Habitat International 138 (2023) 102868 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Habitat International journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/habitatint Partial climatic risk screening, adaptation and livelihoods in a coastal urban area in Ghana Delali Benjamin K. Dovie a,*, Opoku Pabi b a Regional Institute for Population Studies, University of Ghana, PO Box LG 96, Legon, Ghana b Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies, University of Ghana, P O Box LG 209, Legon, Ghana A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: Coastal urban areas worldwide are increasingly becoming convergence points for climatic hazards, demographic Floods shifts, and spatial development. However, the presence of societal demands that impact both livelihoods and Heat stress urban planning in response to climatic hazards undermines the potential positive outcomes. This research, Human mobility conducted in a coastal urban area of Ghana’s Greater Accra Region, utilized the Community-based Risk Screening Planning Resilience Tool – Adaptation and Livelihoods (CRiSTAL) developed by the International Institute for Sustainable Devel- Sea level rise opment (IISD) to analyze the experiences of climatic hazards and overall livelihoods of the population. The study employed Ghana’s Census Sampling Frame for implementation, and Participatory Learning Approaches, to collect data which it identified floods, heavy storms, and heat stress as the most significant hazards. These hazards greatly influenced the population’s physical, social, and financial livelihood assets, resulting in losses and damages caused by heavy rains, storms, and subsequent floods. Extreme heat also had a notable impact on human and financial resources. The local population prioritized human mobility and livelihood diversification as important adaptation strategies. The findings have important policy implications, highlighting the need to address barriers and disruptions in resilience-building and sustainability efforts, emphasizing the significance of prioritizing policy investment and considering climate change uncertainties in planning towards minimizing “urban climate policy inhibition” (Urban-CPI). The study also revealed valuable lessons, such as CRiSTAL’s ability to bridge the gap between climatic risk and livelihood issues, bringing them closer to communities and enhancing preparedness to adapt to climatic risks and impacts on livelihoods. 1. Introduction Assessment Report confirms with high confidence that urban populations and livelihood assets face an increased risk from climate change-related It is well established that with the rise in global warming, even small hazards (IPCC, 2022). These effects on socio-economic sectors include increases in average temperatures are expected to lead to an increase in feedback mechanisms that affect the livelihoods of vulnerable pop- the type, frequency, and intensity of extreme events in the form of floods, ulations. Social and political networks play a role in influencing liveli- droughts, heat and heavy precipitation (Intergovernmental Panel on hoods, resulting in varying levels of cohesion and resilience in the face of Climate Change, IPCC, 2007, 2014; Meehl et al., 2007, United Nations climate hazards and emerging risks (Brauch, 2005). The literature on Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC, 2007). This, in climatic risks, adaptation, and livelihoods in coastal urban areas explores turn, will have far-reaching consequences for the environment, the challenges and opportunities associated with climate change impacts socio-economic sectors, and related sectors such as water resources, in urban coastal regions, particularly in relation to the well-being and agriculture, food security, human health, terrestrial ecosystems, biodi- livelihoods of local populations (e.g. Adger et al., 2007; Birkmann et al., versity, and coastal zones (Bates et al., 2008; Boko et al., 2007, pp. 2010; Hallegatte et al., 2013; Hinkel et al., 2014; Solecki et al., 2011). 433–467; UNFCCC, 2007). The impact of climate change on urban areas This body of literature aims to understand the vulnerabilities and adap- globally introduces new challenges for livelihoods and urban transitions tive capacities of coastal communities facing climatic risks, and to (Abdrabo et al., 2022; Ridha et al., 2022; Uddin et al., 2021; Chu et al., identify strategies and policies for enhancing resilience and sustainable 2017; Meerow et al., 2016; Garschagen, 2016). The IPCC’s Sixth development. The literature highlights the complex interactions between * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: dbdovie@rips-ug.edu.gh, dbdovie@ug.edu.gh (D.B.K. Dovie). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2023.102868 Received 12 October 2022; Received in revised form 10 June 2023; Accepted 17 June 2023 Available online 28 June 2023 0197-3975/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. D.B.K. Dovie and O. Pabi H a b it a t I n t e r n a t io n a l 138 (2023) 102868 climate change, urbanization, and socio-economic factors in shaping vulnerability and adaptive capacity. It explores how climatic risks intersect with other social and economic stressors, such as poverty, inequality, governance structures, and access to resources, which can exacerbate the impacts of climate change on coastal communities. Consequently, countries worldwide are seeking effective ways to address climatic hazards in urban areas, particularly along coastlines, as they drive livelihood-related climate adaptation decisions. The multiplicity of factors driving these decisions and the underlying motivations are of great interest (Dovie, 2017). Climate change has already caused signifi- cant loss and damage to major resources, investments, and livelihoods, with floods, storms, and heat-related events being prominent (IPCC, 2022; Ellena et al., 2020; Heslin et al., 2018; Swan, 2010). The increasing societal demand for land, water resources, services, physical infrastruc- ture, and industrial expansion in urban settings exacerbates the burden of climatic hazards (de la Luz Hernández-Flores et al., 2017; Friend & Fig. 1. Map of Ghana showing major vulnerabilities to climate change Moench, 2015; Oliveira et al., 2022). Urban managers and policymakers including the coastal fringes of the Greater Accra Region (Source: Environ- face immense pressures to meet immediate livelihood demands, often mental Protection Agency, 2021). prioritizing them over planning for uncertainties such as climate change (Hurlimann et al., 2021; Dovie et al., 2020). evidence-based approaches for building resilience and sustainable As a result, there are significant knowledge gaps regarding the ex- development in coastal areas. periences of livelihoods at the intersection of climate governance, resource use, and livelihoods, which are critical considerations for 2. Methodology climate change policy and urban planning. This study aims to examine the foundations of livelihoods in building climate resilience within 2.1. Study site description selected Greater Accra Region’s coastal urban area of Ghana and provide insights for policy interventions. The complexities arising from the in- The Greater Accra Region (Fig. 2), is located in the southern part of tersections of urban livelihood demands and climatic hazards, coupled Ghana along the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa, occupying a total area of with urban policy actions, are still emerging and have received limited 3245 square kilometers, of which the national capital, Accra is part, with attention in climate-related livelihood policies in urban spaces (Dai the entire landscape having both urbanized and rural areas (World Bank, et al., 2022; de la Luz Hernández-Flores et al., 2017; Filho et al., 2019; 2017). The Region has a coastline of approximately 225 km, from west Futcher et al., 2017; Lindberg et al., 2016; Rana et al., 2021; Ren, 2015). to east within the dry coastal equatorial climatic zone. Daily tempera- ◦ ◦ Social capital and social learning play a vital role in building resilience tures are between 20 C and 30 C, with mean annual precipitation of (Uddin et al., 2021). Urban areas now frequently experience intensified 635 mm and comprises of two distinct rainy seasons from April to July and more frequent heavy storms, floods, and heat stress, directly and September to November. The topography is generally gentle with affecting livelihoods (Abdrabo et al., 2022; Garschagen, 2016; Onur & undulating low plains, drained by the Volta and Densu rivers in addition Tezer, 2015; Gu et al., 2011). Vulnerable population groups, including to small streams such as the Odaw, Lafa, Chemu, Nima, Dakobi, Ponpon, low-income individuals, minority residents, and new migrants, often Nsaki, Onyansia and Doblo). The 2021 Population and Housing Census settle in high climate risk areas within urban regions due to the avail- (GSS 2021), shows that the Greater Accra Region has as of 2021 a ability of affordable housing (Bakkensen & Ma, 2020, United Nations population of close to 5.5 million people (over 91% urbanized) (Ghana Human SettlementsProgramme & United Nations Environ- mentProgramme, 2010; Zickgraf et al., 2016). Currently, approximately 56% of the global population resides in urban areas, a figure projected to reach 66% by 2050 (United Nations, 2019). There is an increasing body of literature highlighting floods as a significant risk factor influencing