UNIVERSITY OF GHANA  
 
 
SOCIAL MARKETING CAMPAIGNS ON WASTE DISPOSAL BEHAVIOUR: 
EVIDENCE FROM GHANA 
 
 
BY 
 
MELONY ADJELEY ANKAMAFIO 
(10326902) 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS 
SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF 
THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN 
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (MARKETING OPTION) DEGREE 
 
 
 
 
JUNE 2017 
DECLARATION 
I do hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own research and has not been 
presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other University.  I bear sole 
responsibility for any shortcomings.  All references used in the work have been fully 
acknowledged. 
 
This thesis has been arranged according to the guidelines for postgraduate study by the 
University. 
 
 
 
 
 
………………………………………..   ……………………………… 
MELONY ADJELEY ANKAMAFIO    DATE 
(10326902) 
  
i 
 
CERTIFICATION 
I hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down by 
the University of Ghana, Legon.  
 
 
 
……………………………………….   ……………………………… 
DR. ERNEST Y. TWENEBOAH-KODUAH           DATE 
(SUPERVISOR) 
 
 
 
 
……………………………………….   ……………………………… 
DR. PRINCE KODUA       DATE 
(CO-SUPERVISOR) 
 
 
 
ii 
 
DEDICATION 
“I’ve come thus far by faith, leaning on the Lord; trusting in His Holy name, for He’s never 
failed me yet …” 
This thesis is dedicated unto Him who is able to do far more than the human mind can 
imagine; to the One who remembers me in my low estate. To God Almighty alone be the 
Glory; may His name be praised forever.  Amen.   
 To Faculty at the Department of Marketing and Entrepreneurship of the University of 
Ghana Business School who the Lord Almighty used to preserve my life during this 
academic journey.   
To the Ankarah family for believing in me, my friend and brother, Nii Adjabeng who has 
been my inspiration and support system; to my late grandma, Mrs. Augustina Puplampu, 
this is one of the best things you wished for me and to all dear ones who supported me 
through thick and thin to complete this work.  I say, “God richly bless you”. 
  
iii 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
I wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Ernest Yaw Tweneboah-
Koduah for his guidance, corrections and insightful suggestions throughout the supervision 
of this thesis.  I equally express my honest appreciation to my co-supervisor, Dr. Prince 
Kodua for his timely criticism that helped shape this work.  I appreciate you, Sirs. 
My earnest gratitude to Professor Bedman Narteh and Dr. Mahama Braimah for keeping me 
on my toes throughout the entire work.  Many thanks to Dr. Daniel Quaye and Dr. Samuel 
Buame for your motivation.  You all have been wonderful fathers to me in your own special 
way.  Also to our only Mother in the department, Dr. (Mrs) Adelaide Kastner, I say, “thanks 
mummy”, for your prayers, support, and words of encouragement.  I am forever grateful.  
Special thanks also goes to Dr. Kwame Adom for his support and advice throughout the 
entire period of this work; many thanks for the office space. To Drs. Raphael Odoom, 
George Acheampong, Thomas Dorson and Mr. Pascal Agbadi for their immense 
contributions, commitments and supports, especially, during the SEM class.  To my seniors,  
Masters Kojo Twum, Atsu Nkukpornu, Isaac Coffie, Ibn Kailan as well as my MPhil  
colleagues Alex Anlesinya, Patrick Amfo and Fred Asiedu whom I shared academic 
thoughts  and received insightful suggestions.   
I further acknowledge my cousin, Christian Mensah, for being with me in the sun and in the 
rain especially, during the data collection phase, and also Yaa Amponsah Twumasi my sister 
from another mother. Finally, to every individual in the MPhil class as we continued to live 
as one big family. You have been awesome in showing true love towards mankind; thanks 
for being there for each other. I could not have asked for anyone better than you.  Indeed, I 
am better off with you at UG; God bless you loads!  
iv 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Contents                         Page  
 
DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. i 
CERTIFICATION .............................................................................................................. ii 
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... v 
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... viii 
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND SYMBOLS ..................................... x 
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... xiii 
 
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 
1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ............................................................................ 1 
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT ......................................................................................... 4 
1.2 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 8 
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................ 9 
1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY .................................................................................................... 9 
1.5 THESIS DISPOSITION ............................................................................................ 10 
1.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY ........................................................................................... 11 
 
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 13 
CONTEXT OF THE STUDY .......................................................................................... 13 
2.0   INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 13 
2.1 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL (SDG) AND WASTE DISPOSAL ..... 13 
2.2 GEOGRAPHICAL AND PHYSICAL SETTING OF GHANA .............................. 15 
2.3 HISTORY OF SANITATION IN GHANA .............................................................. 16 
2.4 KEY STAKEHOLDERS IN WASTE MANAGEMENT ......................................... 17 
2.4.1 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ................................................... 18 
2.4.2 Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD) .................. 19 
2.4.3 Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) ............................................................... 19 
2.5 SANITATION SITUATION IN GREATER ACCRA REGION ............................. 22 
2.5.1 Sanitation in Slum Area – Nima ......................................................................... 25 
2.6 INFORMAL AND FORMAL SANITATION SERVICE PROVIDERS ................. 26 
2.6.1 Zoomlion Waste Management Company Limited (ZWMCL) ........................... 27 
2.6.2 Jekora Ventures Limited (JV) ............................................................................. 28 
2.7 STAKEHOLDERS ENGAGEMENTS / PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP ...... 29 
2.8 SANITATION CAMPAIGNS / INTERVENTIONS ............................................... 30 
2. 9 CHAPTER SUMMARY .......................................................................................... 35 
 
v 
 
CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 36 
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. 36 
3.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 36 
3.1 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL MARKETING ......................................................... 36 
3.2 DEFINITIONS AND DOMAINS OF SOCIAL MARKETING .............................. 37 
3.3 CONTRASTING SOCIAL MARKETING AND COMMERCIAL MARKETING 39 
3.4 TRADITIONAL MARKETING MIX (4PS) ............................................................ 40 
3.5 EXTENDED 4PS IN SOCIAL MARKETING ......................................................... 43 
3.6 DOWNSTREAM SOCIAL MARKETING .............................................................. 45 
3.7 UP-STREAM SOCIAL MARKETING .................................................................... 45 
3.8 BENCHMARKS FOR GENUINE SOCIAL MARKETING ................................... 48 
3.9 SOCIAL MARKETING CAMPAIGN ..................................................................... 51 
3.10 EFFECTIVENESS OF SOCIAL MARKETING .................................................... 52 
3.11 BEHAVIOUR CHANGE THEORIES ................................................................... 53 
3.11.1 Health Belief Model.......................................................................................... 53 
3.11.2 Traditional Exchange Theory ........................................................................... 55 
3.11.3 Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change Theory) ......................................... 56 
3.11.4 Diffusion of Innovation Model ......................................................................... 57 
3.11.5 Social Cognitive Learning Theory .................................................................... 58 
3.11.6 Theory of Planned Behaviour ........................................................................... 58 
3.11.6.1 Attitudes ..................................................................................................... 59 
3.11.6.2 Subjective Norms ....................................................................................... 62 
3.11.6.3 Perceived behavioural control .................................................................... 64 
3.12 ROLE OF DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTIC IN WASTE MANAGEMENT
 ......................................................................................................................................... 66 
3.13 EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF TPB AND WASTE MANAGEMENT ..................... 68 
3.14 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................ 68 
3.15 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS ................................................................................... 70 
3.16 CHAPTER SUMMARY ......................................................................................... 70 
 
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 72 
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 72 
4.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 72 
4.1 RESEARCH APPROACH ........................................................................................ 72 
4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN .............................................................................................. 74 
4.3 RESEARCH POPULATION .................................................................................... 75 
4.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE ....................................................................................... 75 
4.5 SAMPLE SIZE SELECTION ................................................................................... 77 
4.6 SOURCE OF DATA ................................................................................................. 77 
4.7 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT ................................................................................... 78 
4.7.1 Procedure for Data Collection ............................................................................ 80 
4.7.2 Reliability and Validity of Research Items ......................................................... 80 
4.8 ANALYSIS METHOD OF STUDY ......................................................................... 81 
4. 9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................. 82 
vi 
 
4.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY ......................................................................................... 83 
 
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................... 84 
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSES ....................................... 84 
5.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 84 
5.1 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................ 84 
5.2 SUMMARY STATISTICS FOR THE ITEMS IN THE TPB WASTE DISPOSAL 
QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................................................................... 87 
5.3 FACTOR ANALYSES ............................................................................................. 90 
5.3.1 Exploratory Factor Analyses .............................................................................. 90 
5.3.1.1 Principal Component Analysis and Inter-Item Reliability Analyses for Each 
Subscale.................................................................................................................... 93 
5.3.2 Confirmatory Factor Analyses ............................................................................ 94 
5.4 THE STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL (SEM) ............................................... 95 
5.4.1 Basic Composition of SEM ................................................................................ 96 
5.4.2 Validation of the Measurement Model: Psychometric Checks .......................... 97 
5.4.2.1 Convergent Validity ..................................................................................... 98 
5.4.2.2 Composite Reliability................................................................................... 99 
5.5 THE MEASUREMENT MODEL ........................................................................... 101 
5.5.1 Study—or Hypothesised—Model..................................................................... 103 
5.5.2 The Modified Study Model............................................................................... 105 
5.6 INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS IN RELATION TO THE HYPOTHESES
 ....................................................................................................................................... 107 
5.7 DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS ............................................................................. 109 
5.7.1 The Relationship between Antecedents of Waste Disposal and Waste Disposal 
Behaviour ................................................................................................................... 109 
5.7.2 The Impact of Demographic Variables on the Relationship between Antecedents 
of Waste Disposal and Waste Disposal Behaviour. ................................................... 113 
5.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY ......................................................................................... 114 
 
CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................... 116 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................ 116 
6.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 116 
6.1 SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY ....................................... 116 
6.2 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................... 118 
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCHERS .................................................. 121 
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INDUSTRY PRACTITIONERS .......................... 122 
6.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY ......................................................................................... 123 
 
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 124 
 
APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................................................... 141 
 
  
vii 
 
LIST OF TABLES 
Table 3.1: Andreasen’s six benchmark criteria ................................................................... 49 
Table 3.2: NSMC’s (National Social Marketing Centre) eight benchmark criteria ........... 50 
Table 5.1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ................................................... 85 
Table 5.2: Respondents’ Awareness of Sanitation Campaigns and Patronage of Sanitation 
Services ............................................................................................................... 87 
Table 5.3: Summary Statistics for the items in the TPB waste disposal questionnaire ...... 89 
Table 5.4: Factor Coefficients: Five Factor Solution. Rotated Component Matrix. ........... 92 
Table 5.5: KMO and Bartlett's Test .................................................................................... 92 
Table 5.6: Principal Component Analysis Inter-item reliability analyses for each subscale
 ............................................................................................................................ 94 
Table 5.7: Factor loadings (Standardised regression weights) for the 22-item TPB 
questionnaire ....................................................................................................... 95 
Table 5.8: Psychometric properties of the new 15-item TPB Questionnaire .................... 101 
Table 5. 9: Chi-square and Goodness of Fit Indices for Confirmatory Factor model of 
PBM .................................................................................................................. 102 
Table 5.10: Path and Statistical Coefficients of the Study Model .................................... 104 
Table 5.11: Path and Statistical Coefficients of the Modified Study Model .................... 106 
  
  
viii 
 
LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 2.1: Map of Ghana focusing on the location of Accra ............................................. 16 
Figure 2.2:  Waste management crisis in Accra .................................................................. 24 
Figure 2.3: Uncollected container at dump site. ................................................................. 26 
Figure 2.4: Sanitation Campaigns / Interventions located adjacent the Nima Police Station
 ......................................................................................................................... 34 
Figure 3.1: Conceptual Framework..................................................................................... 69 
Figure 5.1: The Hypothesised Model .................................................................................. 96 
Figure 5.2: The Measurement Model ................................................................................ 102 
Figure 5.3: The tested Study Model .................................................................................. 105 
Figure 5.4: The Modified Study Model ............................................................................ 106 
  
  
ix 
 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND SYMBOLS 
AB  - Actual Behaviour 
AFCON - African Cup of Nations  
AGFI  -  Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index  
AIC  - Akaike Information Criterion 
AMA  - Accra Metropolitan Assembly 
APF   - Advanced Process Fee  
AT  - Attitude 
AVE  - Average Variance Extracted 
BCC  - Brown-Cudeck Criterion. 
BCONTROL - Perceived Behavioural Control 
BI  - Behavioural Intention 
CA  - Cronbach Alpha  
CFA  - Confirmatory Factor Analysis 
CFI  - Comparative Fit Index 
CONIWAS - Coalition of NGOs in Water and Sanitation  
CR   - Composite Reliability 
df.  -  Degree of Freedom 
DFID  - Department for International Development  
EFA   - Exploratory Factor Analysis 
GFI  - Goodness-of-Fit Index  
GH.   - Ghana 
GHS  - Ghana Health Service 
GIBA  - Ghana Independent Broadcasters’ Association  
GTV  - Ghana Television Netork 
HBM   - Health Belief Model 
IFI  - Incremental Fit Index 
JHS   - Junior High School 
KMO   - Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin  
M   - Mean  
MDG  - Millennium Development Goal 
MoH  - Ministry of Health 
MPHD  - Metropolitan Public Health Department  
x 
 
MSW  - Municipal Solid Waste  
MSW  - Municipal Solid Waste  
NAWABIN  - National Waste Bin Distribution Programme   
NESCON - National Environmental Sanitation Conference  
NESSAP - National Environmental Sanitation Strategy Action Plan 
NFI  - Normed Fit Index 
NGO  - Non Governmental Organisation 
NSD  -  National Sanitation Day 
NSMC  - National Social Marketing Centre 
PBC  - perceived behavioural control  
PBC  - Perceived Behavioural Control 
PGFI   - Parsimonious Goodness of Fit index  
PNFI   - Parsimonious Normed Fit Index  
PPP   - Public Private Partnerships  
RFI  - Relative Fit Index 
RMR  - Root-mean-square Residual 
RMSEA - Root-Mean-Square-Error of Approximation  
RNI  - Relative Non-Centrality Index 
SB  - Subjective norm 
SD  -  Standard Deviation 
SDG  - Sustainable Development Goal 
SEM  - Structural Equation Modelling 
SHS   - Senior High School 
Sig.  - Significance 
SPSS  - Statistical Package for Social Science 
Std.  - Standard 
SUBNORM - Subjective Norm 
TLI  - Tucker-Lewis Index 
TPB  - Theory of Planned Behaviour 
TPD  - tons per day 
TV  -  Television 
UK  - United Kingdom 
UN  - United Nations 
UNDP  - United Nations Development Programme 
xi 
 
UNICEF - United Nations’ International Children Emergency Fund 
USAID - United States Agency for International Development  
WASH -  Water Sanitation and Hygiene 
WHO  - World Health Organisation 
WMD  - Waste Management Department 
 
SYMBOLS  
β  - Beta 
¢   - Cedis  
χ²  - Chi-square  
$  - dollar 
>   - Greater than 
<  - Less than 
λ  - Standardised factor loadings  
Ʃ  -  Sum (Sigma) 
 
  
xii 
 
ABSTRACT 
The purpose of this study was to use the Theory of Planned Behaviour in social marketing 
to examine the behavioural intentions and actual waste disposal behaviour of Ghanaians. 
This developing country context study into waste disposal is focused on the use of a social 
marketing theory to assess the factors affecting the adoption of waste disposal behaviour as 
a means of resolving the country’s waste problems.  The study, therefore, sought to assess 
the effect of individual attitudes, perceived behavioural control, and subjective norms on the 
intentions by individuals to dispose of waste, and the consequent impact on the actual 
adoption of waste disposal behaviour. This study also acknowledges the importance of 
demographic variables such as age, gender, education, and income level in social marketing 
studies and therefore was also assessed to find out how they affect waste disposal behaviour.  
The study adopted the use of a quantitative approach using survey questionnaires as the 
source of data collection from 310 respondents.  The respondents were selected using 
convenient sampling technique.  A structural equation modelling was used to analyse the 
relationship between the variables. This study found that apart from subjective norms, 
individuals’ attitudes, and perceived behaviour control has a statistical and significant 
relationship with behavioural intentions to dispose of waste. This implies that the subjective 
norms contrary to other studies could not affect the intentions of respondents to dispose of 
waste. The intentions of the respondents were found to have a significant relationship with 
actual waste disposal. The study, therefore, concludes that social marketing interventions 
on waste disposal should ensure the formative studies; such that identifying the intentions 
to adopt the behaviour is understood. The demographic variables used were found not to 
affect the differences in the adoption of waste disposal behaviour.  This study concludes that 
the age, education, income, and gender of individuals do not lead to differences in waste 
disposal behaviour. The findings of this study contribute to the literature on the use of social 
marketing principles to develop social marketing interventions in a developing country 
context.   
xiii 
 
CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
 
1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY  
In recent times, the attitudes of individuals’ responsibility towards unwholesome practices 
have received much attention in various jurisdictions including water, hygiene and 
sanitation.  The global attention being given to basic sanitation as a social issue has become 
one of the important goals to reduce sanitation health-related problems and to close the 
inequality gaps between developed and developing countries (Sustainable Development 
Goal – SDG, 2015).  In considering wholesome sanitation practices, it may be worth 
examining the phenomenon (of good sanitation) through the lenses of peoples’ attitudes 
towards waste disposal behaviours or waste management practices.  This is because human 
activities have always resulted in the generation of waste (Giusti, 2009).  Waste is generally 
described as the unwanted or unusable material that is disposed of by its users (Elsaid & 
Aghezzaf, 2015a).  Arguably, the issue of waste disposal was not a major problem until 
there was urbanisation and large conurbations (Giusti, 2009).  Waste disposal behaviours 
and management is perhaps, major challenge countries are facing in modern cities (Adu-
Boahen, Atampugre, Antwi, & Osman, Osei, 2014).   
Over the years, governments have adopted mechanisms to control waste in communities 
especially, using technology which have proven ineffective (Adu-Boahen et al., 2014).  
However, Elsaid and Aghezzaf (2015a; 2015b), iterate that waste management must be an 
integral and important part of the environmental management system.  This involves all 
responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes and resources for establishing a system that 
ensures the effective management of waste and compliance to environmental regulation.  In 
1 
 
this regard, the individual’s responsibility towards proper waste disposal behaviours as well 
as management practices is necessary.   
Health-wise, good sanitation is an establishment for wellbeing that bears insurance from an 
extensive variety of contaminations and diseases that lead to deaths (Jenkins & Scott, 2007).  
In support of this  postulation, organisations and scholars have argued that health problems 
such as cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, and typhoid are predominantly induced 
by improper sanitation most especially, in sub-Saharan Africa including Ghana (World 
Health Organisation [WHO], 2014; 2015; United Nations International Children’s 
Emergency Fund [UNICEF], 2014; 2015; Oteng-Ababio, 2012; Oteng-Ababioo, Aguello & 
Gabby, 2013; 2010b; Ali, Lopez, You, Kim, Sah, Maskery & Clemens, 2012; Pehr, 2010; 
Thompson, 2010; Gaffga, Tauxe & Mintz, 2007).  For example, as of 24th May, 2015, a 
total of 591 cholera cases with 5 deaths were reported.  In this regard, the WHO (2015) 
further described the Greater Accra region as the epicentre for cholera outbreak and thus 
recommended the need to intensify multi-sectorial response interventions, especially, in the 
area of water, sanitation and hygiene to curb the problem.   However, not many are aware 
of the linkage between improper waste disposal or poor sanitation and human health (Adu-
Boahene et al., 2014).   This perhaps, explains that the Ghanaian context has not featured 
prominently to enable one appreciate the phenomenon being investigated.   
According to the USAID (usaid.gov/pdf docs), social marketing campaigns in waste 
management had contributed significantly in the attainment of specific objectives.  The use 
of social marketing campaign by the EcoGov2 in their solid waste management project 
made certain key social marketing campaign issues paramount: conduct situational analysis, 
select target audience, set objectives and goals, analyse target audience, develop marketing 
strategies, develop a plan for evaluating the programme, determine budget and funding, and 
complete the implementation (usaid.gov/pdf docs). 
2 
 
Despite much efforts through campaigns, sanitation and waste management issues remain a 
major social problem (Oteng-Ababioo et al., 2013; Owusu, 2010) and  continue to have 
health implications in both developed and developing world (Bartram & Caincross, 2010).  
According to Adu-Boahen et al. (2014), there is a physical evidence to demonstrate that 
Ghana faces a waste management problem.  Truthfully, visits to some cities and towns 
reveal heaps of uncontrolled rubbish, polythene bags and overflowing dumping sites.  
Notwithstanding, economic activities to an extent, have been connected to generating some 
waste – in that, it is being realised that as nations populously urbanise and end up noticeably 
wealthier, their utilisation of inorganic materials (e.g. plastics, papers, glasses, aluminum) 
also increase (World Bank, 2015).  It is, therefore, imperative to facilitate solid waste 
management with a more coordinated approach.  For example, to incorporate environmental 
and monetary or economic ideas for handling waste, such as “source separation; recovery 
of waste; legitimisation of the informal systems; partial privatisation and public 
participation” (Glawe, Visvanathan & Alamgir, 2005).  Hence, by considering all the 
activities required to handle or manage waste from its inception to its final disposal, 
successful and effective waste administration procedures in developing world requires the 
significant inclusion of the concerned partners (Alamgir, Bidlingmaier & Cossu, 2012).    
Kelessidis and Stasinakis (2012) identified cultural orientation and strict regulations as some 
of the differences between developed and developing countries because more stringent 
legislations have been adopted for waste disposal and management (such as treatment 
technologies and solid waste segregation) in developed countries.  Meanwhile, sanitation 
and improper liquid or solid waste disposal and management behaviours in developing 
countries could be attributed to cultural orientation, behavioural attitudes, lack of knowledge 
about the effect of poor sanitation, poverty and lack of education amongst individuals (Adu-
3 
 
Boahen et al., 2014; Monney, 2014; Owusu, 2010).  Nevertheless, this seemingly poor 
orientation and attitudes have social implications.   
According to Kotler and Lee (2008; 2011), social and health issues have behavioural causes 
that need behavioural change towards prevention.  Therefore, using social marketing (SM) 
as an important tool to change or modify human behaviour in social and public health 
problems is commendable.  Also, scholars are of the view that social marketing helps to 
understand reasons for the individual’s action so as to positively influence their behaviour 
for societal good (Tapp, Pressley, Baugh & White, 2013; Kotler & Lee, 2008; Gordon, 
MacDermott, Stead & Angus., 2006; Andreasen, 2002; Kotler, Roberto & Lee, 2002).  In 
this regard, social marketing approach is deemed fit for social and public health issues such 
as waste disposal behaviours and waste management practices.  
Social marketing is defined as “the systematic application of marketing concepts alongside 
other concepts and techniques to achieve specific behavioural goals for a social good” 
(French, Blair-Stevens, McVey & Merrit, 2010).  Scholars such as Charles and Ryan (2011) 
have argued that strategies may have failed due to the absence of behaviour change theories 
as a tool since behaviour change could not be effective without the use of a theory 
(Andreasen, 2002).   Furthermore, French et al. (2010), emphasise that it is valuable to have 
an understanding of a theory as it can reinforce and boost the success of social marketing 
interventions (Tweneboah-Koduah, 2014). Consequently, behaviour change interventions 
adopt frameworks based on the assumption that individual attitudes play a vibrant role or 
part in the formation of intentions to perform a behaviour (Aung & Arias, 2006).  
 
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT 
Waste management has become a major problem due to urbanisation which has led to public 
health challenges (Giusti, 2009).  In Ghana, like other developing countries or economies, 
4 
 
the situation is very critical as ineffective waste management has implications on sanitation 
and public health (Jenkins & Scott, 2007).  It is, therefore, not surprising to see the increase 
in the number of research dedicated to the management of waste especially, in the area of 
solid waste (Skekdar, 2009; Gidarakos, Havas, & Ntzamilis, 2006; Rathi, 2006; Bai & 
Sutanto, 2002).  Similarly, construction waste (Solis-Guzman, Marrero, Montes-Delgadao 
& Ramírez-de-Arellano, 2009); and industrial and medical waste are discussed by Patil and 
Pokhrel (2005), Tsakona, Anagnostoulou and Gidarakos (2007) as well as Abd El-Salam 
(2010).  Meanwhile, works on household waste (Barr, 2007; Tucker & Speirs, 2003; Barr, 
Gilg & Ford, 2005; Choe & Fraser, 1999) and electronic waste are also well publicised by 
several authors (Kiddee, Naidu, Wong, 2013; Nnorom, & Osibanjo, 2008; Liu, Tanaka, & 
Matsui, 2006).  However, these studies have concentrated on the role of private and public 
institutions, technology, urban and town planning designs, waste management challenges, 
and waste management practices with little emphasis on behaviour change of individuals 
which is the core of social marketing.  This challenge, therefore, called for studies on how 
social marketing could be used to promote desirable behaviour relating to waste 
disposal/management in society.   
On the use of social marketing to promote proper waste management, some have advocated 
for the adoption of strategies to change the behaviour of individuals in waste management 
as well as health and sanitation issues (Adu-Boahene et al., 2014; Mariwah, 2012; Mara, 
Lane, Scott & Trouba, 2010; Jenkins & Scott, 2007). Despite the multiplicity of social 
marketing interventions and theories that have been applied to promote and study health 
issues such as: driving safety (Smith, 2006; Tapp, Pressley, Baugh, & White, 2013); 
smoking (Sowden & Arblaster, 1998); malaria prevention (Tweneboah-Koduah, Braimah 
& Otuo, 2012); HIV/AIDS (Tweneboah-Koduah, 2014; Tetteh, 2014; Manu & Siriam, 
1999; condom usage (Tweneboah-Koduah & Owusu-Frimpong, 2013); and cervical cancer 
5 
 
screening (Abotchie & Shokar, 2009), nonetheless, not many studies have relatively been 
done on waste disposal and management behaviours (Mariwah, 2012).  
A major challenge to researchers is on how to design behavioural models and frameworks 
for behaviour change campaigns (Dreibelbis, Winch, Leontsini, Hulland, Ram, Unicomb, 
& Luby, 2013; Aung & Arias, 2006; Mee, Clewes, Phillips & Read, 2004).  Apart from 
social marketing theories and models such as Social Learning Theory, Social Cognitive 
Theory, and Health Believe Model (Dreibelbis et al., 2013), one of the behavioural models 
that has widely been replicated in behaviour studies is the Theory of Planned Behaviour 
(Armitage & Conner, 2001).  According to Hargreaves (2011), and Mancha and Yoder 
(2015), the theory of planned behaviour is probably the most used behavioural theory within 
the environment psychology research.  Streams of research relating to waste management 
that have used the theory of planned behaviour are in the areas of recycling (Ramayah, Lee 
& Lim, 2012; Bezzina & Dimich, 2011; Mahmud & Osman, 2010; Mannetti, Pierro, Livi, 
2004; Tonglet, Phillips & Read, 2004; Taylor & Todd, 1995);  pollution reduction (Cordano 
& Frieze, 2000); and green marketing (Kalafatis, Pollard, East & Tsogas, 1999).  This theory 
has also been applied to waste management behaviour including waste reduction, reuse, and 
recycling (Barr, 2007); household waste behaviour (Pakpour, Zeidi, Emamjomeh, 
Asefzadeh & Pearson, 2014) as well as to reduce plastic consumption (Hasan, Harun & 
Hock, 2015).  Despite the abundance of social marketing research using the Theory of 
Planned Behaviour, research using same theory especially, with regards to proper waste 
disposal practices has been seemingly lacking in Ghana.  It is expected that the use of the 
theory of planned behaviour will help appreciate the individuals’ intentions to perform 
proper waste disposal behaviour. There is, therefore, the need to commence social marketing 
studies directed at the considerate readiness of targets to perform the new behaviour.  It 
6 
 
could be argued that a lot of studies on social marketing had failed to assess the intentions 
of individuals to perform desirable behaviours.  
Again, waste management studies in Ghana have concentrated on health impact of waste 
(Boadi & Kuitunen, 2005); waste characterisation (Miezah, Obiri-Danso, Kádár, Fei-Baffoe 
& Mensah, 2015); sustainable e-waste management (Oteng-Ababio, 2010a; Prakash, 
Manhart, & Amoyaw-Osei, 2010); private sector involvement in waste management 
(Oteng-Ababio, 2009; Post, 1999); and problems of waste management (Post, 1999) 
amongst others.  This calls for research to assess how social marketing campaigns and or 
interventions influence behavioural intentions to adopt proper waste disposal behaviour. 
Social marketing campaigns are interventions that focus on influencing behaviour which 
attempts to create some benefits for families, communities, and societies at large rather than 
benefiting the organisation that produces the campaign (Prestin & Pearce, 2010).  Some of 
the principles regarding social marketing campaigns which need research attention are the 
identification of barriers impeding the behaviour, designing materials to overcome the 
challenges, and evaluating the campaign (Prestin & Pearce, 2010).  
It is also important to consider the use of the social marketing framework which advocates 
for the use of formative research to understand the target audience and their perceptions 
towards the behaviour regarding its barriers and benefits (Prestin & Pearce, 2010). This has 
led to the use of social marketing theories and models to conduct this formative studies. 
Some of these studies had used: the health belief model (Airhihenbuwa & Obregon, 2000; 
Deshpande, Basil, & Basil, 2009); the stages of change/transtheoretical model (Tweneboah-
Kodua & Owusu-Frimpong, 2013; Luga & Suggs, 2013; Lefebvre, 2011); and social 
cognitive theory (Bandura, 1998; Bandura, 2001).  Apart from these models that have 
received wide application in social marketing, the theory of planned behaviour is regarded 
7 
 
as one of the most widely used in social marketing research (Hardeman, Johnston, Johnston, 
Bonetti, Wareham & Kinmonth 2002; Kalafatis, Pollard, East & Tsogas, 1999).  From the 
available research, there seems to be relatively little research using the theory of planned 
behaviour in the area of behavioural change in waste disposal in Ghana.  Meanwhile, waste 
management requires an environmental behaviour change of individuals (Hargreaves, 2011; 
Tucker, & Speirs, 2003) and social marketing campaign principles could be used to change 
waste disposal behaviours in communities (Shrum, Lowrey, & McCarty, 1995).  
This study, therefore, seeks to assess how social marketing campaigns influence behaviour 
change towards waste disposal behaviour in Greater Accra – Ghana.  Thus, the research 
objectives are considered. 
 
1.2 OBJECTIVES 
The aim of this study is to assess the effectiveness of social marketing interventions in 
promoting the individual’s responsibility or attitude towards adopting proper waste disposal 
intentions.  The specific objectives, in line with this general aim, are as follows: 
1. To examine individual’s attitude towards waste disposal behaviour in Ghana. 
2. To examine the effect of subjective norms on individual waste disposal 
behaviour in Ghana. 
3. To examine the effect of perceived behavioural control of an individual on waste 
disposal behaviour in Ghana. 
4. To examine the moderating effect of demographic variables of age, gender, 
income and educational level on the relationship between predictors and waste 
disposal behaviour in Ghana. 
8 
 
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 
The relevance of the study can be viewed from three perspectives: research, practice and 
policy.  To research, this study would add to the seemingly scanty literature on the subject 
area within the Ghanaian context.  It would also contribute towards ensuring environmental 
sustainability with respect to change or modify behaviours towards refuse disposal (i.e. 
engaging in good sanitation practices) and having access to sanitation services in the Accra 
Municipality of the Greater Accra Region of Ghana.  The research findings would offer 
valuable insight to marketing practitioners on the existing social marketing campaigns or 
interventions and the impact that these interventions have on the actual progress towards 
achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) in Ghana.  This study seeks to establish 
that before social marketers introduce social marketing campaigns relating to waste 
disposal, there is the need to examine the factors which are likely to affect the adoption of 
the behaviour. This study would help in assessing whether Ghanaians have a positive 
attitude towards waste disposal. The study also seeks to understand whether the subjective 
norms of the community and influence from individuals help in affecting the waste disposal 
of individuals.  Furthermore, the study would also be of immense value towards 
understanding the social problems associated with wrongful refuse disposal and access to 
improved sanitation.  Thus, its outcome could serve as a basis for policy change in 
implementing sanitation programmes and solid waste management practices as well as 
improve upon stakeholder engagements to ensure a sustainable healthy environment.   
 
1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY 
According to a United Nation’s Organisation (see, UN-Habitat, 2002), slum dwellers have 
inadequate water, sanitation and other infrastructure; these characteristics are largely 
quantifiable and can be used to measure progress toward the sustainable development Goals 
9 
 
(SDG).  Slums are described to be highly engulfed with filth and susceptible to an outbreak 
of diseases (UN-Habitat, 2003).  In Accra, areas such as Nima-Mamobi, Sabon Zongo, Old 
Fadama, Chorkor, and James Town have been classified as slums (Owusu, Agyei-Mensah 
& Lund, 2008).  The study was conducted in a slum area of the Greater Accra region.  This 
area is also considered because it has a busy market that host many people and these people 
in their respective business activities also generate lots of waste.  Furthermore, Accra city 
is among the ten administrative regions in the country that is most densely populated and 
has daily records of highest tonnes of solid waste generated (Annepu & Themelis, 2013; 
AMA, 2006).  
 
