Methods used in training AEAs
The distribution of respondents by the methods used in training them is presented in Table 
6.12. As indicated in Table 6.12, majority of respondents (64.7%) had their training by 
demonstration, followed by lectures 41.2% and group discussion 23.5% respectively.
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Table 6.12. Distribution of respondents by the methods used in training them
Method used Frequency %
Demonstration 11 64.7
Lectures 7 41.2
Group discussion 4 23.5
Multiple Response N = 17 
Source: Field Survey 2002
6.2.5 Reasons fo r  inability o f AEAs to make follow-up visits to Farmers 
The study conducted showed that majority of AEAs (47%) sometimes made visits.
23.5% always made visits whilst 24.4% never made visits. The distribution of respondents by 
reasons for their inability to make visits to fanners is presented in Table 6.13
Table 6.13 Distribution of respondents by reasons for their inability to make follow-up 
visits to farmers
Reasons Frequency %
Lack of means of transport 9 52.9
No fuel 5 29.4
Large operational area 8 47.1
Lack of knowledge of AT 4 23.5
Farmers did not have training materials 5 29.4
Multiple response N=17 
Source: Field Survey, 2002
6.2.6 Farmers Perception of Problems facing the adoption of animal traction
The distribution of respondents by problems farmers face in adoption of animal traction is
presented in Table 6.14
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Table 6.14 Distribution of respondents by problems farmers face in adoption of animal 
traction
Problem Frequency %
Lack of spare parts/implements 14 82.4
Lack of capital 16 94.1
Lack of bullocks 9 52.9
High cost of drugs 8 47.1
Illiteracy 9 52.9
High cost of implements 2 11.8
Multiple Response N = 17
Source: Field survey 2002
Table 6.14 shows that majority of respondents (94.1%) say lack of capital is the problem 
facing farmers in the adoption of animal traction, followed by lack of spare parts 82.4%, lack 
of bullocks 52.9%, illiteracy 52.9%, high cost of drugs 47.1% and high cost of implements
11.8% respectively.
6.2.7 Summary: Characteristics o f Extension Agents
In summary, majority of respondents (11 out of 17) had zero to two (0-2) trainings. The study 
also showed that nine (9) out of seventeen (17) respondents had 1-2 days of training. 
Respondents said there were no funds to keep them more than two days. On the source of 
training, fifteen out of seventeen had their training from MoFA, five from farmers and four 
from NGOs respectively. The five who had their training from farmers shows that AEAs can 
equally learn from farmers. The study conducted also revealed that majority of AEAs 
(47.0%) sometimes made visits to farmers, (23.5%) always made visits whilst (24.4%) never 
made visits. Reasons for their inability to make visits were: lack of means of transport 
(52.9%), large operational area (47.1%), no fuels (29.4%), farmers did not have training
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materials (29.4%) and lack of knowledge in AT (23.5%). The study again indicated majority 
of AEAs (64.7%) were trained using demonstration, followed by lectures (41.2%) and group 
discussion (23.5%) respectively.
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CHAPTER SEVEN  
EXTENSION METHODS USED IN PROMOTING ANIMAL TRACTION
7.0 Introduction
The findings, presentations and discussions on extension methods used in promoting AT are 
presented in this chapter. Here, attempts are made to answer the research question thus: Have 
the extension methods used so far affected the adoption of AT? The objective to find out the 
effectiveness of the extension methods used in promoting AT is also discussed here. Areas 
looked at in the chapter therefore include:
• Awareness of AT
• Source of awareness
• Methods used in training
• Duration of training
• Adequacy of training
• Whether respondents were trained in groups
• Number in a group
• Respondents' participation in bullock handling during the training
• Level of respondents participation in yoking and nose-ringing
• Follow-up visits made by trainers
• Frequency of visits made by AEAs
• Effectiveness of extension methods
• Factors hindering the adoption of AT and
• Summary of the chapter.
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7.1 Awareness of Animal Traction (AT)
Awareness occurs when an individual or other decision-making unit is exposed to an 
innovation’s existence. Being aware of an innovation is often quite different from using the 
ideas. Most individuals know about many innovations that they have not adopted because 
individuals may not regard it as relevant to his situation as potentially useful. (Rogers, 1995).
The study revealed that all the hundred (100) respondents interviewed were aware of animal 
traction. This could be attributed to the fact that AT had been introduced into the study area 
since 1937. Some of them could have grown up to meet it.
7.2 Source of Awareness
The distribution of respondents by their source of awareness of animal traction is presented in 
Table 7.1
Table 7.1: Distribution of respondents by their source of awareness about A.T.
Source of Awareness Frequency %
MoFA 80 80.0
NGOs 26 26.0
Friends 55 55.0
Family 46 46.0
Multiple Response N = 100 
Source: Field Survey 2002
As shown in Table 7.1, majority of respondents (80%) had their source of awareness from 
MoFA. Those who had their source of awareness from NGOs were the least (26%). This 
could be as a result of the late involvement of NGOs in animal traction activities in the study 
area. For example whilst MoFA introduced animal traction into the study area in 1937, it was
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not until 1969 and 1974 that the Roman Catholic and Presbyterian churches respectively got 
involved in animal traction activities.
7.3 Source of training
Training farmers and rural people often seeks to make available knowledge, skills and 
attitudes required for more productive and efficient farming (Atengdem, 2001). Of the 
hundred respondents interviewed eighty-four (84) of them had training in AT. Sixteen (16) 
did not get training. Table 7.2 presents the distribution of respondents by their source of 
training.
Table 7.2: Distribution of respondents by their source of training in A.T.
Source of training Frequency %
MoFA 18 21.4
NGO 22 26.2
Friends 29 34.5
Family 82 97.6
Multiple Response N = 100 
Source: Field Survey 2002
Table 7.2 indicates that majority of respondents (82%) had their training in AT from their 
families. Those who had their training from MoFA were the least (18%). This could be 
attributed to the level of importance MoFA gives to A.T. as compared to other sectors of 
MoFA. This finding supports the National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP) animal
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traction report (1997) that except few extension staff who in the past were involved in 
training farmers and. bullocks and often supported by NGOs most of the frontline staff had 
inadequate skills and confidence in training farmers and animals. Besides that animal 
traction extension materials are limited. Majority of respondents had their training from their 
families because, probably they grew up to meet their parents practicing AT As noted by 
Helsloot and Kriut (1992) in Panin and Ellis (1992) that most transfer of technology relating 
to AT had taken place through the family, neighbours and migrants. That there were very 
few examples of knowledge or skills being obtained from the extension services which were 
judged as rather irrelevant, unavailable or poor. Starkey (1988) observed that once AT has 
started in a region, much transfer has been informal, within families from farmer to farmer or 
from regional immigrants to local farmers. Thus formal extension is not important for 
diffusion of animal traction. Successful farmer-to-farmer transfer appears to have been 
responsible for the increase in the use of donkeys and working cows in several countries in 
Southern Africa. This adoption has sometimes been against the advice of extension agents 
(Starkey, 1994).
7.4 Methods Used in Training
Learning is an active process on the part of the learner. Unless he becomes interested to the 
point of putting forth mental and physical effort to learn, nothing is accomplished. It is the 
task of the extension worker to: (a) provide farmers with an opportunity to learn and (b) 
stimulate mental and physical activity that produces the desired learning (Leagans, 1960). 
The choice of extension teaching method and the ability to communicate effectively therefore 
plays a significant role when trying to influence the adoption of technologies. Hence Table
7.3 presents the distribution of respondents by the methods used in training them.
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Table 7.3: Distribution of respondents by the methods used in training them
Method Used Frequency %
Demonstration only 43 51.2
Group discussion only 8 9.5
Two or more methods 33 39.3
Source: Field Survey 2002
From Table 7.3 it is established that majority of respondents (51.2%) had their training by 
demonstration followed by two or more methods 39.3% and group discussion 9.5%. The 
reason for majority of respondents getting their training by demonstration could be that the 
aim was to teach a skill. Also as indicated earlier most of them were trained by family 
members and friends. Some of the respondents said they had lectures and group discussions 
with MoFA staff who promised coming back to hold demonstration with them but never 
turned up.
7.5 Duration of training
The distribution of respondents by duration of training is presented in Table 7.4. From Table 
7.4, it is shown that majority of respondents sixty-seven (67) out of the eighty-four (84) who 
had training had 1-2 days of training. This could be attributed to the fact that most of them 
had their training from families or friends and also the period training took place. If training 
was done during the cropping season both trainers and trainees might not have enough time 
for the training since they will have other farming activities to carry out.
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Table 7.4: Distribution of respondents by duration of training
Duration (days) Frequency %
1-2 67 79.8
3 -4 8 9.5 |
5 -6 6 7.1
7+ 3 3.6
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Survey 2002
7.6 Adequacy of training
The distribution of respondents by adequacy of training is presented in Table 7.5
Table 7.5: Distribution of respondents by adequacy of training
Adequacy of training Frequency %
Highly inadequate 0 0.0
Inadequate 24 28.6
Somewhat adequate 10 11.9
Adequate 50 59.5
Highly adequate 0 0.0
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2002
Table 7.5 indicates that majority of respondents 59.5% said training was adequate even 
though majority of them said they had 1-2 days of training as indicated in Table 7.4. This 
could be because of the need respondents had for animal traction and also most of the training 
was done by demonstration. It has earlier been indicated that respondents ranked 
demonstration as the most effective among all the teaching methods. One of the respondents
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said “I watched my friend training his animal, I also went and cut sticks made yokes, nose 
ringed my bullocks, harnessed them and started training them on my own. As noted by 
Kwarteng and Zinnah (1994) a good knowledge and understanding of the audience, 
especially their differences and similarities with respect to their age, level of education, 
available resources and their entire social environment helps the extension agent select the 
most suitable method. That the characteristics of the message, the teaching and learning 
objectives and what the participants are expected to be able to do should also be considered. 
For example if the aim is to provide knowledge, the extension agent may use lecture, if the 
aim is to teach a skill, demonstration method may be more appropriate.
7.7 Whether respondents were trained in groups
On whether respondents were trained in groups fifty-five (55) of them said they were trained 
in groups, whilst twenty-nine (29) of them said they were trained individually. On the number 
of participants in a group fifty-five (55) of them said they were between 2-6 in a group.