individual relocation decisions and resulting in adverse impacts (Twerefou et al., 2023; Baker et al., 2018; Fan & Davlasheridze, 2015). Ghana is particularly vulnerable to various climatic hazards, with tem- perature projections indicating an increase of 1–3 ◦C by 2060 and be- tween 1.5 and 5.2 ◦C by the 2090s (Environmental Protection Agency, 2021). Mean annual precipitation is also expected to undergo a wide range of changes, leading to increased total annual rainfall (Environ- mental Protection Agency, 2021). Additionally, a gradual rise in sea level is anticipated, with estimates of 5.8 cm, 16.5 cm, and 34.5 cm by 2020, 2025, and 2080, respectively. These changes will significantly impact Ghana’s coastal zone, where more than 25% of the population resides. Key economic sectors such as energy, agriculture, health, cities and infrastructure, water resources, and coastal areas will be severely affected (Environmental Protection Agency, 2021, Fig. 1). As a result, the case of the Greater Accra Region within Ghana’s coastal zone is examined to glean insights into how local populations are addressing the impacts of climatic hazards and the implications for governance issues within the climate change-livelihoods-urban nexus. Thus, providing insights into the complex dynamics of climate change impacts, vulner- abilities, and adaptation strategies in these unique and vulnerable set- Fig. 2. Map of Ghana (inset) showing the Accra Plains which host the Accra tings, and contributes to the development of knowledge and Metropolitan and Ada East coastal areas of the study location. 2 D.B.K. Dovie and O. Pabi H a b it a t I n t e r n a t io n a l 138 (2023) 102868 Statistical Service, GSS, 2021), of which over 50% lived in the coastal 2.3. Data collection and analysis areas. Two study localities were selected: (a) the Ada East coastal area (Totokope, Anyakpor, and Ada Foah), which is not as densely populated The CRiSTAL served as the primary tool for collecting information on and urbanized as the Accra coastal area, characterized by gradual in- livelihoods and the local climate context, specifically focused on cli- creases in populations and severely predisposed to erosion, flooding and matic hazards (Fig. 3b). The engagement of communities was integral inundation; (b) Accra Metropolitan coastal area (Glefe, James Town, throughout the entire CRiSTAL process, spanning steps 1 to 5 (Fig. 3b). and Ussher Town) with communities characterized by very dense and The aim was to gather information on livelihoods, the local climate socio-economically vulnerable populations, many of them indigenous or context, and explore the interconnection between them rather than settlers, who are dominantly fisher folks, and migrants. Many of these implement the full array of the CRiSTAL. Key questions addressed coastal areas are unplanned informal settlements, which have limited included: social infrastructure and identified as favorable exposure units to climate change impacts associated with extreme rise in the levels of the (a) What are the climate-related hazards, impacts and coping sea (O’Neal Campbell, 2006; World Bank Hazard Management Unit, strategies? 2005). (b) Which livelihood resources are important to people’s livelihoods? 2.2. Sampling frame (c) How do current climate hazards affect livelihood resources? (d) How do livelihood resources influence coping strategies? A flood risk history for the coastline of the Greater Accra Region was (e) How crucial are these resources in responding to climate risks? constructed and flood risk-prone map was developed to guide the se- lection of two Districts for the study following a combined Remote To achieve the objective of the study, the selected communities Sensing and Geographical Information System tools, and ground truth- actively participated in site visits, informal meetings, and workshops ing (Fig. 3a: Level 1), A participatory workshop each was carried in the utilizing Participatory Learning Approach (PLA) tools. Various focus two districts to discuss the risk-prone maps that led to the selection of groups, representing different social groups including men and women, three communities each within the Districts (Fig. 3a: Level 2), totaling acknowledging that their priorities and responses to climate risks might six communities in all. The National Master Sampling Frame for the vary. By considering the experiences and opinions of these diverse 2010 Ghana Population and Housing Census (Ghana Statistical Service, groups, the analysis captured the differential impacts and responses to GSS, 2013) was used to validate the communities within Enumeration climate risks. The CRiSTAL approach integrated knowledge from the Areas (EA) (Fig. 3a: Level 3), to ensure