UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION 
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND CONSUMER SCIENCES 
 
 
 
INFLUENCE OF EXTENSION DELIVERY ON LIVELIHOOD OUTCOMES OF 
VEGETABLE FARMERS IN THE TOLON AND KUMBUNGU DISTRICTS OF 
NORTHERN REGION, GHANA 
 
 
BY 
ZAKARIA HABIB 
(10363816) 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN 
PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF 
M.PHIL AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION DEGREE 
 
 
 
JULY, 2014 
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DECLARATION 
I, Zakaria Habib, hereby declare that this thesis, “The influence of extension delivery 
on the livelihood outcomes of vegetable farmers in Tolon and Kumbungu districts 
in the Northern Region of Ghana”, is entirely my own original work, that no part of it 
has been presented for another degree elsewhere, and that this thesis has been submitted 
for examination with the approval of my supervisors. I also declare that any quotation or 
paraphrase from published or unpublished work(s) of any other person(s) has been duly 
acknowledged. 
 
 
 
…………………………………….                            …………….………………………. 
         ZAKARIA HABIB                           DATE 
              (STUDENT)                                                   
 
 
………………………………………                          ………………………………….... 
         DR. SETH BOATENG       DATE 
             (SUPERVISOR)  
 
 
……………………………………….                       …………………………………… 
    DR. PASCHAL B. ATENGDEM                         DATE 
               (SUPERVISOR)                                           
  
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ABSTRACT 
Vegetable production is one of the economic activities of farmers in the Northern Region 
of Ghana.  It is an income generating activity from which most farmers meet their 
livelihood outcomes. Despite the fact that some of the vegetable farmers receive 
extension services  from MoFA Agriculture Extension Agents with the expectations that 
yields of their vegetable would increase and their livelihood  outcomes would have 
improved, the farmers still record low yields. This study therefore aimed at determining 
the influence of extension delivery on the livelihood outcomes of the vegetable farmers 
using 200 vegetable farmers and 16 Agricultural Extension Agents.  In all, 100 farmers 
who receive extension services, 100 farmers who do not receive extension services and 
16 AEAs were interviewed. The study was undertaken in ten (10) communities drawn 
from Tolon and Kumbungu Districts of the Northern Region of Ghana. The research 
design was a survey research. The methodology used involves techniques such as 
interviews, focus group discussions and observations. The main findings of this study 
were (1) vegetable farmers prefer farm visit as the best method for accessing and 
delivering extension programmes. (2) Farmers were never contacted in planning and 
initiation extension programmes. (3) The Chi-square results indicated that respondents‘ 
opinion on the contribution of vegetable cultivation to their food security was significant 
(χ2 = 14.328, df = 3, p = 0.002). The results also indicated that respondents‘ knowledge 
in vegetable cultivation is significantly related to the type of extension delivery method 
(χ2 = 11.886, df = 4, p = 0.018). The statistics showed that, improved access to 
employment by the farmers was significantly related to the media used to disseminate 
information ( χ2 = 20.410, df = 6, p = 0.016).It is concluded that access to extension 
services has had positive effect on the livelihoods outcomes of farmers. It is 
recommended among other things that farmers are given the opportunity to participate in 
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the programme planning so as to increase the adoption of innovation with regards to 
vegetable cultivation. It is also recommended that MoFA should give extension agents 
the training on the use of participatory extension approaches for increase farmers‘ 
participation. 
 
 
 
  
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DEDICATION 
I dedicate this thesis to my wife, Attu Samia and my children Zakiya Wunnam 
Habib,Salma Kataali Habib and Mohammed Sheriff Anamzooya Habib. 
  
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
My greatest appreciation goes to the Almighty Allah for showering His mercy, grace and 
blessings on me throughout this programme. My profound gratitude and thanks also go 
to my supervisors, Dr. Seth Boateng and Dr. Paschal B. Atengdem of the Department of 
Agricultural Extension whose guidance, directions and constructive criticisms led to the 
successful completion of this work. 
My deepest thanks also go to the administrative staff of the Agricultural Extension 
Department (particularly Mrs. ZenabuKobatu, ‘) for their moral support. 
Further I will like to express my greatest gratitude to all my colleague students for their 
valuable contribution to my work. 
My deepest thanks also go to all those who have contributed in one way or the other to 
make my Mphil programme a success.  
 
 
 
 
  
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Content                                               Page 
 
DECLARATION .............................................................................................................. i 
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................... ii 
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................ iv 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ v 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... vi 
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... xii 
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... xiv 
LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................. xv 
 
CHAPTER ONE .............................................................................................................. 1 
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 
1.0 Background of the study ........................................................................................ 1 
1.1 Problem statement ................................................................................................. 4 
1.2 Research questions ................................................................................................. 6 
1.3 Hypothesis ............................................................................................................. 7 
1.4 Objectives of the study .......................................................................................... 7 
1.5 Justification of the study ........................................................................................ 8 
1.6: Operational definition of terms........................................................................... 10 
1.6.1 Seminar/Conference ................................................................................... 10 
1.6.2 Fieldtrips ..................................................................................................... 10 
1.6.3 Method demonstration ................................................................................ 10 
1.6.4 Result demonstration .................................................................................. 10 
1.6.5 Workshop .................................................................................................... 11 
1.6.6 Personal visits ............................................................................................. 11 
1.6.7 Newsletter ................................................................................................... 11 
1.6.8 Livelihood outcomes .................................................................................. 11 
1.7 Organization of the thesis .................................................................................... 11 
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CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................... 13 
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 13 
2.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 13 
2.1 Conceptual framework ......................................................................................... 13 
2.3 Theoretical literature ............................................................................................ 15 
2.3.1 Experiential learning theory ....................................................................... 16 
2.3.1 An Overview of Experiential learning theory ............................................ 17 
2.3.2 Adult education theory ............................................................................... 18 
2.4 Personal Characteristics of Vegetable Farmers ................................................... 20 
2.5 Effects of research- extension- farmer interaction on the performance of the 
farmers ....................................................................................................................... 22 
2.6 Overview of delivery methods used in extension ................................................ 26 
2.7 The public extension system in Ghana-a historical perspective .......................... 30 
2.8 Sustainable livelihoods framework...................................................................... 31 
2.8.1 DFID Sustainable Livelihood Framework .................................................. 32 
2.9 The IFAD Sustainable Livelihood Framework ................................................... 36 
2.9.1 Unpacking "processes" ............................................................................... 38 
2.9.2 Highlighting the Linkages with the "Vulnerability" Context ..................... 40 
2.9.3 Introducing aspirations and opportunities .................................................. 40 
2.10 Contribution of Vegetable Production to Livelihood Outcomes ....................... 41 
2.11 The role of the media in disseminating information to farmers ........................ 42 
 
CHAPTERTHREE ........................................................................................................ 45 
METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 45 
3.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 45 
3.1 Profile of the study area ....................................................................................... 45 
3.2 Research design ................................................................................................... 47 
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3.3 Population of the study ........................................................................................ 49 
3.4 Sampling technique and sample size ................................................................... 49 
3.5 Method of Data Collection .................................................................................. 52 
3.5.1 Pre-Field Visits ........................................................................................... 53 
3.5.2 Pre-Testing of Questionnaires .................................................................... 53 
3.5.3 Questionnaire Administration ..................................................................... 54 
3.5.4 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) ................................................................ 54 
3.5.5 Direct observation ....................................................................................... 54 
3.6 Data editing and coding ....................................................................................... 55 
3.6 Methods of Data Analysis ................................................................................... 55 
 
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................... 56 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................... 56 
4.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 56 
4.1 Personal characteristics of respondents and their engagement in vegetable 
cultivation .................................................................................................................. 56 
4.1.1 Distribution of farmers by age and engagement in vegetable cultivation .. 57 
4.1.2 Distribution of farmers by gender and engagement in vegetable cultivation
 ............................................................................................................................. 58 
4.1.3 Marital status of farmers and their engagement in vegetable production ... 59 
4.1.4 Distribution of farmers by level of education and engagement in vegetable 
cultivation ............................................................................................................ 60 
4.1.5 Engagement in vegetable cultivation and other livelihood activities ......... 61 
4.2 Relationship between extension delivery methods and livelihood outcomes of 
farmers ....................................................................................................................... 62 
4.2.1 Frequency distribution of methods used by extension workers in service 
delivery ................................................................................................................ 62 
4.2.2 Farmers‘ perception on the contribution of extension methods on their 
income .................................................................................................................. 63 
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4.2.3 Famers‘ Perception of the contribution of extension delivery methods on 
improved employment ......................................................................................... 64 
4.2.4 Farmers‘ perception of the contribution of the methods on improved food 
security ................................................................................................................. 65 
4.2.5 Farmers perception of the contribution of extension methods on reduced 
vulnerability ......................................................................................................... 66 
4.3 The relationship between farmers preferred methods and their livelihood 
outcomes .................................................................................................................... 67 
4.3.1 Percentage distribution of farmers by their preferred extension delivery 
method ................................................................................................................. 67 
4.3.2 Farmers socio-demographic characteristics and preferred extension delivery 
method ................................................................................................................. 68 
4.3.3 Relationship between Farmers‘ preferred methods and perceived livelihood 
outcomes .............................................................................................................. 69 
4.3.4 The relationship between preferred method and perceived improved food 
security ................................................................................................................. 70 
4.3.5 Relationship between preferred method and perceived contribution to 
farmers‘ knowledge. ............................................................................................ 71 
4.4Relationship between the media used by extensionist and the livelihood outcomes 
of farmers ................................................................................................................... 72 
4.4.1 Distribution of farmers‘ responses on the media used to disseminate 
information .......................................................................................................... 72 
4.4.2 The relationship between the media and improved access to employment 74 
4.5 Access to extension services and livelihood outcomes ....................................... 75 
4.5.1 Relationship between access to extension services and improved food 
security ................................................................................................................. 75 
4.5.2 Relationship between access to extension services and improved access to 
education .............................................................................................................. 76 
4.6 farmers‘ interaction with extension agents and their livelihood outcomes ......... 77 
4.6.1 Percentage distribution on the interaction of farmers and extension agents78 
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4.6.2 The relationship between the interaction and the livelihood outcomes of the 
farmers ................................................................................................................. 80 
4.6.3 The relationship between the interaction and the farmers‘ knowledge in 
vegetable production ............................................................................................ 81 
4.6.4 The relationship between interaction and its contribution to improved food 
security ................................................................................................................. 82 
4.6.5 The relationship between interaction and farmers level of income ............ 83 
 
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................... 85 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.................................... 85 
5.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 85 
5.1 Summary of study ................................................................................................ 85 
5.1 Conclusions.......................................................................................................... 86 
5.1.1 Farmers‘ socio-demographic characteristics and access to extension 
services ................................................................................................................ 86 
5.1.2 Frequency distribution of methods used by extension workers in service 
delivery ................................................................................................................ 87 
5.1.3 Preferred educational delivery method ....................................................... 87 
5.1.4 Frequency of interaction with other organizations ..................................... 88 
5.1.5 Type of media use in disseminating information ....................................... 88 
5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................ 89 
5.3 Future research direction ..................................................................................... 90 
 
REFFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 91 
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................ 99 
Appendix A: Questionnaire/ Interview Guide for Vegetable Farmers ............................ 99 
Appendix B: Questionnaire /Interview Guide For Extension Officers ................... 112 
Appendix C .................................................................................................................... 117 
Appendix D: Chi-Square Results of Access to Extension on Livelihood Outcomes
 ................................................................................................................................. 119 
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Appendix E: Chi-Square Results of Farmer Preferred Methods of Extension Delivery on 
Livelihood Outcomes ............................................................................................. 120 
Appendix F: Ranking of Farmer Preferred Methods of Extension Delivery ........... 121 
Appendix G: Chi-Square Results of the Media of Information on Livelihood 
Outcomes ................................................................................................................. 122 
 
 
 
 
  
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LIST OF TABLES 
Table                                                                                                                             page 
Table 2.1: Delivery Methods Used in Extension Services .............................................. 29 
Table 2.2: Typologies of extension by various scholars .................................................. 31 
Table 3. 1: Sampling at District Level ............................................................................. 51 
Table 3.2: Sampling at Community Level ....................................................................... 52 
Table 4.1: Distribution of farmers by age and engagement in vegetable cultivation ...... 57 
Table 4.2: Distribution of farmers by gender and engagement in vegetable cultivation . 59 
Table 4.3: Marital status of farmers and their engagement in vegetable production ...... 60 
Table 4.4: Level of education and engagement in vegetable cultivation ........................ 61 
Table 4. 5: Distribution of methods used by extension workers in service delivery ....... 63 
Table 4.6: Farmers perception on the contribution of extension methods on their income
 ......................................................................................................................................... 64 
Table 4.7: Contribution of extension methods on improved employment ...................... 65 
Table 4. 8: Farmers perception on the contribution of extension methods on improved 
food security .................................................................................................................... 66 
Table 4.9: Farmers perception on the contribution of extension methods on reduced 
vulnerability ..................................................................................................................... 66 
Table 4. 10: Farmers preferred methods of extension service delivery ........................... 68 
Table 4. 11: Farmers Socio-demographic characteristics and Preferred Extension 
Delivery Method .............................................................................................................. 69 
Table 4. 12: Preferred method and perceived improvement in food security ................. 71 
Table 4. 13: Relationship between preferred method and the farmers‘ knowledge ........ 72 
Table 4. 14: Farmers‘ responses on the media of information dissemination ................. 74 
Table 4. 15: The relationship between the media and improved employment ................ 75 
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Table 4. 16: The relationship between access to extension services and food security .. 76 
Table 4.17: The relationship between access to extension services and improved access 
to education ...................................................................................................................... 77 
Table 4. 18: Percentage distribution on the interaction of farmers and extension agents 80 
Table 4.19: The relationship between interaction and farmers‘ knowledge in vegetable 
production ........................................................................................................................ 82 
Table 4. 20: The relationship between interaction and improved food security ............. 83 
Table 4. 21: The relationship between interaction and farmers level of income ............. 84 
 
  
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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure                                                           Page 
Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 14 
Figure 2.2: David Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle ................................................................ 17 
Figure 2. 3: Sustainable Livelihood Framework .......................................................................... 33 
Figure 2. 4: An Alternative Sustainable Livelihoods Framework ................................................ 37 
 
  
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LIST OF ACRONYMS 
AEAs:               Agriculture Extension Agents 
CSIR:               Council for Scientific and Industrial Research 
DAES:              Directorate of Agricultural Extension Services 
FAO:                Food and Agricultural Organisation 
FFS:                 Farmer Field School 
FSR/E:              Farming System Research and Extension 
GTZ:                German Technical Co-operation 
 IFAD:             International Fund for Agricultural Development 
MoFA:            Ministry of Food and Agriculture 
NAEP:              National Agriculture Extension Project 
NGO:                Non-Governmental organization 
PTD&E:           Participatory Technology Development and Extension 
RELCs:            Research Extension Linkage Committees 
SPSS:              Statistical Package for Social Sciences 
T&V:               Training and Visit 
WFP:               World Food Program 
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.0 Background of the study 
Improving the livelihood of rural households is one of the major objectives in many 
developing countries which entails, increasing household income, increasing their food 
security and nutrition, increasing their access to health services as well as education for 
the rural children, (SwansonandRajalahti, 2010). Assisting farmers to increase their 
production has long been a common practice pursued by development assistance, and 
also an objective of ministries of agriculture and sub national governments around the 
world.  
 
Agriculture serves as the major economic activity of many of the world‘s population 
which is undertaken by many people as a livelihood strategy in order to meet their 
livelihood outcomes. FAO, WFP and IFAD (2012) estimated that agriculture is the main 
source of income for about 2.5 billion people in the developing world. The report also 
indicated that in African continent every 1% increase in Agricultural production reduces 
poverty by 0.6% and such small increase affects positively food security as well as 
poverty alleviation. 
 
MoFA(2010) indicated that vegetable production has played a key role to improving the 
livelihood of many people. This implies that increasing vegetable production in many 
parts of the developing world can be an important component of a strategy to increasing 
income, reducing hunger and also contributing significantly to the improvement of other 
aspects of wellbeing. Vegetable production, processing and marketing are very important 
contributor to income security and nutritive diets of many household in Ghana. Due to 
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urbanization, population growth and concerns about malnutrition in peri- urban areas 
demand is being created for vegetables. It is indicated by Saikou, Sanyang and Wen-chi, 
(2009) that, in terms of value of production, vegetable are ranked even higher than all 
other arable crops except rice, root crops and grain legumes.  
 
A major way to the development of agriculture and improvement of production in 
vegetable production is the provision of extension services. The focus of extension 
services over the years have been poverty alleviation, food security, creation of 
employment, provision of raw materials and the sustainable management of natural 
resources. As a system, agricultural extension facilitates the access of individual farmers, 
farmer organizations, and other market actors to knowledge, information and 
technologies; facilitates their interaction with partners in research, agribusiness and other 
relevant institutions; and assist the farmers to develop their own technical, organizational 
and managerial skills and practices (Christoplos, 2010). Though, the role of agricultural 
extension services is to contribute to the improvement of farmers  welfare and other 
people living in rural areas by providing access to knowledge and information,  the role 
of extension today is said to have gone  beyond technology transfer to facilitation; 
beyond training to learning, and also includes assisting farmers  in forming groups, 
dealing with marketing issues, addressing public interest issues in rural communities 
such as  resource conservation, health, monitoring of food security and agricultural 
production, food safety,   nutrition, family education, development of the youth and 
partnering with many other service  providers and other agencies (Feder, Birner, and 
Anderson, 2011). 
The quality and effectiveness of the extension service delivery in enhancing the capacity 
of farmers, enhancing technological adoption and ultimately improved agricultural 
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output depend on very important factors relating to the extension methods used, the 
governance, the management structure and the capacity of the extension system, as well 
as the underlying contextual factors such as the policy environment, market access, 
characteristics of beneficiary communities and weather conditions.  Birner et al. (2006), 
conducted a research on pluralistic agricultural extension services and indicated that, the 
reasons for quality and effective service delivery can be attributable to many factors, 
including whether or not the extension methods are appropriate, the capacity and 
numbers of extension staff, and the management as well as the governance structures of 
the organisations delivering the extension services. Asenso-Okyery (2007), defined 
capacity to include the skills, incentives, resources, organisational systems and structures 
as well as the broader enabling environment that allow individuals and organisations to 
plan, implement, and monitor their development. T.he effectiveness of extension 
delivery may also be influenced by the level of feedback and the mechanisms of delivery 
of information from farmers to the researchers and extension system, and thus the role 
farmers play in formulating demand as well as their ability to exercise voice (Anderson 
and Feder 2003). This may depend in turn on the degree of decentralization, the ratio of 
extension agents to farmers, a responsive management approach, and the use of 
participatory extension methods. The policy environment determines the overall 
orientation of the extension services, the degree of resources allocated to it and the 
categories of farmers targeted. All these factors will have an effect on how effective 
extension delivery will be. 
  