7.8 Level of respondent's participation in bullock handling during the training
Majority of respondents said their level of participation in bullock handling was very high 
whilst 27 said it was high. This could be as a result of the small number in the group thus 
making it possible for every one to have a try. It could also be because most of them had 
their training from families and friends, which was mostly by demonstration.
7.9 Level of respondent's participation in yoking and nose ringing
Out of the eighty-four (84) respondents who had training sixty-one (61) of them said their 
level of participation in yoking and nose ringing was high, sixteen (16) ranked participation
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as very high whilst six ranked participation as being average. Again the high level of 
participation could be attributed to the training being done by family members and friends.
7.10 Follow-up visits by trainers
Seventy-seven (77) out of the eighty-four (84) said they never had follow-up visits, whilst 
seven (7) said they had follow-up visits. This could be because most of the training was done 
by fellow farmers; they did not have time to make such follow-up visits. The extension staff 
might not also have the necessary logistics to enable them make follow-up visits.
7.11 Frequency of visits by AEAs
Ninety-three (93) out of the hundred (100) respondents said they never had visits from AEAs. 
The remaining seven (7) who had visits from AEAs said it was quarterly. This could be lack 
of logistics for the AEAs to make visits.
7.12 Effectiveness of Extension Methods
Farmers described effectiveness of extension methods as:
(1) Ability to explain to farmers the advantages and disadvantages of a technology
(2) Ability to convince farmers to adopt a technology
(3) The number of farmers adopting the technology
The distribution of respondents on their perception of effectiveness of Extension Methods is 
presented in table 7.6.
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Table 7.6: Distribution of respondents on their perception of effectiveness of Extension
Methods
Extension methods Highly
ineffective
Ineffective Some what 
effective
Effective Highly
effective
Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq %
Demonstration 0 0 0 0 0 0 64 64 36 36
Group Discussion 0 0 28 28 62 62 10 10 0 0
Lectures 3 3 75 75 22 22 0 0 0 0
Audio visuals 25 25 68 68 7 7 0 0 0 0
Source: Field Survey, 2002
On the effectiveness of the extension methods used, the study showed that 36% of 
respondents said demonstration was highly effective whilst 64% said it was effective. 
Nobody ranked it as highly ineffective, ineffective or somewhat effective.
On group discussion 10% said it was effective, 62% somewhat effective, 28% ineffective. 
Nobody ranked it as highly effective. Three percent (3%) rated lecture method as highly 
ineffective, 75% ineffective and 22% somewhat effective. Nobody ranked it as highly 
effective or effective. Audiovisuals had 25% rating it as highly ineffective, 68% ineffective 
and 7% as somewhat effective. Nobody rated it as being highly effective or effective. In 
order of effectiveness therefore demonstration ranks first, followed by group discussion, 
lectures and audiovisuals respectively.
Respondents argued that with demonstration, you are always active and there is maximum 
concentration. You do not easily forget. But with the other methods especially the lectures 
and audiovisuals you can easily fall asleep. Moreover some of them because of old age they 
have very poor retentive memory and also find it difficult to understand abstract things. That
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some of them will not have the patience to sit and listen to lectures. It can be boring. 
Therefore as noted by Kwarteng and Zinnah (1994), a good knowledge and understanding of 
the audience, especially their differences and similarities with respect to their age, level of 
education, available resources and their entire social environment helps the extension agent 
select the most suitable method. The farmer’s decision to adopt or reject the technology 
depends to a large extent on the extension agent’s ability to convince the farmer, van den 
Ban and Hawkins (1996) noted that the message has to be presented such that the client 
understands it. Also each culture and sometimes a region or community within a culture has 
its peculiar means of communication as well as those common to other cultures. It must not 
be taken for granted that the charnels and techniques of one culture necessarily exist in 
another or that they would function effectively if they were introduced, for example written 
literature is of little value among group’s that are highly illiterate (Maunder 1972). Starkey 
(1988) said in most countries in the region, development programmes have tried to promote 
animal-drawn wheel tool-carriers but the transfer process has not succeeded; the technology 
has been "perfect yet rejected".
7.13 Factors hindering the adoption of animal traction
Distribution of respondents by factors hindering the adoption of animal traction is presented 
in Table 7.6. It is shown that 83% of respondents said lack of capital hinders the adoption of 
animal traction followed by high cost of bullock implements 44%, high cost of spare parts 
34%, theft of cattle 32%, lack of bullocks 20% and illiteracy 13%. During the survey 
respondents complained they did not have funds to purchase implements, spare parts and 
bullocks. They did not also have funds to hire animal traction services. This problem is 
captured in Chapter six (6) on affordability of animal traction services, where 46% of 
respondents said few farmers could afford animal traction services. Barrett et al (1982)
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observed that lack of capital or credit can be a critical constraint to agricultural development, 
and the adoption of animal traction can be highly dependent on the availability of these 
resources.
Table 7.6 Distribution of respondents by factors hindering the adoption of animal 
traction
Factor Frequency %
Lack of Capital 83 83.0
High cost of implements 44 44.0
High cost of spare parts 34 34.0
Lack of Bullocks 20 20.0
Theft of cattle 32 32.0
Feed 13 13.0
Multiple Response N= 100 
Source: Field Survey 2002
Respondents also complained of high cost and lack of bullock implements and spare parts. 
This finding supports observations made by Starkey (1988) that lack of spare parts can also 
be a constraint although it is seldom a critical one. Gifford, (1988) found that lack of 
implements could be an important constraint to the use of animal traction.
The survey also revealed lack of bullocks and theft of cattle. Bullocks have either died or 
been sold to purchase food stuff but could not be replaced because of their high cost. Theft 
of cattle was also reported in Doninga where a respondent had all his cattle driven away. The 
risk of animal mortality is particularly important for farmers who were not animal owners,
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and who therefore purchased animals using savings or credit (Bangura, 1988). Havard and 
Faye, (1988), as cited by Starkey (1990) also observed that the market cost of oxen, 
cultivation implements and carts in West Africa is high relative to average farm incomes. In 
some countries draft animals give prestige to their owners, but they may also cause jealousy 
and friction within communities. In extreme cases this may lead to the loss of animals 
through theft, poison or “witchcraft” (Corbel, 1988).
Respondents also complained that in the dry season all the grasses are burnt leaving nothing 
for cattle to feed on. Cattle therefore travel long distances in search of feed and water and 
never return. What they get is not sufficient and therefore animals are not strong enough to 
do ploughing. This finding confirms observation made by Abiye Astatke, Reed and 
Butterworth (1986), as cited by Starkey (1988) that large numbers of animals may die of 
starvation especially in drought years. Furthermore it has been observed that farmers may 
know how to improve the condition of their animals but choose not to. For example, farmers 
in Ethiopia may sell hay for money, even when their own animals are in poor condition.
7.14 Summary: Extension methods used in promoting AT
Summarising the chapter, all the hundred respondents interviewed said they were aware of 
animal traction. This could be attributed to the many years of its introduction into the study 
area. On the source of awareness of animal traction, 80% of respondents had their source of 
awareness from MoFA whilst those who had their source of awareness from NGOs were the 
least (26%). This was also attributed to the late involvement of NGOs in animal traction 
activities in the study area. The study also indicated that 84 of respondents had training and 
that 97.6% of this number had their training from their families. Those who had their training
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from MoFA were the least (21.4%). This was attributed to extension staff lacking skills to 
train or did not have the materials necessary for training.
The study revealed that majority of respondents (51.2%) had their training by demonstration, 
(39.3%) two or more methods and group discussion the least (9.5%). This was also because 
most of them had their training from their family members. On the effectiveness of the 
methods used, respondents ranked demonstration as the most effective, followed by group 
discussion, lectures and audiovisuals respectively. Seventy-nine percent (79.8%) had 1-2 
days of training. Those who had 7 or more days of training were the least (3.6%). This again 
was because farmers did most of training. The study also showed that 59.5% of respondents 
trained said the duration was adequate, 28.6% said training duration was inadequate. Fifty- 
five (55) of respondents trained said they were trained in groups of between 2-6 people. 
Twenty-nine (29) respondents said they were trained individually. On the level of 
participation in handling bullocks, more than 60% of respondents ranked yoking and nose 
. ringing, as very high. This could be due to the small size of the group and also farmers did 
most of training. Seventy-seven respondents never had follow-up visits from trainers whilst 
seven had follow-up visits. The study indicated 93 of the hundred (100) respondents never 
had visits from AEAs. This could be attributed to lack of logistics for AEAs or lack of skills 
in training. Respondents listed the following as factors hindering the adoption of animal 
traction; lack of capital, high cost of implements and spare parts, lack of bullocks, theft of 
cattle and inadequate feed for animals during the dry season.
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CHAPTER EIGHT  
USES, PERCEPTIONS AND EFFECTS OF ADOPTION OF ANIMAL  
TRACTION (AT) ON SELECTED ASPECTS OF THE FARMING  
SYSTEMS
8.0 Introduction
Chapter seven presents the findings, presentations and discussions on the uses, perceptions 
and the effects of adoption of animal traction on selected aspects of the farming systems. The 
Chapter tries to find out the influence the characteristics of animal traction technology have 
on farmers adoption of the technology. It will find out the usefulness/importance of AT and 
its compatibility within the farming system of the Builsa District.
8.1 Awareness of the Usefulness of AT
Variables under this are haulage and traction activities that bullocks are used for. For 
eventual adoption to occur both the need for the technology and awareness of the potential 
benefits of the technology must be present (Abdulai, 1994).
8.1.1 Haulage activities that bullocks are used for
Of the hundred (100) respondents interviewed all of them said they knew that bullocks were 
used for carrying wood, gravel and farm produce. Eighty-five (85) of them said they knew 
that bullocks were used in carrying water whilst only twenty-three (23) of them said bullocks 
were used for transporting goods.
The reasons why only few of respondents knew that bullocks were used for transportation 
could be that bullocks are normally not very docile to permit their usage for transporting 
goods, and therefore using them to transport goods is not common in the study area. It also 
depends on the way bullocks were trained and handled. If bullocks are well trained and
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handled properly they can be used for any haulage activity. Bangura, (1988); Allagnat and 
Koroma (1984) said farmers in Guinea argue that after working together for several seasons 
their animals had become their friends.