1.5 THESIS DISPOSITION 
In this study, the work is sequentially organised into six parts or sections.   The first part is 
the introductory chapter (1); it encapsulates the general background, including research 
problem, objectives, relevance and scope of the study.  Secondly, the contextual background 
is presented in Chapter 2.  It gives an overview of the background and the sanitation issues 
that are confronted with Ghana.  It reports on the key stakeholders and various institutional 
structures put in place for sanitation concerns as well as examines transitions of sanitation 
campaign designed and experienced in Ghana.  This chapter also enumerates some 
sanitation campaigns in a decade and how such campaigns had influenced waste disposal 
behaviour in Ghana.  
Following the contextual background is the reviewed literature in chapter three (3).  It 
includes the presentation on sanitation, with much focus on waste management practices 
concepts and theories of behaviour change and acknowledges researchers in the research 
area and then a conceptual framework for the purpose of the study is explained.  
Sequentially, the research methodology is presented in chapter four (4).  It presents the 
10 
 
applied scientific approach describing the scientific methods and approaches used in order 
to provide the scientific value of the presented results.  It comprehensively discusses the 
approach employed for the research. The philosophical foundation surrounding the research; 
the processes for gathering data; the population, sample frame and size, data collection 
instrument and technique are provided in details.  The choice of a software package for 
analysing data is also explained.  
The methodology is followed by the presentation of findings from the provided data 
analysed and further discussed.  Thus, the chapter five (5) describes results from the 
collected data.  These are analysed and further discussed in relation to the research area in 
order to gain further understanding.  Finally, chapter six (6) is the closing chapter of the 
thesis.  It draws information from previous chapters to provide key findings that summarised 
and matched with the objectives of the study. Thus, leading to conclusions and appropriate 
recommendations as well as offers contributions to the concept of social intervention and 
campaigns on behaviour change. The chapter also presents implications for future studies 
as well as managerial implications of the research findings. 
 
1.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY 
Chapter one presents an overall foundation or background to the whole investigation. This 
is trailed by a description of the research problem motivating the study. The chapter then 
centres on giving introductory bits of knowledge on the theoretical gap by using the TPB in 
assessing the individuals’ intentions to perform proper waste disposal behaviour. These 
theoretical fields and other social marketing models are briefly mentioned to provide a 
snapshot and delimit the limit or confines of the study.  Based on the foregoing, a statement 
of the research problem in the early piece of the section provides the premise to listing the 
11 
 
key research objectives that drive the entire thesis. The chapter also highlights the import of 
the study and ends by indicating how the entire thesis is organised in terms of disposition. 
  
12 
 
CHAPTER TWO 
CONTEXT OF THE STUDY 
2.0   INTRODUCTION 
The context background of the study helps the reader to understand the particular context in 
which the study was carried out.  This chapter presents the general background of sanitation 
issues particularly, waste disposal behaviours and or management/practices in the capital 
city of Ghana. It reports on the sanitation situation and how waste management practices is 
structurally handled in the various institutions.  It further enumerates some transitions of 
social marketing campaigns and or interventions designed and experienced in Ghana, within 
a decade.   
 
2.1 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL (SDG) AND WASTE DISPOSAL 
It is essential in today’s world to encourage reasonable advancement.  The call to support 
sustainable development is a vision summarised in the new sustainable development agenda 
which aims to protect the environment in addition to promoting the well-being of people 
(United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2015).  The Sustainable Development 
Goals (SDGs), in like manner called ‘Global Goals’, are extensive invitation to take action 
to end deprivation, secure the environment and ensure that every person recognises peace 
and accomplishment by the year 2030 (UNDP, 2015).  The 2015 expiration date of the 
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) initiated a process to establish the Post-2015 
Development Agenda (i.e. Sustainable Development Goals). Some of the MDG initiatives 
were expanded and notably amongst them are the new goals related to water and sanitation, 
energy, climate change and inequality.  In spite of the way the MDGs simply associated 
with nations in the emerging world, interestingly, the SDGs evenly applies to every nation, 
in both the creating (emerging) and created (advanced) worlds (www.undp.org, 2015).  
13 
 
Thus, Ghana and the entire world would be held responsible for their development efforts 
and progress, come the year 2030.   
In Ghana, the goal to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG, Target 7c) on access 
to water was met (in 2010) ahead of time.  However, same could not be said of sanitation as 
the indicators for sanitation targets closely follow that of the global numbers.  According to 
the World Bank Report (2014), Ghana is second to Southern Sudan on open defecation.  
Furthermore, the Joint Monitoring Programme’s (JMP’s)  progress reports on sanitation and 
drinking water revealed that Ghana’s sanitation performance fell the from 10th worst 
performing country in 2014, to become the world’s 7th worst performing country (UNICEF 
& WHO, 2015; WHO & UNICEF, 2015).  Statistically, Ghana’s sanitation coverage stands 
at 15 percent while countries like Syria and Afghanistan have coverages of 96 percent and 
32 percent respectively.  Thus, to change Ghana’s status as one of the world’s worst 
performing countries with regards to sanitation issue that are detrimental to the environment, 
there is a consolidated call for action to accelerate sanitation progress (UNICEF and WHO 
, 2013; 2015) and close the sanitation gap (SDG, Target 6).   
Furthermore, an international development agency such as the United Nations Development 
Programme (UNDP), published that accomplishing the SDGs necessitates the association 
of governments, civil society, the private sector, as well as all residents alike to ensure 
superior planet for future generations (www.undp.org, 2015).  In the bid to respond to the 
universal call to action, it is imperative to contextualise the sustainable development goal 
(SDG) in the Ghanaian environment in order to better improve on the environmental 
sanitation problems.  Hence, the following sections take a cursory look at the nation Ghana, 
its sanitation issues and the efforts towards cleaner environments. 
14 
 
2.2 GEOGRAPHICAL AND PHYSICAL SETTING OF GHANA 
Geographically located on Africa’s West Coast is a country called The Republic Ghana.  
The country’s neighbours on the west are La Cote d’Ivoire, on the east is Togo, on the north 
is Burkina Faso and on the south is bordered by the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean).  In 
1957, Ghana turned into the main sub-Saharan nation to pick up freedom from the British.  
Ghana has ten (10) administrative regions, namely, Greater Accra, Eastern, Ashanti, 
Central, Volta, Western, Brong- Ahafo, Northern, Upper East, and Upper West.   Amongst 
the 10 regions, issues of sanitation, which is largely attributed to urban migration (Owusu, 
2010), is predominant in the Greater Accra region, especially in the capital city, Accra.  In 
this regard, the next section discusses Ghana’s sanitation history and further emphasises on 
Accra’s sanitation challenges.   Figure 2.1 below, depicts the map of Ghana with its focus 
on Accra, the smallest amongst the regions. 
 
15 
 
 
Figure 2.1: Map of Ghana focusing on the location of Accra 
Source: http://www.mapsopensource.com (2017)  
 
2.3 HISTORY OF SANITATION IN GHANA  
Ghana’s sanitation reforms have been a pressing concern long before independence.  During 
the twentieth century, the then British colony passed the Sanitary Legislative Ordinances 
16 
 
(1910) that was effective until the first half of the century (the 1950s).  The ordinance 
outlined basic sanitary practices which laid the foundation for sanitation progress during 
that time period (Addae, 1996).   
In time past, sanitation campaign through Town Council Officials ( locally referred as 
‘tankas’), as well as communal labour in various forms, were accepted by Ghanaians as 
some of the best home-grown social intervention to ensure environmental sanitation and 
help curb unsanitary practices in the country.  This relatively provided a comprehensive 
benefits package to prevent diseases as well other vices associated with insanitary 
behaviours (Addae, 1996; Anaman, 2006).  During the town council intervention, sanitary 
inspectors or officials inspected sanitation in and around houses to ensure proper sanitary 
practices.  These inspectors could summon sanitary offenders, and fine them, and also send 
them to court if they refuse to pay the fine.  This earned them (inspectors) the accolade 
known as ‘samansamam’ (i.e. one who summons).  Furthermore, the mobilisation of the 
citizenry for clean-up exercise in communities was common (Anaman, 2006).  However, 
the military takeover in 1966 reduced the State’s provision of social services which included 
sanitation services and thus, communal labour activities declined.  Structurally, Ghana has 
several institutions that are regarded as key stakeholders in the management of waste.  This 
is considered for discussion in the next section. 
 
2.4 KEY STAKEHOLDERS IN WASTE MANAGEMENT  
Institutional roles in sanitation and waste management cannot be overemphasised.  In 
Ghana, there are numerous institutions that play different, yet synergistic roles to ensure 
clean and sustainable environment with regards to sanitary practices.   However, it is 
established that major cities in Ghana are still grappling with waste management issues even 
though Ghana government has in place most of the Agencies, institutions and policies for 
17 
 
managing waste (Mariwah, 2012).  The author further explains that for these institutions to 
maximise the effectiveness of their core mandate and be efficient, it is essential for 
institutions to link up with each other in order to respond to the many forms of waste 
management problems.  This implies that institutional capacity coupled with good 
stakeholder coordination may translate into effective waste management service delivery in 
the Accra metropolis (Mariwah, 2012).  The key stakeholders or representatives include 
National authorities of local authorities in Ghana, such as Environmental Protection Agency 
(EPA), Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD), Accra 
Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) as well as other stakeholders or private sectors in liquid and 
solid waste management.  In this regard, it is necessary to identify the roles of institutions 
in sanitation and waste management.  The next sections discuss the institutions and Agencies 
involved in waste management in Ghana. 
2.4.1 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 
The EPA is the authoritative body accountable for guaranteeing and enhancing the Ghanaian 
environment. The Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1994 was passed by Parliament 
for such core mandate. They must ensure that air, land, and water are legitimately taken care 
of by everybody in the present society, with the goal that tomorrow's eras acquire cleaner 
and more beneficial world.  This office has existed for over 30 years and has workplaces 
crosswise over Ghana and implementing policies as well as completing government tasks. 
For example, investigating and managing organisations, and responding when there is a 
crisis, such as contamination occurrence.  The organisation/agency is likewise responsible 
for decongestion exercises. 
 
18 
 
2.4.2 Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD) 
In Ghana, the general waste administration is the duty of the Ministry of Local Government 
and Rural Development (MLGRD). The service coordinates and directs the decentralised 
Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs), in charge of the gathering and 
last transfer of solid waste through their Waste Management Departments (WMDs) and 
their Environmental Health and Sanitation Departments (EHSD). Be that as it may, the 
administrative expert is vested in the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under the 
sponsorship of the Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology and Innovation. In 
2011 and 2012, the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development with the support 
of some development partners organised the first and second National Environmental 
Sanitation Conference (NESCON).  This provided the platform for sector professionals and 
research bodies to showcase cutting-edge technologies and strategies to deal with the 
sanitation problems in the country but, the effort has been curtailed for lack of funds 
(Monney, 2014).   
2.4.3 Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA)  
The Accra metropolitan agency (first Accra municipal council) was established in 1898 
under the provision of the Town Council Ordinance of 1894 to give municipal or civil 
administrations to the community (Acquah, 1958).  These administrations or services 
incorporated the arrangement of road lighting by paraffin lights, the development of 
channels, foundation of burial grounds, end of trash from avenues, and the arrangement of 
clean drinking water (Dickson, 1969). After freedom in 1957, the arrangement of urban 
metropolitan administrations kept on being the obligation of the Accra City Council and 
waste administration went under the control of the Chief Medical Officer and the 
Mechanical Engineering Department of the Accra City Council. In 1985, because of 
heightening waste administration emergency in Accra, the waste administration division 
19 
 
(WMD) was made with help from the German government to oversee waste in Accra (Boadi 
and Kuitunen, 2003; Asomani-Boateng and Haight, 1998). To do this, it is given the 
command to raise and hold incomes through direct client charges. 
The local government Act 883 (Act462) and its legislative instrument, 1994 (LI1589) in 
1993 set up the AMC as the managerial locale called the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, 
AMA (ISSER, 2000).  The regulatory locales are additionally subdivided into domains or 
areas of distinctive Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs).   The Accra 
metropolitan Assembly (AMA) is among the sixteen (16) metropolitan, municipal and 
district of the Greater Accra Region of Ghana (www.ghanadistrict.com, 2017). It is 
presently the highest political and authoritative organ in Accra and has administrative, 
deliberative and official elements of government. AMA’s functions include providing sound 
sanitary and healthy environment; arranging and controlling improvement of every 
infrastructure (for instance, markets, lorry parks, et cetera) inside the city; and providing 
public safety.  In order for the Assembly to effectively and efficiently perform its tasks, it is 
upheld by various functional Departments.  These departments include:  Waste Management 
Department; Metropolitan Public Health Department; Metropolitan Education Department; 
and Town and Country Planning Department.   Nonetheless, for the relevance of this study, 
the waste management and metropolitan public health departments are discussed in brief. 
i) Wastes Management Department 
The waste management department (WMD) regulates and screens the exercises of 
private temporary workers connected with the Assembly in solid and fluid waste 
transfer.  It is likewise in charge of purging of lanes and channels or drains, open places, 
and weeding of grass on roadsides and open spots. It participates in the instruction of 
20 
 
the general populace on waste management and the arrangement of sanitation facilities 
in homes. 
ii) Metropolitan Public Health Department  
The Department of Public Health (MPHD) of the AMA was set up to advance and shield 
general well-being of the citizenry.  It is engaged with surveying, remedying and 
keeping those elements in the condition that can possibly influence the soundness of 
present and future eras in a negative manner. These natural components might be 
physical, organic, social or psychosocial. Therefore, the division speaks to the viewing 
of the considerable number of administrations or services required to advance in an 
environmental situation that will enable occupants to flourish well physically, rationally 
and socially. The MPHD functions include food hygiene and market sanitation 
premises; survey for control of environmental health risks; enforcement of sanitation 
bye-laws of the Assembly; disease, vector and pest control; and environmental health 
guidelines. 
 
Irrespective of the various institutions and their several roles, it is observed that various 
institutional difficulties emerge when urban communities outgrow the municipal area.   
Notable amongst these challenges is the issue of waste management behaviours.   For 
instance in Accra, municipal waste generated in the city keeps rising as the urban landscape 
is filled with uncollected rubbish especially, in the ill-served poorer quarters (slum areas) 
(Oteng-Ababio et al., 2013; Owusu, 2010; Asomani-Boateng & Haight, 1998).  
The Accra Metropolitan Assembly is grouped under the ten (10) sub-metropolitan districts 
of Ablekuman - South, North, and Central; Ayawaso – South, East, and Central; Ashiedu 
Keteke; Okaikkwei - North and South;  Asiedu-Keteke (ama.gov.gh, 2017).  With the 
existence of all these service providers, Accra is engulfed in filth.  Hence, the subsequent 
21 
 
sections describe the state of sanitation in Accra and its suburbs and the 
engagements/activities of waste delivery services in the nation’s capital, Accra.  
  
2.5 SANITATION SITUATION IN GREATER ACCRA REGION 
Greater Accra Region (GRA) is the door to Ghana and home of a dynamic capital city, 
Accra.  Although it is the smallest of ten administrative regions (see, figure 2.1), it is the 
most heavily populated district. The region boasts of the two magnificent metropolitan 
spaces of Accra and Tema, the Country's major manufacturing and commercial/ business 
centres.  As the capital of Ghana, the Accra city is one of the quickest developing urban 
communities in West Africa.  In 2000, the city had an expected populace of 1.7 million with 
a populace development rate of around 3.4% every year (Ghana Statistical Service [GSS], 
2002).  Notwithstanding, urban population estimation measure in the Greater Accra region 
has ascended to about 4.5 million of the total population (GSS, 2012; GSS, 2015).   
Yankson, Kofie, and Moller-Jensen (2004) reveal that the estimated physical extension of 
urban Accra was 25 km2 consistently for the period 1991-2002.  In any case, the official 
(and now to a great extent obsolete) city boundaries of the bordering areas of Ga and Tema 
are developing at speedier rates; 6.4 and 9.2% respectively and thus prompting urban sprawl 
and uncontrolled physical extension past the common limit of Accra Metropolitan Area 
(Twum-Baah, 2002; Benneh, Songsore, Nabila, Amuzu, Tutu, Yangyuoru & McGranahan, 
1993).  These seemingly trickle-down effects of uncontrolled expansion has given rise to 
sanitation problems in the urban space (Boadi & Kuitunen, 2003; Owusu, 2010).  
At the moment, the status of environmental sanitation in Accra misses the mark and fails to 
impress anyone in view of the various health-related issues it poses.  In the Accra 
metropolis, piles of spilt-over (overfull) refuse containers are seen all through the urban 
centres particularly, near squatter settlements and markets as rodents have their filled day in 
22 
 
such dirty environments.   The unpredictable transfer of waste particularly, in conduits and 
seepage channels have regularly offered to ascend to flooding as a persistent phenomenon 
in the city (Ghana Meteorological Service GMS, 1995; AMA, 2006; Quartey-Ankrah, 
2011).  As indicated by Boadi et al. (2004), under 40% of urban occupants are served by a 
solid waste collection service and just around 10% of solid waste produced are appropriately 
arranged or disposed of (Ofori-Boateng, Lee & Mensah, 2013).  Consequently, the 
obstruction of free flow of drains is as a result of the ineffectively managed wastes and poor 
waste disposal behaviours which have frequently affected many lives.  A typified example 
is the June 3rd, 2015 ‘double disaster’ characterised by water and fire.   
In affirmation to this problems, City Authorities of the Greater Accra Municipal Assembly 
(GAMA), admit the unsuitable condition of sanitation in Accra, which is described by stifled 
drains, unselective waste disposal and uncollected refuse in central waste receptacles which 
end up in drainages and other open systems (AMA, 2006; 2017; Owusu, 2010).  As the 
national capital and largest city, coupled with high population growth and activities of the 
people, Accra generates waste between 1500 and 1800 tonnes per day while an average of 
1200 (66%) tonnes are collected daily (AMA, 2006).  Annepu and Themelis (2013) also 
reported that Accra generated about 2,000 tonnes per day (TPD) of municipal solid waste 
(MSW), of which over 75% was collected, while a feasibility study by WasteCare 
Associates (2013) further estimated that Accra generates waste of between 2000 and 2,500 
tonnes daily.  The picture below in Figure 2.2 depicts the waste management issues in some 
parts of Accra metropolis. 
 