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1.1 Problem statement 
A number of interventions have been used to improve upon the performance of vegetable 
farmers and also to ensure that their livelihoods and wellbeing are improved. Major 
changes have also taken place at the national level to increase farmers‟ participation in 
extension programme planning and development, such as improve access to agriculture 
support services - information, finance, inputs, regulatory services, technical expertise, 
markets etc.  In Ghana, MoFA Agricultural Extension Agents (AEAs) have usually 
provided information on new and better agronomic practices to help farmers improve 
upon their farming activities, improve yields and ultimately enhance their livelihood 
outcomes. 
 
Agricultural extension delivery is aimed at improving the knowledge, attitude and skills 
of farmers, helping to increase yield of their farm produce, enabling the farmers to 
diversify their livelihood strategies and ultimately helping to improve their livelihood 
outcomes.  To achieve these aims, extension field staff educates farmers by providing 
them with knowledge, information and technologies; link the farmers with partners in 
research, agribusiness and other market institutions; and also educate farmers to develop 
their own technical, organizational and managerial skills and practices. 
 
MoFA extension officers also assist farmers to acquire knowledge and skills by working 
with individual farmers, farmer groups, and establish community demonstration plots to 
educate the farmers on new and better methods of vegetable production. 
With these interventions, the expectations are that yield of vegetables cultivated by the 
farmers would have improved and the farmers would have had improved livelihood 
outcomes. Despite the efforts made in extension delivery and use of recommended 
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technologies, yields of vegetable in the study area have been described as low (MoFA, 
2011).  
 
A research conducted by Action Aid Ghana in 2012 indicates that, the farmer extension 
worker ratio in Ghana stands at one extension officer to 3000 farmers. With this wide 
gap the extension workers are likely to work with clients in large groups reducing the 
intensity of interaction between the agents and the clients.  Agbamu (2005) conducted a 
research on the Challenges and prospects of agricultural extension in Nigeria and argued 
that the disproportionate extension agents to farm family ratio prevalent in developing 
countries had led to a situation in which many farmers do not benefit from the services of 
agricultural extension agents. 
It has also been indicated by Anderson and Feder (2003) that, the effectiveness of 
extension delivery depends on how information is being packaged and delivered to the 
farmers. This involves translating information from the researchers or the store of 
knowledge to the farmers. The agriculture extension agent is supposed to be confident to 
exchange information and ideas in a clear and eloquent manner appropriate to the 
farmers in order to explain, persuade, convince and influence the farmers in adopting an 
innovation. Unfortunately, most of these innovations may not reach the farmer's field 
because the media for information dissemination in use are not quite effective. 
 
Asiedu-Darko (2013) also conducted a research on factors affecting agricultural 
extension delivery in Ashanti, Eastern and Northern regions of Ghana. The results 
indicated that there was the need to actively involve farmers in the extension delivery in 
order to improve their livelihood.  Farrington and Martin (2006) have shown that 
extension delivery cannot be effective if little attention is given to the introduction of 
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systematic participation or interaction of farming community in problem definition, 
problem solving and extension programming.  With low levels of participation by 
farmers in problem definition and problem solving, it is likely that vegetable farmers will 
lack the ability to increase their output and ultimately improve their livelihood outcome.  
 
This research focuses on the influence of extension delivery on livelihood outcomes of 
vegetable farmers in the Tolon and Kunbungu districts of the northern region. It also 
stresses on the importance of capacity building, extension method use in extension 
delivery, packaging of information and interaction between farmers and extension agents 
in enhancing the livelihood outcomes of the farmers. 
 
1.2 Research questions 
The study seeks to answer the following research questions: 
1. Is there any relationship between farmers‘ socio-demographic characteristics and 
their engagement in vegetable cultivation? 
2. Is there any relationship between the extension delivery methods used in 
extension programmes and the achievement of the livelihood outcomes of the 
farmers?  
3. Is there any relationship between the farmers preferred extension delivery 
methods and the livelihood outcomes of the farmers?  
4. Is there any relationship between the interaction between researchers, farmers and 
extension agents and the achievement of the livelihood outcomes of the farmers? 
5. Is there any relationship between the media use to disseminate information in 
extension programmes and the achievement of the farmers livelihood outcomes? 
 
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1.3 Hypothesis 
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for which evidence for testing is at least 
potentially available. They are all stated in the null form. 
1. There is no relationship between farmers‘ socio-demographic characteristics and 
their engagement in vegetable cultivation. 
2. There is no relationship between extension method used in extension delivery and 
the achievement of the farmers‘ livelihood outcome. 
3. There is no relationship between farmers preferred extension delivery method and 
the livelihood outcomes of the farmers. 
4. There is no relationship between the interaction among farmers, researchers and 
extension agents and the livelihood outcomes of the farmers. 
5. There is no relationship between the media used to disseminate information and 
the achievement of the farmers‘ livelihood outcome. 
 
1.4 Objectives of the study 
The general objective of the study is to examine the influence of extension delivery on 
the livelihood strategy pursued by vegetable farmers and consequentially on their 
livelihood outcomes. The specific objectives are: 
1. To determine the relationship between a selected socio-demographic 
characteristic of farmers and their engagement in vegetable cultivation. 
2. To determine the relationship between the extension delivery methods used in 
extension programmes and the livelihood outcomes of the vegetable farmers.  
3. To determine the relationship between the farmers preferred extension delivery 
methods and their livelihood outcome.  
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4. To investigate the level of interaction among researchers, extension agents and 
farmers and the achievement of the livelihood outcomes of the farmers.  
5. To determine the relationship between the media used by the extensionists in the 
delivery of extension services to farmers and the livelihood outcomes of the 
farmers.  
 
1.5 Justification of the study 
The lack of relevance of extension programmes to local needs and the limited interest 
from farmers to participate provides clear evidence of the need for the study. This study 
will help in understanding the perception of vegetable farmers towards extension 
delivery in the production of vegetables. Extension education impacts positively on rural 
livelihood, but some doubts arise over its effectiveness and efficiency. The feedback 
from participants of review reports, and discussions with agricultural development 
workers, at different levels of the northern region, and farmers suggest that the outcomes 
of extension activities are unsatisfactory coupled with inadequacies in the ways 
extension support services are designed, implemented, monitored, and evaluated. 
However, these are not based on empirical evidences. Some argue that it is difficult to 
judge the situation without any detailed study. Thus, this calls for further investigation, 
hence the need for this study.  
There are multiple examples worldwide that illustrate the potential of vegetables in their 
contribution to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Despite this 
potential, vegetable productivity is low. Vegetable farmers are constrained by poor 
access to markets and extension support services, weak institutions, and lack of 
appropriate technologies. This study therefore, seeks to unravel the educational delivery 
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methods and the preferred method in vegetable extension with a view to contributing to 
the Millennium Development Goals. 
 
However, the extension agents are at the forefront of agricultural development, thus the 
study will assist in the provision of empirical data on the need for additional training and 
up skilling of extension workers to be able to render services in the vegetable sector. 
This study is of importance because the findings will help government, non-
governmental organisations, private and persons involved in agricultural extension 
services provision to address some of the inadequacies facing the delivering of quality 
extension services. The study will also provide data that can be translated into practical 
recommendations for extension service providers- Government, private and NGOs.  
 
The study is particularly relevant for country like Ghana where many people rely on 
vegetable production as a livelihood strategy in order to achieve their livelihood 
outcomes. These studies will contribute to the debate which seeks to understand how 
livelihood outcomes of vegetable farmers could be improved and sustained through 
extension delivery. The findings of the study will also add to knowledge on how 
extension delivery could be conducted to impact on the livelihood outcomes of vegetable 
famers. Lastly, the study will help the Government of Ghana and other development 
partners to develop new policy guidelines in tackling the poverty situation among rural 
vegetable farmers. 
 
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1.6: Operational definition of terms 
The key concepts that were explored in the study are explained under this section. These 
include: seminars/conferences, fieldtrips, method demonstration, result demonstration, 
workshops, personal visits, newsletters and livelihood outcomes. 
 
1.6.1 Seminar/Conference 
A seminar as a method of extension delivery refers to a meeting in which a group of 
people who are studying a specific subject engage in discussions led by a recognized 
authority whiles a conference is a meeting of a large or small group of people having 
similar interests for formal presentations to the entire group and for smaller group 
sessions that focus on specific components of the general topic. 
 
1.6.2 Fieldtrips 
Travel by a group of learners to places of defined interest to study innovations, systems, 
objects, demonstrations, applied creative programs, or other items that may be unfamiliar 
to participants. 
 
1.6.3 Method demonstration 
A method demonstration is an explanation of how to implement a practice or accomplish 
a task by showing a practical application or guiding the learner in carrying out the task. 
 
1.6.4 Result demonstration 
A presentation that shows the effects of a practice change or task by means of practical 
application, using visual, experiential, or oral methods; it usually involves a before-and-
after comparison. 
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1.6.5 Workshop 
A workshop as a method of extension delivery is a meeting in which a small group of 
people with common interests meet to study or research a specific topic or to practice a 
specific skill to enhance their individual knowledge and proficiency. 
 
1.6.6 Personal visits 
It is a face-to-face exchange of information between two or more people, usually at the 
location of the person or persons receiving the information. When the face-to-face 
exchange of information occurs at the location of the information provider then it is 
called an office visit. 
 
1.6.7 Newsletter 
A printed instrument developed for a targeted audience that is intended to provide timely 
information of current potential interest to the readers. 
 
1.6.8 Livelihood outcomes 
Livelihood outcomes are the achievements or output of livelihood strategies. That is a 
process through which various livelihood activities are explored by people to meet their 
financial, human, physical and natural needs. They include increase in income, improved 
access to health, improved food security, improved access to education and reduced 
vulnerability. 
 
1.7 Organization of the thesis 
The thesis is divided into five (5) chapters. Chapter one is the introduction. The chapter 
provides information about the research problem, research questions, objectives, 
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justification, and profile of the study area. Chapter Two deals with literature review 
whereas Chapter Three contains the study methodology. Chapter Four deals with data 
analysis and discussions whereas the last Chapter presents conclusions and 
recommendations. 
 
 
 
  
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.0 Introduction 
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the conceptual framework and to review 
literature relevant to the research objectives. Available literature was reviewed under the 
following headings: selected personal characteristics and their effect on vegetable 
production, overview of extension delivery methods use in extension programmes, the 
influence of the interaction among farmers, researchers and the extension agents on the 
performance of the farmers as well as the media use disseminating information to 
farmers.  
 
2.1 Conceptual framework 
Figure 2.1 is a model representing the conceptual framework that explains the 
relationship among the portfolio ofthe extension methods used, the level of interaction 
among researchers, farmers and extension agents, the capacity and numbers of 
extensionists delivering extension services, and the management and governance 
structures of the organisations delivering the extension services. According to Anderson 
(1990), a conceptual framework is a model that allows the researcher to explore the 
relationship among variables in a logical and prescribed manner. 
 
 
 
 
  
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Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework 
 
Source: Adapted from Birner et al. (2006) 
 
2.2 The description of the conceptual framework 
The effectiveness of the extension delivery in fostering the capacity of farmers, 
enhancing technological adoption and ultimately improved agricultural outcomes 
depends on very important factors relating to the extension methods used, the 
government‘s role, management structures and the capacity of the extension system. It 
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also depends on the underlying contextual factors such as the policy environment, market 
access, characteristics of beneficiary communities and weather conditions. Birneretal., 
(2006), indicated in their analysis that, the reasons for effective service delivery can be 
attributable to many factors, including the appropriateness of the extension methods, the 
capacity and numbers of extension system, and the management and governance 
structures of the organisations delivering the extension services. As shown by 
participatory models in particular, effectiveness of extension delivery may also be 
influenced by the degree of feedback (indicated by the dashed arrows in Figure 2.1) and 
the mechanisms of information delivery from farmers to the research and extension 
system, and thus the role the farmers play in formulating demand and their ability to 
exercise voice. This may depend in turn on the degree of decentralisation, the ratio of 
extension staff to farmers, a responsive management approach, and also the use of 
participatory extension methods. The policy environment determines the overall 
orientation of the extension service, the amount of resources devoted to it and the 
category of farmers targeted. Characteristics of local communities, such as heterogeneity 
in terms of land- and asset-holdings, ethnicity, education, gender roles and the degree of 
social exclusion, will determine the ability of the extension services to penetrate 
communities and reach the disadvantaged, and the degree of farmer-to-farmer diffusion. 
Finally, all of these factors, together with market access and weather conditions will 
determine the degree of adoption of techniques and final outcomes such as yields (for 
example, production per unit of land), income and empowerment. 
 
2.3 Theoretical literature 
This section reviews literature on the theories of experiential learning and adult 
education theory. 
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2.3.1 Experiential learning theory 
As the name suggest, experiential learning involves learning from experience. The theory 
was proposed by a psychologist- David Kolb whose work was influenced by the work of 
other theorist such as Jean Piaget, John Dewey, and Kurt Lewin. According to Kolb, this 
type of learning can be defined as the process whereby knowledge is created through the 
transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and 
transforming experience. The experiential learning theory proposed by Kolb takes a more 
holistic approach and emphasizes how experience, including cognitions, environmental 
factors, and emotions influence the learning process. Because of the immediate relations 
of the theory with practice, Kolb‘s (1984) model of experiential learning is widely used 
as a basis for organizing communication for innovation. The model describes how people 
learn through experience. The theory suggest that, conclusions drawn by people 
themselves on the basis of their own experience tend to have a greater impact than ideas 
that are formulated by others on the basis experiences that the learner cannot be 
identified with. The model also implies that learning can be enhanced by actively 
supporting the basic steps and translations that take place during learning, and by 
offering new learning opportunities. 
 
In rural community, extension workers usually deal with farmers or people involved in 
other livelihood activities who are usually adults. These people are confronted with 
changing circumstances and problems that require innovations. In this case (social) 
learning is less a goal in itself, it is often more voluntary, and is immediately connected 
with different human interests and changes in professional practices. 
 
  
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Figure 2.2: David Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle 
 
 
2.3.1 An Overview of Experiential learning theory 
In the experiential model, Kolb explained two different ways of grasping experience 
which include Concrete Experience and Abstract Conceptualization. He also identified 
two ways of transforming experience as Reflective Observation and Active 
Experimentation. These four modes of learning are often portrayed as a cycle (figure 
2.2). 
According to Kolb (1999), concrete experience provides the information that serves as a 
basis for reflection. From these reflections, we assimilate the information and form 
abstract concepts. We then use these concepts to develop new theories about the world, 
which we then actively test. Through the interpretation of our ideas, we once again 
gather information through experience, cycling back to the beginning of the process. He 
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indicated that the process does not necessarily begin with experience. Instead, each 
person must choose which learning mode will work best based upon the specific 
situation. 
 
2.3.2 Adult education theory 
Studies of adult education theory were undertaken initially by Alexander Kapp in the 19th 
century. The theory was made popular by an American educator by name Malcolm 
Knowles. In 1921, the theory was reviewed but did not appear in a dictionary until the 
mid- 1980s. Knowles (1980) defined adult learning as the art and science of helping 
adult to learn. Knowles further observed that adults know their needs and in a pragmatic 
way pursue knowledge according to their needs. 
 
In 1999, Merrian and Caffarella explained three important factors that affect 
transformational learning: experience, critical reflection and development. Argorte, 
McEvily and Reagans (2003), also noted that experience is a very important factor in 
developing one‘s ability to create, to retain and to transfer knowledge. The theory of 
adult education therefore indicates that, extension workers need to create opportunities 
for farmers to experience disorienting dilemmas, critically reflecting on their 
assumptions, and facilitating how to learn not just what to learn. 
 
Baumgartner (2001) explained that  the nine characteristics of adult learners which is 
relevant when dealing with any adult learner irrespective of level, subject or situation are 
as follows: [i] Adults need to control their learning [ii] Adults need to feel that learning 
has immediate utility, i.e., that the application of ideas has to be relayed [iii] Adults need 
to feel that learning focuses on issues that directly  addresses their concern  [iv] Adults 
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need to test their learning as they go along, rather than receive background theory and 
general information[v] Adults need to anticipate how they will use their learning [vi] 
Adults need to expect performance improvement to result from their learning [vii] Adult 
learning is greatest when it maximizes available resources [viii] Adult learning requires a 
climate that is collaborative, respectful, mutual and informal [vix] Adult learning relies 
on information that is appropriate to what is known at a given time (i.e., it is 
developmentally paced). Adult learners require a personal productive time, where 
meaningful connections are made between previous knowledge and experiences with 
new bodies of knowledge and/or skills that will lead to immediate results. 
 
The theory of adult education (as described by Knowles) is based on five andragogical 
assumptions of the adult learner:  
Self-concept: As a person matures, he or she moves from dependency to self-
directedness.  
Experience: Adults draw on their experiences to aid their learning.  
Readiness: The learning readiness of adults is closely related to the assumption of new 
social roles.  
Orientation: As a person learns new knowledge, he or she wants to apply it immediately 
in problem solving.  
Motivation (Later added). 
Adult learning therefore, is aimed at improving individual knowledge, attitude and 
organizational performance by the direct transfer of learning to the work itself. Yi  
(2005), in his analysis of effective ways to foster learning suggested  three methods: 
problem-based learning which seeks to increase problem-solving and critical thinking; 
cooperative learning, which builds communication and interpersonal skills; and situated 
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learning, which targets specific technical skills directly related to work. Each of these 
methods supports assumptions about how adults learn; specifically they are more self-
directed, have a need for direct application to their work, and contribute to collaborative 
learning through experience. 
 