8.1.2 Traction activities that bullocks are usedfor
On traction activities all the hundred (100) respondents said they knew that bullocks were 
used for ploughing, ridging, harrowing and weeding. However, only three (3) of them said 
they knew that bullocks were used for planting. This is because the introducers of animal 
traction technology were more concerned with land preparation and haulage activities. 
Planting implements in AT were not introduced to farmers early.
8.1.3 Haulage activities that donkey are usedfor
All the hundred (100) respondents said they knew that donkeys were used for carrying water, 
wood, gravel, farm produce and transporting goods. This could be attributed to the fact that 
donkeys were used since time immemorial as means of transport. Even today, donkeys are 
still used as means of transport for people in the rural areas of the study area.
8.1.4 Traction activities that donkey are usedfor
The study indicated that all the hundred respondents (100%) knew that donkeys were used for 
ploughing, and ridging. Ninety-two (92) knew that donkeys were used for weeding, whilst 
eighty-five (85) knew of donkeys being used for harrowing. However nobody knew that 
donkeys could be used for planting. This could be as a result of the late introduction of the 
technology.
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8.2 Perceptions about animal traction technology characteristics
Under this section, variables considered include: the relative economic advantage of animal 
traction technology, the ease with which technology was understood and used, the ease with 
which technology could be experimented and whether results of technology are visible for 
others to observe.
8.2.1 Relative Economic Advantage
The study revealed that out of the 100 respondents interviewed, 96 said the use of animal 
traction helps reduce drudgery, there is faster and better seed bed preparation, timely land 
preparation, recommended spacing resulting in optimum plant population and increased farm 
size resulting in increases in total production.
Johnson and Kellogg (1984) noted that fanners would accept new practices or technologies 
when they perceive that the benefits are greater enough to outweigh the costs. Swanson 
(1984) observed that small farmers would adopt a technology if it is economically and 
technically superior to their farming systems. Conroy, et al (1995) citing Appleton (1993) 
also noted that if farmers are to benefit, new technologies must either reduce their workload 
significantly or be capable of being incorporated into the work without adding to the overall 
burden.
8.2.2 Compatibility of animal traction technology
On the compatibility of animal traction technology, the study found that eighty-nine (89) of 
the hundred (100) respondents said it was compatible with the culture of the study area. As 
one respondent put it “These days we are looking for technologies which will make you 
better and not necessarily what pleases your friend or the so- called gods”. This trend could
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be attributed to respondent's interaction with outside life. Because it was noticed that more 
than 90% of respondents were returned migrants. Hence this observation is in line with 
Adams, (1982) and Leagans (1960) who observed that an individual’s perception is 
influenced by his beliefs, values, attitudes and can affect adoption or practice of an 
innovation. Farmers have rejected new methods because they were incompatible with their 
values (Abdulai, 1994). The responsiveness of farmers to practise an innovation is greatly 
enhanced when the proposed or introduced technology has the potential to solve a perceived 
problem in particular localities. Hence both the need for the technology and the awareness of 
the potential benefits of the technology must be present for eventual adoption to occur.
8.2.3 Ease with which technology was understood and used
When the study was conducted it was found that ninety-one (91) out of the hundred 
respondents said the technology was easy to understand and use. One respondent said he 
watched a neighbour train his bullocks. After that he went home cut sticks, made his yokes, 
harnessed his animals and started training his bullocks. Some respondents remarked that no 
technology is complex provided it has relative economic advantage and is profitable. "After 
all, is it not a human being who invented that technology?" was what a farmer said. "If it 
were complex how did he do it"? Adams (1982) said innovations, which are relatively 
simple, usually catch on faster and are adopted more quickly than more complicated ones. 
Kivlin (1960); and Singh and Petrini (1966), cited by Rogers (1983) found that the 
complexity of farm innovations was more highly related in a negative direction to their rate 
of adoption than any other characteristic of the innovation except relative advantage.
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8.2.4 Ease with which technology can be experimented
Here the study indicated that sixty-eight (68) out of hundred (100) respondents said it was not 
easy to experiment the technology on a limited basis. This, respondents indicated was due to 
lack of draft animals, high cost of draft animals and high cost of implements which some 
farmers could not afford. If a farmer can try an innovation without committing much of his 
resources, he will adopt it more readily, or if its performance meets his objectives (Fliegel 
and Kivlin, (1966a’) Singh, (1966); and Fliegel et al, (1968), as cited by Rogers, (1983).
8.2.5 Whether results o f  technology are visible fo r others to observe
Some results are easily observed and communicated to others whereas others are difficult to 
describe to others. According to Rogers (1983), for technology to be readily acceptable and 
invite participation it must have advantage, be compatible with local customs, not too 
complicated and easy to test and observe. Fanners learn much from observing and discussing 
their colleagues' experiences, their observations often being a reason to start discussion (van 
den Ban and Hawkins, 1996). Bohlen (1966) noted that people who have low ability to 
mentally handle abstract ideas tend to be more reluctant to adopt practices, which do not 
produce visible outcomes when used.
The study has revealed that eighty-five (85) out of the hundred respondents said results of 
animal traction technology were visible. They gave examples as fast and timely land 
preparation, reduced fatigue, increased farm size etc.
8.3 Effects of adoption of AT on selected aspects of the farming systems
The selected aspects of the farming systems include; type of crops grown, land preparation, 
selection of farm sites, mixed cropping, planting pattern, farm size, crop yields and cost of
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production. These are selected because they are, some of the factors, which have direct effect 
on crop production, the purpose for which animal traction technology was introduced into the 
Builsa district. If farmers perceive a technology to be profitable, by either reducing costs or 
increasing income, without necessitating major changes in farming systems, they are likely to 
adopt that technology. (Panin and Ellis, 1992).
The distribution of respondents by the effects of adoption of A.T. on selected aspects of 
fanning system is presented in Table 8.1.
From the survey conducted as indicated in Table 8.1, the adoption of animal traction has 
affected all the seven selected aspects of the farming system in one way or the other except 
mixture of crops grown. Animal traction does not prevent them from growing mixture of 
crops, that is putting more than one crop seed in one container, mix them and planting them 
at stake. AT reduces labour, helps in cultivation of large acreage. With the large acreage land 
is apportioned to different kinds of crops which will serve as security against total crop 
failure. Urasa, (1994) noted that for new technologies to be widely accepted they have to 
offer solutions to existing problems within traditional farming practices. Farmers who use 
traditional methods of seedbed preparation, planting, weeding and even harvesting, threshing 
and winnowing need to be convinced that alternative methods are cheaper, more effective and 
sasier to operate, and/or that they lead to a higher work output.
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Table 8.1 Distribution of respondents by the effects of adoption of AT on selected
aspects of farming system
Aspect of Farming System Effects
Yes No
Types of crop grown V'
Land preparation •/
Site selection ■/
Mixture of crops
Planting pattern S
Size of farms y
Crops yields y
Cost of production ✓
Source: Field Survey 2002
8.3.1 Type o f  Crops grown
On type of crops grown, respondents said many different types of crops could be grown 
within a season with the introduction of AT. They also observed that, with AT, crops that 
need ploughing with AT could be done faster thus leaving enough time to crops that need 
ploughing with hoe, for example fara-fara potatoes and sweet potatoes. Respondents also 
indicated that acreage of food crops were reduced in favour of cash crops. For example 
acreage of staple crops like sorghum and millet were reduced in favour of groundnuts and 
rice. However, Deveze and Levaray (1988) as cited by Starkey (1988) noted that increased 
production of cash crops does not necessarily imply lower production of food crops. They 
said in the cotton zones in West Africa, where animal traction has been successfully 
promoted by cotton companies, food grain production has increased.
8.3.2 Land Preparation
According to the respondents AT has made seed bed preparation faster, easier, better and 
timely. Timeliness of ploughing, seeding and weeding may well improve with animal
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traction, and lead to yield increases (Starkey, 1988). Respondents also noted that because 
they use the ridges, there is good drainage. Mathews and Pullen (1974) as cited by Starkey 
(1988) said crop yields may be affected by special techniques such as tied ridging. That 
joining ridges to form a grid of mounds and hollows can assist in soil and water conservation 
particularly in those semi-arid regions that have 400-700mm of annual rainfall.
8.3.3 Selection o f farm sites
The study revealed that rocky, stumpy and muddy lands with very heavy soils might be 
avoided with the fear that implements might get damaged. Also the animals may not be 
strong enough to pull the implements when such conditions exist. Starkey (1988) reported 
that animal traction is associated with the tendency to move from bush fallow cultivation 
involving mixed cropping in partially-cleared areas still containing stumps, to permanent 
systems in which single crops are grown in cleared fields. The study also revealed that with 
the introduction of AT distant farming is encouraged. This is because they need more area to 
cultivate which they can not get within the compounds. Also farm produce can easily be 
conveyed home using carts. This observation is in line with Starkey (1988) who noted that 
AT may lead to intensification, with larger farm areas being less intensively managed. He 
said AT may well have a direct impact on the quality of life, by reducing drudgery.
8.3.4 Mixture o f  crops
Animal traction may lead to changes in the crop mix, and therefore may have differential 
effects on crop production. However, the study indicated that all the respondents (100) said 
AT has not affected their mixture of crops. Farmers still practice this system to avert total 
crop failure, reduce labour and make maximum use of land. According to Barrett et al 
(1982); and Panin, (1986); some surveys have not found marked differences in crop mix
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associated with AT. They found that should a major change in crop mix be associated with 
AT, this could well affect food production and the local economy, with significantly different 
effects on the various members of farm households.
8.3.5 Planting Pattern
All respondents said the adoption of AT has affected their planting pattern. Apart from the 
timely planting, planting is done in rows and on ridges thus maintaining recommended 
spacing and optimum plant population. Others were of the view that AT wastes land 
especially when planting groundnuts. The furrows between ridges are left which results in 
low plant population and yield per unit area. However, all respondents indicated that with AT 
cultural practices are easier because of the ridges and row planting. When one plants on the 
ridges plants establish faster resulting in better yields. Lekezime (1988), cited by Starkey 
(1988), observed that line planting followed by early or regular inter-row weeding with draft 
animals may improve yield per unit of labour and unit of area.