 
 
23 
 
Figure 2.2:  Waste management crisis in Accra 
Source: citifmonline, 2014 
 
Having realised that Ghana’s sanitation falls short, some initiatives such as the “Sanitation 
Challenge Ghana Initiate Award” in June 2016, was sponsored by the United Kingdom’s 
Department for International Development (UK DFID). The award is to incentivise 
MMDAs to prioritise and improve upon urban sanitation delivery. Cash prizes were 
awarded to regions such as Volta, Eastern, and Northern, to roll out programmes to address 
sanitary conditions in their Assemblies.  However, it is worth noting the fact that Accra, the 
filthiest capital city with its numerous slums, was nowhere near the prizes awarded.  Hence, 
the sanitation situation requires much attention especially, from city authorities as well as 
all stakeholders.  In this regard, the next section reviews a suburb of Accra which is 
earmarked as a slum.   
24 
 
2.5.1 Sanitation in Slum Area – Nima 
It is established that Accra has many fast-growing, low-income communities with minimal 
infrastructure for waste disposal.  In such areas, waste washes into drainage ways and 
subsequently causes the increases in flooding (Owusu, 2010; AMA, 2006).   This study 
focuses on a suburb of Accra called Nima; a flood-prone area, which is also known to be 
the largest slum in Accra.  Nima is found in Ayawaso District under the AMA as far as 
sanitation and waste management service delivery is concerned.  Even though Nima is a 
residential town in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana, it is described as the largest urban 
slum settlement in Accra, and also ranks 18th amongst the top 20 slums in Africa.  According 
to the UN-Habitat (2008; 2009), people living in slums find it inconveniencing to access 
clean drinking water and also live with poor sanitation facilities (Owusu, 2010).   According 
to Boadi and Kuitunen (2003), the deficiencies in properly set down lanes and unreasonably 
narrow as well as untarred roads, particularly, in slums areas, make it troublesome for waste 
gathering vehicles to accomplish their services in a couple of areas of the city.  Thus, waste 
containers may be sited at open places where slum residents could go and dump their refuse 
at a fee of which residents of Nima are of no exception.    However, some of this rubbish 
are sometimes left uncollected even though residents may continue to dump their waste.  As 
shown below in the image (see, figure 2.1), is a typified example of an uncollected waste 
container at a dump site with spillovers.   To this end, the subsequent sections discuss the 
activities of waste management service providers in both the informal and formal sectors. 
25 
 
 
Figure 2.3: Uncollected container at dump site.  
Source: Monney (2014). www.modernghana.com/newsphoto  
 
2.6 INFORMAL AND FORMAL SANITATION SERVICE PROVIDERS  
Recognising the supply chains, distribution centres, and small-scale sanitation business 
visionaries or entrepreneurs are important to guarantee reasonable access to enhanced 
sanitation amenities and services (Devine & Kullmann, 2011; Mariwah, 2012).  In Ghana 
and Accra in particular, the disappointment of the WMD to accomplish wanted outcomes 
(cleaner cities) necessitated for private sector participation in solid waste management in 
1995.  Since then, the WMD has privatised 80 percent of waste management in Accra (Boadi 
& Kuitunen, 2003).  Hence, there are many actors that provide sanitation and waste 
management services in the formal sector as well as those in the informal sectors (locally 
called ‘kaya bola’) who help to keep the city clean.  However, informal activities have been 
26 
 
less recognised as relevant actors.  They are, therefore, hardly integrated into waste 
management system despite the immense contribution.   They are the non-registered waste 
pickers, including waste carriers, scavengers and waste recyclers (Boadi & Kuitunen, 2003). 
On the other hand, there are some registered companies dotted in certain districts (eg. Jekora 
Ventures) while others operate throughout out the country.  Prominent amongst them is the 
Zoomlion Waste Management Company Limited which, has almost become a household 
name and simply referred as ‘Zoomlion’.  Some of these registered sanitation service 
providers are contracted by the government to manage waste that is generated in some parts 
of the cities across the nation.  As an example, the next sub-sections further review the 
activities of two of such sanitation service providers in the formal sector.  
2.6.1 Zoomlion Waste Management Company Limited (ZWMCL) 
Zoomlion Ghana Limited (ZGL) is “a giant in the waste management as well as 
environmental sanitation business in Ghana and Africa” (Zoomlion, 2017). This firm which 
was framed in January 2006, under the company’s Act, with an aggregate centre staff of 
3,000.  Zoomlion offers janitorial services to both private and public organisations; to 
commercial, industrial and residential clients. The firm has spread its operations to other 
African nations, for instance, Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Liberia, Togo, and Zambia 
(Zoomlion, 2017). Notable is its international services in janitorial and environmental 
sanitation during the African Cup of Nations (AFCON) in Ghana and Angola in the years 
2008 and 2010 respectively.  The firm provides the services in solid waste collection; liquid 
waste collection and haulage; communal container services; tricycles waste collection; 
vector (pest) control; landfill site management fabrication and sale of waste management 
equipment; water tanker services; landscaping and beautification; street and drain cleaning; 
as well as capacity building.  Zoomlion’s proposition is to fulfil customers and clients by 
consistently enhancing operations to make sanitation service delivery cost-effective.   
27 
 
Furthermore, the organisation oversees more than 85,000 labourers under different types of 
Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) (Zoomlion, 2017).  Thus, in light of Zoomlion’s expertise, 
the Ghana government, through its Ministry (MLGRD), has some waste management 
contract with Zoomlion Company limited to collect and dispose of garbage in all districts 
across the nation.  Their responsibilities, include lifting filled containers and street sweeping 
some areas of the Accra Metropolis (Mariwah, 2012). 
2.6.2 Jekora Ventures Limited (JV) 
The Jekora Ventures Limited (JV Ltd.) began its cleaning services in the year 2003.  JV Ltd. 
is one of the first to offer recycling services to its customers alongside solid waste source 
separation or segregation programme (Jekora Ventures Ltd., 2017).  This programme is 
incentive based and thus rewards clients by giving them discounts on their monthly bills, 
for efficiently separating or segregating their waste (such as organic, paper, plastic, textiles, 
etc.) in recyclable streams.  Myriad of JV’s activities featured in the news includes: weekly 
radio sensitisation programme on Hot 93.9 FM; SIC Life Trust Finance Limited cleans the 
streets of Tudu; The Netherlands finances 11 projects in water, sanitation ESPA’s Creating 
and capturing value (CAPVAL): Ghana WASH Window (GWW); YOUTHFES Ghana 
Project - Making wealth from Waste; WACEE'15: No waste to waste - Productive use of 
biomass (JV, 2017).  The WACEE (West African Clean Energy Environment) conferences 
usually exhibit partners with diverse ideas on how waste could be transformed into energy.  
This waste management contractor’s services are available for commercial and industrial 
clients of the Osu Klottey Sub-Metropolitan area of the Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA) 
and the Adentan Municipal Area (AMA).  Nonetheless, residents could also deposit their 
recyclables at JV’s station located in Asylum down, Odawna or Jamestown, all in the 
Greater Accra region of Ghana. 
28 
 
Several other formal waste management service providers contracted by the AMA are 
Ayeety Brothers Company (ABC) Ltd., Liberty Waste (serves Ablekuman South), Mesk 
World  (Ashiedu Keteke), Asadu Royal waste serves Ablekuman South, Platinum Ltd. serve 
some parts of Ablekuman South, Okaikoi North, inter alia Ayawaso East  of which the study 
area (Nima) is a part.  However, the city authorities report that the services of some of these 
waste contractors have been appalling, see figure 2.3 above (AMA Report, 2014; 
www.myjooyonline.com).  Since the government, as well as its city authorities, is involved 
in engaging waste management entrepreneurs in the private sector, the next section 
discusses on stakeholder engagement or public private partnership (PPP).  
 
2.7 STAKEHOLDERS ENGAGEMENTS / PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP  
Effective waste managing in developing nations requires meaningful participation of 
concerned stakeholders/partners (Alagir 2012).  This is maintained by several waste 
management scholars who advocate that it is imperative to encourage partnership so as to 
fuse in the different sectors in the economy as an integrated system (Elsaid & Aghezzaf, 
2015a; 2015b; Oteng-Ababio, 2010b; Boadi & Kuitunen, 2003).  In addressing the solid 
waste menace, the government of Ghana has embarked on myriads of projects towards 
solving the sanitation problem, thereby, collaborating with several institutions.  For 
example, there is a project worth fifteen ($15) million dollars which is a public private 
partnership between Zoomlion and the government of Ghana.  In this partnership, Zoomlion 
is focused on continuing to build association (partnership) with local Authorities like 
Ministries, Department and Agencies (MDAs) of central Government; Metropolitan, 
Municipal and District Assembly (MMDAs); private sector customers; and the groups they 
serve.  The firm, in like manner, considers not barring rivals in the business, whom 
Zoomlion implies or refers to "associates" in the matter of keeping Ghana and Africa 
29 
 
spotless, green, and sound.  In such manner, the organisation has collaborated with top local 
and worldwide educational establishments to establish the Institute of Waste Management 
which would energise the sanitation industry with highly-skilled and well-trained personnel 
in Ghana and beyond.  
Additionally, the National Waste Bin Distribution Programme (NAWABIN) is a national 
waste partnership (PPP) that merges with Zoolion Gh Ltd., Melchia Investments Ghana 
Limited and the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD) to bring 
a sustainable solution to urban sanitation problems.  The waste bin distribution project is 
executed with the aid of National Service Personnel.  These service personnel are expected 
to visit house-to-house across the country to collect data to enable sanitation companies to 
deliver services to communities.  In this regard, the final section of this chapter reviews 
some of the sanitation campaigns and or interventions that have been used and upheld by 
several stakeholders in Ghana. 
  
2.8 SANITATION CAMPAIGNS / INTERVENTIONS 
Several sanitation campaigns and programmes have been rolled out in Ghana.  Such 
programmes are usually sponsored or supported by corporate organisations (as part of their 
corporate social responsibility) and several stakeholders.  Some of these campaigns have 
been identified from the researcher’s pilot study to find out if the citizenry is aware of any 
sanitation campaign.  The researcher is of the rational assumption that if an individual is 
able to recall a sanitation campaign that encourages good sanitation practice (ie. proper 
waste disposal behaviours), then the individual is likely to positively change behaviour.  
This is because the campaign may have been well positioned in the minds of the target 
audience.  However, this may not be the case in reality. In this regard, some of the campaigns 
or programmes that were favourably mentioned by respondents are represented below:  
30 
 
i. The National Sanitation Day (NSD) programme is an initiative by the Ministry of 
Local Government and Rural Development to influence all Ghanaians to clean their 
environment on first Saturdays of every new month.  Collaborators of the 
programme include the security service (Ministry of Defence) and Kasapreko 
Company Limited and also supported by several corporate entities such as Pz 
Cussons, SIC Life, ADB Bank, and VVIP Group Musicians.  The NSD campaign 
has been aired on several radio stations (e.g. CitiFm, JoyFm) and telecast (GTV, Tv3 
Network; JoyNews Tv; MyJoyOnline) across Ghana (Ghana News Agency, 2014). 
 
ii. “Clean Mama” is a Unilever Sanitation project since 2010 and supported by 
Zoomlion.  For the Unilever’s key soap “Clean Mama” Campaign, a Ghanaian 
celebrity, Irene Opare, has been an environmental sanitation ambassador and a 
passionate advocate of sanitation and thus engages in real life clean-up exercise in 
communities at different geographical locations in the country to support sanitation 
and to influence every household to be clean by using an affordable soap. Thus, 
‘clean mama’ has been a sanitation-themed television programme 
(www.newsghana.com.gh, 2014).  
 
iii. The “Keep Ghana Clean” battle supported by the Ministry of Local Government and 
Rural Development keep running particularly, on national television to promote 
good sanitary practices. The campaign comprised various public service messages 
including "The Story of Cholera", and the use of refuse receptacle.  It is a five-minute 
animation film produced by the Global Health Media Project and released in 2011 
(GTV, 2011) 
 
iv. In 2014, some commercials on good refuse disposal practices were telecast on Ghana 
Television in which women are portrayed as sanitation offenders: In one 
31 
 
circumstance where a young lady in the road drops some litter, a supposed insane 
male person confronted her to lift it up. For another scenario, a female traveller 
riding on a taxi, after quenching her thirst, recklessly flings a water bottle out the 
window. The male cabbie stops the car and advises her to lift the litter up and 
properly dispose of the waste or else he would not continue the journey. Regardless, 
as the passenger alights to pick up the waste (bottle), the driver scornfully speeds 
away and leaves the young lady on the road; she was confused (GTV, 2014). 
 
v. A sanitation campaign on TV that discourages improper refuse disposal.  In this 
campaign, children disapprove of their female parent’s behaviour of depositing solid 
waste into drainage (GTV, 2015). 
vi. A short documentary (2015) telecast by Crystal TV, GTV, etc. and it is supported 
by Ghana Independent Broadcasters’ Association (GIBA) on sanitation campaign 
aimed at stopping insanitary practice of open defecation around water bodies as such 
wrongful behaviours expose inhabitants to cholera outbreak, usually associated with 
symptoms of profuse water diarrhoea and vomiting that could be fatal.  
 
vii. “Don’t litter, reuse, recycle” Campaign.  A DSTV waste management campaign 
telecast also on GTV Sports, advocates for the separation of waste such as paper, 
plastic, and glass. 
 
viii. “Wabodam” sanitation Campaign dabbed ‘Sanitation for All’ (2008; 2007).  A 
‘madman’ disapprove and thus whips (punishes) and chases a supposed ‘sane 
fellow’ who is seen openly defecating into an open drainage.  The campaign 
abhorred indiscipline in society and calls for all hands on deck on sanitation.  It was 
sponsored by the then Ghana’s Vice President, Late Aliyu Mahama. 
 
32 
 
ix. 'Homowo Clean-up Campaign' in 2015 is aimed at cleaning all beaches across 
various Ga communities including Gamashie, Osu, La, Teshie, and Nungua during 
the festive occasions (in August).  The “Falefale” (meaning cleanliness in Ga) 
Campaign by Gasmilla of ‘Telemo’ fame, features several celebrities to spread the 
word of cleanliness in different languages and styles. 
 
x. Great Lamptey Mills Complex School (2004; 2010; 2015) released four-minute 
musical production shown on television which encourages the youth to engage in 
proper sanitation practices and promote positive behaviours in Ghana.   
 
 
For the above-cited examples, it is evident that there are several other sanitation campaigns 
and interventions (through audios or videos) from professionals of various fields and 
institutions across the country that seem to have behaviour change (sanitation) messages 
targeted at various segments of people in society.  Mass media has been via radio and 
television and messages are sometimes translated into different predominant languages such 
as Ga, Hausa, Twi and Ewe. 
Since several campaigns and programmes have been rolled out to curb the sanitation 
menace, the question then remains: “who really gets the message and whether they 
understand the message” (Griffin & O’Cass, 2004)?  Are the social marketing campaigns 
just mere sayings (Niblett, 2005; 2007; Szmigin et al., 2011)?  How are social marketing 
campaigns affecting behaviour change and what are the challenges associated with 
behaviour change communication (Tweneboah-Konduah, 2014)?  
Amidst the campaigns, why does the sanitation issue seem to escalate with endemic of 
cholera outbreaks coupled with malaria and other sanitation ‘health-related’ cases?  How 
effective are the social marketing campaigns towards achieving the sustainable development 
goal (SDG)?  It is critical for the researcher to think along these lines because, if some social 
33 
 
marketing campaigns have been successful, then what accounts to the failure of others?  
Figure 2.4 (at the end of this chapter) presents a snapshot of a sanitation campaign 
intervention for the Accra metropolis of the catchment area of study. 
It is against this backdrop that the researcher holds the opinion that investigations be carried 
out to ascertain the effectiveness of the social marketing campaigns with regards to 
sanitation programmes towards waste disposal behaviours amongst Ghanaians.  The next 
chapter (3) reviews literate on empirical studies by various scholars on social marketing and 
it application in waste disposal or management practices.  
 