2.4 Personal Characteristics of Vegetable Farmers 
The purpose of reviewing literature on selected personal characteristics of vegetable 
farmers is to enable the researcher explore earlier findings on the relationship between 
personal characteristics and livelihood strategy as pursued by vegetable farmers. 
The personal characteristics of vegetable farmers like age, gender, household size and 
level of education have an influence on the cultivation of vegetables. The practice of 
vegetable farming is related to factors such as age, sex, household size, marital status and 
educational status of the households under consideration. 
 
Age as a component of personal characteristics plays a very important role in the type of 
livelihood that people embark on. A study conducted by Ango (1999) discovered that 
age is a key social factor in determining the working ability of any person. He further 
indicated that the ages of 31-40 years are the active productive years of a farmer. 
Azikiwe (2012) conducted a research on the influence of extension services on livestock 
production in South Africa and concluded that 37.1% of the respondent fall within the 
age range of 41-60years which shows that the older men and women were more into 
agricultural activities. 
 
Zakaria (2009) examined the extent to which socio-economic characteristics, operations 
of micro-credit institutions and community related factors influence livelihood 
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sustainability of 150 rural women borrowers. The study was conducted in the Tolon-
Kumbungu District of the Northern Region of Ghana through the use of participatory 
approach. The technique used by the author was the discriminate techniques in order to 
identify socio-economic characteristics of borrowers and community factors that 
classified or discriminate between two categories of performance or women livelihood 
ventures (high or low prospect of livelihood sustainability in one hand and high or low 
prospect of reducing vulnerability). Specific techniques used to collect data were close 
and open-ended questionnaires, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and direct 
observations. Zakaria (2009) found that age, educational level and type of main 
livelihood venture significantly influenced the ability of women borrowers to reduce 
vulnerability. It is apparent therefore that age and education level of farmers, could have 
a positive effect on level of adoption of improved technology which has an influence on 
the livelihood outcomes of the farmers. 
 
Swakumar, Subramanian, Suresh, & Copeland (1997)  asserted that farming has long 
been regarded as a male dominated occupation.  Namwata, Lwelamira and Mzirai (2010) 
studied the influence of improved agricultural technologies for Irish potatoes among 
farmers in Mbeya Rural district in Tanzania using Multiple Linear Regression analysis. 
The results indicated that, increased household income, being a male or married by a 
household head, increased farming experience, access to credit and extension services 
were positively and significantly related to the adoption of improved technologies. 
Wilbers (2003) observed that traditions of patrilineal inheritance limit women‘s access to 
acquire land to live and do subsistence farming. 
 
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2.5 Effects of research- extension- farmer interaction on the performance of the 
farmers 
This section reviews literature on   how research, extension and farmer interactions 
influence the performance of the farmers. 
Most of the agricultural research done in Ghana is under the supervision of the Council 
for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) while extension is carried out by MoFA. In 
1991, the Research Extension Linkage Committee (RELCs) was formed in the five 
ecological zones of Ghana to forge a close working relationship between research, 
extension and farmers. The responsibility of these RELCs is to assess the adoption of 
technologies by farmers, review research and extension programmes. 
 
Conventional wisdom among academics and policy makers alike state that a major 
consideration for the development of a successful Extension system is its knowledge 
base and interdependency, its research/Extension/Farmer linkages. A number of linkages 
are required to develop and maintain an appropriate knowledge base. 
 
There are at least three kind of linkages essential to a comprehensive agricultural 
development knowledge base, triangular, horizontal and vertical linkages. Triangular 
linkages are those that operate within the research/ extension / clientele continuum. They 
involve feedback from farmers or clientele as well as close connections between research 
and extension. Vertical linkages are required to transmit relevant policies to agents and 
then on to farmers. Finally, horizontal linkages are needed between extension and other 
agriculture related entities, such as credit, input, and marketing institutions (Van den Ban 
& Hawkins, 1996). 
 
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Better communication or interaction between the researchers, extension workers, and 
farmers is an essential component for improving transferability of technology 
(Akinnagbe et al., 2010). The extension service is responsible for simplifying research 
information and delivering it to farmers in an effective and easy to understand manner. 
The extension service also serves as a feedback mechanism to researchers on problems 
faced by farmers (Rathore et al., 2008). The research-extension-farmer relationship 
should therefore be viewed as an interdependent and inter-related continuum. Azikiwe 
(2012) conducted a research on the quality of extension education delivery among 
livestock farmers in Central Eastern Cape of South Africa and noted that, agricultural 
extension by its nature is a service that relies on linkages and networks. An extension 
service that is not linked to research, farmers or other service providers cannot be 
effective. For extension to succeed, it must enhance its linkages and networks with 
research, farmers, and among extension providers -public and private. Unfortunately, the 
linkages between extension and research and extension and farmers in Africa over the 
years have been very weak (Altaye, 2012). The World Bank (1985) states that bridging 
the gap between research and extension is the most serious institutional problem in 
developing research and extension programmes. 
 
Thornley (1990) also noted that farmer involvement in agricultural research has been 
limited by inadequate funding, institutional policies and hierarchies, specialization, and 
incompatible personalities. He suggests that priorities for agricultural research using 
public funding should be identified through a democratic process by involving farmers in 
order to provide a better balance between basic/applied research and demonstration.  
 
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According to Francis et al., (1989), the characteristics of a research project useful to 
producers are: i) plots large enough to provide clear visual results, ii) treatments that 
require minimal investment or modifications to equipment, iii) focus on yield, 
profitability and risk reduction, and iv) results that can be utilized on their own farm. It 
has been suggested that a shift must occur away from the top down hierarchical 
approach, to an egalitarian and participatory approach in which farmers, researchers and 
extensionists serve as peers (Watkins, 1990).  
 
In sub-Saharan Africa, establishing a linkage with research institutions has been used as 
strategy to ensure that extension agents are up-to-date with current research findings. 
Agricultural extension is recognized as the main link between farmers and research and 
crucial in communicating improved practices needed in agricultural development (Van 
den Ban & Hawkins, 1996). How well researchers, extension agents, and farmers 
communicate and cooperate has a strong influence on whether agricultural science 
succeeds or fails as a catalyst of national development and as a tool for eliminating 
poverty. 
 
The research-extension linkage however is well documented as being weak in many 
studies on agricultural extension. The gap existing between research institutions and 
extension organizations is often regarded as an institutional problem yet to be resolved in 
many sub-Saharan African countries (The World Bank 2007,). 
 
Agbamu (2000) describes a linkage as the communication and presence of a working 
relationship among two or more organizations with a common goal. The aim of the 
interaction is for regular contact and improved productivity. Agriculture research and 
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extension are examples of two systems that can be linked by information flow and 
feedback. The farmer falls in between research and extension and is expected to be the 
main target and beneficiary of their activities. Constraints that affect this research-
extension interaction would therefore affect the outputs of farmers. Effective interaction 
would enhance output through the availability of information on improved agricultural 
technology and practices. 
 
Ahamad et al., (2007) conducted a research on the interaction of extension workers with 
farmers and the role of radio and television as sources of information. The field surveys 
was carried out during 2004 in Peshawar and Charsada. The results of their study 
revealed that the services of extension workers were not very impressive; majority (85%) 
of the farmers was unaware of the services of the extension workers. Almost 88% of the 
farmers did not get any benefit from extension workers as against only 12% farmers who 
got some benefits like technical advice (8.75%), demonstration (3.75%) and equipment 
(10%). Majority (82.5%) of the farmers did not visit the local Agriculture Extension 
office and only12.5% of the farmers reported visits of extension worker to their fields, 
majority of which was big and influential farmers. Only 5% farmers were visited once a 
year, 8.75% at monthly and 3.75% at weekly basis. 
 
A research conducted by Action Aid Ghana (in 2012) indicated that, the farmer extension 
worker ratio in Ghana stands at one extension officer to 3000 farmers. With this wide 
gap the extension workers are more likely to work with clients in large groups reducing 
the intensity of interaction between the agents and the clients.   
 
 
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2.6 Overview of delivery methods used in extension 
This sub-section reviews the literature on the extension delivery methods that is use by 
extension workers to deliver extension services to farmers. 
 
The implications of the characteristics of adult learning for extension involves  selecting  
an educational delivery formats and teaching methods that create learning opportunities 
for the desired learning outcomes (Birkenholz, 1999). 
 
Apantaku, Olufade and Adebayo (2008) conducted a research to investigate effects of 
extension teaching methods used by Ogun State (Nigeria) Agricultural Development 
Programme‘sextension agents on farmers‘ level of production in maize and cassava. The 
sample included 210 randomly selected farmers, comprising adopters and non-adopters 
of introduced agricultural technologies. The study showed that the type of extension 
teaching methods used by extension agents or which farmers had access to have varying 
effects on their levels of production. The use of a combination of individual, group and 
mass methods of extension teaching had the best association and effect on production 
output. 
 
In other to promote effective and efficient learning, a delivery system as much as 
possible need to use extension methods that (1) provide desired experiential 
opportunities for the learner, (2) reinforce the learner, and (3) provide opportunities for 
the learner to integrate new information with existing knowledge and skills. Richardson 
(1994) indicated that the delivery methods use in extension is categorized into four: 
experiential, reinforcement, integrative, and the other category. He also indicated that in 
an extension system, the methods considered experiential are those that allow the learner 
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to gain experience with or to "feel" the information presented. This experience may 
occur through physical activity or it may involve the senses, emotions, or social 
interaction, depending on the content of the educational programme. Reinforcement 
delivery methods provide informational, emotional, or social support for the learner to 
facilitate learning and enhance or maintain the motivation to continue in the learning 
process. The extension delivery methods that provide the learner opportunities to discuss, 
clarify, or otherwise gain greater understanding of new information can be classified as 
integrative methods. These methods generally provide opportunities for learners to 
merge new information with their existing knowledge. The experiential, reinforcement 
and integrative categories shows the stage at which the various delivery methods can be 
used most effectively in a programme delivery system. The other category lists those 
methods that are applicable in a wide variety of systems or that can be used for limited or 
special situations. Obviously, many of the methods listed can fit under more than one 
category. For example, an audiocassette can be designed to provide experiential 
opportunities as well as to reinforce the learner. Therefore, the categories in the table 
only suggest the best projected use. It is important to indicate here that several factors 
should be considered when selecting programme delivery methods. According to 
Birkenholz (1999), when selecting an appropriate delivery method, educators should 
consider the following: [i] Objectives and goals- the educator should determine if the 
purpose of the instruction is to create awareness, interest, knowledge, to apply new 
information, to teach or perform a skill or to help learners modify, adopt or clarify their 
attitudes or values. [ii] Content- the content will allow the educator to search for specific 
methods [iii] Resources- the cost of instruction and availability of funds to deliver the 
programme should be considered. Adequate facilities and equipment should also be 
taken into account [iv] Skills of the educator- the skills and technical know-how of 
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educators or extension agent is important to farmers. Farmers come to programmes to 
learn new things and will often test their instructor‘s skills and knowledge [v] Size and 
educational level of the target group [vi] Desired interaction of learners among 
themselves and the instructor [vii] Available time - these are some of the main 
considerations that should be taken into account when designing and carrying out 
extension programmes for farmers styles and preferences. 
 
  
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Table 2.1: Delivery Methods Used in Extension Services 
Experiential  Reinforcement  Integrative  Other  
Result demonstration Conference  Factsheets  Radio  
On farm test Convention  Note book Newspaper  
Tour  Seminar  Leaflet or flier Movie  
Field day  Panel  Magazine article Film trip  
Workshop Meeting Journal article Photograph  Fair  
Games  Symposium  Posters  Exhibit  
Analysis of data Colloquy  Books  Lecture  
Role play Dialogue  Newsletters  Speech  
Case study Institute  Home study kit Bulletin board 
Networking  Buzz group Pamphlet or 
booklet 
Show 
Skit  Discussion group  Broadcast 
television  
Audio cassette  Brainstorming    
Video cassette Audience reaction team   
Interactive video Listening team   
Audio compact disk Interview    
Video compact disk Teleconference    
Method 
demonstration 
Telephone conversation   
 Computer network   
 Personal visit    
 Office visit   
Source: Richardson et al. (1994) 
 
  
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2.7 The public extension system in Ghana-a historical perspective 
Agricultural extension activities were initiated in Ghana in the nineteenth century by the 
early missionaries and foreign owned companies involved in the production of export 
crops such as coffee, cocoa and rubber. After independence, Ghana tried various 
approaches including extension under the farmers‘ cooperative movement and several 
donor-assisted projects. In the 1970s and 80s, different departments of the Ministry of 
Food and Agriculture (MoFA) undertook separate extension services. Agriculture 
extension was therefore fragmented among the various departments within the ministry. 
Therefore in 1987, MoFA established the Directorate of Agricultural Extension Services 
(DAES) to bring all splinter MoFA extension services under one umbrella. 
 
Since the beginning of the 1990s, DAES adopted the Training and Visit (T&V) 
extension system nationwide. This extension initiative was supported by World Bank 
funding through the National Agriculture Extension Project (NAEP), which was 
implemented between 1992 and 1999.The project was established and implemented to 
help improve the efficiency in the management and delivery of extension services, 
improve the relevance of technologies available to farmers and also to strengthen 
technical departments of MoFA.  
 
The Ministry of Agriculture also implemented various alternative extension approaches 
such as the Participatory Technology Development and extension (PTD&E) and Farmer 
Field Schools (FFS) among others, in partnership with development agencies like the 
German Technical Co-operation (GTZ) and the Food and Agricultural Organisation 
(FAO). In all these approaches the role Agricultural Extension Agent is to facilitate 
learning among farmers instead of transferring technology to farmers. 
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Table 2.2: Typologies of extension by various scholars 
Top- down Rivera (1988) Axinn(1998) Gemo et al.(2005) 
1]Conventional 1] General 1] Public 
2]Training and Visit 2] Commodity Commodity 
3] University 3] Training and Visit 3] Training and 
Visit 
4]Technical 
innovation 
4]participatory 
approach 
4] NGO 
5] Integrated 
Agricultural devt. 
Programme 
5] Project approach 5] Private sector 
Participatory 1.Farmer 
information 
dissemination 
system 
6] Farming System 
Research and 
Extension(FSR/E) 
 
6] Farmer Field 
School (FFS) 
2.Farming System 
Research- Extension 
7] Cost- Sharing  
Contract Farming 1.Commodity 
development 
8.Educational 
Institute approach 
 
2.Commodity 
focused 
  
Rural Development 1.Community devt,   
2. Integrated rural 
development 
program 
3. Animation Rurale 
  
Source: Davis, 2008.  
 
2.8 Sustainable livelihoods framework 
This section reviews literature on sustainable livelihood framework. The purpose of 
reviewing literature on sustainable livelihood framework is to enable the researcher get a 
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better understanding of the factors that influence people‘s livelihoods and choices of 
their livelihood strategies. 
 
According to Chambers and Conway (1992) "a livelihood encompasses the capabilities, 
assets and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is said to be sustainable 
when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its 
capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural 
resource base."  
 
2.8.1 DFID Sustainable Livelihood Framework 
The British Department for International Development (DFID) started in 1997 with the 
aim of eliminating poverty in poorer countries. The DFID sustainable livelihood 
framework (see Figure 2.3) forms the core of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach and 
serves as an instrument for the investigation of poor people‘s livelihoods, whilst 
visualizing the main factors of influence. 
  
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Figure 2. 3: Sustainable Livelihood Framework 
 
Source: Solesbury (2003) 
 
The DFID‘s sustainable livelihood framework is an analytical structure that facilitates a 
broad and systematic understanding of the various factors that constrain or enhance 
livelihood opportunities, and to show how they relate to each other.  As indicated in 
figure 2.3, the framework indicates how different stakeholders as operating in a Context 
of Vulnerability, within which they have access to certain Assets. These gain their 
meaning and value through the prevailing social, institutional and organizational 
environment (Transforming Structures and Processes). These factors decisively 
influence the Livelihood Strategies that are open to people in pursuit of their self-
defined beneficial Livelihood Outcomes.  The interactions of various components in the 
DFID sustainable livelihood framework are explained below: 
 
 
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2.8.1.1 Vulnerability Context 
Devereux (2001), explain that the Vulnerability Context forms the external environment 
in which people exist and gain importance through direct impacts upon people‘s asset 
status. It includes Trends (i.e. demographic trends; resource trends; trends in 
governance), Shocks (i.e. human, livestock or crop health shocks; natural hazards, like 
floods or earthquakes; economic shocks; conflicts in form of national or international 
wars) and Seasonality (i.e. seasonality of prices, products or employment opportunities) 
and represents the part of the framework that lies furthest outside stakeholder‘s control. 
Trends and seasonality must not be considered as negative always; they can move in 
positive directions, too. For example, trends in new technologies or seasonality of prices 
could be used as opportunities to secure livelihoods. 
 
2.8.1.2 Livelihood Assets 
According to Bebbington (1999), the livelihoods approach is concerned first and 
foremost with people. So an accurate and better understanding of people‘s strengths 
(here referred to as ―assets‖ or ―capital‖) is crucial to analyse how they work to convert 
their assets into positive livelihood outcomes. The author also explains that people 
require a range of assets to achieve their self-defined goals, whereas no single capital 
endowment is sufficient to yield the desired outcomes on its own. Though the term 
‗capital‘ is used, not all assets are capital stock in the strict economic sense of the term 
(in which capital is the product of investment which yields a flow of benefits over time). 
The five capitals (i.e. Human capital, financial capital, Social capital, Physical capital, 
and Natural capital) are best thought of as livelihood building blocks. 
 
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2.8.1.3 Transforming Structures and Processes 
The Transforming Structures and Processes encompass all the institutions, organisations, 
policies and legislation that shape livelihoods. Keeley (2001), explains that, the 
structures and the processes are of central importance as they operate at all levels and 
effectively determine access, terms of exchange between different types of capital, and 
returns to any given livelihood strategy.  
 
According to  DFID (2000), Structures can be described as the hardware ( which include 
both private and public organaisations) "that set and implement policy and legislation, 
deliver services, purchase, trade and perform all manner of other important functions that 
affect livelihoods". The absence of well working structures usually constitutes a barrier 
to sustainable development and makes simple asset creation difficult in case of adverse 
structures impeding access to apply a certain livelihood strategy. 
 