8.3.6 Size o f  farms
Out of the hundred respondents interviewed ninety-eight of them said AT increases their farm 
size. Even those of them who do not practice AT agreed that AT increases farm size. The 
other two who said it decreases farm size argued on the basis that most of the land is not 
utilized - reference the spaces between the ridges. This results in low output per unit area. 
These findings support the observations made by Barrett et al (1982); Allagnat and Koroma, 
(1984); Panin, (1986); and Francis, (1988) that farmers will cultivate more land when they 
have draft animals. Gboku (1988), had the same observation when he said “there is very 
often a correlation between farm size and the ownership o f draft animals, although this does 
not necessarily mean that the animals are the cause o f the large area o f cultivation; it may be
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that the farmers that have big farms are the ones wealthy enough to use draft animals, so that 
draft animals may be the result o f large farms".
8.3.7 Crop yields
Animal traction may assist fanners to increase the total production of their crops. From the 
study conducted 99% of the respondents said AT assist them to increase their crop yield. 
This they attributed to the timely ploughing, planting and weed control. The remaining 1% 
said it decreases crop yield. This, they argued that with AT one is tempted to plough a large 
area and may not be able to maintain the farms effectively thus the output per unit area will 
be low. Also with the ridging only half the area will be planted, for example in the case of 
groundnuts.
These diverse views were also noted by Sargent, Lichte, Matlan and Bloom (1981) as cited 
by Starkey (1988). They said AT is often associated with higher crops yields than those 
obtained by hoe-farming. However, this may not necessarily be a direct effect of the tillage, 
for the yield increase may be due to factors associated with, but not caused by the working 
animals. Panin (1986) found that a significant increase in total crop yield of maize, millet, 
groundnuts and beans was associated with ridge formation using oxen. Starkey (1988) also 
noted that timeliness of ploughing, seeding and weeding may well improve with AT, and lead 
to yield increases. Even though AT may assist farmers to increase the total production of 
their crops, Francis (1988), argued that in some cases there may be a drop in yields per unit 
area, as farmers tend to farm more extensively rather than intensively as indicated by the 1 % 
of the respondents.
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S. 3.8 Cost o f production
On the question whether AT has any effect on cost of production, 97% of respondents said it 
decreases cost of production, whilst 3% of them said it increases cost of production.
The 97% respondents argued that the amount spent to plough one acre of land using AT is far 
less than using hoe to clear the same piece of land. They went further to give examples like 
buying of drinks, cigarettes and food as the expenses. After spending so much, it is not a 
guarantee that they will finish clearing that plot of land and there is nothing binding them to 
come back the following day to complete. With draft animals, however there is a fixed 
amount, and he will have to finish ploughing before he is paid. In addition to the less amount 
spent on the cost of ploughing other cultural practices, such as planting and weeding are 
made easier and on time because of the ridges, which results to good establishment of the 
crop thus leading to higher yields. This agrees with the findings of Starkey (1988) who said 
when crops are planted in lines, weeding becomes easier and faster AT.
However, the other 3% were of the opinion that draft animal owners cultivate more land and 
because planting is done by hand, greater human labour is needed. More human labour is 
also needed to weed, harvest and process. They argue that even though total output may be 
more the total profit may be less compared to the hoe-farmer. This finding is in line with 
Francis (1988), who observed that in some cases there may be a drop in yields per unit area, 
as farmers tend to farm more extensively rather than intensively.
8.4 Summary: Uses, Perceptions and Effects of Adoption of AT on Selected Aspects 
of the Farming Systems
In summary all respondents said bullocks were used in carrying wood, gravel and farm 
produce. Eighty-five percent (85%) said bullocks were used in carrying water whilst 23%
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said they knew that bullocks were used for transporting goods. All respondents knew that 
bullocks could be used for ploughing, ridging, harrowing and weeding. Only 3% said they 
knew that bullocks could be used for planting. On the use of donkeys, all respondents 
indicated that they knew donkeys were used for carrying water, wood, gravel, farm produce 
and transporting goods. All respondents also said they knew donkeys were being used for 
ploughing and ridging, Ninety-two percent (92%) said donkeys were used for weeding, whilst 
85% said they were used for harrowing. Nobody knew that donkeys could be used for 
planting.
The study also revealed that AT has helped to reduce drudgery of fanners. There is faster, 
better and timely land preparation, recommended spacing resulting in optimum plant 
population and increased farm size leading to increases in total crop production. It was also 
noted that 89% of respondents said AT was consistent with their socio-cultural values, norms 
and beliefs, needs and existing farming practices. Ninety-one percent (91%) of respondents 
said AT technology was easy to understand, whilst 85% said results of AT could easily be 
seen and observed by others. However, 68% of respondents indicated that it was not easy 
experimenting with AT on small-scale basis because of the high cost and scarcity of draft 
animals and implements.
The above paragraph therefore answers objective (5) of the specific objectives which states 
“To find out respondents perception about the importance/usefulness of animal traction 
technology”
On the effects of adoption of AT on selected aspects of the farming system it was found that 
the adoption of AT has some effects on all of them, either positively or negatively with the
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exception of the mixture of crops grown. However, it was found that there were more the 
advantages of AT within the farming system such as, easy and better timely land preparation 
and reduced drudgery. Animal traction also allows the practice of mixture of crops, which is 
common in the study area. As noted by Panin and Ellis (1992) noted that if farmers perceive 
a technology to be profitable, by either reducing costs or increasing income, without 
necessitating major changes in farm systems, they are likely to adopt that technology. This 
confirms that AT is compatible with the farming system within the study area.
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CHAPTER NINE  
ADOPTION OF ANIMAL TRACTION TECHNOLOGY
9.0 Introduction
Chapter nine presents the findings, presentations and discussions on categories of adoption 
and testing of the hypothesis to find out whether the independent variables stated earlier 
actually had effect on the adoption of AT technology. These independent variables include:
• Personal characteristics of farmers
• Socio-economic factors of farmers
• Socio-cultural factors of farmers and
• Extension methods used in promoting AT
9.1 Categories of adoption
The study came out with two categories of adoption namely:
• Those who adopted - those farmers who have decided to apply and continue to use 
AT
• Those who never adopted - those farmers who have decided not to apply and use AT 
Out of the hundred (100) respondents, ninety-one adopted whilst only nine (9) never adopted. 
Of the nine (9) who did not adopt, four (4) could not afford the cost. Two (2) feared 
disappointment whilst three (3) had enough family labour.
These findings confirm the observations made by Galjart (1971) and Havens and Flinn 
(1975) as cited by Fliegel, (1984) that laggards are not necessarily unwilling to adopt 
innovations, but are unable to implement their adoption decision. Beal and Sibley (1967) 
cited by Shaner et al (1982) noted that even though farmers may be treated fairly, the 
anticipation of being treated unfairly may keep them away. Brown (1966) citing Mead (1955)
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said local population might consider an innovation not only uneconomical (since human 
labour is considered cheaper) but also that it would leave the farmer "with even less of the 
creative work of which he now has too little".
9.2 Personal characteristics of respondents on adoption
This section presents discussions on the relationship between adoption and some personal 
characteristics of respondents. These are age of respondents, family size of respondents and 
educational level of respondents.
Ages of respondents on adoption
Table 9.1 Distribution of respondents on adoption by age
Adoption
Ages (years)
Total30-52 53+
Yes 50 54.9% 41 45.1% 91 100%
No 8 88.9% 1 11.1% 9 100%
Total 58 42 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df=l N=100
Fisher Exact Two-tailed test (p)
0.08>p>0.07
*p>0.05 Not significant
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test shows no significant difference in 
distribution of respondents by age category and adoption.
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Respondents by Family Size
Table 9.2 Distribution of respondents on adoption by family size
Adoption
Family Size
Total1-13 14+
Yes 71 78.0% 20 22.0% 91 100%
No 9 100% 0 0.0% 9 100%
Total 80 20 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df=l N=100
Fisher Exact Two-tailed test (*p)
*p= 0.1978
*p>0.05 Not significant
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test shows no significant difference in 
distribution of respondents by family size category and adoption.
Educational level of Respondents
Table 9.3 Distribution of respondents on adoption by educational level
Adoption
Educational level
TotalNo Formal Formal
Yes 67 73.6% 24 26.4% 91 100%
No 5 55.6% 4 44.4% 9 100%
Total 72 42 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df=l N=100
Fisher Exact Two-tailed test (p)
*p= 0.2620
*p>0.05 Not significant
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test indicates no significant difference in 
distribution of respondents by educational level and adoption.
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9.3 Socio-economic factors of respondents on adoption
Under this section, discussions are made on the relationship between adoption and socio­
economic factors. These include ownership of cattle, ownership of donkeys, farm size and 
credit.
Ownership of Cattle
Table 9.4 Distribution of respondents on adoption by ownership of cattle
Adoption
Ownership of cattle
TotalYes No
Yes 77 84.6% 14 15.4% 91 100%
No 4 44.4% 5 55.6% 9 100%
Total 81 19 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df=l N=100
Fisher Exact Two-tailed test (p)
*p= 0.0114
*p<0.05 Significant
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test shows significant difference in 
distribution of respondents by ownership of cattle category and adoption. There is a much 
higher percentage of those who adopted and own cattle, that is, 84.6% as against only 44.4% 
of those who did not adopt who own cattle. This finding confirms Fischer (1994) observation 
that for farmers to be able to use a new technology immediately after training, they must have 
their own animals and implements.
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Ownership of Donkeys
Table 9.5: Distribution of respondents on adoption by ownership of donkeys
Adoption Ownership of donkeys 
Yes No
Total
Yes 17 18.7% 74 81.3% 91 100.0%
No 3 33.3% 6 66.7% 9 100.0%
Total 20 80 100
Source: Field Survey, 2002 df = 1 N = 100
*p = 0.3779
*p> 0.05 Not significant
At 5% significant level, the Fishers exact two-tailed test shows no significant difference in 
the distribution of respondents by ownership of donkeys category and adoption.
Respondent's farm size
Table 9.6: Distribution of respondents on adoption by size of farms.