Figure 2.4: Sanitation Campaigns / Interventions located adjacent the Nima Police 
Station 
Source: Field photograph, 2017. 
34 
 
2. 9 CHAPTER SUMMARY 
The chapter provides a general understanding of the thought of sanitation issues and the 
categorisation of the managerial administrations of the sanitation segment in Ghana. The 
execution of the different organisations or divisions and sub-areas are likewise discussed 
within the context of the study.  The latter part of the chapter concentrated on the informal 
and formal sanitation service providers by describing the industry environment including 
the stakeholder engagement among the service providers. The chapter ends with a few 
sanitation campaigns that industry players have rolled out in the past to impact and change 
insanitary behaviours.  
  
35 
 
CHAPTER THREE 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
3.0 INTRODUCTION 
It is important that a study is anchored in both theoretical and empirical literature.  A review 
of empirical literature helps position the study and provides the basis for any empirical 
contribution of the study.  Therefore, this chapter reviews relevant and contemporary 
literature on the concepts of social marketing and how it has evolved overtime and its 
effectiveness with regards to behaviour change.     
 
3.1 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL MARKETING 
According to Kotler and Zaltman (1971) a number of non-business organisations started 
adopting marketing logic as a prerequisite for furthering their goals and products.  There is 
the application of marketing principles to help promote social actions using a more effective 
programme to elicit the right responses from target audience (Kotler & Zaltman, 1971).  The 
social marketing discipline is grounded in social change and marketing theory (Dann, 2010).  
There was an initial confusion as people thought social marketing was related to societal 
marketing (Andreasen, 1994).  Social Marketing is said to be at growth stage of its product 
life cycle but, it is at risk of not fully reaching its potentials (Andreasen, 2002).  Unlike 
societal marketing which sought to protect consumers from harmful marketing, social 
marketing seeks to influence behaviour change among target audience (Andreasen, 1994).  
The term social marketing also grew to be accepted by both private and public organisations.  
Andreasen (1994), cites an example of private insurance companies promoting the use of 
seat belt, or companies in the alcoholic industry promoting responsible drinking. The 
development of the field is explained by Andreasen (2004) as having an academic and 
36 
 
practice sides.  In relation to the academic development of social marketing, Andreasen 
(2004) cites the increase textbooks, book chapters and academic journals devoted to the 
field as well as the increase in the number of social marketing conferences, and the 
establishment of social marketing centres.  Andreasen (2004) also presents developments in 
social marketing practice side as the adoption of social marketing approaches by federal and 
government agencies, such as the adoption of social marketing as a strategy to tackle 
diseases such as HIV.  The emergence of multinational social marketing consulting firms, 
major advertising companies claiming social marketing capabilities, major job titles in 
social marketing, and general interest in social marketing in America and Europe are being 
recognised.  
 
3.2 DEFINITIONS AND DOMAINS OF SOCIAL MARKETING 
Social marketing has been defined differently by several authors.  According to Dann 
(2010), a review of literature for the last forty years revealed about forty-five definitions.  
Andreasen (2006) asserts that the lack of a common definition explains the lack of consensus 
on the understanding of social marketing and is likely to hinder its development.  Social 
marketing employs the commercial marketing technique of the four Ps (product, prices, 
place, and promotion) (Kotler & Zaltman, 1971; Andreasen, 2002).  However, Niblett 
(2007) emphasises that social marketers ought to totally elucidate what social marketing is 
and how it is practised with regards to the use of the 3Ps (Place, Price and Product) that go 
beyond promotion, and how they contribute to behaviour change (Niblett, 2007).  
One of the widely used definitions is proposed by Kotler and Zaltman (1971).  Kotler and 
Zaltman (1971) used the term “social marketing” to refer to:   
37 
 
“the application of principles and tools of marketing to achieve socially desirable 
goals that benefits society as a whole rather than for profit or organisational goals 
– this includes the design, implementation, and control of programmes calculated to 
influence the acceptability of social ideas and involving consideration of product 
planning, pricing, communications and marketing research” (p. 4).   
Andreasen (1994) explains that there are a number of deficiencies in this definition.  One of 
the issues raised is related to the reference made to the promotion of ideas which other 
authors believe social marketing is more than.  In an attempt to build on the definition, 
Andreasen (1995; 2006) defines social marketing as: “the application of commercial 
marketing technologies to the analysis, planning, execution, and evaluation of programme 
designed to influence the voluntary behaviour of a target audiences in order to improve 
their personal welfare and that of their society” (p.7). 
 Smith (2006) describes social marketing as “not a science but rather a professional craft 
which relies on multiple scientific disciplines to create programmes designed to influence 
human behaviour on a large scale” (p.38).  Social Marketing has also been viewed as the 
systematic application of marketing concepts and techniques designed to influence 
voluntary behaviour of target audience, for social good (Kotler & Lee, 2008; Andreasen, 
1995).   
The definition by French and Blair-Stevens (2007) present social marketing as the 
“systematic application of marketing alongside other concepts and techniques, to achieve 
specific behavioural goals for a social good”.  This definition is used widely as it takes into 
consideration two key issues of concern namely, ‘behaviour change’ and ‘for a social good’. 
As explained earlier, the lack of a consensus regarding the definition of social marketing 
prompted for a study by Dann to develop one.  Dann (2010), develops a definition of social 
38 
 
marketing after reviewing forty five definitions. The result of that study defined social 
marketing as “the adaptation and adoption of marketing activities, institutions, and 
processes as means to induce behavioural changes in a targeted audience on a temporal or 
permanent basis to achieve a social good” (p.151).   
This definition is used as the working definition as it aggregates all major issues addressed 
in the definition of prominent authors such Andresen (2006), Kotler and Lee (2008), and 
French and Blair-Stevens (2007; 2010a; 2010b).  From the several definitions posited by 
social marketing scholars, it is important to differentiate the concept of social marketing 
from commercial marketing.  Thus, the next section attempts to differentiate these concepts. 
  
3.3 CONTRASTING SOCIAL MARKETING AND COMMERCIAL MARKETING   
 It is distinguished that social marketing manages the market's core convictions or beliefs 
and values, while commercial marketing ordinarily manages seemingly shallow preferences 
and sentiments (Kotler & Zaltman, 1971).  MacFadyen, Stead and Hastings (2003), 
distinguish social marketing from various sorts of marketing by positing that the end goal 
of social marketing is to enhance individual welfare and society, not to enrich /benefit the 
organisation initiating or doing the social marketing activity.   
It is worthy to note that the role of social marketing is to change and positively influence 
behaviour (Andreasen, 2002; Kotler & Lee, 2008).  It is further established that “social 
marketing is not a theory in itself, rather a framework or structure” (Kotler & Zaltman, 
1971).  Social marketing also seeks to benefit target audience and society at large (Dann, 
2010).  Peattie and Peattie (2003), posit that past development of social marketing practice 
and theory is largely influenced by conventional commercial marketing.  The over-reliance 
on commercial marketing techniques in the quest for social goal may create practical 
39 
 
drawbacks and uncertainties about the theoretical basis of social marketing.  Therefore, there 
is the need to create the distinction between social marketing and commercial marketing.   
Commercial marketing differs from social marketing.  Though the marketing mix (4Ps) is 
also applicable to social marketing, the concept is somewhat different in application. 
Commercial marketing influences purchase decisions and encourage people to buy products 
and services; however, when it is applied to encourage people to change behaviour, it 
becomes social marketing (Sheau-Ting, Mohammed & Weng-Wai, 2013).  A detailed 
explanation of marketing mix (4Ps) or the social marketing interventions is considered. 
 
3.4 TRADITIONAL MARKETING MIX (4PS) 
Among the numerous marketing techniques used in social marketing, includes the 
traditional marketing principles or commercial marketing theory of the marketing mix, 
otherwise known as the ‘4Ps’ (Kotler & Lee, 2008).  In social marketing intervention, the 
marketing mix elements (4Ps) are also applied to change behaviour.  The 4Ps, in this regard, 
are usually the elements or tools that every marketer blends or mixes to serve the target 
audience better: Product; Price; Place; and Promotion (Kotler & Lee, 2008).    
Firstly, the product as a social marketing campaign is the new behaviour the marketer wants 
the individual to adapt to or accept (Kotler & Lee, 2008).  A Product is the social marketing 
effort that the marketer is selling; it is the desired behaviour and the associated benefits of 
that behaviour.  The adoption of the behaviour must be sustained through the adoption of 
strategies to keep the performance of the behaviour.  However, there are activities that are 
performed to sustain and maintain an adopted behaviour (Sheau-Ting et al., 2013; Yoder & 
Murphy, 2012).  According to Tweneboah-Koduah and Owusu-Frimpong (2013), a change 
that lasts only during the intervention period is insufficient.  This implies that sustained 
change in proper refuse disposal behaviour is of immense importance.  This could be done 
40 
 
through constant monitoring and evaluation as well as reinforcement, feedback, and 
reminders, as have been identified as the main strategies in achieving sustainable behaviour 
change (Sheau-Ting et al., 2013). 
According to Kotler & Lee (2008), the social marketing product (idea) could be identified 
or classified at various levels.   The product levels may be core (i.e. benefits of the 
behaviour); actual (i.e. the specific behaviour being targeted); and augmented (i.e. any 
tangible object and service associated with the programme).  For instance, since the 
behavioural object is to make the Ghanaian populace choose proper ways of refuse disposal 
as a healthy lifestyle, in this study, the specific desired behaviour is that urban slum and 
non-slum residents, as well as traders in the Accra metropolis, should properly dispose of 
their rubbish (actual product) in bins and containers that are provided (augmented product).  
In this regard, the core product for a sanitation campaign is that people in a cleaner 
environment, comparatively, live longer as sanitation related diseases could be avoided 
(Katukiza, Ronteltap, Niwagaba, Foppen, Kansiime & Lens, 2010; 2012).  
Secondly, price is also one of the Ps.  Price is the value or worth that target market associates 
with embracing the preferred behaviour.  It is not just in monetary terms but, there is also 
psychological cost (of abstaining from known habits) as well as intangible costs such as 
time and efforts.  This may be the mental cost of receiving or accepting to another conduct 
other than what is privy to the individual.  According to Ahmed and Rafiq (2002), the 
psychological cost of adapting to a new behaviour is that which has to be foregone in order 
to carry out new behaviour (i.e. the opportunity).  As such, (opportunity) costs are difficult 
to precisely measure unlike the monetary price of goods and service.  Therefore, the target 
audience may tend to overestimate the cost of changing behaviour and could be prone to 
resist changes (Ahmed & Rafiq, 2002; Rafiq & Ahmed, 1995).  It is, therefore, admonished 
41 
 
that monetary cost may increase a competing behaviour while none monetary cost may 
decrease the competing behaviour (Kotler & Lee, 2008). 
Monetary cost may be the fee paid by residents for waste collection.  For instance, a National 
Report on Ghana’s waste management contained in the 18th session of the United Nations 
Commission on sustainable development reveals that it costs around six Ghana cedis (less 
than $1.50) for each ton of waste gathered in Accra (Anku, n.d).  Thus, as a monetary cost, 
residents are expected to pay about ¢6.00 upon waste collection.   Again, with regards to 
intangible cost, this could be attributed to waiting time of residents and shop owners in 
anticipation for a waste management agents to visit in order to collect their rubbish.  Also, 
it takes time and effort for the target audience to properly dispose of refuse at authorised 
places.  Therefore, to encourage behaviour change, price (monetary cost) should be 
affordable at all times and the benefits of adapting the new behaviour need to be clearly 
explained to allay fears (psychological and emotional cost) of individuals by providing 
appropriate information (Ahmed & Rafiq, 2002).  
Thirdly, the place element of the 4Ps refers to access.  Materials or items required for 
behaviour change needs to be presented or offered at outlets reachable to target audience in 
order to make behaviour change conceivable.  It is with regards to where and when the target 
audience could perform the behaviour, secure related generous inquiries or get the related 
organisations to receive the associated services.  For instance, to encourage proper refuse 
disposal in our cities may translate to providing litter bins at a distance of between 200 to 
300 metres away from each location and the waste contractors regularly emptying waste 
receptacles at various points to avoid spillovers.    
Fourthly, promotion involves representing the place of access via communication channels 
where communication appears (Kotler & Lee, 2008).  This is done based on essentially 
42 
 
understanding of the motivations of the intended interest group and learning of their 
principal and reliable channels of communication (Cave & Curtis 1999).  An example is the 
use of stickers on litter bins, flyers, radio advertisement, news stories, television (TV) 
documentaries and commercials, internet, and personal presentations (eg. ‘Clean mama 
campaign’). Since social marketing employs 8Ps, the additional 4Ps of social marketing, 
namely: partnership; public; policy; and purse string are considered in next section.  
 
3.5 EXTENDED 4PS IN SOCIAL MARKETING 
The traditional marketing elements have been extended in social marketing to include four 
additional elements, namely: policy; partnership; publics; and purse strings. These elements 
are hereby explained in the subsequent paragraphs. 
Policy refers to the guidelines, rules and regulations that may be incorporated by law to 
perform certain behaviours. The ideas or plans used in making decisions could make a 
behaviour change easier or harder.  As such, there may be infrastructural changes needed to 
complement a campaign.  Hence, an enabling policy environment is necessary for sustaining 
behaviour change in the more broadened and prolonged term (Scott, 2005).  However, 
policies cannot work in isolation without the involvement of people.  Hence, it is important 
to partner with others. 
Partnership is about stakeholder engagements. Partnership involves individuals, 
organisations and agencies who have same agenda coming together with the intention to 
solve the same social issue (Kotler & Lee, 2008).  This includes teaming up with other 
organisations or agencies in a community to enhance the effectiveness of a campaign.  
Stakeholders may either be in the formal or informal sector.  For instance, the formal 
stakeholders include the local authority such as Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), 
43 
 
some ministries and agencies from central government such as – Health sector (Ministry of 
Health [MoH]; Ghana Health Service [GHS]), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 
and waste management service providers (eg. Zoomlion, Jekora Ventures, etc.).  In Ghana, 
for example, hand washing sanitation campaign strategy was designed in partnership with 
the professional advertising agency Lintas Ghana (globalhandwashing.org, 2015). 
Publics are all persons concerned who could help influence and support behaviour change.  
They are both the internal and external groups involved in the programmes (Kotler & Lee, 
2008).  Internal publics are the individuals who are engaged with endorsement or usage of 
the programme, concept or idea whilst external publics comprises the intended interest 
group, policymakers, gatekeepers and secondary audiences (e.g. religious leaders, 
community members, role models and corporate institutions among others).  They may be 
referred to as stakeholders.  For example, a public figure and celebrity was engaged as 
environmental sanitation ambassador to educate the public on the need for environmental 
cleanliness in Unilever’s key soap “Clean Mama” Campaign which, was also supported by 
Zoomlion Waste Management Company Limited.  
Purse String usually refers to financial sources or funding to support the social marketing 
programme (Kotler & Lee, 2008), including donor agencies as well as other non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) such as World Bank and WHO.  For instance, as 
indicated by the National Environmental Sanitation Strategy Action Plan (NESSAP), 
MMDAs are to operate a separate fund for sanitation which, would be obtained from 
internally generated funds’ (IGFs) allocations from central government and donor support 
(Monney, 2015). It is worth noting that the absence of funds could inhibit the social 
marketing activities. For instance, in May 2014, the principal composting and recycling 
plant was halted in Accra because of monetary requirements (Effah/CitiFmonline.com, 
2014).  It may be, therefore, necessary to consider a workable budget when planning for or 
44 
 
designing social marketing programmes while not losing sight of the efforts geared towards 
individual behaviour change (downstream).  The downstream social marketing is considered 
in the next section. 
 
3.6 DOWNSTREAM SOCIAL MARKETING 
Social marketing is considered an operational (downstream) as well as a strategic (upstream) 
approach used to address social problems.  The downstream aspect of social marketing is 
considered as the traditional social marketing that focuses on individual behaviour change 
(Wymer, 2011). It is observed that social marketing efforts directed at community residents 
take a downstream perspective (Truong, 2014).  The downstream social marketing as 
described by Dibb and Carrigan (2013) is focused on influencing the behaviour of the target 
market, such as drug abusers, non-exercisers, poor eaters, smokers, et cetera.  Downstream 
marketing is unique from upstream social marketing; its peculiarity lies in how the impact 
of social standards or norms are examined in a specific setting (Dibb & Carrigan, 2013).  
Carrigan, Moraes and Leek (2011) explain that downstream social marketing interventions 
are very vital in providing informational inputs regarding vulnerable behaviours that 
individuals hold on to such as point-of-purchase advertising displaying the benefits of 
washing clothes at lower temperatures.  However, it is sometimes difficult to adopt 
downstream social marketing interventions when the unfavourable actions of individuals 
hinder the attainment of objectives (Carrigan et al., 2013). 
 