comparability with existing na- past, present, and ongoing resilience-building activities, including tional level universal data management protocol. The respondents’ related outcomes. It also provided insights into the best available op- groupings were seemingly participatory, agreed during the District tions tailored to specific locations and spaces. In addition to assessing inception workshops (Fig. 3a: Level 3), which were fed into the the vulnerabilities of human populations and their activities, CRiSTAL Community-based Risk Screening Tool – Adaptation and Livelihoods facilitated the identification of adaptation-related activities linked to (CRiSTAL) Version 5 (IISD, 2012) (Fig. 3a: Level 4). The communities livelihoods. It offered a means to explore future options and understand were further given the opportunity during a study feedback, to validate the potential outcomes associated with different approaches to and appraise the findings before they were subject to the next level of adaptation. policy analysis using policy dialogues (Fig. 3a: Level 5). The sampling involved three respondent groups: fishmongers, fish- ermen, and individuals engaged in various other trades (e.g., dress- makers, carpenters, construction workers, food vendors) operating within coastal communities. In each community, these groups consisted of approximately six to twelve participants. To assess the influence of climate hazards on livelihood assets, participants evaluated the extent of influence on a scale ranging from 0 (no influence) to 5 (very strong in- fluence). Thus, Influence Score for each livelihood asset, IS(n = 0-15) = IS(eh) + IS(hr) + IS(fl) where: IS(eh) = influence score for extreme heat. IS(hr) = influence score for heavy rainfall/storm. IS(fl) = influence score for flooding. This evaluation, which is a newly introduced index, was part of the CRiSTAL protocol using the five livelihood assets examined: Fig. 3b. The step by step application process of the CRiSTAL (Source: Fig. 3a. Schematic representation of the data collection framework. IISD, 2012). 3 D.B.K. Dovie and O. Pabi H a b it a t I n t e r n a t io n a l 138 (2023) 102868 (a) Natural resources: The stocks of natural elements upon which triggered heavy financial loss. Natural livelihood assets was least people rely directly or indirectly. influenced by the three climatic hazards (Fig. 4), yet natural resources (b) Physical resources: Basic infrastructure and productive capital had diminished to a large extent, and reducing the physical exposure necessary for development. units available to influence the hazards (Fig. 4). (c) Financial resources: Monetary exchanges aimed at achieving When examining the impact of climatic hazards on livelihood re- livelihood objectives. sources across three trade groups, it was observed that heavy rains/ (d) Human resources: Knowledge, skills, capacity, and good health storms had a significant influence on all livelihoods within each group, crucial for pursuing livelihoods. with an influence score (IS) ranging from 3 to 14 (Fig. 5). Fishermen (e) Social resources: The social relationships and institutions that particularly emphasized that their social livelihood resources were most shape people’s livelihoods. affected by these hazards. Similarly, extreme heat predominantly influenced the human livelihood resources of both fishmongers and To comprehensively engage stakeholders and gather feedback, a fishermen, with IS values of 10 and 12, respectively (Fig. 5). Among the Participatory Stakeholder Analysis (PSA) approach was employed individual trades, fishmongers reported pronounced influences on their (Granville et al., 2016; Kazadi et al., 2016; Missonier, 2014). This livelihoods due to climatic hazards. Social livelihood resources such as involved key informant interviews, transect walks, participant obser- peer group meetings and religious activities were affected by all three vations, and participatory learning through focus group discussions. hazards, with heavy rains/storms having the highest impact (IS = 13). These methods helped refine and redefine the scope of the climatic risks, Human livelihood resources were equally influenced by all three haz- fostering increased awareness and complementing existing data. By ards (IS = 10), while financial resources were least affected by them. engaging key change actors within the urban space, the Physical livelihood resources were influenced by heavy rains/storms but resilience-building framework derived from CRiSTAL was appraised and not extreme heat, whereas natural livelihood resources were affected by enhanced. both extreme heat and heavy rains/storms (Fig. 5). Fishermen cited that all three hazards influenced all their livelihood resources, with heavy 