Adoption Size of farms (acres) Total
1-7 8+
Yes 36 39.6% 55 60.4% 91 100.0%
No 9 100.0% 0 0.0% 9 100,0%
Total 45 55 100
Source: Field Survey, 2002 df = 1 N = 100 
*p= 0.00046 
*p < 0.05 significant
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test indicates significant difference in the 
distribution of respondents by farm size category and adoption. There is much less percentage 
of those who adopted, who had 1-7 acres that is, 39.6% as against 100% of those who did not 
adopt who had 1 -  7 acres. This finding confirms Starkey’s (1988) citing Barret et al (1982),
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Allagnat and Koroma (1984); Panin (1986). Francis (1988); Westneat, Klutse and Amegbeto 
(1988) observation that farmers will cultivate more land when they have draft animals.
Respondents who received credit
Table 9.7: Distribution of respondents on adoption by those who received credit
Adoption Did you receive credit? Total
Yes No
Yes 14 15.4% 77 84.6% 91 100.0%
No 2 22.2% 7 77.8% 9 100.0%
Total 16 84 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df = 1 N=100 
*p = 0.6333
*p > 0.05 Not significant
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test shows no significant difference in the 
distribution of respondents by those who received credit category and adoption. Credit is 
therefore not an influencing factor on AT adoption.
9.4 Extension methods used in promoting animal traction on adoption
This section looks at the relationship between adoption and extension methods used in 
promoting animal traction. These are; training, demonstration method, lecture method and 
group discussion method. Others are demonstration and lecture against other methods and 
demonstration and group discussion against other methods.
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Training
Table 9.8: Distribution of respondents on adoption by those who received training
Adoption Did you receive training? Total
Yes No
Yes 77 84.6% 14 15.4% 91 100.0%
No 4 44.4% 5 55.6% 9 100.0%
Total 81 19 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df = 1 N = 100
*p = 0.0114
*p < 0.05 Significant
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test indicates significant difference in the 
distribution of respondents by training category and adoption. This is because there is much 
higher percentage of those who adopted who received training that is 84.6% as against only 
44.4% of those who did not adopt who received training. Training is therefore an influencing 
factor on adoption.
Demonstration method
Table 9.9 Distribution of respondents on adoption by demonstration method
Adoption Demonstration Total
Yes No
Yes 77 84.6% 14 15.4% 91 100.0%
No 4 44.4% 5 55.6% 9 100.0%
Total 81 19 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df = 1 N = 100
*p = 0.0114
*p < 0.05 Significant
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test indicates significant difference in the 
distribution of respondents by demonstration method and adoption. This is because there is
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much higher percentage of those who adopted that had demonstration (84.6%) as against only 
44.4% of those who had demonstration method of training and did not adopt. Hence 
demonstration method has influence on adoption.
Lecture method
Table 9.10: Distribution of respondents who received lecture method
Adoption Lecture method Total
Yes No
Yes 4 84.6% 87 15.4% 91 100.0%
No 0 44.4% 9 55.6% 9 100.0%
Total 4 96 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df = 1 N = 100
*p= 1.0000
*p > 0.05 Not significant
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test indicates no significant difference in 
the distribution of respondents by lecture method category and adoption. Thus, lecture 
method has no influence in adoption.
Group discussion method
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test shows significant difference in the 
distribution of respondents by group discussion. This is because there is a lower percentage 
of those who had group discussion method adopted (38.5%) as against 77.8% of those who 
had group discussion method and yet did not adopt. Group discussions therefore has 
influence on adoption.
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Table 9.11: Distribution of respondents on adoption by group discussion
Adoption Group discussion Total
Yes No
Yes 35 35.5% 56 61.5% 91 100.0%
No 7 77.8% 2 22.2% 9 100.0%
Total 42 58 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df = 1 N = 100
*p = 0.03287
*p < 0.05 Significant
Both demonstration and lectures
At 5% significance level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test shows difference in the distribution 
of respondents by both demonstration and lecture method category and adoption. This is 
because only 4.4% those who had demonstration and lectures adopted, whilst 95.6% of those 
who did not receive that training adopted. Hence demonstration and lectures have no 
influence on adoption.
Table 9.12: Distribution of respondents on adoption by those who received training in 
demonstration/lecture methods
Adoption Demonstration and lecture method Total
Yes Other methods
Yes 4 4.4% 87 95.6% 91 100.0%
No 0 0.0% 9 100.0% 9 100.0%
Total 4 96 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df = 1 N= 100
*p = 1.00000
*p > 0.05 Not significant
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Respondents who received both demonstration and group discussion methods 
Table 9.13: Distribution of respondents on adoption by demonstration and group 
discussion method
Adoption Demonstration and group discussion Total
Demonstration & 
group discussion
Other methods
Yes 27 84.6% 62 68.1% 91 100.0%
No 5 44.4% 4 44.4% 9 100.0%
Total 34 66 100
Source: Field Survey 2002 df = 1 N = 100
*p = 0.26662
*p > 0.05 Not significant
At 5% significant level, the Fisher exact two-tailed test indicates no significant difference in 
the distribution of respondents by those who received both demonstration and group methods 
category and adoption. This is because those who did not receive demonstration and group 
discussion training and adopted (68.1%) are more than those who received demonstration and 
group discussion and did not adopt (44.4%).
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Summary of Fisher exact tests results
Independent Variable Fisher Exact Two- 
Tailed Value at 0.05
Level of Significance
• Ages of respondents P = 0.08 > p>  0.07 Not Significant
• Respondents family size P = 0.1978 Not significant
• Educational level of
respondents P = 0.2620 Not significant
• Ownership of cattle
• Ownership of donkeys P = 0.0114 Significant
• Respondents farm size P = 0.3779 Not significant
• Respondents who received p = 0.00046 Significant
credit p = 0.6333 Not significant
• Respondents who received
training p = 0.0114 Significant
• Respondents who received
training by demonstration p = 0.0114 Significant
alone
• Respondent who received
training by lecturers alone p = 1.0000 Not significant
• Respondents who received
training by group
discussion alone p = 0.03287 Significant
• Respondents who received
both demonstration and
lecture methods p=  1.0000 Not significant
• Respondents who received
both demonstration and
group discussion methods
p = 0.26662 Not significant
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r ~  j  • to
CHAPTER TEN # \  4?
V & J ; *  *
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
10.0 Introduction
The study was set out to verify and substantiate the speculation of low adoption of AT in the 
Builsa district. This final chapter summarizes the activities that were undertaken during the 
course of the study and the findings thereof. It also presents the implications of the findings 
with regards to the research objectives and gives relevant recommendations.
10.1 Summary
In chapter one, mention is made that agriculture contributes a substantial proportion of the 
foreign exchange earnings, provides employment to between 60-70% of the country’s 
population. However the use of human power in agriculture still predominates over other 
sources of farm power. This had led to low level of growth in agricultural production. To 
increase agriculture output therefore Dibbits (1997) suggested the provision of more efficient 
means of production that save labour and reduce drudgery, hence the use of draft animals. 
But in doing so, it is necessary to identify district specific farmer needs to be able to propose 
policies and measures. History has it that animal traction was introduced into the Builsa 
district since 1937. Since farmers’ needs are location specific, the study came out to find the 
causes of the low adoption of AT in the Builsa District. In an attempt to find these causes the 
study came out with research questions, hypotheses and specific objectives.
Chapter two gave an overview of the study area with regard to location, population, age 
distribution, distribution of household by size, topography, climate soils, vegetation, 
economic activities, farming systems and agricultural extension in the Builsa District.
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The history of animal traction in Ghana was examined in Chapter Three under the following 
headings; origin of AT, the genesis of AT in Ghana, the current state of AT in Ghana and a 
historical development of animal traction in the Builsa District.
In Chapter four, literature made mention of factors which can affect adoption. These include; 
personal characteristics, socio-economic factors, socio-cultural factors external factors such 
as the Extension Agents’ knowledge in animal traction and his communication skills.
Chapter five describes the methodology of the study. Descriptive survey was used to collect 
the data. The study area was purposively selected. The population of the study was all 
farmers and Agricultural Extension Agents (AEAs) in the district. A two stage random 
sampling was used to select farmers to get a total of 100 respondents. Complete survey was 
used for the AEAs. The following instruments were used to collect the data;
• Interview scheduled questionnaires
• Questionnaires
• Informal interviews with farmers
• Literature and office records
The data was edited, coded and entered into the Computer. Data was analysed using SPSS 
and results interpreted and discussed.
In Chapter six, seven, eight and nine present the empirical findings of the study interlaced 
with discussions of such findings. Section one of chapter six presents findings on personal 
characteristics. Here it was found that 40% of farmers were between the ages of 30-45 years 
(youth). Majority of respondents had family size of 1-9 members (44%). Those who had no 
formal education formed 72%. On socio-economic factors 81% of respondents had cattle,
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whilst 80% did not have donkeys. Majority of respondents (46%) said few fanners could 
afford animal traction services and 65% of respondents said animal traction services were not 
readily available. It was also indicated that 84% of respondents did not receive credit. Forty- 
two percent of respondents were medium scale farmers. The small scale farmers were the 
least (24%).
On socio-cultural factors, 100% of respondents said the use of animal traction was culturally 
acceptable in the community; 56% of respondents rated status given to bullock owners as 
high, 34% very high and 10% average, 54% rated status given to donkey owners as high, 
35% average, 7% very high and 4% low. On average more status is given to bullock owners 
than donkey owners. The study revealed that any category of people be they female or male, 
could manage work animals.
In Chapter six section two, majority of AEAs (35%) had only one in-service training in 
animal traction. Majority of respondents (88.2%) had their training from MoFA, followed by 
fanners (29.5%) and NGOs (23.6%) respectively. Forty-seven percent sometimes made visits 
to farmers. Only 23.5% always made visits whilst 24.4% never made visits to farmers. 
Reasons for AEAs inability to make visits were; lack of means of transport (52.9%) large 
operational areas (47.1%), no fuel (29.4%), fanners did not have training materials (29.4%) 
and lack of knowledge in animal traction (23.5%). The study also found that majority of 
AEAs (64.7%) was trained using demonstration method.
Chapter seven focused on findings in extension methods used in promoting AT. All 
respondents were aware of animal traction. Majority of respondents (80%) had their source of 
information from MoFA. The study also found that 84 out of 100 respondents had training.