3.7 UP-STREAM SOCIAL MARKETING 
Apart from trying to influence individual behaviour in social marketing, upstream social 
marketing could also be applied as a last resort.  Upstream social marketing is the application 
of marketing and other techniques to influence people in authority (policy makers, 
45 
 
regulators, opinion leaders, managers and educators) to come out with policies, regulations 
or laws to change the structural environment which will help address a societal problem 
(Gordon, 2013). Wymer (2011) advocates for resolving fundamental issues regarding 
causes of societal problems, and not just focusing on the strategies to influence behaviour. 
Therefore, most of the social marketing interventions are regarded as downstream 
initiatives.  Social marketers essentially are required to be proactive to respond to external 
environments’ uncertainties and challenges (Hastings, MacFadyen, & Anderson, 2000).  
Reason being that social context together with peoples’ choices may determine their 
behaviour (Hastings et al., 2000; Hoek & Jones, 2011).  
In upstream social marketing, people in leadership positions (authority) are regarded as the 
target audience who advocate, engage stakeholders and employ other marketing techniques 
to influence the behaviour of others who may (also) possess the audacity to positively shape 
structural and environmental conditions for desirable social outcomes (Gordon, 2013).  It 
is, therefore, necessary to spread the tentacles of marketing beyond the individual and 
further involve others such as policymakers to help shape and influence behaviour change 
through policies, laws and regulations (Hastings et al., 2000; Hoek & Jones, 2011; Scott & 
Higgins, 2012). 
It is argued that the successful ways to address health and social problems is through 
education, law, and marketing (Rothschild, 1999).  However, the desired changes may seem 
impossible especially, when target audience (individuals) do not have the ability or 
motivation to perform the desired behaviour.  Hence, the targets’ voluntary behaviours may 
not achieve the desired goal if the problem is beyond the individuals’ control. Therefore, to 
develop successfully or an effective social marketing intervention, individuals should be 
able to have control over that social problem in question (Wymer, 2011).   
46 
 
Education is about teaching or knowledge transfer. Education may create awareness through 
the information that is transferred to the target audiences to voluntarily act (behave) in a 
certain manner (Rothschild, 1999).  In this regard, social marketers need to educate target 
audience about the benefits of proper waste disposal while reducing the cost/inconveniences 
that may inhibit them from performing the actual behaviour.  It is, therefore, prudent that 
the social marketer persuades the targets to adopt the required behaviour both for the 
individuals’ and societies’ benefits.  Notably, social marketing is said to be successful when 
the individual voluntarily changes behaviour because he/she stands to benefit and the 
barriers to performing the behaviour are reduced (Andreasen, 2002; Kotler et al., 2002). 
Using the law requires forces and not voluntary on the part of the individual (Rothschild, 
1999). Even though social marketing advocates for rewarding good behaviour and not 
superimposing behaviour change, scholars argue that upstream measures through the 
imposition of rules and regulations would create the enabling environment for downstream 
interventions to be fully successful (Rothschild, 1999). In this regard, social marketers 
(change agents) could influence changes in regulations and public policies through lobbying 
and actively participating in social issues or activities.   This act of creating a conducive 
environment (such as sitting litter bins on streets and at every bus stop) may be necessary 
for social marketers because successful downstream social marketing interventions are 
mostly attainable through a well calculated upstream strategies (Hoek & Jones, 2011).   
The discourse above validates the fact that upstream marketing intensely depends on the use 
of policies, laws and regulations to manage behaviour change thereby punishing wrongful 
behaviours without any favours.  While the downstream marketing manages behaviour 
change by motivating and offering incentives (benefits) to persons to willfully change their 
behaviour.  Although upstream social marketing may be effective (Hoek & Jones, 2011), 
47 
 
identifying whose behaviour to change in a specific circumstance is exceptionally important 
to the achievement of social marketing intervention.  Hence, several approaches may be 
considered in a social marketing campaign.  The next section discusses some criteria 
necessary for the success of social marketing campaigns/activities. 
 
3.8 BENCHMARKS FOR GENUINE SOCIAL MARKETING  
According to Andreasen (2002), the effectiveness or success of social marketing thrives on 
six (6) benchmarks and that these elements should be observed in programmes/ 
interventions to decide if it is reliable with social marketing (see, table 3.1).  Subsequently, 
French and Blair-Stevens (2007) and French (2012), extended these benchmarks (see, table 
3.2) by including two additional criteria.  Notwithstanding, both benchmark criteria provide 
a set of “guidelines” to use when designing a social marketing initiative (Wettstein & Suggs, 
2016).   
 
  
48 
 
Table 3.1: Andreasen’s six benchmark criteria 
Criterion  Description 
Behaviour   Behaviour change is the benchmark used to design and evaluate  
 interventions 
 
Audience Projects consistently use audience research to understand target 
research   audiences at the outset of interventions, routinely pretest 
intervention elements before they are implemented and monitor 
interventions as they are rolled out 
 
Segmentation  There is careful segmentation of target audiences to ensure 
maximum efficiency and effectiveness in the use of scarce resources 
 
Exchange  The central element of any influence strategy is creating attractive 
and motivational exchanges with target audiences 
 
Marketing mix The strategy attempts to use all 4Ps of the traditional marketing mix. 
It creates attractive benefit packages (products) while minimising 
the costs (price) wherever possible to make the exchange convenient 
and easy (place) and communicating powerful messages through 
media relevant to – and preferred by – target audiences (promotion) 
 
Competition Careful attention is paid to the competition faced by the desired 
behaviour 
 
Source: Andreasen (2002), adopted from Wettstein & Suggs (2016, p.3).   
 
 
Another study that provided insight on the benchmarks of social marketing is the one from 
National Social Marketing Centre, NSMC, in the United Kingdom (UK).  This institution 
provided eight benchmarks including customer orientation, behaviour, theory, insight, 
exchange, competition, segmentation, and method mix.  The table 3.2 presents the eight (8) 
benchmarks.  
 
  
49 
 
Table 3.2: NSMC’s (National Social Marketing Centre) eight benchmark criteria 
Criterion   Description 
 
Customer Develops a robust understanding of the audience, based on good 
orientation market and consumer research, combining data from different 
sources 
 
Behaviour Has a clear focus on behaviour, based on a strong behavioural 
analysis, with specific behaviour goals 
 
Theory It is behavioural theory-based and informed.  Drawing from an 
integrated theory framework 
 
Insight   Based on developing a deeper “insight” approach – focusing on 
what “moves and motivates” 
 
Exchange   Incorporates an “exchange” analysis. Understanding what the 
person has to give to get the benefits proposed 
 
Competition  Incorporates a “competition” analysis to understand what 
  competes for the time and attention of the audience 
 
Segmentation Uses a developed segmentation approach (not just targeting). 
   Avoiding blanket approaches 
 
Methods mix  Identifies an appropriate “mix of methods” 
 
 
Source: French and Blair-Stevens (2007), adopted from Wettstein & Suggs (2016, p7).   
 
 
From the above examples (table 3.1 and 3.2) of criteria, it is important for social marketers 
to identify and appropriately blend or mix methods in designing the social marketing 
campaign (French & Blair-Stevens, 2007).  These social marketing scholars argue that the 
campaign may need not encompass all criteria, but rather a substantial number of the criteria 
should be identified in such interventions.  To this end, the social marketing campaign is 
considered in the next section. 
50 
 
3.9 SOCIAL MARKETING CAMPAIGN  
The work of social marketing is ideally based on the campaign (Cates, Shafer, Diehl & Deal, 
2011; Stead, Gordon, Angus, & McDermott, 2007).  One cannot fully understand the social 
marketing application to social issues without first understanding how social marketing as 
a concept translates from theory into practice.  Social marketing is more demanding than 
generic marketing; in that, it involves changing impulsive behaviour resources (Lefebvre & 
Flora, 1998).  Moreover, while for generic marketing the definitive goal is to meet investors’ 
objectives, for the social marketer, the principal concern is to meet society’s aspiration to 
enhance the citizens’ quality of life. 
Social marketing programmes are carried out through campaigns by targeting a particular 
group of people over a specific period of time.  Kotler and Roberto (1989) describe the 
social marketing campaign to be “an organised effort conducted by one group (the change 
agent) which attempts to persuade others (the target adopters) to accept, modify, or 
abandon certain ideas, attitudes, practices or behaviour” (p6). 
Social marketing professionals and researchers have over the years tried to address the 
challenges that social marketers face in creating campaigns that adequately influence target 
audience’s behaviour (Andreason, 2006; Kotler & Andreasen, 1996; Kotler & Roberto, 
1989; Weinreich, 2010).  Researchers posit that social marketing planning must be based on 
understanding which behaviour change should be effected.  Therefore, an effective social 
marketing strategy could then remove barriers to the new behaviour through promotion 
(Mckenzie-Mhor, 2000). The effectiveness of social marketing is detailed in the next 
section. 
 
51 
 
3.10 EFFECTIVENESS OF SOCIAL MARKETING 
Effectiveness is the degree to which a social marketing intervention accomplishes its 
intended objective or purpose (Wymer, 2011). Wiebe (1951) analysed four social campaigns 
to figure out what conditions or qualities represented their relative achievement or absence 
of accomplishment and presumed that a campaign's success relied upon the existence of 
“adequate force, direction, an adequate and compatible social mechanism, and distance” 
(p.12).   In this manner, the achievement of the campaign relies upon right product 
development, promotion, place, and price, which ought to be considered by the marketer 
(Wiebe, 1951).  According to Fernandez-Haddad and Ingram (2015), certain factors may be 
key determinants that impact on the effectiveness of social marketing programmes.  
However, researchers generally argue that social marketing activities have globally not been 
effective (Fernandez-Haddad & Ingram, 2015; Tweneboah-Koduah, 2014; Tweneboah-
Koduah et al., 2012; Stead et al., 2007). Scholars allude that designing an intervention 
bothers on the fact that the social marketer is able to establish a target audience, objectives 
and goals (Kotler & Lee, 2008).  Moreover, in achieving this, there is the need to identify 
target market barriers, benefits and the competition.  Hence, it is necessary to have 
knowledge of behaviour change theories in order to use this insight to develop strategies 
(Kotler & Lee, 2008).  Pandurangan (2015) posit that campaigns had adopted persuasive 
media messages which have been designed having in mind that a behaviour will follow a 
particular attitude.   Therefore, in order to ensure the effectiveness of a social marketing 
campaigns, there is the need to move beyond the attitudes of individuals in the way of 
thinking, feeling, belief, or opinion of approval or disapprove a behaviour and ensuring the 
behaviour is actually performed (Pandurangan, 2015). The next section discusses the 
theories that might be considered in designing effective campaigns for behaviour change. 
52 
 
3.11 BEHAVIOUR CHANGE THEORIES  
Scholars such as Charles and Ryan (2011) have argued that strategies may have failed due 
to the absence of behaviour change theories as a tool since behaviour change could not be 
effective without the use of a theory (Andreasen, 2002). Therefore, French et al. (2010), 
emphasise that it is valuable to have an understanding of a theory as it can reinforce and 
boost the success of social marketing interventions (Tweneboah-Koduah et al., 2012).  The 
role of social marketing is to solve societal problems (Helmig & Thaler, 2010) and can be 
effectively done with the use of theory (Andreason, 2002).  Theories often used in social 
marketing include:  
 The Health belief model (Rosenstock, 1966) 
  The Traditional Exchange Theory (Bagozzi, 1978) 
 The Transtheoretical Model /Stages of Change Theory (Prochaska & DiClemente, 
1983). 
 The  Diffusion of innovation (Rogers, 1983)  
 The Social Cognitive Learning Theory (Bandura, 1986) 
 The Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) 
 
3.11.1 Health Belief Model  
The health belief model attempts to elucidate conditions that are crucial for behaviour 
change to happen (Rosenstock, 1996; Strecher & Rosenstock, 1997).  The model imparts 
that an individual will make a move to avoid, screen for, or control a sickness or condition 
in view of the accompanying factors:   
(a) Perceived susceptibility - one must believe that one is vulnerable to the condition or 
perceives a negative health outcome.   For instance,  how people believe they are 
53 
 
likely to contract diseases  such as cholera, malaria, typhoid, among others, due to 
insanitary practices; 
(b) Perceived severity – one believes that getting the disease or condition leads to severe 
consequences. With regard to sanitation, it relates to the seriousness of contracting 
diseases due to improper refuse disposal or waste management practices.  Thus, Janz 
and Becker (1984), assert that severity dimensions may include medical/health 
conditions and other social consequences such as conditions on work, family and 
social relations;  
(c) Perceived benefits – one believes that participating in the preventive behaviour will 
lessen the risk or give other positive outcomes.   Hence, the individual is likely to 
change behaviour if the gains are more than the cost of adapting to the new 
behaviour; 
(d)  Perceived barriers – one believes that the tangibles or psychological costs of 
performing the behaviour are of less magnitude than the benefits.  It is the negative 
aspect of performing the action.  In this regard, anything that will hinder or prevent 
the behaviour change of the individual should be of low value or cost as compared 
to the benefits.  Thus, the new behaviour should not be perceived as time-consuming, 
inconvenient and unpleasant (upsetting, painful and difficult);   
(e) Cues to action – it is when the individual encounters something that triggers 
readiness to perform the behaviour.  This may be internal (e.g. symptoms of a 
disease) or external activities (such as sanitation campaigns/mass media 
communications, interpersonal interactions, or reminder postcards from sanitary 
officers, waste management and health care providers).  However, the individual 
should believe that it is possible to change insanitary behaviour.  Hence, the “self-
efficacy” level is explained;  
54 
 
(f) Self-efficacy – one believes one can take action.  For instance, a person being able 
to keep the waste after consuming a product (e.g. water sachets/bottles, toffee wraps, 
banana peels, et cetera) until one sights a waste disposal point to dispose of the 
unwanted item.  Hence, the individual should believe that is doable. 
3.11.2 Traditional Exchange Theory  
The genesis of this theory as explained by Bagozzi (1978) is that marketing is considered 
as an exchange which is represented by a dynamic social process that functions using 
economic and psychological factors.  This theory argues that individuals develop exchanges 
for socio-emotional as well as economic reasons. According to Shore, Tetrick, Lynch, and 
Barksdale (2006), economic exchange theory specifically entails transactions between 
parties which are basically not long-term oriented or ongoing, but are rather considered as 
discrete, and involve financial interactions.  This implies that the economic exchange theory 
emphasises a relationship which is characterised by financial obligations leading to a 
tangible relationship.  
The exchange theory, according to Bagozzi (1978), consists of three broad determinants:  
i) social actor variable which explains that the characteristics of the social actors 
influence the nature of the relationship in many ways;  
ii) social influence variables which consist of the actions, communication, and nature 
of information shared among the actors; and  
iii)  situational variables which are determinants constraining the relationship between 
the actors.  
In social marketing, it would be appropriate to determine the source actor characteristics 
such as the expertise, trustworthiness, status, prestige, similarity, et cetera as well as receiver 
characteristics such as self-esteem, self-confidence, background attributes such as race, sex, 
55 
 
religion, and social class among others.  It is important to consider these characteristics as 
they affect the relationship.  Also, social marketing campaigns should consider the 
intentions, purposes and desires of actors within the relationship. The rewards and 
punishments that exist due to the exchange relationship must be identified.  Finally, the 
exchange theory stresses the need to identify situational factors relating to the availability 
of a source of satisfaction, the physical and psychological settings, and the legal and 
normative setting to ensure the exchange exist.  
3.11.3 Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change Theory) 
The transtheoretical model generally called the stages of change theory, depicts the phases 
that individual experiences while in transit to embracing a behaviour (Prochaska & 
DiClemente, 1983). The individual goes through five (5) stages:  
(a) Precontemplation – an individual does not know about the potential issue and does 
not see himself  or herself in danger; 
(b) Contemplation – the individual understands that he or she may be in danger and 
starts to consider whether to make a move or take action; 
(c) Preparation – the individual has reasons that he or she should make a move and 
learns more about what is required; 
The process might stop at this point if the individual encounters many barriers to changing 
the behaviour, nonetheless, the individual may move to next stage and continue with the 
process. 
(d) Action – the individual performs the behaviour and decides for himself or herself 
whether it was beneficial; and 
(e) Maintenance – the individual constantly performs the behaviour in the appropriate 
circumstances. 
56 
 