3. Findings rains/storms and extreme heat having the most significant impact on physical and financial livelihood resources. Flooding was mainly asso- The three main climatic hazards recorded within GAMA were ciated with social and financial livelihood resources for the fishermen. In extreme heat, heavy rains/storms, and flooding due to sea level rise and the third trade group, financial and physical livelihood resources were increased surface runoff, which tended to negatively affect livelihood the most affected by all three hazards, with extreme heat strongly assets of the population as follows: (a) natural resources (sea, lagoon, sand and mineral stones) (b) physical resources (fish containers, drying kilns and equipment, roads) (c) financial resources (local savings, ‘susu’ – informal financial cooperative, loans) (d) human resources (bargaining and trading skills, knowledge, informal tutelage) (e) social resources (Local banking network called ‘susu’, family/ friends’ network, church group) Extreme heat had strong influence on human resources than the remaining livelihoods, with natural resources being the least influenced (Fig. 4a). Similarly, social livelihood assets were influenced most by heavy rains and storms followed by physical and human resources, and consistent with the greater exposure associated with urbanization which is explained by physical infrastructure and human population growth (Fig. 4b). The combined high tide from sea level rise and increased surface runoff from high intense rainfall had the highest influence on the physical resources followed by financial resources (Fig. 4c). Although the influence of flooding on financial livelihood assets was indirect, it Fig. 5. The characterization of the measure of the influence of climatic hazards on livelihood assets by trade. overlapped with the destruction of physical infrastructure which in turn Fig. 4. Livelihood assets and the summed measure of the influence of the climatic hazards (a) extreme heat, (b) heavy rains/storms, and (c) flooding from sea level rise and surface runoff (on the scale 0–5 of no influence to very high influence). 4 D.B.K. Dovie and O. Pabi H a b it a t I n t e r n a t io n a l 138 (2023) 102868 influencing financial resources (IS = 13) and flooding impacting phys- barrier at the national level is the universality in the processes and ical resources (IS = 10). Heavy rains/storms and flooding were not re- outcomes to mainstream climate change and climate variability in ported to influence natural livelihood resources within the other trade critical areas, defining how the population responded and adapted to the group. hazards. However, the differences in the level of development activities Soil erosion, biodiversity loss, and environmental pollution were within the urban area had differential impacts and diversified response some exhibits of the effects of climatic hazards on the biophysical strategies of the population to build resilience. Most of the study area are environment of urban areas. Restricted human mobility from inundated impacted negatively especially for the population that embarked on roads and disrupted vehicular movement was topical. Coping strategies “other trades” category related to (i) informal small businesses, farming cut across all livelihood assets as the informal economy measures were and lagoon fishing, (ii) ownership of assets such as canoes and fishing visible. Floods were due to (a) high tidal wave from the sea attributed to gears, buildings, land and fish processing platforms. The study demon- decades of gradual sea level rise, (b) floods from surface runoff, and (c) strates the burden which climate change brings in hampering societal rainstorms. Extreme heat stress was identified as the topmost climate – development within the coastal urban area. Emphasis was placed on related hazards experienced by the population (Table 1). climate compatible physical infrastructure designs such as sea defense walls, to keep the rising waters away from the population. Climatic risk 4. Discussion reduction activities spanned boundary issues of poverty, knowledge, institutions, legislation and policy, adding to engineering and techno- 4.1. Climatic hazards, exposure pathways and livelihoods logical solutions within the urban area, similarly reported in other studies (e.g., Kibwami & Tutesigensi, 2016; Miranda Sara et al., 2016). The study underscores the importance of analyzing adaptation in the The rise in sea level is affecting fishing, prompting the fisher folks to broader urban planning processes and policy frameworks. It emphasizes search for new fishing places to which sometimes involved having to the need for multi-level and multi-sectoral approaches that involve travel