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Ninety-seven percent of this number had training from their families. The study also found 
that majority of respondents (43%) had training through demonstration and 60% of 
respondents ranked their level of participation in handling bullocks, yoking and nose ringing 
as very high. Also 93% of respondents never had visits from AEAs. Respondent listed the 
following as factors hindering the adoption of animal traction; lack of capital, high cost of 
implements and spare parts, lack bullocks, theft of cattle and feed for animals during the dry 
season.
In Chapter eight, uses, perception and effects of adoption of AT on selected aspects of the 
farming system were discussed. Over 80% of respondents were aware that bullocks and 
donkeys were used for traction and haulage activities. All respondents agreed that animal 
traction reduces drudgery. Over 80% said animal traction was consistent with socio-cultural 
values, norms, beliefs, needs and existing farming practices. Similarly, over 80% of 
respondents also indicated that animal traction technology was easy to understand, see and 
observe by others. However, 68% of respondents indicated that it was not easy experimenting 
animal traction technology on small scale because of high cost and scarcity of draft animals 
and implements.
In Chapter nine, adoption was found to be 91%. Personal characteristics and adoption, ages 
of respondents, family size and educational level showed no significant difference. Under 
socio-economic factors ownership of donkeys and credit also showed no significant 
difference whilst ownership of cattle and farm size indicated significant difference. Under 
extension methods used in promoting AT and adoption, training, demonstration method 
alone, and group discussion alone showed significant difference whilst lectures alone, both
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demonstration and lectures and both demonstration and group discussion indicated no 
significant difference,
10.2 Conclusion and Implications
This section concludes the study with regards to whether the research objectives spelt out 
have been met. It also highlights the implications of the findings of the study. Three of the 
research questions were answered in chapter nine whilst the fourth one was answered in 
chapter eight. Hence the conclusions and implications shall be based on these answers.
Objective 1: To find  out the historical development o f  animal traction in the Builsa 
district
Animal traction was introduced into Builsa District in 1937 to address the problem of 
recurrent food shortage in the area. The paramount chief of the area was among the first 19 
converts in the then Mamprusi district. The paramount chief met his sub-chiefs and told them 
to inform their subjects of the existence of the animal traction programme and that interested 
farmers should come along with their bullocks for training. Farmers were sent to Tono Farm 
Centre for training. In 1940, under the initiative of the paramount chief, the Builsa Native 
Administration started a loan scheme to provide farmers with bullocks and ploughs. In 1945 
because of long distance from Tono Farm Centre, a new Native Authority Farm Centre was 
opened in the district, under the influence of the paramount chief.
However, in the early years of Ghana’s Independence, the use of animal traction declined 
because of large importation of tractors. Attention was again paid to animal traction in the 
early 1970s when tractors were no longer available. The Roman Catholic and Presbyterian 
Churches intervened in 1969 and 1974 respectively to give animal traction a new boost.
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This suggests that before introducing a technology into a peasant-farming community, the 
people must first of all express the need for the technology. This was shown when the people 
said they can only improve their farms and be self-supporting if they practice animal traction. 
Some of them were quoted as saying that they will never return to the old and traditional 
methods. This means they saw the importance of the technology. Also the introduction of a 
new technology into a peasant-farming community should be gradual and optional, thus no 
force should be applied. This was shown by the paramount chief when he asked interested 
farmers to come down with their bullocks. Omoding (1994), observed that chiefs and rulers 
sometimes use coercion to implement programmes in order to please their masters, which 
probably accounted for unsustainable adoption of ox cultivation is some areas in Uganda. It is 
worth noting that farmers respect their traditional rulers. Hence in an attempt to introduce a 
technology stakeholders (AEAs, NGOs) should first meet traditional rulers to solicit their 
support. Some of them can be made contact farmers. This is because people will more readily 
follow their chiefs example than they will for that of a private individual, however, 
successful he may be.
Objective 2: To find  out farmers’ personal characteristics and their effects on 
adoption o f  animal traction
Majority of respondents (44%) were the youth whilst the aged were the least, (20%).
Respondents with family size of 1-9 persons were the majority (47%) with those having 20+
persons as the least (9%). The study also indicated that 72% of respondents had no formal
education. On personal characteristic and their effects on adoption, ages of respondents,
family size and level of education showed no significant difference, between the respondents
who had adopted AT and those who had not. This indicates that any body is capable of
adopting a technology irrespective of his age, educational level or the size of his family. It is
therefore suggested that AEAs and NGOs should not discriminate on the basis of age,
education or the size of the clients family when delivering their extension messages.
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Objective 3: To determine the socio-economic factors o f  farmers which affect 
adoption o f  animal tradition
On the socio-economic factors of farmers that affect adoption of animal traction, ownership
of cattle and farm size were found to be significant, whilst credit and ownership of donkeys
showed no significant difference between respondents who had adopted AT and those who
had not. From this it is shown that ownership of cattle and farm size has influence on AT
adoption. To make sure that farmers own their own cattle/bullocks it is suggested that AEAs
and NGOs should encourage farmers to form Associations and open bank accounts with the
Banks. This will enable individual farmers to be able to access loans to buy their own
bullocks. Bullock banks can also be established by MOFA and NGOs and sold to farmers on
soft terms. On the part of farm size AEAs should educate farmers on the need to have
manageable farms to derive maximum benefits from them.
Objective 4: To examine the socio-cultural factors o f  farmers which affect 
adoption o f  animal traction
The study found that all the 100 respondents said the use of animal traction was culturally
acceptable. About 90% rated status given to draft animal owners as high. All respondents also
indicated that there was no taboo restraining any category of people from managing draft
animals, be they male or female. Thus a farmer’s willingness to adopt a technology is largely
influenced by socio-cultural factors such as beliefs, norms, values and taboos of the social
system in which he finds himself (Shaner, Philipp and Schemehl, 1982; de Graaf, 1992 and
Panin and Ellis, 1992). From the study it is shown that cultural acceptability of AT has
contributed to its high adoption (91%). It is therefore suggested that before a technology is
introduced into a community, AEAs and NGOs in agricultural extension should study the
socio-cultural factors of the area. It is also advised that MOFA should employ AEAs who can
empathise with farmers. These days people seek admission into agricultural colleges because
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of job security and not for the love of it. It is also suggested that when MOFA is admitting 
students into agricultural institutions, priority be given to students with farming background.
Objective 5: To find  out farmers’ opinions on the importance/usefulness o f animal 
traction
More than 90% of respondents said draft animals could be used for traction and haulage 
activities. All the respondents indicated that the use of draft animals reduces drudgery. This 
implies that when introducing a technology, farmers must see it as useful. Conroy et al 
(1995) citing Appleton (1993) said farmers will adopt new technologies if technologies either 
reduce their workload significantly or is capable of being incorporated into the work without 
adding to the overall burden. Even though more than 90% of respondents agreed to the 
importance of AT, yet majority of them do not make use of them because they can not afford. 
It is suggested the NGOs and MOFA establish implement stores in the district. These 
implements can then be sold to farmers on hire purchase basis. Farmers Services Company 
(FASCOM) is already in that business but farmers can not pay the cash demanded by 
FASCOM.
Objective 6: To determine the compatibility o f  animal traction within the farming 
system o f  the Builsa district.
All the respondents indicated that animal traction did not interfere with their mixed cropping
system, which is commonly practised to avoid total crop failure and also to make sure they
get a bit of their traditional crops. It also makes land preparation planting, weeding etc. easy.
This suggests that a new technology will be accepted to the target group if it is compatible
with existing farming principles and cultivation practices (Urasa, 1994). From the study it is
shown that AT is compatible within the farming system. This has contributed to the high
adoption of AT (19%). It is suggested that the farming system of an area be studied before
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introducing an intended technology. AEAs and NGOs should meet traditional leaders and 
farmers to brief them on the intended technology. Use should also be made of available 
reports and documents on agriculture in the area.
Objective 7: To find  out the various categories o f  adoption o f  animal traction 
There were two categories of adoption ' - -
/'I ' * ^
• Those who adopted (91%) lH |
• Those who never adopted (9%)  m ^
This disproves Starkey’s (1988) result of 10-20% adoption. However, this increase in 
adoption could be due to the time lapse between 1988 and 2002. Also Starkey’s results 
covered the whole North and not as specific as this study.
Objective 8: To find  out the effectiveness o f  the extension methods used in 
promoting animal traction
Farmers described effectiveness of extension methods as
(1) Ability of extension officer to explain to the understanding of farmers the advantages and 
disadvantages of a technology.
(2) Ability to convince farmers that advantages out weigh the disadvantages and
(3). The number of farmers who will adopt the technology
From the description of effectiveness of extension methods from farmers view point, one can 
say extension methods were effective with adoption of 91%. The findings also showed that 
training, demonstration alone and group discussion alone were significant, whilst lectures, 
demonstration/lectures and demonstration/group discussions were found to have no 
significance on adoption of animal traction. The findings imply that even though most of the
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training was done by families (refer to Table 7.2) the farmers needed the training (skills) and 
the right methods were used in the right situations. Hence before using a method, the 
characteristic of the message, the teaching and learning objectives and what the participants 
are expected to be able to do with the content of the message should also be considered 
(Kwarteng and Zinnah, 1994). Majority of farmers being trained by families implies that 
transfer of technologies is not only done by extension staff (formal) but can also be done by 
farmers themselves (informal) depending on the need they have for that particular 
technology. Starkey (1990) found that once animal traction has started in a region, much 
transfer has been informal, within families, from farmer to farmer or from regional 
immigrants to local farmers.
Training is vital for the adoption of AT especially with the demonstration and group 
discussion methods. But government (MOFA) has done very little with regards to the study 
conducted. For example 11.8% of AEAs had AT training (Table 6.10). In table 7.2 only 
21.4% of farmers had training from MOFA. To promote and maintain AT in the Builsa 
district, it is suggested the MOFA in collaboration with NGOs interested in AT establish AT 
training station in the district where practical training workshops will be organised for 
farmers and AEAs periodically. This will create an atmosphere for demonstrations and group 
discussions among participant.
10.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
This section gives recommendations based on the conclusions and implications of the 
findings. However, these recommendations are limited to the Builsa district only since the 
research was a purposive one.
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In introducing a technology into a peasant farming community like the Builsa Community the 
study has the following recommendations to make.
(1) The farmers must first of all express the need for the technology as indicated in 
Chapter ten section 10.3 under Objective 1. Urasa (1994) found that for new 
technologies to be widely accepted they have to offer solutions to existing problems 
within traditional farming practices.