Apart from the structures, processes also constitute the ―software ―which determines the 
way in which structures and individuals operate and interact. Important processes for 
livelihoods include policies, legislation and institutions, as well as culture and power 
relations. They may serve as a motivation for people to make choices, they may also be 
responsible for access to assets or they may enable stakeholders to transform and 
substitute one type of asset through another (DFID, 2000). 
  
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2.9 The IFAD Sustainable Livelihood Framework 
Since December 2002, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) has 
organised a series of workshops to encourage IFAD staff and consultants to reflect on 
their experience in development work and on ways for them to implement the Strategic 
Framework for IFAD 2002-2006. These workshops have used the Sustainable 
Livelihoods Approach as a means of helping participants to analyse what they already do 
and ways in which they, and IFAD, could enhance their positive impacts on the 
livelihoods of the poor(Hamilton-Peach and Townsley 2007). A set of fundamental 
social "processes" - gender, age, class (or caste) and ethnic group - are placed 
immediately around the poor. These have been made more explicit than in the original 
DFID framework as they are factors that influence the relations of the poor with 
everything else in the framework. They also highlight the importance of a clear 
definition of who, or what, is being placed at the centre of the framework. An additional 
group of livelihood assets - "personal" assets - have been added to the five contained in 
the original sustainable livelihood framework. As the name suggests, this reminds us of 
the more personal factors that may affect the choices of individuals and households 
regarding their livelihoods. It is intended to emphasise people's internal motivations, 
their will to act and promote change (for themselves or others), their drive to assert their 
rights, and the spiritual side of their lives. It also incorporates their desire to engage in 
political activity (while "social" assets includes the mechanisms by which they may be 
able to articulate that activity), responding to a widespread concern among training 
participants. " 
In the original sustainable livelihood framework, the policies, institutions and processes 
or "transforming structures and processes", has often represented a problematic area in 
terms of communicating the key elements of the SL framework to new "users". The new 
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framework has therefore attempted to address this problem by "unpacking" the policies, 
institutions and processes, using the "hub model" of institutional analysis to represent the 
two basic levels of institution with which the poor, and agencies such as IFAD, interact - 
"service delivery" agencies and "enabling" agencies - and identifying the poor, with their 
range of livelihood assets, as the "users" of these institutions. Service providers can 
include everything from national-level departments whose task is to implement policy 
measures to the community-level operators with whom the poor are likely to have direct 
contact in their day-to-day lives. Enabling agencies can range from the highest national-
level policy making bodies, to local administrations whose decisions on priorities and 
strategies in dealing with poverty might facilitate or hinder the work of those responsible 
for implementation. 
 
Figure 2. 4: An Alternative Sustainable Livelihoods Framework 
 
Incorporating the "hub model" for analysing policies and institutions 
 
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The "hub model" focuses on institutional roles, and the relationships between different 
institutions and the poor. Institutional functions, characteristics and structures (normally 
at the centre of institutional analysis) are clearly important but are only part of the picture 
- whatever institution is placed into this "hub model" needs to be described in detail, but 
it is other features that are liable to be most important from the point of view of 
development practitioners - the way in which institutions work together and work with 
the poor, and the way in which the policy decisions of enabling agencies reflect the 
needs and priorities of the poor, and are translated into services delivered to the 
poor(Hamilton-Peach and Townsley, 2007). 
 
2.9.1 Unpacking "processes" 
In the original DFID framework, "processes" include such diverse elements as policies, 
legislation, the formal and informal rules governing institutions such as markets, 
organisations and tenure arrangements, culture and power relations defined by gender, 
age, ethnicity, caste and class. The grouping of such diverse elements often presents new 
users of the sustainable livelihood  framework with significant problems, particularly as 
many of the elements grouped under this heading are relatively abstract and difficult to 
link to concrete influences on the livelihoods of the poor(Hamilton-Peach and Townsley 
2007). 
 
In the new framework, these processes are "unpacked". First of all, key aspects such as 
gender, age, class, ethnicity and ability are given greater salience, and placed at the 
centre, to reflect the fact that they can influence everything at all levels within the 
framework. Secondly, policies are incorporated into the analysis of the agencies and 
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institutions that produce them - they are a key element in the relations between enabling 
agencies and both service providers and service users (the poor). Thirdly, other elements 
that have strong influences, particularly on the ways in which the poor interact with 
institutions, are identified as "influences" within the "hub". These elements - broadly 
defined as markets, politics (differentiated from policies), rules and norms - are placed 
here as they both influence relations with these institutions and can themselves be 
changed or influenced by positive action of enabling institutions or service 
providers(Hamilton-Peach and Townsley, 2007). 
Markets are explicitly mentioned because of the importance that they play in 
determining how the poor are able to convert the resources at their disposal into 
livelihood assets. The specific inclusion of markets as a key influence is also important 
because they are liable to play a particularly important role in determining the 
opportunities for improved livelihood strategies that the poor can generate, and the extent 
to which they are likely to be able to realise aspirations (Dorward et al., 2003). 
 
Politics- the network of power relations within society, whether formally or informally 
represented - need to be distinguished from "policies" - the decisions regarding 
objectives, distribution of resources and priorities made by "enabling agencies".  
Culture includes a broad range of "rules of the game", social and cultural norms that are 
likely to strongly influence how the poor are able to interact with the institutions that 
affect their livelihoods. 
Rights are introduced as they represent an increasingly important set of demands that the 
poor can make on their institutional environment but can be recognised to varying 
degrees depending on the political and social structure of a particular country. All of 
these influences may be difficult for the poor themselves to take action on, but they are 
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not immutable and need to be distinguished from those elements that represent the 
"vulnerability" context, which is difficult or impossible to change and must be "coped" 
with instead(Hamilton-Peach and Townsley 2007). 
 
2.9.2 Highlighting the Linkages with the "Vulnerability" Context 
The new framework also makes the relationship between the "vulnerability" context and 
the other elements in the framework clearer and more explicit. If the poor are able to 
access the livelihood assets they require and are adequately supported by service 
providers and enabling agencies, and if they are able to make markets, politics, rules and 
norms work to their advantage, then it should help them to cope with those elements of 
their vulnerability context which they can do little to change. The representation of the 
vulnerability context as "all-embracing" for the poor, but mediated by the interplay of the 
other elements in their livelihoods, emphasises the responsibility of development 
interventions to help the poor to cope with vulnerability factors (Hamilton-Peach and 
Townsley, 2007). 
 
2.9.3 Introducing aspirations and opportunities 
The inclusion of the aspirations of the poor, and the opportunities that they are able to 
pursue, encourages users of the SL framework to focus on the hopes of the poor 
themselves and their capacity to take advantage of opportunities rather than making 
assumptions about what options and opportunities may exist within a given livelihoods 
system. This encourages a people-centred analysis and an understanding of the strengths 
of the poor that can be built on through the development process (Hamilton-Peach and 
Townsley, 2007). 
 
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2.10 Contribution of Vegetable Production to Livelihood Outcomes 
The purpose of reviewing literature on the contribution of vegetable production to 
livelihood outcomes is to enable the researcher to conceptualise how vegetable 
production as a livelihood strategy contributes to livelihood outcomes as indicated in the 
conceptual framework shown in figure 2.1 above. 
Outcomes are measured to determine how successful households are in their livelihood 
strategies. These outcomes can be based on normative standards (e.g. nutritional status) 
or on criteria identified by the communities. 
 
Danso (2002) indicated that vegetable production is a vital component for the existence 
of most cities, especially in the developing countries where it contributes substantially to 
the urban economy of the city dwellers in terms of employment and the supply of food. 
 
Maxwell (2000) also indicated that vegetable production contributes to household 
income and which includes the sale of farm produce and savings by not purchasing foods 
they already produce. Vegetable production can also be a good source of income for the 
urban poor, if it is especially practiced as a formal sector. RUAF (2007) reported that the 
poor households in developing countries spend 50-70 % of their income to purchase 
foods; hence, it appreciated the benefits of self-growing crops and/or participating in 
other forms of agribusiness by the poor. RUAF report emphasized the role of agriculture 
as follows: The contribution of vegetable production to food security and healthy 
nutrition is probably its most important asset. Food production in the city is in many 
cases a response of the poor to inadequate, unreliable and irregular access to food, and 
the lack of purchasing power. 
 
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Averbeke (2007)) asserts that vegetable production improves both access and food intake 
of fresh foods, especially among populations suffering from food insecurity, either 
through their own self provisioning which reduces market expenditure. In Pretoria, South 
Africa vegetable production is one of the survival strategies poor urban residents adopt to 
reduce poverty and improve their food security. 
 
A study conducted by UNDP (1996) indicated that vegetable production played a vital 
role in the sustenance and food security (availability and access to food) of most cities. 
FAO (1999) reported that Social benefits that have emerged from vegetable production 
are better health and nutrition, increased income, employment, food security within the 
household, and community social life. 
 
Howard (2003) asserts that indigenous leafy vegetable enterprises holds the greatest 
potentials for provision of additional sources of food, nutritional value, and income 
particularly for the rural resource constraint women farmers in Nigeria. 
 
2.11 The role of the media in disseminating information to farmers 
This subsection reviews literature on the media used to disseminate information to 
farmers and how it affects the farmers‘ output.Information and communication are very 
relevant ingredients that are needed for effective transfer of agricultural technologies that 
are designed to boost agricultural production. Farmers therefore need to have access to 
relevant information before they can benefit from it. It is the mandate of agricultural 
extension agents all over the world to disseminate the information to the farmers. The 
agricultural extension agents make use of different extension approaches and media in 
transferring improved agricultural technologies to their clients. The uses of mass media 
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methods in agricultural information dissemination generally, are useful in reaching a 
wide audience at a very fast rate. They are useful as sources of agricultural information 
to farmers and as well constitute relevant methods of educating farmers of new 
developments and emergencies.In Ghana, various communication media are being used 
by extension agents to transmit agricultural information to farmers in line with national 
policy on agriculture. The communication media include farm magazine, leaflets, 
newsletters, newspapers, pamphlets, radio and television, drama, among others (MoFA, 
2010). 
 
According to Omenesa (1997) radio is one of the mass media which are capable of 
extending messages to the farmers no matter where they may be as long as they have a 
receiver with adequate supply of power. He also indicated that the absence of such 
facilities as road, light and water are no hindrance to radio. He further indicated that 
illiteracy is no barrier to radio messages since such messages can be passed in the 
audience own language. Similarly Nwuzor (2000) also observed that radio programme 
can be done almost anywhere through the use of a tape recorder. It is probably due to 
these merits of radio that many extension agents give high priority to it as a means of 
passing information to farmers. 
 
It has also been indicated by Anderson and Feder (2003) that, the effectiveness of 
extension delivery depends on how information is being packaged and delivered to the 
farmers. This involves translating information from the researchers or the store of 
knowledge to the farmers. They indicated that agriculture extension agent is supposed to 
be confident to exchange information and ideas in a clear and eloquent manner that is 
appropriate to the farmers in order to explain, persuade, convince and influence the 
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farmers in adopting an innovation. They further observed that, most of these 
interventions do not get to the farmer's field because the media used for information 
dissemination is not quite effective. 
  
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CHAPTERTHREE 
METHODOLOGY 
3.0 Introduction 
This chapter describes the general methodology including research design, population of 
the study, sampling procedure and sample size, and data collection techniques of the 
study. It also provides insights into the data analysis processes. 
 
3.1 Profile of the study area 
Tolon and Kumbugu Districts are two of the administrative Districts of Northern Region 
of Ghana. The capital town of the Districts is Tolon and Kumbungu. Tolon  is located 
about 18 kilometers west of Tamale. The two Districts are located between latitude 10° - 
20°N and Longitude 10°- 50°W. It is bounded by West Mamprusi District to the North, 
West Gonja District to the West and South and to the East with Savelugu-Nanton District 
and the Tamale Municipal Assembly (Tolon and Kumbungu District Assembly, 2006-
2009). 
 
The study area experiences one rainy season and one dry season in a year under the 
influence of moist south-westerly winds. The rainy season occurs from April/May to 
September/October, peaking in July/August, with a mean annual rainfall of 1100mm 
within 95 days of intense rainfall. North-Easterly (Harmattan) winds, the dry season 
usually occurs from November to March. The mean day and night temperatures range 
from 33°C to 39°C and 20°C to 22°C respectively whilst mean annual day sunshine is 
approximately 7.5 hours (Tolon District Assembly, 2006-2009).  
The study area lies within the Guinea Savanna belt of Northern Ghana and their climatic 
characteristics are conditioned by this ecology. The main soil types that have resulted 
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from the above natural phenomenon include sand, clay and laterite ochrosols. These soil 
types are inadequately protected resulting in serious erosion during the rains.  
 
Agriculture is the major economic activity in the Districts followed by wholesale/retail 
businesses. The main industrial activities in the Districts revolve mainly on agro-
processing activities such as rice milling, shea butter and vegetable oil extraction, cotton 
ginning and textile or smock making. The linkage of the agricultural sector to investment 
and business activities in the manufacturing sector is through such industrial crop 
production as rice, cotton, groundnuts, sheanuts and beans, especially soya beans. There 
are other small-scale industries involved in vehicle repairs, pre-fabrication of spare parts 
and manufacturing of farm implements. The rest are cloth and leather works, pottery and 
carpentry ( Tolon and Kumbugu District Assembly, 2006-2009). 
 
The major food crops produced in the Districts are maize, rice, yam, sorghum, millet, 
groundnut, cassava, cowpea and vegetables. The major vegetables cultivated in the study 
area include tomato (Lyco-persiconesculentum), onion (Allium cepa), shallots (Allium 
escalonicum), okra (Hibiscus esculentus), egg plant (Solanummelongena), local spinach 
(Amaranthusspp), sweet and chill pepper (Capsicum annuum), and hot pepper (C. 
frutescens). These vegetables find a ready market, not only in the cities but also in the 
rural areas. The exotic or European types of vegetable are grown mostly for the foreign 
population in the country. The yields of exotic vegetables such as cauliflower and carrots 
are often low and the quality is sometimes poor. Lettuce is becoming increasingly 
popular in the cities and does extremely well almost throughout the year. Another crop 
which is gaining in popularity is cucumber. Tomato, onion, hot pepper, okra and egg 
plant are probably the most popular vegetables in Ghana. Hot pepper, okra and egg plant 
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are relatively easy to grow in the study area since they are tolerant to the climatic 
conditions and may be grown as rain fed crops. 
 
Food production in the area is generally for both subsistence and commercial. The main 
farming system practiced by farmers in the Metropolis is the traditional shifting 
cultivation system. Agriculture as practiced in the areas is mainly rain-fed.  Most of the 
population engaged in crop production also rear livestock either on small or large scale. 
Poultry accounts for the largest animals reared in the Districts followed by sheep and 
goat and then cattle production. Most of the households practice the traditional systems 
of housing farm animals. About 98.1 percent of male household heads are engaged in 
agriculture with only 2 percent female household heads in agriculture. The poverty 
situation in the districts can be described as very extreme due to the fact that most of the 
people are living below the poverty line (Tolon and Kumbugu District Assembly, 2006-
2009). 
 
3.2 Research design 
This research relies on survey research design to generate cross-sectional data from 
different communities in the study area. Data relevant to meet the objectives of the 
research was collected from the research site. 
 
A research design is a ―blueprint‖ that enables the researcher to come up with solutions 
to problems and guides him or her in the various stages of the research (Frankfort-
Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996). It is the overall plan for collecting data in order to 
answer the research questions and includes specific data analysis technique or methods 
that the researcher intends to use. According to Douglas (2010), a research design 
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involves the operationalization of the variables to be measured, selecting a sample size, 
collecting data to be used as basis of selecting hypothesis and analyzing of data are the 
key components of a research design. Brannen (1992) identifies three kinds of 
methodological approaches to research as: qualitative, quantitative and mixed or multiple 
approaches. 
 
The word 'quantitative' comes from the word 'quantity' and quantity implies numbers. 
Thus, quantitative research has something to do with numbers. Therefore quantitative 
data are information that are numeric and usually involve the calculation of statistical 
measures and test of significance. On the other hand, qualitative research has to do with 
value rather than number. Bailey (1987) explained that qualitative data are those pieces 
of information which are non-statistical in nature, and for that matter are generally 
analyzed in a non-statistical manner.  
 
The study used the difference-in-differences (DID) approach in collecting data. The 
difference-in-differences (DID) estimator is one of the most popular tools for applied 
research in economics and social sciences to evaluate the effects of development 
interventions and other treatments of interest on some relevant outcome variables such as 
income (Abadie, 2005). Difference-in-Differences estimation has become an increasingly 
popular way to estimate causal relationships (Bertrand, Duflo and Mullainathan, 2004). 
The method consists of identifying a specific intervention or treatment and then 
compares the difference in outcomes after and before the intervention for groups affected 
by the intervention to the same difference for unaffected groups. A control group was 
used. This was defined to include a sample of people, similar in every other way, who 
have not received extension services from the extension agents, compared with a sample 
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who  have  received extension services in order  to find out the effect of extension 
services on the livelihood outcomes of vegetable farmers. 
 
3.3 Population of the study 
The population of this study was categorized into two populations. Population one 
involves all Agricultural Extension Agents (AEAs) and population two involves all 
vegetable farmers in the Tolon and Kumbungu Districts. A vegetable farmer in this  
study is any farmer(male or female)  who cultivates any type of vegetables on 
commercial/market gardening, truck farming and small domestic or backyard gardening. 
As the study focuses on the influence of extension services on livelihoods outcomes of 
vegetable farmers, target households was from those who take part in the extension 
system and those who do not. This will help to analyze whether participation in 
extension activities really benefited households or not. 
 
3.4 Sampling technique and sample size 
A sampling technique basically involves the way a researcher selects the size, type and 
representativeness of the sample (Douglas, 2010).  A multistage sampling technique was 
used to identify vegetable farmers who receive extension services and those who do not. 
According to Babbie (2007), a multistage sampling (called clustering) is ideal when it is 
impossible or impractical to compile a list of the elements composing the population. It 
involves the researcher first identifying clusters (groups or organizations), obtain names 
of individuals within those clusters, and then sample within them.   
 
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Multi-stage sampling was used in this study. The two districts were purposively selected 
because they constitute two of the main Districts in the Region where vegetable 
production takes place. Two hundred and sixteen respondents were chosen for the study. 
In all, one hundred vegetable farmers who received extension services, one hundred 
vegetable farmers who did not receive extension services and all the sixteen (16) 
extension agents in the two districts were interviewed.  
 