very far into the ocean across maritime borders, observed across collaboration among stakeholders, including local communities, gov- similar circumstances in Senegal and Côte D’Ivoire including migrating ernment agencies, academia, and non-governmental organizations to temporarily (Zickgraf, 2019). The reported damage to infrastructure by understand key livelihood determinants of adaptive capacity of coastal the sea has been repeatedly reported in similar studies, but in this study, communities in the face of climatic risks. The exposure of physical the issue of place attachment to sites such as burial grounds as part of infrastructure to climatic hazards and related risks in the study locations important ancestral homes was of significance to the population. Thus (Figs. 4 and 5, Table 1) is linked to economic activities of society. It placing limitations and or disrupting the intention of the population to includes production, transportation and distribution, as well as storage, migrate or relocate in the face of loss of cultural heritage. The decision to constituting critical societal identity within the coastal urban areas. relocate usually is complex and interconnected to a diversity of factors at Understanding the barriers and enablers to such intersectionality dy- different scales and levels (Codjoe et al., 2017). Many flood disaster namics at different levels and scales, need planning pathways that victims for example, have been found to prefer living with the floods by recognize the local level pressure – state – response dynamics of climatic adaptation or undertaking emergency planning to enhance their risks. The differences in the extent of the influences of climatic hazards livability survivability of own flood-prone place of residence (e.g. King on livelihood assets as perceived by the different trade groups (Fig. 5), et al., 2014; Laurice Jamero et al., 2017; Mensah & Ahadzie, 2020; means heterogeneity of policy response will be key as the trade groups Warner, 2010). It was observed that the resilience building response looked at climate hazards and related risks differently. The associated measures were associated with increased risk of water-related disrup- tions of livelihoods, similarly, observed in another study (Dovie, 2017). Table 1 Livelihood assets were impacted differently by various climatic Major climatic hazards and coping strategies within the Greater Accra Metro- hazards, with physical, social, and financial resources experiencing the politan Area in Ghana. (Source: This study). most significant losses. This was not evident with natural resources livelihood assets, and contrary to a study which reported the impact of Impacts/impacted sectors Hazard type Coping strategy climatic risk on financial resources livelihood assets (Dalu & Shackleton, Physical infrastructure Flood, heavy Locally improvised drain 2018). Consequently, aligning service demand with climate resilience is (damages to: canoe, homes, rain/storm, management, creating physical fish smokers, market stalls) sea level rise barriers, alternate livelihoods often perceived as uncertain and potentially detrimental to economic pursued, neighborhood growth and wealth creation associated with urbanization. However, this networks, increased borrowing, study highlights that the influence of major climatic hazards can pose migration, and long vacation developmental risks when the implementation of climate actions is from work. delayed. Given that the urban area’s microeconomy is predominantly Disruption of business (loss of Flood, heavy Trade relocation away from urban agriculture, low fish rain/storm, community of origin, and trade composed of a workforce highly vulnerable to climate change impacts catch, crop losses and sea level rise diversification dependence on (Table 1), the success or failure of sustaining development within the lowered yields) savings, farm relocation and urban area hinges on prudent climate action. This findings suggest that migration water-related negative outcomes of climate change exacerbated by Health challenges (e.g. sick Flood, heavy Fumigation of infected building syndrome, storm, heat buildings, use of costly bagged inadequate utilization of green spaces, inappropriate spatial develop- mosquitoes, water pollution, stress potable water (sachet water), ment, including poorly located infrastructure and networks prevail. To Insects infestation) draining of stagnant water with address these challenges, it is crucial for urban planners to engage in water pump learning more about the climate policy regime (Argyriou et al., 2012). Reduced human mobility and Flood, heavy Depended on social networks The effects of increasing population, unplanned urban settlements, and hawking