(2) The technology must fit into the existing farming system. One of the reasons for the 
high adoption was that animal traction did not interfere with farmers' mixed farming 
practice, a practice they do to avoid total crop failure. Bwalya (1988), observed that 
for many small-scale farmers the bottom line of their activities is survival. This 
means that their decisions on cropping patterns, implement choice, etc are essentially 
based on risk avoidance.
(3) That traditional leaders/rulers should be involved when introducing a technology into 
the Builsa community. This is because people will more readily follow their chiefs 
example than they will a private individual however, successful he may be.
(4) From the study credit was identified by both farmers and AEAs as a major factor 
hindering the adoption of AT yet credit facilities exist in the district. The problems of 
farmers have been accessibility to these credit facilities. During the study farmers 
enumerated reasons for not getting credit. Refer to Chapter six, section 6.2.2. This is 
due to lack of education. It is recommended that financial institutions should get to 
the doorsteps of the communities and educate farmers rather than sitting in offices 
expecting farmers to come. In case these institutions lack personnel /staff, they can 
collaborate with Ministry of Food and Agricultural to use some of their staff.
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Further research:
(1). The study has only concentrated on animal traction and crop production. However, crop 
production cannot go on without a favourable environment. The study therefore suggests 
research into the impact of use of animal traction on the environment in the Builsa District.
(2). From the study also, it was noted that 72% had no formal education as against 28% with 
formal education. Comparing with the level of AT adoption (91%) one is tempted to infer 
that AT may have affected the number of children who go to school, hence the low level of 
literacy in the district. The study suggests a research into the effect of AT adoption on 
schooling.
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Rogers, E.M. (1983), Diffusion of Innovations 3rd ed. New York. The Free Prees.
Rogers, E.M. (1995) Diffusion of Innovations 4th ed. New York. The Free Press
Roling, N. & Leeuwis, C. (2002). Introduction to Communication and Innovation 
Studies. Wageningen University. Blackwell Science.
Sarantakos, S (1993). Social Research. London. Macmillan Press.
Seifert, M (1992). Animal Draft Power and the Evolution of Farming Systems
on the West African Savannah: A Case Study from Northern Ghana. 
Speciale/M.Sc. Thesis Geografisk Institut - Kobenhavns Unversitet.
Shaner, W.W.; Philipp, P.F. & Schmehl, W.R. (1982). Farming Systems Research
and Development Guidelines for Developing Countries. Boulder, Colorado. 
Westview-Press.
Siegel, S. & Castellan Jr., N. (1988). Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioural 
Science. New York. McGraw-Hill.
Starkey P. (1988). Animal Drawn Tool Carriers: Perfected vet Rejected. Eschbom.
Germany. GTZ Publications.
Starkey P. (1990) Animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West-Africa:
Production, Impact, Profitability and Constraints. In: P. Starkey, and Adama 
Faye (Eds), Animal Traction for Agricultural Development. Pp. 90 - 109. 
Proceedings of the Third Workshop of the West-Africa Animal Traction 
Network held 7 - 1 2  July, 1988 Saly, Senegal. Netherlands, CTA 
Publications,
Swanson, B. E. (1984). Agricultural Extension: A reference manual 2nd ed. Rome.
FAO Series.
Urasa R.L.S. (1994). A note on issues to be addressed in the transfer of animal
traction technology in Tanzania. In: E. Mwenya J. Stares & P.H. Starkey 
(Eds) Improving Animal Traction Technology. Proceeding of the First 
Workshop of the ATNESA held 18-23 January 1992 Zambia pp 326 - 327. 
Germany ATNESA Publications.
van den Ban, A.W. & Hawkins, H.S. (1996). Agricultural Extension 2nd ed. London. 
Blackwell Science Ltd.
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Whale, W.B. (1989). Technology Transfer Revisited: Canada.
Blackburn (Ed), F o u n M o n O S < L ^ ^
University of Guelph.
Wiagah Agriculutral Project (1975). Annual Reports. Wiagah.. Roman
X K\ 1_Mission
Wilkening, E.A. (1953). Adoption of Improved Farm Practises as Related to Family
Factors. Analysis of the Role of the Family in Farmers Adoption Decisions. 
Research Bulletin 183. Madison. Wisconsin Experimental Station.
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LIST OF APPEDICES
APPENDIX 1
ADOPTION OF ANIMAL TRACTION TECHNOLOGY IN THE BUILSA DISTRICT 
OF UPPER EAST REGION OF GHANA
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FARMERS OF VILLAGES WHERE ANIMAL TRACTION 
TECHNOLOGY HAS BEEN INTRODUCED IN THE BUILSA DISTRICT
PART ONE
INTERNAL FACORS OF FARMERS INFLUENCING ADOPTION OF ANIMAL
TRACTION TECHNOLOGY
A. BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
1. Name of Village:.................................................................................................
2. Name of section:................................................................................................-
3. Name of house:..................................................................................................
4. Name of Farmer:................................................................................................
5. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]
6. Marital Status
1. Married [ ]
2. Single [ ]
3. If a man, number of wives:......................................................................
7. Family size
1. No. of adults [ ] Male [ ] Female [ ]
2. No. of children Boys [ ] Girls [ ]
8. Age of farmer:............................................................................................Years
9. Farming experience:....................................................................................Year
10. Educational background
1. No formal education [ ]
2. Primary School [ ]
3. Middle/J.S.S [ ]
4. Secondary/vocational [ ]
5. Tertiary [ ]
6. Other (specify) [ 1
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SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF FARMER
11. Ownership of draft animals. Tick all that apply
Type of ownership
ANIMAL FAMILY INDIVIDUAL OTHER
SPECIFY
1 • Cattle
2. Working bullocks
3- Donkeys
_4. Working donkeys
In question 12 and 13 indicate the activities you use draft animals for. 
12. Use of Cattle. Tick all that apply.
Type of Haulage Type of traction
1. Carrying water [ ] 1. Ploughing [ ]2. Carrying wood [ ] 2. Ridging [ ]3. Carrying gravel [ ] 3. Harrowing [ ]4. Carrying farm produce [ ] 4. Planting [ ]5. Transporting goods to market [ ] 5. Weeding [ ]6. Other specify [ ] 6. Other specify [ ]
13. Use of donkeys. Tick all that apply.
Type of Haulage Type of traction
1. Carrying water [ ] 1. Ploughing [ ]
2. Carrying wood [ ] 2. Ridging [ ]
3. Carrying gravel [ ] 3. Harrowing [ ]
4. Carrying farm produce [ ] 4. Planting [ ]
5. Transporting goods and 5. Weeding [ ]
6.
people to market [ ] 
Other specify [ ]
6. Other specify [ ]
14. Why don’t you use animal traction for the mentioned farm practices? 
Cattle
Farm Practice Use Not use Reasons
1. Ploughing
2. Ridging
3. Harvesting
4. Weeding
5. Planting
6. Haulage
7. Other specify
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15. Donkeys
Farm Practice Use Not use Reasons
1. Ploughing
2. Ridging
3. Harvesting
4. Weeding
5. Planting
6. Haulage
7. Other specify
What is your opinion about the level of affordability of animal traction 
services by farmers in your community
1. All farmers can afford
2. Most farmers can afford
3. Some farmers can afford
4. Few farmers can afford
5. Most farmers can not afford
17. How would you rate the availability of animals traction services in your 
community?
1. Readily available [ ]
2. Somewhat available [ ]
3. Not readily available [ ]
18. Do you get any credit facility for farming? If yes, tick all that is applicable.
Source Type of credit Use of Credit Adequacy of Credit
Cash Inputs Equip­
ment
To buy 
animals
To buy 
equip­
ment
To
buy
food
Other
specify
Not
adequate
Some
what
adequate
Very
adequate
1. Banks
2. NGOs
3. MoFA
4. Money 
lenders
5. Friends
6. Family
7. Other 
specify
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How would you rate the availability of credit facilities in your community?
1 • Readily available [ ]
2. Some what available [ ]
3- Not readily available [ ]
20. How would you rate the timeliness of credit?
1- Always timely [ ]
2- Sometimes on time [ ]
3- Mostly late [ ]
21. How many farm sites do you have?...................................................................
22. What is your total farm size?..............................................................................
23. What is your source of farm labour?...................................................................
1- Family [ ]
2. Hired [ ]
3. Communal [ j
4. Other specify [ ]
24. Apart from farming, what is your other source of income? Tick all applicable.
1. Trading [ ]
2. Blacksmith f |
3. Crafts [ j
4. Government employment [ 1
5. Other (specify) I 1
25. How do these sources of income influence your use of animal traction?
26. How does the use of animal traction influence the following aspects in your farming 
activities?
Activity Increase Decrease No Influence
1. Crop yield
2. Cost of production
3. Use of farm labour
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part  two
EXTERNAL FACTORS INFLUENCING ADOPTION OF ANIMAL 
TRACTION TECHNOLOGY
c - SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS
27. Is it culturally acceptable to use animals to farm?
1. Yes [ ]
28. What level of respect/status is accorded for using animal traction in your community.
~~ . . Animal 1 2 3 4 5
Very high 
status
Higher
status
Average
status
Low
status
Very low 
status
1 Donkeys
1 Cattle
29. Who manages the work animals in your household? Tick all applicable
1. Boys [ ]
2. Girls [ ]
3. Women [ I
4. Men i i
30. How many people are required to manage work animals in your household?
1. Donkeys...........................................................................
2. Cattle..............................................
31. How does the use of animal traction influence the following aspects of your fanning?
a. Crops cultivation.....................................................................
b. Land reparation..........................................................................
c. Site of farm..............................................................................
d. Cropping system (mixed cropping.)......................................
e. Planting pattern.......................................................................
f. Size of farm..........................................................................