Sampling at the community level was random in nature. Out of a total of eighteen (18) 
popular vegetable production communities comprising Ten (10) in the Tolon District and 
eight (8) in  Kumbungu  Districts, five (5) communities each were randomly sampled for 
those farmers who received extension services, and those who did receive extension 
services in the two Districts. In all two hundred vegetable farmers and sixteen extension 
officers were interviewed in the Tolon and Kumbungu districts. The specific 
communities visited were Golinga, Ghilahigu, Tunaayili, Lingbinn, Galinkpegu, 
Bontanga, Nawuni, Afa-yili, DalungKukoo and Dalung. 
 
The list of vegetable farmers who receive extension services in the two districts were 
obtained from MoFA and a random sampling technique was used to select ten (10) 
farmers from the ten communities bringing the total to hundred farmers. A non-
probability sampling technique, specifically the snowball sampling, was used to select 
vegetable farmers who do not receive extension services in the two districts. The first 
vegetable farmer interviewed was asked to mention the next farmer for interview and the 
process continued like that until the desired number was arrived at. Snowball sampling is 
justifiable in situations like this where the subjects (farmers who do not receive extension 
services) are difficult to find (Babbie, 2001 and Anaman, 2003). The advantage of 
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snowballing is that it makes it possible to increase the number of respondents through 
information supplied by the earlier interviewees. 
 
As the study focuses on the influence of extension delivery on rural livelihoods, target 
households were from those who take part in the extension system and those who do not. 
This will help to analyze whether participation in extension activities really has an 
influence on households livelihood outcome or not. 
 
Table 3. 1: Sampling at District Level 
District Total Number 
of vegetable 
producing 
Communities1 
# of Sampled 
Communities 
Total 
Number of A 
E As 
Sampled 
Communities 
Tolon 10 5 8 Golinga, Gbilahigu, 
Tunaayili, Lingbin, 
Galinkpegu. 
Kumbungu 8 5 8 Bontanga, Nawuni, 
Afa-
yili,DalungKukoo, 
Dalung. 
Total 18 10 16  
Source: Preliminary Field Visit July, 2013. 
 
  
                                                          
 
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Table 3.2: Sampling at Community Level 
Districts Name of 
communities 
Sample size Total 
Extension 
agents 
Farmers 
who receive  
ext. services 
Farmers 
who don‘t 
get ext. 
services 
Tolon 
District 
Golinga  
 
8 
10 10 20 
Gbilahigu 10 10 20 
Tunaayili 10 10 20 
Lingbin 10 10 20 
Galinkpegu 10 10 20 
Sub-Total 8 50 50 108 
Kunbungu 
District 
Bontanga  
 
8 
10 10 20 
Nawuni 10 10 20 
Afa-yili 10 10 20 
DalungKukoo 10 10 20 
Dalung 10 10 20 
Sub-Total 8 50 50 108 
Total 16 100 100 216 
Source: Preliminary Field Visit, July, 2013. 
 
3.5 Method of Data Collection 
Both primary and secondary data was collected for the purpose of this research. Primary 
data was gathered primarily using semi-structured interview guidelines or questionnaires 
(i.e., field-based data collection). In addition to these, document analysis, Focused Group 
Discussions and participant observations was employed to generate relevant data. The 
kinds of data that was collected from stakeholders of the extension system include:  
resources they have; the category of households they work with; extension methods they 
use; and nature of interdependencies among the actors. The kinds of data that was 
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collected from households include: livelihood profiles of the vegetable farmers 
households (for example, household assets, activities, and other socio-cultural and 
contextual information); how information is being packaged for them, major sources of 
household income and production costs; the extension methods use and  the nature of 
interaction between extension workers and households. 
 
3.5.1 Pre-Field Visits 
In order to win the confidence and cooperation of the respondent‘s pre-field visits or 
familiarisation tours were carried out in all the vegetable cultivation communities before 
the actual data collection exercise. Each community was visited once. The pre-field visits 
were useful for the identification of vegetable cultivation communities in each District. 
But for these pre-field visits respondents‘ cooperation will have been very low. The 
advantage of the pre-field visits is that it enabled the process of categorizing the farmers 
into those who receive extension services and those who do not receive extension 
services. 
3.5.2 Pre-Testing of Questionnaires 
The questionnaires were pre-tested at Zagyuri, a suburb of Tamale in the Northern 
Region. This was used to improve upon the quality of the questionnaires and to minimize 
errors that arose out of the difficulty of translating English into local dialects. 
Zagyuriwas chosen because of its proximity and because it is one of the major vegetable 
cultivation communities in the Northern Region of Ghana. Ten (10) farmers were 
randomly selected for the pre-testing exercise. The pre-test results were analyzed and 
finalized. Factors that were considered in analyzing each question were: clarity, 
interpretation into local language, logic and suitability. The pretesting was useful 
because some questions on the original questionnaires were either dropped or modified 
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whereas new questions were added leading to improvement of the data collection 
instruments. 
3.5.3 Questionnaire Administration 
The direct interview method or face-to-face interview approach was employed. The 
technique involved the administration of structured and semi-structured questionnaires to 
respondents. Details of the questionnaires are in Appendix A. The advantage of this 
technique is that it provided an opportunity to explain the purpose of the study to 
respondents, thereby enhancing their cooperation and interest. 
 
3.5.4 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) 
Focus group discussions involved grouping farmers into those who receive extension 
services and those who do not and facilitating discussions with the help of a guide (see 
Appendix C). To allow for group control and effective participation, between six (6) and 
twelve (12) members were allowed to take part in each focus group discussion. 
Participants of the group discussions comprised of those who were identified and 
interviewed through the snow ball technique. At least one focus group discussion was 
held in each sampled community to validate interview information. 
3.5.5 Direct observation 
Direct observation involves seeing and recording what is spontaneously happening at the 
time of collecting data. The approach is commonly used by sociologists and 
anthropologists for attitudinal and community surveys. Direct observation enabled the 
researcher to fill gaps in the questionnaires, which resulted from wrong interpretation of 
the questions by the enumerators on one hand, or misunderstanding of the questions by 
the respondents on the other hand. 
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3.6 Data editing and coding 
Data editing involved three things: Firstly, the total numbers of questionnaires allocated 
to each District were checked. Secondly, the accuracy and consistency of information on 
each questionnaire or case in relation to the research objectives were thoroughly 
examined. Lastly, the data were edited in order to ensure that all interview schedules or 
sections were completed as required. Data entry followed data editing. A coding manual 
(data entry manual) was prepared after having known the nature of responses through 
editing. All questions in the questionnaire were pre-coded. Open-ended responses were 
also coded and entered into the computer. 
 
3.6 Methods of Data Analysis 
Various data analysis techniques were employed depending on the type of data. 
Qualitative data was summarized into various categories. The data was then analyzed 
through meaning categorization. Some qualitative data was further considered for cross 
tabulation to determine relationships (Witte and Witte, 2004). Descriptive statistics of 
count, frequencies, percentages, means and charts was used to analyse the data. Cross 
tabulations of variables were done and a chi-square test was used to establish if any 
significant relationship exist between the variables. A 5% significance level test was 
used.  Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was the dominant statistical 
software used to analyze the collected data. 
  
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CHAPTER FOUR 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
4.0 Introduction 
This chapter presents empirical findings of the study with detail discussions. First, 
analysis is done on selected personal characteristics and their influence on respondents‘ 
access to extension services. Several variables are discussed with much attention on 
those related to the objectives of the study. Further analysis is done on the examination 
of the relationship between extension delivery and the livelihood strategy pursued by 
vegetable farmers and consequentially on their livelihood outcomes. Special attention is 
therefore, focused on the relationship between the extension delivery methods used in 
extension programmes that is offered to the vegetable farmers and the farmers 
‗perception about how they contribute to their livelihood outcomes, the relationship 
between farmers with access to extension and those without access to extension services 
and their livelihood outcomes, the relationship between  the preferred educational 
delivery methods of the vegetable farmers and their livelihood outcomes, the level of 
interaction among researchers, extension agents and farmers and its effect on the 
livelihood outcomes of the farmers, the type of media used by the extensionists in the 
delivery of extension services to the farmers and how they affect  the livelihood 
outcomes of the farmers.  
 
4.1 Personal characteristics of respondents and their engagement in vegetable 
cultivation 
The personal characteristics of respondents (farmers) discussed included age, gender, 
marital status, and level of education. 
  
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4.1.1 Distribution of farmers by age and engagement in vegetable cultivation 
Data were collected from respondents to determine the relationship between their ages 
and their engagement in vegetable cultivation. The age distributions of respondents were 
categorized in this study into young (below 36 years), middle age (36-55 years) and 
elderly/old (56+ years).  The fact that no farmer belonged to the age category of less than 
18 years meant no farmer in the sample was below the working age cohort. No evidence 
of child labour was observed in vegetable farming in the two districts.  The results in 
Table 4.1 show that young people in the study area hardly engaged in vegetable 
cultivation as livelihood activity in the study area. The focus group discussions showed 
that this can be attributed to the thinking of the young that vegetable cultivation is not a 
lucrative venture and so does not provide enough profit to make one rich quickly. 
Therefore vegetable cultivation is believed to be a livelihood strategy pursued by the 
elderly who are patient enough to undertake this venture in order to meet their livelihood 
outcomes. This supports the assertion made by Azikiwe (2012) that the number of youths 
in farming is not very encouraging. Table 4.1 provides information on the age of 
respondents and engagement in vegetable cultivation. 
 
Table 4.1: Distribution of farmers by age and engagement in vegetable cultivation 
Age of respondents Engagement in vegetable production 
Contact with ext 
service(n=100) 
Without contact 
with ext. 
service(n=100) 
N=200 
 
 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % 
Young (< 35) 
 
Middle age (36-55) 
 
Aged (56 +) 
10 
 
78 
 
12 
67 
 
48 
 
50 
5 
 
83 
 
12 
33 
 
52 
 
50 
15 
 
161 
 
24 
100 
 
100 
 
100 
Source: Field survey, 2013 
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4.1.2 Distribution of farmers by gender and engagement in vegetable cultivation 
Data were collected from respondents to determine the relationship between the gender 
of the vegetable farmers and their engagement in vegetable cultivation. From Table 4.2, 
the categories of gender were male and female. It was found from the survey that 183 of 
the farmers representing 91.5% of the sample were males while 17 representing 8.5% of 
the sample were females. The results therefore indicated that male population dominates 
over the female population with regards to vegetable cultivation in the study area. This 
has implication for gender roles in the study districts. In northern Ghana, male activities 
are associated with farming while females are engaged in domestic activities and 
processing (MoFA, 2011). This study therefore agrees with this proposition, hence 
justifying the result of more men than women in the sample. Vegetables cultivation in 
the area is therefore done mostly by men. Also Tolon and Kumbungu districts where this 
research was conducted is a patrilineal society were women do not have land but only 
have access to land for farming at the benevolence of the husbands‘ family. This is in 
agreement with Wilbers (2003) who observed that traditions of patrilineal inheritance 
limit women‘s access to acquire land to do subsistence farming.  The results of other 
empirical findings do not deviate from this observation. Earlier reports (e.g.Tolon and 
Kumbugu District Assembly, 2006-2009) indicated that about 98.1 percent of male 
household heads had access to relevant resources (e.g. land, labour, credit, decision 
making mechanism etc)with only 2 percent female household heads in agriculture sector 
in the districts. The results also agreed with (Swakumar,Subramanian,Suresh, & 
Copeland, 1997) who asserted that farming had long been regarded as a male dominated 
occupation.  Table 4.2 presents information gender and engagement in vegetable 
cultivation. 
  
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Table 4.2: Distribution of farmers by gender and engagement in vegetable 
cultivation 
Gender of the 
respondents 
Engagement  in vegetable cultivation 
Farmers with 
contact with ext. 
service(n=100) 
Farmers without 
contact with ext. 
service(n=100) 
 
 Total (n=200) 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % 
Male  
 
Female  
90 
 
10 
 
 
49 
 
59 
 
 
9 
 
7 
 
 
51 
 
41 
 
 
183 
 
17 
 
 
100 
 
100 
 
 
Source: Field survey, 2013 
4.1.3 Marital status of farmers and their engagement in vegetable production 
Data were collected from vegetable farmers to determine the relationship between 
marital status of the farmers and their engagement in vegetable cultivation. Marriage is 
an important social institution in the Ghanaian culture and in the Northern Region in 
particular. The results of this study provided evidence in support of this claim. It was 
found that out of the 200 farmers interviewed, majority of the farmers (92%) were 
married and currently staying with their spouses, 7.5% were widowed and 0.5% 
divorced. No farmer remained single and never got married before in the sample. The 
fact that farmers often engage in marriage is not only influenced by the tradition but 
women add to the size of labour force available to the household especially in areas 
where labour intensive method of production is common. The Tolon and Kumbungu 
districts are examples. Table 4.3 presents information on marital status of the vegetable 
farmers and their engagement in vegetable cultivation. 
 
  
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Table 4.3: Marital status of farmers and their engagement in vegetable production 
Marital status Engagement in vegetable cultivation 
Farmers with 
contact with ext. 
service(n=100) 
Farmers without 
contact with ext. 
service(n=100) 
Total(n=200) 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % 
Married  
 
widowed 
 
divorced 
95 
 
4 
 
1 
52 
 
27 
 
100 
89 
 
11 
 
0 
48 
 
73 
 
00 
184 
 
15 
 
1 
100 
 
100 
 
100 
Source: Field survey, 2013 
 
4.1.4 Distribution of farmers by level of education and engagement in vegetable 
cultivation 
Data were collected from respondents to investigate the relationship between the 
vegetable farmers‘ level of education and their engagement in vegetable cultivation. 
Many of the farmers had no formal education. The results in Table 4.4 indicated that 149 
representing 74.5% of the sample farmers did not have formal education. This is an 
indication of low educational status among the vegetable farmers. The results also 
indicated that 23 farmers representing 11.5% had received formal education not 
exceeding primary school level and 28 of them representing 14% received education up 
to Junior High school/Middle school level. The results also showed that, out of the 28 
farmers who attained education to the middle school level, majority of them (57%) had 
access to extension services. The results corroborated that of Kabeer (2003) who argued 
that education has been identified as a major component of farmers‘ empowerment and a 
means of enhancing their human capital base through extension services for effective and 
efficient production and productivity. This will also have remarkable implication on the 
extension methods that would be used to deliver extension services to the farmers. 
Despite the low educational level among the farmers, they however, had enough 
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experience in vegetable cultivation that can guide them in their production activities. The 
survey revealed that the sample farmers had an average of 15 years‘ experience in 
vegetable cultivation. This ranges from 4 to 33 years with standard deviation of 6.8. 
Table 4.4 presents the information of farmers‘ level of education and their engagement in 
vegetable production. 
 
Table 4.4: Level of education and engagement in vegetable cultivation 
Level of education                Engagement in vegetable cultivation 
Farmers with 
contact with ext. 
service(n=100) 
Farmers without 
contact with ext. 
service(n=100) 
Total (n=200) 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % 
No formal education 
 
Primary 
 
JHS/Middle school 
74 
 
14 
 
16 
49.7 
 
61 
 
57 
75 
 
9 
 
12 
50.3 
 
39 
 
43 
149 
 
23 
 
28 
100 
 
100 
 
100 
Source: Field survey, 2013 
 
4.1.5 Engagement in vegetable cultivation and other livelihood activities 
All the sample farmers engaged in vegetable cultivation as source of livelihood. The 
cultivation is done in the low land areas along water sources as dams. However, farmers 
still engaged in the cultivation of other food crops or activities not related to agriculture 
to supplement the seasonal agricultural production activities. The survey pointed out that 
about 192 farmers, representing 96% of the sample had other livelihood activities besides 
vegetable cultivation. Only 8 farmers representing 4.0% of the sample relied completely 
on vegetable cultivation for sustenance. 
 
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4.2 Relationship between extension delivery methods and livelihood outcomes of 
farmers 
This sub- section discusses results of farmers‘ perception on the contribution of 
extension delivery methods on their livelihood outcomes. The purpose of study reported 
here was to explore and describe the teaching methods or strategies selected by extension 
agents for the vegetable farmers.  
4.2.1 Frequency distribution of methods used by extension workers in service 
delivery 
Data were collected from farmers to determine the extension delivery methods that were 
used by the extension agents to deliver extension services to them. Results of the survey 
revealed the methods that were commonly used. Table 4.5 shows those the methods in 
the Tolon and Kumbungu Districts. The results agreed with the findings of Richardson et 
al. (1994). Respondents have indicated demonstration as the most frequent method used 
by extension workers. Results from Table 4.5 indicated that 46 farmers representing 46% 
of those who had access to extension services supported this fact. About 26% of the 
respondents indicated that extension agents used field trips. This involves travel by a 
group of learners to places of defined interest to study innovations, systems, objects, 
demonstrations, applied creative programs, or other items that may be unfamiliar to 
participants. About 18% of respondents who had access to extension maintained that 
extension agents used seminars/conferences, 9% indicated that they used workshop while 
only 1% indicated that they used one-on-one method. From this finding, it could be 
concluded that extension officers use different methods at different places. The results 
also indicated that the extension workers rarely used one on one method and farm visits 
which were indicated by the farmers as their preferred methods. This may be due to the 
fact that, the extension agents are very few in the two districts.  
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Table 4. 5: Distribution of methods used by extension workers in service delivery 
Category Frequency Percentage 
Seminar/Conference 18 18 
Fieldtrips 26 26 
Demonstration 46 46 
Workshop 9 9 
One-on-one 1 1 
Total 100 100 
Source: Field Survey, 2013 
 
4.2.2 Farmers’ perception on the contribution of extension methods on their income 
Data were collected from the respondents to determine their perception on the 
contribution of extension methods on their output.  It was found that combinations of 
methods were used to offer extension services to the farmers. Prominent among them 
include seminars, fieldtrip, demonstration, workshop and one-on-one method. Table 4.6 
shows frequencies of farmers who were reached by a particular method with their views 
of their contribution on their livelihood outcomes. From Table 4.6, out of the 46 farmers 
who receive extension services through demonstration method majority of them 
representing 96% indicated that improvement in their income is low. Among this group 
of farmers many (44) of them were reached by the demonstration method. Apantaku, 
Olufade and Adebayo (2008) showed that the type of extension teaching methods used 
by extension agents to deliver extension services to farmers  or which farmers had access 
to have varying effects on their levels of production. The use of a combination of 
individual, group and mass methods of extension teaching had the best association and 
effect on production output. Table 4.6 presents information of farmers‘ perception on the 
contribution of extension methods on their income. 
 