rain/storm and neighbors, sedentary trading inappropriate structural solutions have contributed to climatic hazards, Loss of market wares and Heavy rain/ Increased borrowing trade particularly urban flash floods, which have had severe adverse impacts commodities storm diversification on livelihoods, land use, human settlements, and public infrastructure Increased exposure to Heat stress visited local pharmacy and globally (Hajdukiewicz et al., 2016; Kantamaneni, 2016; Rufat et al., headache, convulsion, skin health post rashes, heat stroke 2015). Therefore, enhancing adaptive strategies is instrumental in Poor food storage Heat stress, Use of cooler boxes Smoked/ making progress towards building urban resilience. The adoption of heavy rain/ fried or dried products social livelihood asset to adapt to climate change in urban settings has storm emerged in recent times (Karunarathne, 2021). Historically, vulnerable Increased indoor heat Heat stress Most time spent outdoor populations have developed their own strategies and coping 5 D.B.K. Dovie and O. Pabi H a b it a t I n t e r n a t io n a l 138 (2023) 102868 mechanisms to protect assets and ensure livelihood security amidst cli- recognizes the internal response, whereby socio-ecological connections matic hazards. These strategies include non-farm-based micro-- within the urban space leverage local resources, knowledge, and skills to enterprises and seasonal migration, as observed in this study and others foster resilience. Additionally, external support from institutions and (e.g., Jameson & Baud, 2016; Yamashita et al., 2016; Surminski & interventions, separate from the population’s own response arrange- Oramas-Dorta, 2014. Non-governmental organizations and civil society ments, plays a role in planned and anticipatory adaptation (Devkota have played a crucial role in empowering households and communities et al., 2022). to acquire skills, protect assets, and access necessary resources for adapting to climate change and restructuring their livelihoods. Initia- 4.2. Implications for climate change policy mainstreaming and urban tives promoting savings, micro-credit, and micro-insurance have been planning encouraged both before and after climatic events (e.g., Surminski & Oramas-Dorta, 2014; McMaster & Baber, 2012). It is worth noting that In Ghana, significant national-level efforts have been undertaken to vulnerable populations, often comprising migrants, have actively integrate adaptation into all levels and scales of planning, aligning with participated in and assumed responsibility for building leadership skills the ambitious elements of the Paris climate agreement (United Nations, and establishing linkages between disasters and livelihoods, enabling 2015). Earlier observations by Tompkins et al. (2008) highlight that the them to cope effectively. The adverse effects of climate change on rural early integration of society into climatic risk assessment and manage- systems have led to population displacement towards urban areas as a ment practices during planned adaptation in urban areas facilitates means to address insecurity in rural regions (Fig. 6). However, this influx problem-solving, execution, and ownership. It is important for coastal of people into urban areas, often settling in environmentally hazardous urban planners and managers to actively engage in decision-making locations, increases the at-risk populations in these receiving urban processes that prioritize livelihoods and resilience-building in the areas (Tellman et al., 2021; Bakkensen & Ma, 2020). This study iden- urban area while ensuring sustainable growth and development (Hur- tifies water shortage, drought, water pollution, and groundwater sali- limann et al., 2021; Satorras et al., 2020; Argyriou et al., 2012). How- nization due to sea level rise and related groundwater intrusion as ever, the limited consideration of livelihoods at a comprehensive scale significant outcomes of climate change and variability that affect and insufficient engagement have hindered urban policies from effec- various sectors within urban areas. These natural impacts are further tively addressing climate change. This creates an institutional trap exacerbated by human population growth which is a critical element of known as “urban climate policy inhibition” (Urban-CPI) (Fig. 6). The urbanization (Fig. 6). Therefore, to foster resilience through policy ac- Urban-CPI occurs when national climate change policies fail to align and tions, the study suggests the following measures: (a) efficient and harmonize with local-level policy actions and planning horizons for effective coastal urban management, (b) heightened awareness of climate adaptation in the urban planning process. The Urban-CPI has