32. Rank in order of importance how the following influence the adoption of animal
traction with 1st being the most important influencing factor....................................5
least important influencing factor.
a. Reducing Cost. [ ]
b. Increase in income
c. Yield increase [
d. Use of labour [ ]
e. Farm size [ ]
33. Rank the following in order of importance to consider when adopting a technology? 
 ^st 2nd 3 rd 4th
a. Compatibility [ ]
b. Complexity [ ]
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C. Trialability [ ]
d. Relative economic advantage [ j
e. Observability [ ]
D- EXTENSION DELIVERY METHODS
34. Have you heard of animal traction before?
L Yes [ ]
2. No | |
35. If yes to question, 34 indicate your source of information. Tick all applicable
MOFA (FLS) 
NGOs 
Friends 
Family 
Other specify
36. Did you get any training on animal traction?
1. Yes [ ]
2. No [ j
37. If yes to question 36 provide the following information
Organisation which 
trained you
Adequacy of duration
Duration of 
training
Highly
Inadequate
Inadequate Some what 
adequate
Adequate Highly
adequate
MOFA f 1
ngos r 1
Friends [ ]
Other
specify [ ]
38. Indicate the time of the year you had the training and its suitability. Give reasons
Time of year
Suitability Reasons
Suitable Not suitable
1. Cropping season [ j
2. Off season f ]
3. Other specify [ ]
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1- Demonstration [ ]
2. Lectures [ ]
4. Group discussion [ ]
8- Individual [ ]
16- Audiovisuals [ ]
Which of the following methods were used during the training. Tick all applicable
How would you judge the effectiveness of these methods? Give reasons
Method
1.
Highly
ineffective
2.
Ineffective
3.
Some what 
effective
4.
Effective
5.
Highly
effective
Reasons
Demonstrations
Lecture
Group
Discussions
Individual
(Home/Farm
visit)
Audio visuals
41. If you got trained in a group, how many were you?....................................
42. How would you rate your level of participation in the following activities?
Activity
Level of Participation
Very high (1) High (2) Average (3) Low (4) Very low (5)
Selecting 
of farmers
Selecting of site
Handling of bullocks
Yoking of bullocks
Nose ringing
Selecting of animals
43. Did the trainer allow you to ask questions?
1. Yes [ ]
2. No [ ]
44. Did the trainer respect your views?
1. Yes. [ ]
2. No [ ]
45. How would you rate the level of competence (knowledge, skills) of trainers during 
training?
1. Very competent [ j
2. Some what competent [ ]
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3. Not competent [ 1
How would you rate the level of confidence of trainers during training?
1- Very confident [ j
2- Somewhat confident [ ]
3- Not confident [ ]
Have the trainers visited you after training?
If yes to question 47, how often did they visit you?
1- Fortnightly [ ]
2. Monthly [ j
3- Quarterly j j
4. Yearly [ ]
PART THREE
ADOPTION OF ANIMAL TRACTION TECHNOLOGY
E. FARMERS PERCEPTION OF ANIMAL TRACTION TECHNOLOGY
49. Indicate what you have learnt to do with animal traction, what you are doing and how
you do it. Give reasons.________ __________________________________
What you learnt What you do How you do it Reasons
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
50. What factors influence the adoption of animal traction technology?
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APPENDIX 2
ADOPTION OF ANIMAL TRACTION TECHNOLOGY IN THE BUILSA 
DISTRICT OF UPPER EAST REGION OF GHANA.
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AGENTS 
WORKING IN BUILSA DISTRICT.
A. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1 .Name of Officer.............................................................................................
2. Operational Area...................................................................................
3- Sex: 1. Male [ ] 2. Female [ ]
4.Ag e.................................................................................................................
5.Marital status: 1. Married [ ] 2. Single [ ]
6.Number of years in service............................................................................
7.Languages spoken: 1. English [ ] 2. Buli [ ] 3. Other specify [ ]
8.Highest formal educational level:
1. Agricultural College Certificate [ ]
2. University Diploma [ ]
3. University degree [ ]
4. Other specify [ ]
9.List other courses attended
Course Place Year Duration Sponsors/organisation j
|
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B- EXTENSION AGENT’S LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE IN ANIMALS 
TRACTION
Indicate the institution in which you got animal traction knowledge. Tick all 
applicable.
Institution Form of Tuition
Theory only Practical only Practical and 
Theory
1. Secondary School \ 1
2. Agricultural College! 1
3. University r 1
4. Other specify [ \
Indicate the adequacy of the time allotted for the tuition.
Form of 
Tuition
Adequacy of time allotted
Not adequate Somewhat adequate Adequate
1. Theory
2. Practicals
12. Indicate the relevance of animal traction to you at the various institution levels. Give 
reasons.
Institutional 
i level
Relevance
Highly
irrelevant
Irrelevant Somewhat
relevant
Relevant Highly
relevant
Reasons
1. Secondary 
f School
1 2. Agric College
3. University
j 4. Other Specify
13. Animal traction trainings after joining service. Tick all applicable
Organisation No. of 
trainings
Duration Adequacy of Duration Reasons
Very
adequate
Somewhat
adequate
Not
adequate
i . m o fa  r 1
2. NGOs r 1
3. Farmers [ 1
4. Other
specify \ \
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Indicate the time of the year trainings are usually done and its suitability. Give 
reasons __________
Time of year Suitability Reasons
Training done Suitability Not suitably
1.
2.
LET
15. Which of the following methods were used during any of the animals traction 
training? Tick all applicable.
1. Demonstrations [ ]
2. Lectures [ [
3. Groups discussions [ ]
4. Audio visuals ) I
5. Role plays I ;
16. Rank in order of effectiveness the following methods which were used in helping you 
acquire knowledge in animals traction. 1st most -  5 least.
a. Demonstrations
b. Lectures
c. Groups discussions
d. Audio visuals
e. Role plays
17. Indicate the level of competence and confidence of resource persons during 
trainings.___________________________________________________
Competence
Knowledge/skills
Confidence
Very
competent
Somewhat
competent
Not
competent
Very
confident
Somewhat
confident
Not
confident
18. Rank in order the following with regards to the frequency of training. 
1st most -8 th least.
a. Crop Production [ ]
b. Animals [ ]
c. Fish Production [ ]
d. WIAD activities [ ]
e. Animal traction [ ]
f. Extension methods [ ]
g. Record keeping [ ]
h. Post-harvest losses f 1
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c - EXTENSION AGENT’S DEL VERY METHODS
Do you train farmers in animal traction? Yes [ ] No [ ]
If yes to question 19, indicate the source of your knowledge/skills in training farmers 
in animal traction and the methods you used in training them. Tick all applicable.
Source
Methods Used
Demonstration Lecturers Individuals Group
discussion
Audio
visuals
Role
play
MoFA r 1
NGOs [ ]
Friends \ 1
Farmers \ I
Other specify
r l
21. How would you rate farmers interest in animal traction before and after the training? 
Give reasons.
Period Farmers Interest Reason
a. Before training 1. Every 
high
2. High 3. Average 4. Low 5. Very 
low
b. During training
c. After training
22. How many farmers have you trained in animal traction in the last 10 years?
23 By your estimation, how many of that number have adopted animal traction?
24. Indicate the following and give reasons Reasons
a. Number adopted [ ] : ........................................
b. Number tried and dropped [ ]:........................................
c. Number never tried [ j : .......................................
25. Do you usually make follow-ups after the training?
1. Always
2. Sometimes
3. Never
26. If not always what prevents you from making the follow ups?
1 . : ....................................................................................................................................
2 . : .......................................................................................................................................
27. What problems do your farmers face with regards to animal traction? List 
them.
1.
2 .
3.
4.
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28. Are you able to solve the farmers' problems with regards to animal traction 
adoption?
1 ■ Always
2. Sometimes
3. Never
5.
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APPENDIX 3
SOME IMPORTANT EVENTS USED IN ESTIMATING THE AGES OF SOME OF
THE RESPONDENTS.
DATE EVENT
1928 White Fathers settled in Wiagah
1936 Old Primary School (Sandema) opened.
1939-1945 Second World War
1951 Wiagah Land Planning started
1954 Sandema Middle Boarding School opened
6th Mar 1957 Ghana attained independence
1957 St. Matins' Middle School (Wiagah) opened
1960 Presbyterian Church started in Sandema
1961 Police Station opened in Sandema
24th Nov 1965 Sandema Health Centre opened.
24th Feb 1966 Dr. Kwame Nkrumah Overthrown in a coup d'etat
1969 Dr. K. A. Busia became the Prime Minister of the 2nd
Republic of Ghana 
1969 Aliens compliance order passed
13th Jan 1972 Dr. K. A. Busia overthrown in coup d'etat
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APPENDIX 4 
ENSTOOLMENT OF SOME CHIEFS WITHIN THE STUDY AREA
date NAME OF CHIEF VILLAGE STOOL NAME
1919 Anisonyaansa Siniensi Akpiok
1926 Adangabe Kadema Akaasanab
1927 Asangalisa Chuchuliga Azung
1927 Ayarik Gbedema Annab
1931 Azantilow Sandema Sandema-Nab
1938 Atong Doninga Anaah
1940 Abuntori Wiesi Anyaani
1948 Asuik Wiagah Anigiak
1949 Akauko Fumbisi Anyiab
1958 Atiamoah Bachonsa Afiok
1958 Atirikperi Gbedembilisi Agberikum
1959 Agaankoba Uwasi Anaab
1959 Akanfella Kanjarga Azundiok
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iLGATANGASISS1LA
EAST MAMPRUSI
NAPOWU
fEST MAMPRU:
lUSHIEGU-KARAG) 'SABOBA-CHEREPONI
SAVELUGU NANTON
•t Ku m b u n g uN
WES/r DAGOMBA yend i
WEST G0NJA
BOLE
WENCH)
:rekuj
iUNYAJ
APPENDIX .5.
BUILSA DISTRICT IN NATIONAL CONTEXT
   i y -BGNG«i' f i
KASlSENA-NANtttNI j f  bAwKU EAST
j n d
builsa_rivers
builsa_roads
Duilsa_bnd
gh_distf
, j  \g A S T  Go4k^__
/-xWNTAMP
__  Lo n k w a n t a
^K O R A N ^
\a t e b u b uJ
_ / >  S  SENE
V KRACHI [ \  
KADJEB
BlURA^EKYEDaMASff V ^ jJA S IK A fT t
VERE WEST . V
TA EAST
MAP OF GHANA
! Kilometers
40 80 160 240 320
15 2
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ArriL .NU lX  6-
MAP OF BUILSA DISTICT
Legend
builsa_communities 
< builsa_roads
  builsa_rivers
——— builsa_paths_tracks
  builsa_dist_bnd
builsa forest
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