  
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Table 4.6: Farmers perception on the contribution of extension methods on their 
income 
Extension delivery 
methods 
Contribution to income 
Low  High  Total 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % 
Demonstration 
Fieldtrip 
Seminar 
Workshops 
One on one 
44 
21 
13 
3 
1 
96.0 
80.8 
72.0 
33.0 
100 
2 
5 
5 
6 
0 
4.0 
19.2 
28.0 
67.0 
0.0 
46 
26 
18 
9 
1 
 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
Source: Field Survey, 2013 
 
4.2.3 Famers’ Perception of the contribution of extension delivery methods on 
improved employment 
The results in Table 4.7 showed that many (93%) of the farmers who receive extension 
services through demonstration method indicated that the contribution of the delivery 
method to their employment is low. From Table 4.7, the results also indicated that 61.5% 
of the respondents who receive extension services through fieldtrips maintained that the 
contribution of the delivery method to their employment is low and 38.5% indicated that 
its contribution is high. The seminar method is one of the methods that the farmers 
indicated not to be working well for them and for that matter does not form part of the 
methods that the farmers prefer. Therefore, the perception of low contribution of the 
extension method to the farmers‘ employment can be attributed to the fact that the 
extension agents use methods that the farmers do not prefer. Birkenholz (1999) indicated 
that in selecting an extension delivery method that will be effective and efficient, the 
extension system needs to use extension methods that provide the desired experiential 
opportunities for the learners and provide opportunities for them to integrate new 
information with existing knowledge and skills. 
 
  
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Table 4.7: Contribution of extension methods on improved employment 
Extension delivery 
methods 
Improved employment 
Low  High  Total 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % 
Demonstration 
Fieldtrip 
Seminar  
Workshops 
One on one 
43 
16 
6 
6 
1 
93.0 
61.5 
33.0 
66.6 
100 
3 
10 
12 
3 
0 
7.0 
38.5 
67.0 
33.4 
0.0 
46 
26 
18 
9 
1 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
Source: Field Survey, 2013. 
 
4.2.4 Farmers’ perception of the contribution of the methods on improved food 
security 
Data were collected from farmers to determine their perception on the contribution of the 
extension delivery methods on their food security. The results from Table 4.8 indicated 
that the contribution of the delivery methods to improved food security is high. From 
Table 4.8, 58% of the farmers indicated that the contribution of the methods to improved 
food security is high whiles 42% of the respondents maintained that the contribution of 
the methods to their improved food security situation is low. Out of 46 farmers who 
received extension services through demonstration method, 54.4% of the respondents 
indicated that the contribution of the method to their food security level was high. This 
result corroborates FAO, WFP, and IFAD (2012) which showed that extension services 
have an influence on the reduction of poverty and that in African continent every 1% 
increase in agriculture production reduces poverty by 0.6% and such a small increase 
affects positively food security as well as poverty alleviation. 
 
  
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Table 4. 8: Farmers perception on the contribution of extension methods on 
improved food security 
Extension delivery 
methods 
Improved food security 
Low  High  Total 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % 
Demonstration 
Fieldtrip 
Seminars 
Workshops 
One on one 
21 
12 
5 
4 
0 
45.6 
46.0 
27.7 
44.4 
0.0 
 
25 
14 
13 
5 
1 
54.4 
54.0 
72.3 
55.6 
100 
46 
26 
18 
9 
1 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
Source: Field Survey, 2013 
 
4.2.5 Farmers perception of the contribution of extension methods on reduced 
vulnerability 
From Table 4.9, majority of the respondents (64%) have indicated that the extension 
delivery method have contributed to the reduction of their vulnerability. However, 36% 
of the respondents who had access to extension services indicated that the contribution of 
the method used extension by officers is low. Hamilton-Peach and Townsley (2007) 
observed that if the poor are able to access the livelihood assets they require and are 
adequately supported by service providers such as the extension agents and enabling 
agencies, and if they are able to make markets, politics, rules and norms work to their 
advantage, then it should help them to cope with those elements of their vulnerability 
context which they can do little to change. Table 4.11shows the statistics. 
 
Table 4.9: Farmers perception on the contribution of extension methods on reduced 
vulnerability 
Extension delivery 
methods 
Reduced vulnerability 
Low  High  Total 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % 
Demonstration  
Fieldtrip 
Seminars  
Workshops 
One on one 
15 
10 
8 
2 
1 
32.6 
38.4 
44.4 
22.2 
100 
31 
16 
10 
7 
0 
67.4 
61.6 
55.6 
77.8 
0.0 
46 
26 
18 
9 
1 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
Source: Field Survey, 2013 
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4.3 The relationship between farmers preferred methods and their livelihood 
outcomes 
This section presents findings and discussion on the preferred extension delivery 
methods and its effect on the livelihood outcomes of the farmers. Here, the third 
objective of the study is addressed. The improvement of the livelihood outcomes of the 
farmers is measured using the contribution of vegetable cultivation to improved output as 
well as its contribution to the farmers‘ knowledge in vegetable production.  
 
4.3.1 Percentage distribution of farmers by their preferred extension delivery 
method 
Data were collected from farmers to determine their preferred extension delivery 
methods. It was observed that a number of methods such as seminars/conferences, 
fieldtrips, demonstrations, workshops, farm visits and newsletters were used by 
extension agents for extension delivery. However, some farmers did not get their needs 
addressed through the use of some of the methods. They therefore, indicated the methods 
they prefer the extension agents to use to deliver extension services to them. They are the 
demonstration method, one-on-one method and farm visit. The results in Table 4.10 
showed that farm visit (68%) was preferred to any other methods of accessing 
information. However, 22% of the respondents showed preference for one-on-one 
method as against 10% that showed preference for demonstration.   Besides, workshops, 
demonstrations and field trips were methods that have been indicated by the farmers to 
be frequently used by the extension agents. Table 4.12 shows farmer preferred methods 
of extension service delivery. 
  
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Table 4. 10: Farmers preferred methods of extension service delivery 
Farmers’ preferred method Frequency Percent 
 
Farm visit 
 
One-on-one 
 
demonstration 
 
68 
 
22 
 
10 
 
68% 
 
22% 
 
10% 
Total 100 100 
Source: Field Survey, 2013. 
 
4.3.2 Farmers socio-demographic characteristics and preferred extension delivery 
method 
Further analysis of farmer preferred methods has been done and shown in Table 4.11. 
Farmer preferred methods are crossed tabulated with their background characteristics to 
determine their relationship. From Table 4.11, out of the 68% of farmers who preferred 
farm visit, 36% were from the Kumbungu district while 32% were from the Tolon 
District.  
 
Analysis by gender has also pointed out that many male farmers preferred farm visit, 
one-on-one and the demonstration methods than their female counterparts. This however 
may be influenced by the number of female in the sample. It was discovered that less 
females were represented in the sample than males and this may be the possible reason 
for male dominance in preference for some of the methods of extension delivery. Other 
important variable was the level of education of the famers. The results pointed out that 
those farmers with no formal education preferred farm visits than those with some level 
of formal education. From Table 4.11, about 48% of them belong to this category. 
Besides, many of the farmers who preferred farm visit were small scale farmers with 
farm sizes ranging from 1-2 hectares. 
 
  
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Table 4. 11: Farmers Socio-demographic characteristics and Preferred Extension 
Delivery Method 
Variable Variable Category Demonstration One-on-one Farm Visit 
District Kumbungu 1 13 36 
 Tolon 9 9 32 
 Total 10 22 68 
Gender Male 9 21 60 
 Female 1 1 8 
 Total 10 22 68 
Age 26-35 0 2 8 
 36-45 1 8 23 
 46-55 6 9 31 
 56-65 3 3 6 
 Total 10 22 68 
Marital 
Status 
Married 
9 
22 64 
 Widow 1 0 3 
 Divorced 0 0 1 
 Total 10 200 68 
Education No formal education  9 17 48 
 Primary 0 2 12 
 JHS/Middle School 1 3 8 
 Total 10 22 68 
Farm Size Less than 1  1 6 4 
 1-2  5 13 46 
 3- 4  4 3 17 
 5-6  0 0 1 
 Total 10 22 68 
Source: Field Survey, 2013 
 
 
4.3.3 Relationship between Farmers’ preferred methods and perceived livelihood 
outcomes 
This sub-section presents findings and discussion on the relationship between farmers 
preferred methods and their livelihood outcomes. During the focus group discussion, 
farmers who have access to extension services indicated that the extension services they 
receive from the extension agents did not help them because the extension workers used 
methods that they do not prefer. The farmers were of the opinion that if their preferred 
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methods were used to deliver extension services to them their livelihood outcomes would 
have been improved. Chi-square test was performed to validate the hypothesis that 
farmer preferred methods of extension delivery has no relationship with their livelihood 
outcomes.  
 
4.3.4 The relationship between preferred method and perceived improved food 
security 
Data were collected from respondents to determine the relationship between their 
preferred method of extension service delivery and the perceived improved food security 
of the farmers. Table 4.12 presents the distribution of respondents by their preferred 
extension delivery method and its contribution to the perceived food security level of the 
farmers. The results from the study showed that most (68%) of the farmers preferred 
farm visits, 22% preferred one-on- one and a few(10%) preferred demonstration 
methods. The chi-square test results found a significant relationship between farmers 
preferred method and the improvement in the food security situation of the farmers in the 
Tolon and Kumbungu districts (χ2 =10.523, df=4,  p=0.032). This implies that farmers 
preferred delivery method is related to the to their improved food security level. 
Therefore null hypothesis is rejected. Many of the farmers, who were of the opinion that 
their food security situation had  been improved, also indicated that they preferred farm 
visit and one-on-one methods. This indicates that farm visit and one-on-one are best 
methods for the farmers in improving their food security level. Consistent with 
Azikiwe‘(2012) observation, using farmers preferred method motivates the farmers to 
take part in extension system which has an influence on the farmers‘ output. 
 
  
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Table 4. 12: Preferred method and perceived improvement in food security 
Preferred 
extension 
delivery 
method 
Perceived improvement in food security Total 
Low  moderate High  
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % 
demonstration 
one-on- one 
farm visit 
 
1 
9 
25 
 
10.0 
40.0 
36.8 
 
3 
1 
3 
 
30 
5.0 
4.4 
 
6 
12 
40 
 
60.0 
55.0 
58.8 
10 
22 
68 
 
100 
100 
100 
 
Source: Field survey, 2013                                                      χ2 =10.523, df =4, p=0.032 
 
4.3.5 Relationship between preferred method and perceived contribution to 
farmers’ knowledge. 
Data were collected to investigate the relationship between farmers preferred method and 
its contribution in enhancing the farmers‘ knowledge in vegetable cultivation. The results 
(Table 4.13) also found a significant relationship between the farmers preferred method 
and the farmers‘ knowledge in the Tolon and Kumbungu districts (χ2 =11.886, df =4 
p=0.018). The results showed that farmers preferred method of extension delivery is also 
related to the farmers‘ knowledge in vegetable production. Therefore the null hypothesis 
that there is no relationship between farmers preferred method and their livelihood 
outcome is rejected. The results in Table 4.15 also indicated that, all category of farmers 
who prefer demonstration, farm visit and one-on-one also indicated that their knowledge 
have been increased. This suggests that farmer preferred extension delivery methods are 
a determinant of their knowledge. 
  
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Table 4. 13: Relationship between preferred method and the farmers’ knowledge 
Preferred 
extension 
delivery 
method 
Contribution to farmers’ knowledge Total 
Low  moderate High  
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % 
demonstration 
one-on- one 
farm visit 
 
1 
7 
27 
 
10 
31.8 
39.7 
 
1 
0 
0 
 
10 
0.0 
0.0 
 
8 
15 
41 
 
80 
68.2 
60.3 
10 
22 
68 
 
100 
100 
100 
 
Source: Field survey, 2013                                                      χ2 =11.886, df =4 p=0.018 
 
4.4Relationship between the media used by extensionist and the livelihood outcomes 
of farmers 
This section deals with results and analysis of the relationship between various 
livelihood outcomes of respondents and the media used by extension agents in 
disseminating information to farmers. In Ghana, various communication media are used 
to transmit agricultural information to farmers in line with national policy on agriculture. 
The communication media include farm magazine, leaflets, newsletters, newspapers, 
pamphlets, radio and television.  
 
4.4.1 Distribution of farmers’ responses on the media used to disseminate 
information 
Data were collected from farmers to ascertain their responses on the media used by 
extension agents to disseminate information them. The results indicated that the common 
media used in the Tolon and Kumgungu Districts to disseminate information on 
extension service to farmers included radio, drama and training programmes. It was 
observed that 11 extension agents representing 68.8% of the officers sampled indicated 
that radio programs has been used frequently in the study area, 3 of them representing 
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18.8% has indicated drama whilst 2 officers representing 12.5% were of the view that 
training programmes were the common media used.  
 
The sampled farmers were also confronted on the media of information dissemination. 
Their responses are shown in Table 4.14. From Table 4.14, majority (80%) of the 
farmers indicated that the common media used to disseminate information on extension 
services were radio. This is often done through the local FM stations. The results 
corroborates Omenesa (1997)  who observed that radio programmes are usually timely 
and capable of extending relevant messages to the audience no matter where they may be 
as long as they have a radio. He also noted that the absence of such facilities as road, 
light and water are no hindrance to radio. He further observed that illiteracy is no barrier 
to radio messages since such messages can be passed in the audience own language. 
Nazari and Hassan (2011) have indicated that the cost of extension advice through radio 
is observed to be considerably low as compared to individual and group methods and this 
can have an influence on the choice of media for the dissemination of information. About 
5% of the farmers indicated that the common media used was drama, 12% indicated 
training and only 3% indicated newspapers. The fact that a small proportion of the 
farmers indicated newspapers could be attributed to low educational level of the farmers. 
Many of them did not receive any form of formal education and this could reduce their 
effort in searching for information on extension service from the newspapers. 
 
  
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Table 4. 14: Farmers’ responses on the media of information dissemination 
Media used to disseminate 
information 
Frequency Percent 
Radio  
 
Drama 
 
Training  
 
Newspaper  
80 
 
5 
 
12 
 
3 
80 
 
5 
 
12 
 
3 
Total 100 100 
Source: Field Survey, 2013 
 
4.4.2 The relationship between the media and improved access to employment 
This section presents the results and the analysis on the relationship between the media 
used to disseminate information to farmers and improved access to employment by 
vegetable farmers. The statistics showed that, improved access to employment by the 
farmers was significantly related to the media used to disseminate information ( χ2 = 
20.410, df = 6, p = 0.016).Further analysis had shown that among those farmers who 
indicated that the contribution of the media to their employment is high, a small number 
of them were observed to have indicated that they received information from drama or 
training while majority received information from the radio. This suggests that radio was 
the main medium from which farmers‘ access information on vegetable cultivation. 
Consistent with Omenesa (1997) observation, radio is one of the mass media which are 
capable of extending information to the famers no matter where they are found as long as 
they have a receiver with adequate supply of power. Nwuzoe (2000) also noted that radio 
programmes can be done almost everywhere through the use of tape recorder. It is 
probably due to the numerous advantages of radio that many extension agents use it most 
as a means of reaching farmers. 
 
 
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Table 4. 15: The relationship between the media and improved employment 
Media used to 
disseminate 
information 
Contribution to improved employment 
Low  High  Total 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % 
Radio   
 
Drama  
 
Newspapers 
 
Training  
55 
 
5 
 
0 
 
12 
68.7 
 
100 
 
00 
 
100 
25 
 
0 
 
3 
 
0 
31.3 
 
0.0 
 
100 
 
0.0 
80 
 
5 
 
3 
 
12 
100 
 
100 
 
100 
 
100 
Source: Field survey, 2013                                      χ2 = 20.410, df = 6, p = 0.016 
 
 
4.5 Access to extension services and livelihood outcomes 
This section presents results on the relationship between access to extension services and 
the livelihood outcomes of the farmers. The farmers were grouped into two based on 
access to extension services. Their views on whether vegetable cultivation has 
contributed to their output were analyzed using chi-square test. 
 
4.5.1 Relationship between access to extension services and improved food security 
Data were collected from the respondents to compare farmers with access or without 
access to extension services and the farmers‘ food security situation. The Chi-square 
results (Table 4.16) indicated that respondents‘ opinion on the contribution of vegetable 
cultivation to their food security was significant (χ2 = 14.328, df = 3, p = 0.002).This 
implies that provision of extension services to farmers is related to the improvement of 
farmers‘ food security. Therefore the null hypothesis was rejected.  From Table 4.20, 35 
farmers with access to extension services were of the view that vegetable cultivation had 
low contribution to improvement in their food security while 58 indicated that it was 
high. From the results, more farmers with access to extension believed that vegetable 
cultivation contributed to improvement in their food security than those without access to 
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extension services. As noted by FAO, WFP and IFAD (2012), that provision of 
extension services contributes to the improvement of farmers‘ food security and 
reduction in poverty by providing information of new and improved technologies. They 
indicated that in Africa, every 1% increase in agriculture production reduces poverty by 
0.6% and such a small increase affects positively food security as well as poverty 
alleviation. 
 
Table 4. 16: The relationship between access to extension services and food security 
Access to 
extension 
services 
                               Improve food security 
Low  Moderate  High  Total 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Freque
ncy 
% 
Yes  
 
 
No  
 
35 
 
 
61 
 
35 
 
 
61 
 
 
7 
 
 
3 
 
 
7 
 
 
3 
 
 
58 
 
 
36 
 
 
58 
 
 
36 
 
 
100 
 
 
100 
100 
 
 
100 
Source: Field survey, 2013                                                      χ2 = 14.328, df = 3, p = 
0.002 
 
4.5.2 Relationship between access to extension services and improved access to 
education 
This sub-section presents results and analysis of the relationship between access to 
extension services by the respondents and improved access to education. Data were 
collected from the respondents to determine whether access to extension services by 
vegetable farmers had any influence on their family access to education. From Table 
4.17, farmers with access to extension who believed that extension service had 
contributed to improvement in their education are more than those who disagreed to this 
opinion. The results pointed out that among those with access to extension, 68% farmers 
were of the opinion that the contribution of vegetable cultivation to improvement in their 
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access to education is high. The Chi-square results (Table 4.16) indicated that 
respondents‘ opinion on the contribution of vegetable cultivation to their food security 
was significant (χ2 = 14.328, df = 3, p = 0.002). 
. This implies that access to extension services is related to the access to education. 
Therefore null hypothesis was rejected. 
 