climate change and coastal urban disasters in national development two primary drivers: (a) increased societal demand resulting from ur- agendas, (c) management of rural-urban migration, and (d) improved banization, which requires redirecting policy focus and investments understanding of climate policy actions to facilitate and sustain toward managing climate hazards, and (b) the long-term uncertainty of comprehensive and targeted approaches to addressing livelihoods in investment returns in climate change. The Urban-CPI can be attributed coastal urban areas. Consequently, the importance of building resil- to national development planning frameworks that inadequately create ience, both through endogenous and exogenous measures, to mitigate a favorable policy environment to effectively align targeted local-level climate-related stresses and shocks is becoming increasingly significant dominate policy actions, often becoming a barrier rather than an (Chu et al., 2017). These measures are expected to address potential enabler. Similar cases have been observed globally (e.g., Filho et al., disruptions to key economic sectors such as energy, fisheries, water, and 2019; Lebel et al., 2010). transportation known to significantly drive the urban economy (Duan The urban environment’s predominant focus on infrastructure et al., 2022; Green & Healy, 2022; Selvaraj et al., 2022). The study expansion, economic investments, and profitability has led to the oversight of global change factors that could potentially undermine or reverse development gains (Dovie et al., 2020). In the coastal urban areas examined in this study, the Urban-CPI manifests as a limited practice of bridging policy gaps between higher-level climate change policy goals and development policies, such as Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11). SDG 11 aims to create safe, resilient, and sustainable cities and human settlements (United Nations, 2015). The integration of climate policy decisions into multi-sectoral planning and coordination is still an evolving practice globally. In Ghana, national development traditionally prioritizes the fiscal economy, often overlooking physical risks such as climate change and its impact on livelihoods. This lack of emphasis on climate change within urban planning contributes to the existence of Urban-CPI. Resolving the Urban-CPI requires urban man- agers to recognize the vulnerability of livelihoods and climate-sensitive sectors to climate change, thereby avoiding detrimental effects on urban investments (Caprario et al., 2022; Spaans & Waterhout, 2017). Bridging the gap between scientific knowledge and public policy (Miyahara et al., 2022) regarding climate change and understanding the livelihoods of populations is inevitable in reducing the impacts and consequences of the Urban-CPI (Fig. 6). Sharing lessons from best practices, experiences, and technologies related to climate hazards, adaptation, and livelihoods across different regions worldwide will enhance resilience practices in critical urban areas (e.g., Argyriou et al., 2012; Spaans & Waterhout, 2017). Furthermore, the exchange of sci- Fig. 6. Implications of the exposure pathways of the climatic hazards for urban entific findings and practical outcomes among urban managers imple- planning and the management of related policy challenges for resilience menting climate-resilient policies in priority sectors will raise building. (Source: This study). awareness, engage stakeholders, inform decision-makers, and foster 6 D.B.K. Dovie and O. Pabi H a b i t a t I n t e r n a t io n a l 138 (2023) 102868 cooperation between relevant institutions and nations (e.g., Filippi, Declaration of competing interest 2022). The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 5. Conclusion interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. The study sites exhibited similar socio-ecological exposures primar- ily due to their geographical location rather than demographic factors. Acknowledgement However, variations in the level of development activities within the communities influenced the state of the hazards, impacts, and response I appreciate the diversity of inputs of colleagues internationally and strategies among the local population. The most prominent sources of in Ghana from the academic, policy and practice communities for their hazards in these areas were sea level rise, floods, rainstorms, and immense contributions. extreme heat. These hazards negatively affected a large portion of the population, impacting their livelihoods across different categories. References Generally, the livelihood resources of the outdoor trades were mostly affected by the climatic risks. 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