 This theory integrates principles and processes of change from different theories 
(Prochaster & Velicer, 1997).  Notwithstanding, with any given behaviour, an individual 
might stop at a particular stage in the process or even revert to a previous stage.  For 
example, one may move back and forth between preparation and action many times over 
the course of his or her life, particularly, for behaviours requiring long-term lifestyle 
changes such proper waste disposal practices. The next section briefly discusses Rogers’ 
diffusion of innovation model which was also propounded in 1983. 
3.11.4 Diffusion of Innovation Model 
The diffusion of innovations model expounds on a particular innovation advancing through 
a population over time (Rogers, 1983).  The individual’s innovativeness is categorised as:  
(i) innovators; (ii) early adopters; (iii) early majority; (iv) late majority; and (v) laggards 
(Rogers, 2002).   The model stipulates that with any new product or practice, some people 
will be the first to adopt it, others will wait until most of their peer group has already 
accepted it, and others will never change their ways.  Comparatively, early adopters may 
integrate more in localities (local systems) than innovators (cosmopolites).  The study of 
Dearing (2009), cited some examples of the application of the diffusion of innovation model 
in social interventions.  One such example is the use of village voodoo practitioners who 
command trust and credibility in their villages for HIV prevention education in Haiti.  
Another example in Mali concerning reproductive health targeted the peers and relatives of 
the youth rather health workers who were not trusted (Dearing, 2009).  In waste disposal, 
the decision and respected individuals in communities could be used to diffuse the proper 
mechanisms to the general public.   The next section also considers Bandura’s (1986) social 
cognitive learning theory.   
57 
 
3.11.5 Social Cognitive Learning Theory 
This theory expresses that behaviour change is impacted by factors within the individual 
and the environment (Bandura, 1986) and that one’s behaviour is the result of the interaction 
among cognition, behaviour, environment, and physiology (Bandura, 1977).  As in this 
theory, a knowledgeable individual would be stimulated or inspired to act if he or she is 
aware of the positive outcomes or benefits of performing the desired behaviour and possess 
the capability (self-efficacy) to perform behaviour regardless of the circumstances that 
constraints that individual (Bandura, 2000; 2004).  According to Luszcynska and Schwarzer 
(2005), the social cognitive theory is very important in social modelling, thought, and action.  
The theory also supports helping an individual to adopt a behaviour beyond their 
experiences through social modelling of knowledge and competencies (Luszcynska & 
Schwarzer, 2005).   Stajkovic and Luthans, (1979), posit that there is a triadic influence of 
social cognitive theory which includes the person (unique personal characteristics), the 
environment, and the behaviour itself (past success of performing the behaviour).  However, 
the social cognitive theory has been criticised for its inability to encompass personal attitude 
as a factor to determine its impact on behaviour change (Rosenstock, Strecher & Becker, 
1988). In spite of the limitations, this theory has the ability to stress on self-efficacy and 
other sources to determine behaviour change (Lerner, 1982; Maibach & Cotton, 1995; 
Bandura, 2000). The next and last section on theories discusses in details, the Ajzen’s (1991) 
theory of planned behaviour upon which this research work is anchored.   
3.11.6 Theory of Planned Behaviour 
According to Conner and Sparks (2005), the extension of an earlier Theory of Reasoned 
Action (TRA) by Fishbein and Ajzen in 1975, gave birth to the Theory of Planned Behaviour 
(TPB).  The development of the theory of planned behaviour is necessary as it addresses the 
deficiencies of the TRA in managing behaviour for which individuals need to make a 
58 
 
conscious choice of action (Ajzen, 1991).  The Planned Behaviour Theory proposes that the 
immediate determining factor of behaviour is the person's intention to act or not to act upon 
that required behaviour (Bezzina & Dimech, 2011).  According to Ajzen (1991), the 
intention to perform a behaviour is anticipated or predicted with high precision from 
attitudes towards the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control.  
Ghani, Rusli, Biak, and Idris (2013), further explain that the TPB individual takes into 
consideration three major issues before performing a behaviour. The actor’s belief of the 
consequences of the behaviour and the assessment of these consequences (attitude), the 
beliefs and compliance to normative expectations of a behaviour (subjective), and beliefs 
about the existence of factors that may serve as facilitators or impediments in performing 
the behaviour, and the perceived capability of these factors (perceived behavioural control).  
The constructs of the TPB are discussed in the sub-sections. 
3.11.6.1 Attitudes  
The use of the Theory of Planned Behaviour in studies has described a strong attitude-
intention relationship (Rex, Lobo & Leckie, 2015).  Tonglet, Philips and Read (2004) are of 
the view that attitude towards a behaviour is the individual’s favourable or unfavourable 
evaluation of performing the behaviour.  The attitude refers to the individual’s disposition 
to the behaviour (Cordano, & Frieze, 2000).   Bezzina and Dimeach (2011), point that 
attitude is the psychological emotion related to a behaviour which determines whether 
performing that behaviour will generate positive or negative feeling.  
 According to Hagger, Chatzisarantis, and Harris (2006), an individual’s positive attitude 
affects the enacting of a target behaviour.  In social marketing, the emphasis on attitudes is 
built on the premise that the adoption of a sustainable behaviour must be preceded by 
positive attitude (Rex et al., 2015). According to Laroche, Bergeron and Barbaro-Forleo 
(2001), the attitude of an individual is determined by the perception of the importance, the 
59 
 
inconvenience of adopting a sustainable behaviour, and the perceived severity of 
environmental problems.  The attitude construct, therefore, represents the realistic situation 
that targets audience face in adopting a sustainable lifestyle.  The Attitude in the theory of 
planned behaviour framework refers to “residents' environmental cognition of e-waste and 
attitudes towards recycling”.  Tonglet et al. (2004), argue that recycling attitude essentially 
impact e-waste recycling behaviour.  Nixon and Saphores (2007) examined the elements 
that could impact one’s readiness to pay an advanced process fee (APF) for hardware or 
electronics and found that environmental attitudes exert tremendous effects.  
According to Greaves, Zibarras and Stride (2013), attitude towards the behaviour by an 
individual represents their overall evaluation of the behaviour.  An individual’s evaluation 
of a behaviour, according to Bortoleto, Karisu and Hanaki (2012), could be a positive or 
negative feeling about that individual’s own behaviour.  The perception that the individual 
has a responsibility to perform a behaviour defines the denial or performance of a behaviour. 
The application of this in waste management could be expressed by identifying whether the 
individuals perceive a linking between their actions and the environment or even respond to 
the government (Bortoleto et al., 2012).  Three key elements that attitude could manifest in 
an attempt to draw the relationship between the performances of environmental behaviour, 
namely: affective evaluation, personal norms, and denial of responsibility (Bortoleto et al., 
2012).  Hence, it is essential to note that only individuals who feel a moral obligation to 
undertake an environmental behaviour will adopt a positive behaviour (Bortoleto et al., 
2012).  
The application of marketing in promoting sustainable environmental behaviour could only 
be effective if strategies are developed to build positive attitudes towards environmental 
sustainability and also make consumers see the need to perform positive attitudes to help 
the environment (Rex et al., 2015).  Therefore, the inclusion of the attitude variable in a 
60 
 
social marketing campaign in promoting sustainable behaviour is very crucial in predicting 
the extent to which an individual would make a conscious effort to adopt proper refuse 
disposal and waste management behaviour. 
Studies have identified attitudes of individuals as a significant determinant of intention to 
perform a behaviour.  One of such studies is by Rex et al. (2015), – these authors used the 
theory of planned behaviour to determine the intention of individuals to adopt sustainable 
behaviour.  In the study, the attitude was found to be positively and statistically related to 
intention to adopt sustainable behaviour since a person’s attitude towards sustainable 
behaviour are understood from the importance of sustainably behaving, saving natural 
resources, protecting land, and recycling to reduce pollution.  Another study by Cordano 
and Freize (2000) applied the theory of planned behaviour in waste management to assess 
the intention of environmental managers to prevent pollution.  Attitudes were not just found 
to be positively related with an intention to prevent environmental pollution but, the variable 
had the strongest relationship (Cordano & Frieze, 2000).  In another study, attitudes were 
found to be the main predictor of recycling behaviour (Tonglet et al., 2004).  It was discussed 
that households are clearly not willing to engage in recycling schemes unless they perceive 
the schemes and outcomes as positive behaviours (Tonglet et al., 2004).  Food separation 
research also found positive attitudes of households to separate food as very important in 
the intention to separate food waste.  From the available literature reviewed, attitudes could 
be considered as a determinant of waste disposal behaviour.  Based on the above discussion, 
however, the following hypothesis is formulated: 
H1: There is no statistically significant relationship between attitude and individuals’ 
intentions to engage in waste disposal behaviour. 
61 
 
3.11.6.2 Subjective Norms  
Tonglet et al. (2004), explain that subjective norm is the person's opinion of social pressure 
to act or not to act on the desired behaviour.  Bezzina and Dimeach (2012) posit that 
subjective norms relate to the influence of others on the individual to adopt behaviours.  
According to Rex et al. (2015), subjective norms, apart from attitudes, have been agreed by 
researchers to have a moderate effect on intention to perform a behaviour.  Rex et al. (2015), 
posit that researchers have identified subjective norms as a predictor of consumer intentions 
to recycle household waste, to buy environmentally friendly products, and therefore 
proposes the use of this construct for sustainable behaviour studies.  
Hagger et al. (2006), describe subjective norms as a series of factors relating the perception 
a person holds that he/she has to consider the important people in his/her life which serves 
as a motivation to comply to what others expect of him/her.  Kalafatis et al. (1999), further 
explain that individuals internally generate a feeling of self-respect or pride when they 
undertake socially worthy acts (e.g. recycling papers and bottles), while the failure of the 
individual to act in socially acceptable manner leads to a feeling of shame or self-reproach.  
The referent groups that individuals look up to may include religious organisations, friends, 
political parties, parents, doctors and several others (Kalafatis et al., 1999; Bortoleto et al., 
2012; Greaves et al., 2013).  Valle, Robelo, Reis, and Menezes (2005), explain that there is 
social pressure emanating from family (internal referents), friends, neighbours, and social 
groups (external referents) to perform certain behaviours.  Another important referent group 
that consumers could really try to satisfy is the government.  Wang, Guo and Wang (2016), 
stress the role of the government in formulating laws and regulations and promoting a 
propaganda on waste management.  
62 
 
Social marketers, therefore, should consider the role of referents, by using them as role 
models and invoking concerns about self-regard as these could be used to prevent waste 
(Bortoleto et al., 2012).  Social marketing interventions should build positive norms by using 
prior examples as there would be no individual to be a catalyst for the development of the 
norms (Bortoleto et al., 2012).  
The literature on the application of social marketing in waste management has also 
acknowledged the contribution of subjective norms as a major predictor of behaviour.  One 
of such studies includes that of Mannetti, Pierro and Livi (2004) who found that subjective 
norms, though having the weakest impact on collection and disposal of refuse still predicts 
waste disposal intentions.  This results according to Mannettiet et al. (2004), might be 
attributed to the nature of the questions (agree-disagree measure) and could be more 
predictive if individuals have a higher accessibility of collective self.  One of the major 
environmental concerns all over the world is the use of plastics.  Hasan, Harun and Hock 
(2015), in their study on the effect of subjective norm on students’ intention to use plastic 
found that subjective norm to be a major predictor.  Again, the reason for the weaker effect 
of subjective norms on plastic use was explained by Hasan et al. (2015), as people are not 
willing to disclose information about their actual self.  Pakpour et al. (2014), in their study 
on household waste behaviour, found that subjective norms are predictors of recycling 
behaviour.  
Contrary to other studies, Greaves et al. (2013), found subjective norms to be a stronger 
predictor of environmentally sustainable behaviour (switching off the computer).  These 
findings were explained as the direct perception of the employee of the role of the facility 
for their jobs (Greaves et al., 2013).  Another study that supports this assertion is that of 
Mahmud and Osman (2010) who explain that as subjective norms get more favourable, 
behavioural intentions to recycle waste becomes higher.  A study on sustaining the 
63 
 
environment through recycling by Ramayah, Lee and Lim (2012) also found that subjective 
norms have a significant impact on recycling behaviour. These studies from the review of 
literature support the fact that subjective norms will be a higher predictor of intention to 
perform a behaviour if the behaviour is a public one.  A study by Mancha and Yoder (2015), 
found that a stronger sense of identity to certain people may improve the efficacy to perform 
the behaviour (Mancha & Yoder, 2015).  They argue that individuals having a strong 
identity with other people may become part of the vanguard that could help improve the 
environment through environmental protection programmes such as awareness creation.  In 
light of the above discourse, the following hypothesis is formulated: 
H2: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ subjective norms 
and their intentions to engage in waste disposal behaviour. 
3.11.6.3 Perceived behavioural control  
According to Tonglet et al. (2004), perceived behavioural control construct of the theory of 
planned behaviour relates to the individuals’ opinions of their capabilities to perform the 
behaviour.  The perceived behavioural control (PBC) has been used as a construct to predict 
behavioural intention on waste management (Mannetti et al., 2004).  Ajzen (2002), 
emphasises that PBC is the ease at which an individual could perform an action base on an 
assessment of whether the individual possesses the requisite skills, resources, and 
opportunity to perform the behaviour.  This view was explained by Ajzen (1991), that 
perceived behavioural control may be influenced by control beliefs such as past experiences 
of acquaintances and friends, and by other critical factors that may increase or reduce the 
perceived difficulty in performing the behaviour.  Furthermore, Ajzen (1991), explains that 
the availability of resources and opportunity, and the fewer the impediments and obstacles 
make the individual to perceive a higher control over the behaviour.  This view was 
collaborated by Rex et al. (2015), who explains that a person is likely to adapt a sustainable 
64 
 
behaviour if he/she perceives the behaviour is easy to perform or adopt to.  The emphasis is 
laid on the premise that the individual possess self-efficacy to perform the behaviour 
(Greaves et al., 2013).  
Wang et al. (2016), posit that the cost, convenience, and processes are important issues to 
be considered in waste management.  This view is maintained by Tonglet et al. (2004), as 
the authors draw on the study of Boldero (1995) which included issues such as measure of 
exertion included, storage space, inconvenience, and access to waste designs or schemes.  
However, the real cost and convenience of proper waste management behaviour is the 
perceptions of the residents (Wang, et al., 2016).  It is also very crucial to state that the 
perceived behavioural control, by having the basic knowledge and capability to perform the 
behaviour, may not by any means directly influence behaviour.  Relatively, it may have a 
roundabout impact (indirect effect) through subjective norms as social pressure could help 
to determine whether to perform or not to perform the behaviour (Bortoleto et al., 2012).    
Perceived behavioural control in recycling was scored very high by respondents which 
implies that waste recycling behaviour is perceived not to be a difficult or inconvenient task 
(Pakpour et al., 2014).  Also, the use of the theory of planned behaviour to predict the 
intention to use plastic by students found that perceived behavioural control has a moderate 
relationship with intention to use plastic (Hasan et al., 2015).  Another study to examine the 
preference of environmental managers to implement environmental programmes found that 
as perceived behavioural control of managers increases, the preference for source reduction 
activity also increases. Tonglet et al. (2004), explain that respondents’ perceived 
behavioural control is a predictor of recycling behaviour as individuals perceive that they 
possess the skills, opportunities and resources to perform the behaviour.   Based on the 
above discussion, the hypothesis is formulated: 
H3: There is no statistically significant relationship between individual perceived 
behavioural control and their intentions to engage in waste disposal behaviour. 
65 
 
On the basis of the discussions above, the social marketing interventions relating to waste 
disposal or management usually take into consideration the beliefs of target audiences about 
how easy they can adapt and perform the behaviour.  This is very crucial in ensuring that 
individuals perform sustainable behaviours (Rex et al., 2015).  In this regard, the theory of 
planned behaviour is employed in this study, to examine the effectiveness and or influence 
of the social marketing campaigns/interventions on the individual’s responsibility towards 
good sanitation and waste management behaviours in Ghana.  
 