Table 4.17: The relationship between access to extension services and improved 
access to education 
Access to 
extension 
services 
                                Improved access to education 
Low  Moderate  High  Total 
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Freque
ncy 
% 
Yes  
 
 
No  
 
28 
 
 
88 
 
28 
 
 
88 
 
 
4 
 
 
2 
 
 
4 
 
 
2 
 
 
68 
 
 
10 
 
 
68 
 
 
10 
 
 
100 
 
 
100 
100 
 
 
100 
Source: Field survey, 2013                                                     χ2 = 11.757, df = 2, p = 
0.003 
 
 
4.6 farmers’ interaction with extension agents and their livelihood outcomes 
This section discusses results with regards to the interaction among the researchers, 
extension agents and farmers and how their interaction affects the livelihood outcomes of 
the farmers. 
It has been observed from the survey that extension agents work with other organizations 
among them include NGOs, universities and other research organizations. They often 
have interaction with these organizations to acquire more knowledge as far as extension 
services are concerned to enable them assist farmers.  
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4.6.1 Percentage distribution on the interaction of farmers and extension agents 
This section presents results and discussion on the forms and nature of interaction 
between the extension agents and the farmers. Results from the survey indicated that, 
43.8% of the extension agents indicated that they often meet other organizations annually 
while 56.3% of them maintained that the frequency of meeting was largely as required 
by the research organizations. They therefore, described the nature of interaction as weak 
and very weak. About 68.8% of the agents pointed out that there existed a weak 
interaction among them and the research organizations whilst 31.3% indicated that the 
nature of interaction was very weak. 
 
Besides, the main form of interaction was among the vegetable farmers and the extension 
agents. The interaction takes the form of farmer visits to the local extension officer, 
officers‘ visit to the individual farms, frequency of extension service received by the 
farmers, farmer involvement in planning process and the nature of interaction between 
farmers on one side and the extension agents on the other side. Table 4.18 showed the 
interaction between the extension agents and the farmers. 
 
From Table 4.18, 36% of the farmers with access to extension service often payed visit 
to the local extension office while 64% did not visit the office at all. This indicates that 
farmers who visited the officers would often have some of their problems addressed 
given the frequency of contact with the extension officers. On the other hand, those who 
were not visiting the offices only relied on when the officers themselves made attempt to 
reach them by any method. This phenomenon has the potential of reducing the extent to 
which extension services will be provided to such farmers. It was also discovered that 
about 53% of the farmers had indicated that the extension officers themselves visited 
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their farms. This increases the level of interaction among farmers on one hand and the 
officers on the other hand.  
 
From Table 4.18, about 80% of the farmers however, indicated that their interaction with 
the farmers occurred on annual basis. Only 20% of them indicated that it was monthly. 
This finding does not reveal a strong level of interaction among the farmers and the 
extension officers. Due to poor level of interaction as was observed from the survey, it 
was further revealed that no farmer had ever been involved in the planning process as far 
as extension delivery is concerned. Again farmers therefore maintained that there existed 
a weak interaction between them and the extension agents. About 66% of the farmer 
shared this opinion. This finding corroborates that of Altaye, (2012) who observed that 
the linkages between researchers, extension agents and farmers in Africa over the years 
have been very weak. Similarly the World Bank report (1985) also indicated that the 
most serious problem of agricultural extension delivery in Africa is the weak linkages 
between the research organization and the extension agents. 
 
  
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Table 4.18: Percentage distribution on the interaction of farmers and extension 
agents 
Variable Category Frequency Percentage 
Farmer Visit to Local Extension Office   
Yes 36 36 
No 64 64 
Total 100 100 
Officers Visits to Farm   
Yes 53 53 
No 47 47 
Total 100 100 
Frequency of Service Receive   
Monthly 20 20 
Annually 80 80 
Total 100 100 
Farmer Involvement in Planning   
Yes 0 0 
No 100 100 
Total 100 100 
Farmer Interaction with Extension 
Agents 
  
Excellent 0 0 
Good 18 18 
Weak 66 66 
Very Weak 16 16 
Total 100 100 
Source: Field Survey, 2013 
 
4.6.2 The relationship between the interaction and the livelihood outcomes of the 
farmers 
The aim of the interaction between researchers, extension agents and farmers is for 
regular contact and improved productivity. Agricultural research and extension are 
examples of two systems that can be linked by information flow and feedback. The 
farmer falls in between research and extension and is expected to be the main target and 
beneficiary of their activities. Constraints that affect this research-extension interaction 
would therefore affect the outputs of farmers. Effective interaction would enhance output 
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through the availability of information on improved agricultural technology and 
practices. Data were collected from respondents to ascertain the influence of the 
interaction between researchers, extension agents and farmers and its contribution to 
farmers‘ output.Chi-square test was performed to validate the hypothesis that there is no 
relationship between the interactions among farmers and the livelihood outcomes of the 
farmers.  
 
4.6.3 The relationship between the interaction and the farmers’ knowledge in 
vegetable production 
This section presents results and analysis on the relationship between interaction and its 
contribution to the farmers‘ knowledge. Data were collected from the farmers to 
determine the relationship between the interaction and the farmers‘ knowledge in 
vegetable production. The results of the study (Table 4.19) showed that majority of the 
farmers (69%) indicated that the contribution of the interactions to the improvement of 
their knowledge was moderate, 18% of the farmers who received extension services 
indicated its contribution was high and only 13% of them indicated that its contribution 
was low. A chi-square test at 5% significance level (χ2 = 15.891, df = 6, p = 0.014)found 
a significant relationship between the interactions and the farmers‘ knowledge in 
vegetable production.  This therefore implies that interactions between the researchers, 
the extension agents and the farmers are related to improvement of the farmers 
‗knowledge. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected. As indicated by Van den Ban and 
Hawkins (1996), how well researchers, extension agents and farmers communicate and 
interact has strong influence on whether agriculture science succeeds or fails as a catalyst 
of national development and as a tool for eliminating poverty. 
 
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Table 4.19: The relationship between interaction and farmers’ knowledge in 
vegetable production 
Interactio
n with 
extension 
officers 
Contribution to farmers’ knowledge  
Total Low Moderate High 
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % 
Good 
Weak 
V. Weak 
Total 
3 
9 
1 
13 
23 
69.2 
7.8 
100 
13 
45 
11 
69 
18.8 
65.2 
16 
100 
5 
12 
1 
18 
28 
66.6 
5.4 
100 
21 
66 
13 
100 
21.0 
66.0 
13.0 
100 
Source: Field survey, 2013                                                      χ2 = 15.891, df = 6, p = 
0.014 
 
4.6.4 The relationship between interaction and its contribution to improved food 
security 
This sub-section also presents results and analysis on the relationship between the 
interaction and the farmers‘ food security.  Data were collected from farmers to 
determine the relationship between the interaction and the famers‘ food security. As 
shown in Table 4.20, out of the 100 farmers who received extension services, 58% of the 
them indicated that their interaction with extension agents had a high influence on the 
improvement of their food security, 35% of the respondents indicated the contribution of 
the interaction to food security was low and only 7% of the respondents asserted that its 
contribution to their food security situation was moderate. The Chi-square results 
recorded (χ2 = 42.796, df=6,p = 0.011), found a significant relationship between the 
interaction and its contribution to the farmers‘ food security. This suggests that the 
interaction between the extension agents and the farmers is related to the improvement of 
the farmers‘ food security. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected. This finding 
corroborates Agbamu (2000) who indicated that effective interaction enhances the food 
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security and reduces poverty of farmers through the availability of information on 
improved agriculture technology and practices. 
 
Table 4. 20: The relationship between interaction and improved food security 
Interactio
n with 
extension 
officers 
Contribution to improved food security  
Total Low Moderate High 
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % 
Good 
Weak 
V. Weak 
Total 
5 
24 
6 
35 
14.3 
68.5 
17.2 
100 
4 
2 
1 
7 
57.2 
28.5 
14.3 
100 
12 
40 
6 
58 
20.7 
67 
10.3 
100 
21 
66 
13 
100 
21.0 
66.0 
13.0 
100 
Source: Field survey, 2013                                                      χ2 = 42.796, df = 6, p = 
0.011 
 
4.6.5 The relationship between interaction and farmers level of income 
This sub-section presents the results and discussions on the relationship between the 
interaction between farmers and the extension agents and its contribution to the farmers‘ 
income. The results indicated that, 64% of the famers who received extension services 
indicated that the contribution of their interaction with the extension agents and the 
researchers to their income levels was high, 35% of the respondents asserted that its 
contribution to the their income level was low and only 1% person indicated that it was 
moderate. The Pearson‘s Chi-square results (χ2=37.912, df = 6 p =0.002), found a 
significant relationship between the interaction and the incomes levels of the farmers. 
This suggests that the interaction between the extension agents and the farmers is related 
to the income levels of the farmers. Therefore the null hypothesis was rejected. As 
indicated by Rathore et al. (2008) that interaction between researchers, extension agents 
and farmers helps to provide very relevant information and technology to farmers that 
enable them to increase their output. 
 
  
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Table 4. 21: The relationship between interaction and farmers level of income 
Interactio
n with 
extension 
officers 
Vegetable production to more income  
Total Low Moderate High 
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % 
Good 
Weak 
V. Weak 
Total 
5 
22 
8 
35 
14 
63 
23 
100 
1 
0 
0 
1 
100 
0.0 
0.0 
100 
15 
44 
5 
64 
23.2 
69 
7.8 
100 
21 
66 
13 
100 
21.0 
66.0 
13.0 
100 
Source: Field survey, 2013                                                      χ2 = 37.912, df = 6, p = 
0.002 
  
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CHAPTER FIVE 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 
5.0 Introduction 
This chapter includes the summary, conclusion and recommendation based on the 
principal findings. However, suggestions were made for further research direction. 
 
5.1 Summary of study 
The overall objective of the study was to investigate the influence of extension delivery 
on the livelihood outcomes of vegetable farmers in the Tolon and Kunbungu districts of 
the Northern Region of Ghana. Specifically, the study set out to achieve five (5) 
objectives. Firstly, the study examined the relationship between a selected socio-
demographic characteristics and farmers engagement in vegetable production. Secondly 
the study determined the relationship between extension delivery methods used in 
extension programmes and the livelihood outcomes of the farmers. Thirdly the study 
identified the preferred extension methods for vegetable farmers and their influence on 
the livelihood outcomes of the farmers. In addition, the study investigated the level of 
interaction among researchers, extension agents and farmers and their influence on the 
farmers‘ livelihood outcomes. Finally, the study also examined the relationship between 
the media use in dissemination information to farmers and how it influences the 
livelihood outcomes of the farmers. 
 
This study used a survey design, quantitative and qualitative research methodologies 
involving the use of questionnaire. The process of collecting data was participatory in 
nature. It involved the use of techniques like interviews, focus group discussions and 
observation. The population of the study involved all vegetable farmers in the Tolon and 
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Kunbungu districts. Data were collected from two categories of vegetable farmers. These 
are famers who had access to extension services and those who did not have access. The 
specific communities visited are Golinga, Ghilahigu, Tunaayili, Linghinm, Galinkpegu, 
Bontanga, Nawuni,Afa-yili, Dalung,andDalungKukoo. In other to measure accurately the 
individual variables, the data were coded and analysed using Statistical Product for 
Service Solution (SPSS). Frequencies, percentages, cumulative percentages were 
computed to describe the nature of the data. The Chi-square analyses were used to 
determine significant difference between indicator variables. 
 
5.1 Conclusions 
5.1.1 Farmers’ socio-demographic characteristics and access to extension services 
The Research findings revealed that majority of the sampled vegetable farmers (57.5%) 
in the study area were males while females constituted 42.5% of the total sampled 
vegetable farmers. This has implication for gender roles in the study districts. In northern 
Ghana, male activities are associated with farming while females are engaged in 
domestic activities and processing. However, male dominance in the agricultural sector 
was a common phenomenon in most communities in the study area.  
 
The results also showed that the modal class of age category was 36-55 years (middle 
age) which represents 80.5% of the sample. Only 24 farmers representing 12.0% of the 
sample belong to aged class (above 56+ years).From the findings majority of the 
farmers‘ (74.5.0%) had no formal education, 11.5% had primary education, and farmers 
with junior secondary education/Middle school education were 14.0%.  
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The results of this study also observed that majority of the farmers (92%) are married 
and currently staying with their spouses. About 7.5% are widowed and 0.5% divorced. 
Majority (41.5%) of the farmers have household size ranging between 6-8 persons. The 
next higher category is those with household size between 9-12 persons which constitute 
37.5% of the sample farmers. Very small households (less than 3 persons) and very large 
households (between19-25) are not very common among the farmers. In either case each 
category constitutes only 0.5% of the sample. 
 
5.1.2 Frequency distribution of methods used by extension workers in service 
delivery 
Majority of the responded farmers(46%) have indicated demonstration as the most 
frequent method use by extension workers in the delivery of extension services,26% of 
the farmers indicated that the extension agents use field trips, 18% of the farmers 
indicated that they receive extension service through seminars/conferences, 9% of the 
farmers who receive extension services indicated that they access extension services 
through workshops and 1% receive extension services through one-on-one method. The 
findings clearly showed that the method commonly used by extension officers to deliver 
extension programmes was demonstration. The implication of these findings is that 
extension officers need to vary and adopt a wider variety of delivery methods to satisfy 
the training needs of the vegetable farmers. 
 
5.1.3 Preferred educational delivery method 
Research findings revealed that the vegetable farmers (68%) preferred farm visit as the 
best method for delivering extension programmes. However, 22% of the farmers 
preferred one-on-one as the best method and 10% of the farmers had preference for 
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demonstration method. The chi-square test results found a significant relationship 
between farmers preferred method and the improvement in famers food security situation 
in the Tolon and Kumbungu districts (χ2 =10.523, df=4, p=0.032).The results also found 
a significant relationship between the farmers preferred method and the farmers‘ 
knowledge in vegetable production in the Tolon and Kumbungu districts (χ2 =11.886, 
df=4 p=0.05). 
 
5.1.4 Frequency of interaction with other organizations 
All the Extension officers (100%) interviewed indicated that they networked with 
various organisations towards the provision of extension services. The notable 
organisation mentioned were Agricultural Research Organisation, University for 
Development Studies and some Non-Governmental Organisations within the Northern 
Region. However, the extension agents indicated that the level of interaction between the 
organizations was very weak. 
 
5.1.5 Type of media use in disseminating information 
Majority (80%) of the farmers indicated that the common media use to disseminate 
information on extension services are radio. This is often done through the local FM 
stations. About 5% of the farmers have indicated that the common media use is drama, 
12% indicated training and only 3% indicated newspapers was used in disseminating 
information to them. The fact that a small proportion of the farmers have indicated 
newspapers could be attributed to low educational level of the farmers. The statistics 
show that, farmers‘ knowledge in vegetable cultivation was observed to be significantly 
related to the media of information dissemination (χ2 (100) =20.410, p<0.05(significant). 
 
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5.2 Recommendations 
Based on the findings of the research the following recommendations are made: 
(1) From the findings vegetable farmers had access to extension but extension 
officers rarely visited the farmers. It is therefore recommended that, the high 
farmer to extension worker ratio should be reduced by extension service 
providers to allow for quality extension service delivery to the vegetable farmers.  
(2) Majority of extension staff complained of the non-availability of transport for 
regular visit of their clients. The Ministry of Agriculture has a major role to play 
in making extension officers proactive. MoFA agriculture Extension officers 
must also play a role using the recent extension approach of participatory rural 
appraisal through discussing with farmers and empowering the farmers. 
(3) The results of the study also indicated that, the use of farm visit in the study area 
can contribute immensely to the diffusion of innovations and increase in farmers‘ 
participation in the delivery of extension services. Therefore, it is recommended 
that farm visit should be strengthened by extension service providers for 
sustainable vegetable production in the Tolon and Kumbungu Districts in the 
Northern Region of Ghana. 
(4) The results of the findings also showed that all of the vegetable farmers in the 
study area were never contacted in planning and initiation of extension 
programmes that affect the farmers. A lot studies have indicated a strong positive 
relationship between farmers‘ participation in programme planning and the 
adoption of innovation It is therefore recommended that farmers are given the 
opportunity to participate in the programme planning so as to increase the 
adoption of innovation with regards to vegetable cultivation. 
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(5)  It is also recommended that MoFA should give extension agents the training on 
the use of participatory extension approaches for increase farmers‘ participation. 
(6)  The results of the findings also showed that demonstrations were the method 
used frequently by extension officers to deliver extension programmes to the 
farmers. Therefore, the extension agents need to vary their teaching methods in 
order to achieve the desired programme objectives.  
(7) Vegetable farmers need to be encouraged to form farmer groups to enable acquire 
credit and other inputs that will facilitate the production of their crops. 
 
5.3 Future research direction 
This study is not exhaustive as it was limited to only vegetable farmers and the sixteen 
(16) extension officers‟ opinion in two districts in Northern Region due to time factor 
and financial resources. Therefore, a more comprehensive understanding of the influence 
of extension delivery on the livelihood outcomes of the vegetable farmers would be more 
exhaustive if diverse views from all farmers are sought. Further research areas could be 
on: 
1. The influence of extension delivery on the livelihood outcomes of all categories 
of farmers. 
 
  
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Agricultural Extension and ResearhLiaison Service (NAERLS) Farm broadcaster. 
J. Agric Ext.74-81. 
 
Rathore, S., Intodia, S. L., & Singh, R. P. (2008). Analysis of Research- Extension – 
Farmer Linkage in Arid Zone of India. Journal  of Extension Education in India, 
8(2), 69-72. 
 
Richardson, G. P., Andersen, D. F. Maxwell T. A. & Stewart, T. R. (1994). Foundations 
of Mental Model  Research. Proceedings of the 1994 International System 
Dynamics Conference, Stirling,Scotland. Albany, NY: System Dynamics Society. 
 
Rivera, W. M. (1998). Developing Agricultural Extension Systems Nation Wide: A 
structural approach. Journal of Extension Studies, 4 (2) 
 
Rivera, W. M. (2008). The ‗business‘ of the public sector: Extension in transitions and 
the 
RUAF (2007). What is urban agriculture? http://www.ruaf.org/node/512 (referenced at 
May 4, 2007). 
 
 
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Saiokou E., Sanyang, T. K., & Wen-Chi, H. (2009). The impact of agriculture 
technology transfer to women vegetable production and marketing groups in the 
Gambia. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 5(2), 169-179. 
 
Solesbury, W. (2003). Sustainable livelihoods: a case study of the evolution of DFID 
policy. Working Paper 217.ODI, 111 Westminster Bridge Road, London SE1 7JD, 
UK.southern Africa. Food Policy 33(4), 299-317. 
 
Swakumar, S. D.,Subramanian, S. R., & Copeland, M. (1997). Pest management 
practices of rice farmers in Tamil Nadu, India. India K.L.Heong and Rice Research  
Institute, Manilaphilipines . 
 
Swanson, B. E., &Rajalahti, R. (2010). Strengthening Agricultural Extension and 
Advisory Systems : Procedures for Accessing, Transforming, and Evaluating 
Extension Systems. Agricultural and Rural Development Discussion paper 44. 
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Thornley, K. (1990). Involving farmers in Agricultural Research: A Farmers Perspective. 
American Journal of Alternative Agriculture,5(4), 174-177.  
 
Tolon/ Kumbungu District Assembly\ (2009).Medium Term Development Plan. 
 
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Mead, Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd. 
 
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APPENDICES 
Appendix A: Questionnaire/ Interview Guide for Vegetable Farmers 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
QUESTIONNAIRE ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXTENSION DELIVERY ON THE 
LIVELIHOOD OUTCOME OF VEGETABLE FARMERS IN THE TOLON AND 
KUNBUNGU DISTRICTS  
 QUESTIONNAIRE/ INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR VEGETABLE FARMERS 
This questionnaire is seeking your opinion to solicit information to write a thesis on the 
above subject. I shall be most grateful if you could cooperate by answering the questions 
in this questionnaire. The information provided is solely for academic use. 
Name of community……………………     Questionnaire number.…………………….. 
Date of interview ……………………… 
District ……………………………………………………… 
Personal and socio-economic characteristics of vegetable farmers 
1. Name of farmer……………       
2. Sex     male….  [   1 ]    Female……    [ 2   ] 
3. What is your age: 
 Please circle as appropriate 
Between 16-25 1 
Between 25-35 2 
Between 35-45 3 
Between 45-55 4 
Between 55-65 5 
Above 65 6 
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4. Marital status  
Marital status Please circle as appropriate 
Single 1 
Married 2 
Widowed 3 
Divorced 4 
Separated 5 
5. Level of education: 
Level of education Please circle as 
appropriate 
Number 
of years in 
school 
No formal education 1  
Primary 2  
JHS/Middle school 3  
SSS/GCE ―O‖ level 4  
Vocational/Technical 6  
Post-secondary certificate 7  
Bachelors/HND 8  
Islamic studies 10  
Others (Please specify)…………………... 
………………………………………….. 
  
 
  
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6. Household size 
Household size Please circle as appropriate 
Less than 3 1 
Between 3-5 2 
Between 5-8 3 
Between 8-12 4 
Between 12-18 5 
Between 18-25 6 
Above 25 7 
 
7. Number of children 
Number of children Indicate number 
Males  
Females  
Total  
 
8.  Experience as a vegetable farmer (in years)……………. 
9.  Do you do any business in addition to vegetable production (i) Yes      (ii) No 
10. On whose land are you farming? 
  
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11.  
Land Code  
Lease 1  
Own 2  
Communal 3  
Government 4  
Parent land 5  
Other (specify) 6  
 
12. What is the size of your farm land? …………………… 
        Code: [less than 1ha = 1] [1 – 2 ha = 2] [3 – 4 ha = 3] [5- 6 ha= 4] [7-10 ha=5][more 
than                                 10ha=6] 
 
                   Perception of vegetable Farmers on Extension Education delivery 
13. Do you have access to extension services in your area? Yes…. [1]   No…. [2], if 
No go to 31. 
14. If yes how often do extension officers visit your household? 
Most 
Often[MO]  
 
Very Often 
[VO]  
 
Rare [R]  
 
None 
[N]  
 
    
Code: [1 = MO] [2 = VO] [3 = R] [4 = N] 
15. What kind of services do you receive from agricultural extension agents in your 
community   ? 
……………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………… 
16. If you do not  attend extension educational programmes, what are your reasons? 
Reasons [ perception factors ]  
 
Code:  
 
 
A. Wrong meeting schedule  
 
1 
 
B. Time constraints  
 
2 
 
C. Programme topics not interesting  
 
3 
 
D. Content of programme not clear  
 
4 
 
E. Unpleasant experience in the past with extension  
 
5 
 
F. My problems and extension message/ innovation 
are not related  
 
6 
 7 
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G. Extension officers lack expertise and experience  
 
 
H. I am satisfied with my present situation  
 
8 
 
I. Late invitation  
 
9 
 
J. Other [ specify]  
 
10 
 
17. Who do you consult when you need advice about your farming practice? 
Advise Code  
A. Other farmers 1  
B. Extension agents 2  
C. Farmer association 3  
D. Opinion leaders 4  
E. Other (specify). 5  
 
18. How would you rate the efficiency and performance of extension agents you have 
had contact with? 
Excellent 
[E]  
 
Good [G]  
 
Fair [F]  
 
Average [A]  
 
Below 
Average[BA]  
 
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Code: E = 1 G = 2 F = 3 A = 4 BA = 5 
 
Educational delivery Methods in Extension 
19. How often do you receive extension services from extension agents?    
Most often[MO]  
 
Very Often[VO]  
 
Rare[R]  
 
None[N]  
 
    
Code: MO = 1 VO = 2 R = 3 N = 4 
20. Which of the following methods are most commonly used to deliver Extension 
programmes to you? 
Methods of delivering instruction  
 
Code 
A. Method demonstrations  
 
1 
B. Result Demonstrations  
 
2 
C. Classroom instruction  
 
3 
D. Workshops  
 
4 
E. Seminars/conferences  
 
5 
F. Field Days  
 
6 
G. One on one  
 
7 
H. Farm visits  
 
8 
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I. Other specify  
 
9 
Code: [A=1] [B= 2] [C= 3] [D= 4] [E= 5] [F=6] [G= 7] [H= 8] [I= 9] 
 
PREFERRED EXTENSION DELIVERY METHOD 
 
21. Which of the following extension delivery methods work best for you? 
 
Methods of delivering instruction  
 
Code 
A. Method demonstrations  
 
1 
B. Result Demonstrations  
 
2 
C. Classroom instruction  
 
3 
D. Workshops  
 
4 
E. Seminars/conferences  
 
5 
F. Field Days  
 
6 
G. One on one  
 
7 
H. Farm visits  
 
8 
I. Other specify  
 
9 
 
  
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21. Which of the following methods do you think have not worked well for you? 
Methods of delivering instruction  
 
Code 
A. Method demonstrations  
 
1 
D. Workshops  
 
4 
E. Seminars/conferences  
 
5 
F. Field Days  
 
6 
G. One on one  
 
7 
H. Farm visits  
 
8 
I. Other specify  
 
9 
22. How do you prefer to access information about vegetable production? 
 
 
 
23. H
o
w
 
w
i
l
l you rank the following extension teaching methods: 
Method to access information  
 
 
 
Code  
A. Home visit 1  
B. Farm visit  2  
C. Telephone contact 3  
D. Email services/ internet  4  
E. Other specify 5  
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Method Extremely 
important  
[EI]  
Quite 
important  
[QI]  
Not very 
important  
[NVI]  
Not at all 
important 
[NAI]  
 
A. Methoddemonstration 
 
    
B. Result Demonstrations  
 
    
 
C.  Workshops  
 
    
D. Seminars     
E. Field days     
F. Farm visits     
G. One on one     
H. Other (specify)     
Code: EI = 1 QI = 2 NVI = 3 NAI = 4  
 
            Interaction between extension agents and the farmers 
24. Do you visit the local extension officer in your community? 
Yes …….[ 1 ]                        No …………. [ 2 ]  
25. Does the extension officer in your community visits your field?   
Yes ………….[1 ]                                    No …………..[2 ]  
 
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26. How often do you receive extension services from the local extension agents?                                                   
 Code  
Weekly 1  
Bi-weekly 2  
Monthly 3  
Once   a year 4  
Never 5  
 
27. Have you ever been involved in the initiation and planning of extension 
programme in your community? Yes……….[1]               No…………[2] 
28. To what extent do you agree/disagree with the statement below? 
Statement Strongly 
agree 
[SA] 
Agree[A] Disagree [D] Strongly 
Disagree[SD] 
Farmers‘ 
participation in 
extension 
programme 
planning 
enhances the 
effectiveness 
of the 
programme 
    
Code: SA = 1 A= 2 D= 3 SD =4 
29. How will you rate your interaction with the extension agents? 
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Excellent[E] Very 
Good[VG] 
Good[G] Weak[W] Very 
Weak[VW] 
     
Code: E=1, VG=2, G=3, W=4, VW=5 
            The media use by extension agents to disseminate information 
30. Which of the following media is use by the extension agents to disseminate 
information to you? 
Media use Code  
Radio 1  
Drama 2  
Newspapers 3  
Training 4  
I C T/ Internet 5  
Television 6  
Other (specify) 7  
 
                 Livelihood outcomes 
31.  How will you rate the contribution of vegetable production to the following 
outcomes compared to your other livelihood strategy using the scale 1 to 5 
below? 
         5-extremely high   4-high   3-moderate   2-low   1-extremely low 
Livelihood Outcome Code  
More income   
Employment   
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Improved access to health and nutrition   
Improved food security   
Improved access to education   
Reduced poverty   
Reduced vulnerability   
 
32. What was the value of your output for the 2011/2012 production year?  
Commodity Quantity Price Value 
    
 
 
   
    
    
    
   Total= 
 
                       End of the Interview Thank you for your participation 
  
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Appendix B: Questionnaire /Interview Guide For Extension Officers 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
QUESTIONNAIRE ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXTENSION DELIVERY ON THE 
LIVELIHOOD OUTCOME OF VEGETABLE FARMERS IN THE TOLON AND 
KUNBUNGU DISTRICTS  
This questionnaire is seeking your opinion to solicit information to write a thesis on the 
above subject. I shall be most grateful if you could cooperate by answering the questions 
in this questionnaire. The information provided is solely for academic use. 
             QUESIONNAIRE /INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR EXTENSION OFFICERS 
1. Socio demographic information  
Name: 
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………… 
Age in 
Years 
Code  Gender: Male[1] Female[2]  
18-20 1      
21-30 2      
31-40 3      
41-50 4      
51-60 5      
Above 60 6      
 
2. Educational level 
Level of education Code  
SSS/GCE ―O‖ level 1  
Agriculture Training College 2  
Bachelors/HND 3  
Master/Doctorate 4  
 
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3. What categories of farmers do you work with? 
Category of farmers Code  
(A) Cereal crops 1  
(B) Vegetable farmers 2  
(C) Animal farmers 3  
(D) All categories of farmers 4  
(E) Other(specify) 5  
 
 Extension Education Delivery method 
 
4. Which of the following methods do you use most to deliver Extension 
programmes? 
Delivery method Code  
A. Method demonstration 1  
B. Result demonstration 2  
C. Workshops 3  
D. Seminars/conferences 4  
E. Field days 5  
F. One on one 6  
G. Farm visits 7  
H. Other( specify) 8  
Code: [A=1] [B= 2] [C= 3] [D= 4] [E= 5] [F=6] [G= 7] [H= 8] 
 
Preferred Extension Delivery Method 
5. Which of the following delivery methods work best with you? 
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Delivery Methods Code  
A. Method demonstration 1  
B. Result demonstration 2  
C. Workshops 3  
D. Seminars/conferences 4  
E. Field days 5  
F. One on one 6  
G. Farm visits 7  
H. Other( specify) 8  
Code: [A=1] [B= 2] [C= 3] [D= 4] [E= 5] [F=6] [G= 7] [H= 8] 
6. Which of the delivery methods work best for vegetable farmers? 
Delivery Methods Code  
A. Method demonstration 1  
B. Result demonstration 2  
C. Workshops 3  
D. Seminars/conferences 4  
E. Field days 5  
F. One on one 6  
G. Farm visits 7  
H. Other( specify) 8  
Code: [A=1] [B= 2] [C= 3] [D= 4] [E= 5] [F=6] [G= 7] [H= 8] 
7. Which of the methods do you think have not worked well with vegetable 
farmers? 
 
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Delivery Methods Code  
A. Method demonstration 1  
B. Result demonstration 2  
C. Workshops 3  
D. Seminars/conferences 4  
E. Field days 5  
F. One on one 6  
G. Farm visits 7  
H. Other( specify) 8  
Code: [A=1] [B= 2] [C= 3] [D= 4] [E= 5] [F=6] [G= 7] [H= 8] 
Level of interaction among farmers, researchers and extension workers 
8. Do you work with other organisations in the provision of extension services?  
Yes …..[1]       No……… [2] 
9. If the answer is yes, who are these organizations?  
 
a………………………………b……………….……………… …c 
…………………………………………… 
10. How often do you meet with research organizations? 
Weekly[W
] 
Biweekly[B
W] 
Monthly[M
] 
Quarterly[Q
] 
Yearly[Y
] 
As 
Required 
by 
Researcher
s 
      
Code: W=1, BW= 2, M= 3, Q= 4, Y=5, ARR= 6 
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11. How will you rate the interaction between extension officers and the researchers 
in the delivery of extension services? 
Excellent[E] Very 
Good[VG] 
Good[G] Weak[W] Very 
Weak[VW] 
     
Code: E=1, VG=2, G=3, W=4, VW=5 
  The media use by extension agents to disseminate information 
12. Which of the following media do you use to disseminate information to the 
vegetable farmers? 
Media use Code  
Radio 1  
Drama 2  
Newspapers 3  
Training 4  
I C T/ Internet 5  
Television 6  
Other (specify) 7  
13. What are the major challenges affecting the smooth delivery of extension 
services? 
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….                 
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………… 
                                                       End of the Interview  
                                             Thank you for your participation 
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Appendix C 
                                 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
Focus Group Discussion Guide for vegetable Farmers in the Tolon and kumbungu Area 
Name of community………………………………. 
Time…………………………………………………… 
Group composition:                          Male      [   ]              Female [   ] 
1. What are the main reasons why the farmers embark on vegetable crop and  
production? Probe: Crop production, animal production and other livelihood strategies 
practiced by farmers. 
2. Which type of vegetables  are commonly produced by farmers in Tolon and 
Kumbungu area? Probe: Type of crops cultivated, reasons for cultivation etc. 
3. What is the system of land ownership and arrangement? Probe: Acquisition, 
ownership, availability, average land holding, affordability and challenges etc. 
4.  Do vegetable farmers belong to groups? Probe: Types of group (FBO, association or 
cooperative) reasons for forming the groups, benefits and challenges of being in the 
group. 
5. What are the livelihood outcomes achieved by the farmers? Probe: Employment, more 
income, reduced poverty, increased wellbeing, reduced vulnerability, improved access to 
health and nutrition, improved access to education, improved food security and more 
sustainable use of natural resource base. 
6. Do you receive extension services from the extension agents? Probe: how often etc. 
7. If you don‘t receive extension services, who do you consult when you need advice 
about your farming practice? Probe: other farmers, farmer association, opinion leaders 
etc. 
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8.  If you receive extension services, what method/ methods are used to deliver extension 
programmes? Probe: demonstrations, workshops, seminars/conferences, farm visits etc. 
9. What media is used to disseminate information about vegetable production in your 
locality? Probe: radio, drama, newspaper etc. 
  
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Appendix D: Chi-Square Results of Access to Extension on Livelihood Outcomes 
Livelihood Outcome Chi-Square 
Value 
Df N Asymptotic Sig. 
Income 0.441 2  0.802 
Improved Income 1.564 3  0.668 
Improved Access to 
Health Care 
4.751 3  0.191 
Improved Employment 4.041  3  0.257 
Improved Food 
Security 
14.328 3  0.002 
Improved Access to 
Education 
11.757 2  0.003 
Reduced Vulnerability 10.884 2  0.004 
Poverty Reduction 0.490 2  0.928 
 
 
 
  
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Appendix E: Chi-Square Results of Farmer Preferred Methods of Extension 
Delivery on Livelihood Outcomes 
Livelihood Outcome Chi-Square 
Value 
Df N Asymptotic Sig. 
Income     
Improved Income 6.931 4 100 0.140 
Improved Access to 
Health Care 
3.493 6 100 0.745 
Improved Employment 7.352 6 100 0.289 
Improved Food 
Security 
10.523 4 100 0.032 
Improved Access to 
Education 
2.629 4 100 0.622 
Reduced Vulnerability 11.886 4 100 0.018 
Poverty Reduction 2.022 4 100 0.732 
 
  
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Appendix F: Ranking of Farmer Preferred Methods of Extension Delivery 
Extension Delivery 
Methods 
Extremel
y 
Importa
nt 
Quite 
Importa
nt 
Not Very 
Importa
nt 
Not at 
All 
Importa
nt 
Total 
Demonstrati
on 
22 75 3 0 100 
Workshop 30 0 69 1 10
0 
Seminar 0 2 98 0 10
0 
Farm Visit 91 9 0 0 10
0 
One-on-One 62 38 0 0 10
0 
Figures are both frequencies and percentages 
  
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Appendix G: Chi-Square Results of the Media of Information on Livelihood 
Outcomes 
Livelihood Outcome Chi-Square 
Value 
Df  N Asymptotic Sig. 
Improved Income 7.437 6 100 0.282 
Improved Access to 
Health Care 
13.407 9 100 0.145 
Improved Employment 20.410 9 100 0.016 
Improved Food 
Security 
10.089 6 100 0.121 
Improved Access to 
Education 
6.765 6 100 0.343 
Reduced Vulnerability 10.341 6 100 0.111 
 
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