3.12 ROLE OF DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTIC IN WASTE 
MANAGEMENT  
A number of studies have advocated for the use of demographic characteristics to determine 
the intention to perform desirable waste management behaviour (Tonglet, et al., 2004; Wang 
et al., 2011).   According to Wang et al. (2011), demographic variables have been given 
serious attention in waste management literature.  The demographic characteristics such as 
age, gender, education, and income on household role were found in literature as important 
factors in determining the adoption of environmentally sustainable behaviour (Fernandez-
Haddad & Ingram, 2015).  Also, Saphores, Ogunseitan and Shapiro (2012), found that most 
commonly used demographic variables in waste recycling are age, gender, income and 
education.  
A study by Dwivedy and Mittal (2013) on the willingness of individuals to be part of e-
waste recycling found that income level is a significant predictor.  Comparatively, a study 
by Wang et al. (2011), found that income and educational level of respondents were not 
significant in the prediction of recycling behaviour. Tonglet et al. (2004), found a significant 
difference in the waste minimisation among age groups.  The study found that individuals 
at sixty-five (65) or above are likely to participate in waste reduction behaviours whilst the 
66 
 
age group that was found to have the least propensity to perform waste minimisation 
behaviour are between twenty-five (25) to thirty-nine (39) years (Tonglet, et al., 2004).  This 
was supported by Saphores et al. (2012), who found that individuals above sixty years (60) 
increase the odds of performing waste recycling behaviour.  In relation to gender, Tonglet 
et al.  (2004), also found that females are likely to perform waste re-use than males.  
The demographic variables of age, gender and education attributed to the 31% of the 
variance in behaviour (Pakpour et al., 2014).  Ghani et al. (2013), found that age, gender, 
employment and education is not statistically significant.  Also, Hasan et al. (2015), explain 
that the gender of the individual is statistically significant in intention to recycle waste.  This 
was explained that the mean score for females is higher than that of males as female have a 
higher pro-environmental behaviour than men (Hasan et al., 2015).  In relation to 
educational level, Hasan et al. (2015), found that there is no statistically significant 
difference between undergraduate and postgraduate respondents. This did not support 
studies which posit that high level of education provides an opportunity for an individual to 
have a better understanding of the effect of certain behaviour on the environment.   Based 
on the above discussions the following hypotheses are formulated: 
H4a: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ age and their 
waste disposal behaviour. 
H4b: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ gender and 
their waste disposal behaviour. 
H4c: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ education level 
and their waste disposal behaviour. 
H4d: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ income level 
and their waste disposal behaviour. 
67 
 
3.13 EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF TPB AND WASTE MANAGEMENT 
The Theory of planned behaviour (TPB) has served as the conceptual framework in a 
number of studies in waste management with some of these studies introducing some 
situational and behavioural factors (Mancha, & Yoder 2015; Hasan et al., 2015; Ghani et 
al., 2013).  Laroche et al. (2001), are of the view that the TPB allows for the addition of 
other factors to test for the adoption and use of waste management behaviour (Ajzen, 1991).  
Thus, the following discussions focus on empirical results from other studies. The 
discussion is done based on the four variables namely: attitudes; subjective norm; perceived 
behavioural control; and demographic characteristics.  
 
3.14 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK  
The conceptual framework for this study is adapted from the theory of planned behaviour 
by Ajzen (1991). A number of studies have adopted this framework in the study of waste 
management behaviour all over the world (Macha & Yoder, 2015; Greaves et al., 2013; 
Hagger et al., 2006).  The review of the literature shows that the theory has a very wide 
application in predicting sustainable waste management behaviour ranging from household 
waste separation, recycling, e-waste management, waste disposal, to liquid, and solid waste 
management amongst others.  
The assumption underlying this conceptual framework is that based on the theories and 
conceptual issues discussed in the literature, this study proposes a conceptual framework. 
The conceptual framework is a graphical representation of the application of the theory of 
planned behaviour and the impact of demographic variables on waste disposal behaviour. 
The conceptual framework has three major variables from the original theory namely: 
attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control. Attitude represents the 
68 
 
individual’s favourable or unfavourable assessment or evaluation to properly dispose of 
waste.  The second variable which is the subjective norm represents the individual’s 
perception of the social pressure to perform or not to perform proper waste management 
practices.  The perceived behavioural control represents the individual’s ability to perform 
proper waste management practices.  This study proposes that there is a positive relationship 
between the three variables proposed by Ajzen (1991).  However, the literature review 
recommended the need to consider demographic variables such as age, gender, educational 
level, and income.  These four demographic variables were introduced in the conceptual 
framework to examine their effect of the intention to adopt proper waste disposal/ practices 
in Ghana.  
 
 Attitudes towards the 
behaviour 
   
  Actual 
Subjective Norm     Intention to H4 behaviour – 
(Social pressure) perform the proper waste 
behaviour   
 disposal 
  
     
 Demographics - 
Perceived Behavioural Age, Gender, 
Control Educational Level, 
 income 
 
 
Figure 3.1: Conceptual Framework 
Source: Adapted from Ajzen (1991) 
  
69 
 
3.15 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 
The hypotheses are: 
H1: There is no statistically significant relationship between attitude and individuals’ 
intentions to engage in waste disposal behaviour. 
H2: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ subjective norms 
and their intentions to engage in waste disposal behaviour. 
H3: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ perceived 
behavioural control and their intentions to engage in waste disposal behaviour. 
H4a: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ age and their 
waste disposal behaviour. 
H4b: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ gender and their 
waste disposal behaviour. 
H4c: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ educational level 
and their waste disposal behaviour. 
H4d: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ income level and 
their waste disposal behaviour. 
 
3.16 CHAPTER SUMMARY 
This chapter provided a detailed audit of surviving written work on the idea of social 
marketing. The section commenced with a discussion of social marketing and after that took 
a gander at the meaning of social marketing in a broader domain.  To offer a philosophical 
bearing on the concept, the distinction between social marketing and commercial marketing 
were featured accordingly; thus, enabling a review on the traditional as well as the social 
70 
 
marketing mix. To completely value the concept, this section likewise attracted 
consideration regarding a few criteria used to plan or measure social marketing exercises 
and in addition its viability. Relevant theories were reviewed with much spotlight on the 
theory of planned behaviour (TPB) which, the study was anchored on. Based on the theory, 
the justification for the conceptual framework used in this study is presented.  The 
framework depicts the application of the three constructs of the TPB and impact of 
demographics on waste disposal behaviour. The assumptions underlying the framework 
were also indicated to aid understanding. Hereafter, this section ended by considering the 
possible research hypotheses. 
71 
 
CHAPTER FOUR 
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 
4.0 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter of the study discusses the methodology used in conducting the study. The 
chapter comprises research design, research population, sample and sampling technique, 
research instrumentation, data collections, and ethical considerations.   
 
4.1 RESEARCH APPROACH 
This study adopted a deductive approach taken into consideration the nature of the study.  
The use of a deductive approach is commonly accompanied with a positivist paradigm using 
a scientific method to better predict reality (Krauss, 2005; Hunt, 2001).  Creswell, Plano 
Clark, Gutmman, and Hanson (2003), argue that in marketing, studies have adopted a 
number of paradigms but, it seems positive paradigm has dominated the marketing 
literature. Hunt (1994) also supports this assertion by stating that a positive paradigm using 
quantitative studies is the most common research paradigm in consumer research.  
According to Amaratunga, Baldry, Sarsha and Newton (2002), a positivist research 
approach applies a quantitative method usually, through testing of hypothesis.  Johnson and 
Onwuegbuzie (2004) posit that positivist is considered as a quantitative purist who 
maintains that social sciences studies must be objective with the researcher being separate 
from the study.  A positive paradigm is different from an interpretivist which favours 
qualitative studies and are seem to believe that multiple realities exist and calls for a more 
contextual study which cannot be separated from the researcher (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 
2004).  
72 
 
According to Bryman and Bell (2015), a deductive approach toa research could be best 
described as where a theory is applied.  This work, therefore, used the constructs of the 
theory of planned behaviour in conducting the study.  In relating to the research objectives, 
it demands that the researcher adopts a quantitative method to test for assumptions and 
hypothesis by providing empirical results.  The use of a deductive approach is appropriate 
when the variables used for the study are to be analysed quantitatively (Bryman & Bell, 
2015; Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2007; Amaratunga et al., 2002; Newman & Benz, 
1998). 
A research approach could be quantitative, qualitative, and mixed.  Creswell et al. (2003), 
explain that mixed methods involve the collection or analysis of both qualitative and 
quantitative data in a single study through the gathering of data concurrently or sequentially, 
and the analysis of the data is integrated.  In business research, Cameron and Moliza-Azorin 
(2011), posit that mixed methods have now received legitimacy as a methodological choice 
and therefore have been widely used by researchers across a variety of disciplines.  
According to Bryman and Bell (2015), a quantitative study adopts a deductive approach 
which lays emphasis on the relationship between theory and research through the testing of 
theories.  On the other hand, the qualitative approach according to Bryman and Bell (2015), 
emphasises on an inductive approach which aids in the development of theories.  A 
qualitative study was, however, not adopted as this study sought to establish the statistical 
relationship between variables used.  
Thus, this study adopted a quantitative study by relying on the existing theory of planned 
behaviour to test for the adoption of waste disposal behaviour of individuals.  A quantitative 
study is used for explanation of a phenomenon which is unbiased and reality is objective 
and apart from the researcher (Bryman & Bell, 2015).  
73 
 
4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 
According to Malhotra and Birks (2007), research design is the process through which a 
research is conducted.  It involves systematic and specific methods for acquiring knowledge 
(Creswell, 2009).  It helps plan the details of the procedure so as to draw meaningful 
conclusion about a given phenomenon (Churchill & Iacobucci, 2009).  McGivern, (2006) 
explains that research could be grouped or classified by the idea of the research enquiry and 
the kind of confirmation it plans to create.  There are three categories namely: exploratory, 
descriptive, and causal or explanatory (McGivern, 2006).  Thus, the nature of the research 
would also help the researcher to adopt plans that would help answer questions in an 
objective, accurate, and economic manner (Kumar, 2005).     
The researcher employed explanatory research approach using cross-sectional survey 
approach in finding out how sanitation campaigns have impacted people’s attitude towards 
waste disposal and management practices.  The researcher is of the opinion that an 
explanatory research gives a better understanding of the situation (sanitation problems) as 
it seeks to explain the phenomenon.  Thus, the researcher formulated some hypotheses.  The 
hypotheses are statements or two variables that may be related.  The researcher sought to 
explore and explain how sanitation campaigns have impacted on behaviour change in 
Ghana.  
This study also used a cross-sectional research which applies the use of surveys completed 
by a respondent within a particular point in time (Rindfleisch, Malter, Ganesan & Moorman, 
2008).  Bryman and Bell (2015) explain that cross-sectional surveys usually have large 
samples and are not experimental in nature, unlike longitudinal studies where the 
phenomenon is studied on further occasions. 
74 
 
4.3 RESEARCH POPULATION 
A study population refers to the collection of units from which the sample of the study is 
selected (Bryman & Bell, 2015).  Zikmund, Babin, Carr and Griffin (2013), state that 
defining a study population is a very difficult task as this may affect selecting on an 
appropriate research sample.   An important question that was raised by Zikmund et al. 
(2013), which this study sought to address is, how much variance exists in the population?  
Ghana’s populace is evaluated to be 27 million.  The number of inhabitants in Greater Accra 
region is around 4.5million and Accra alone has an urban populace of 2.27 million (GSS, 
2012; World Population Review, 2017).  In this study, the proposed population for the study 
focused on traders at commercial areas (markets), and urban slum dwellers in the Greater 
Accra region (GRA) of Ghana.   The GRA is one of ten (10) administrative regions; its 
capital city, Accra is the most densely populated part of the region with about 2.27 million 
residents who generate between 2000 and 2,500 tonnes of municipal solid waste (Annepu 
& Themelis, 2013; WasteCare Report, 2013).   Furthermore, the WHO (2015), described 
Greater Accra region as the epicentre for cholera outbreak due to poor sanitation and 
hygiene practices.  In this regard, the survey was conducted in a geographical locations 
considered to be a slum area that also hosts a very busy market; thus, including residents 
and non-residents of the same geographical area or locality. 
 
4.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE  
Sampling involves the procedure a researcher undertakes to arrive at conclusions based on 
the measurement on a part of the population (Bryman & Bell, 2015).  The implication is that 
a researcher who follows the right procedure will be able to use a sample which is 
representative of the entire population as it has the same characteristics of the population 
(Bryman & Bell, 2015).  It is very important to avoid errors in determining a sample and 
75 
 
sample size for a study.  Zikmund et al. (2013), assert that it is practically impossible to 
conduct a research without a sample and it is described as a procedure to use a small number 
of units of a population as a means of arriving at conclusions about the whole population.  
Sampling technique could be classified into probability and non-probability sampling 
(Zikmund et al., 2013; Hair, Hanson, Wolfe & Pollak, 2015).  According to Kothari (2004), 
probability sampling includes, simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic 
sampling, and cluster/area sampling; whereas non-probability sampling includes 
convenience sampling and judgement sampling.  This study adopted a non-probability 
sampling technique for the study.  The decision to use a non-probability sampling was 
arrived at considering the arguments of studies that have used the theory of planned 
behaviour in social marketing.  Tonglet et al. (2014), in their study in the United Kingdom 
on recycling behaviour, used a non-probability to sample one hundred and ninety-one (191) 
respondents.  There also exist a number of studies in social marketing that had used non-
probability sampling (Tweneboah-Koduah et al., 2012; Tweneboah-Koduah, & Owusu-
Frimpong, 2013).  Those that applied probability sampling such as simple random had used 
samples made of individuals involved in a scheme or faculty or students of schools (Hassan, 
Harun & Hock, 2015; Ghani, Rusli, Biak, & Idris, 2013, Pakpour et al., 2014; Tweneboah-
Koduah & Owusu-Frimpong, 2013).  
Due to the nature of housing registration and the relative lack of a waste disposal scheme in 
the area of study, this has compelled the researcher to adopt a convenient sampling 
technique. A study by Tweneboah-Koduah and Owusu-Frimpong (2013) used a 
convenience based sampling to assess condom use among commercial drivers. A 
convenience sampling, according to Kemper, Stringfield and Teddlie (2003), is a commonly 
used purposive sampling.  It involves drawing elements from a group which the researcher 
could easily access.  The convenience sampling technique, therefore, allows for the selection 
76 
 
of respondents who may voluntarily take some time off to respond to questions. The 
research area is typically unstructured and unplanned and respondent’s households are not 
properly documented.  This makes it difficult for the researcher to predetermine the sample 
frame with respect to contact details such as e-mails, postal addresses, and telephone 
numbers among others.  
 
4.5 SAMPLE SIZE SELECTION 
The selection of sample size in a study that uses a structural equation modelling should 
strictly adhere to rules of sample size (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011).  The general 
guideline is that the sample size must be equivalent to the accompanying statements which 
are viewed as the biggest: (i) “ten times the largest of the formative indicators used to 
measure one construct”; or (ii) “ten times the largest number of the structural path directed 
at a particular construct in the structural equation model” (Hair et al., 2011).  In the case of 
this study, the structural path is only one.  Also, Hoe (2008), posits that a researcher using 
SEM could adopt a sample size of 200 respondents as this possess a very significant 
statistical power.  Furthermore, other scholars recommend a sample size of above 200 
participants (Bagozzi & Yi, 2012).  Thus, based on the arguments and justifications 
provided, the total sample size for the proposed study was made up of three hundred and ten 
(310) respondents.  Respondents were sampled from various geographical locations that are 
densely populated in Accra.  
 
4.6 SOURCE OF DATA  
Primary and secondary sources of information gathering are the two major sources of data 
(Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Saunders et al., 2007).   A primary source of data was used for 
this study.  The common form of primary data is collected using interviews, survey 
77 
 
questionnaires, observations, focus groups, and others (Saunders et al., 2007).  Secondary 
data sources provide already existing data sources which a researcher could not use but, 
primary data sources are collected from the field by the researcher.  
This study used surveys as a primary source of data collection.  Surveys, according to 
Bryman and Bell (2015), are common sources of primary data.  This may be attributed to 
the fact that researchers use surveys to solicit responses in a structured manner in an attempt 
to obtain a well-organised data for analysis (De Vaus, 2002).    
 
4.7 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT 
The research instrument used for the study surveyed questionnaires.  The research employed 
semi-structured questionnaires as the instrument for gathering data.  The first part of the 
survey questionnaire was used to collect data on the demographics of respondents including 
the awareness of sanitation campaigns, age, level of education, and income levels.  It is very 
important in collecting demographic data to achieve the research objective in relation to the 
effect of demography on intention to perform waste disposal behaviour. These 
questions/statements were eighteen (18) in number; thus, 18 demographic variables were 
obtained.  
The second part of the survey questionnaire sought to solicit for responses on individuals’ 
intentions to perform waste disposal behaviour.  The questionnaire had a five-point Likert 
scale to assess the perception of their attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural 
control in performing waste disposal behaviour.  The theory of planned behaviour constructs 
namely, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control, were used to 
develop the antecedents of waste disposal behaviour.  The items were adapted from the 
study of Ghani et al. (2013).  The attitude variable has a total of five (5) items.  The 
78 
 
subjective norm variable which sought to assess the influence of other people on the ability 
and intention to perform waste disposal behaviour was made up of four (4) items.  The 
perceived behavioural control variable includes four (4) items.   The final part of the survey 
questionnaire is to access data on the overall behavioural intention of respondents to adopt 
proper waste disposal.  This variable is made of five (5) items.   Hence, the second section 
comprised in all 24-items of the TPB.   
Labelling of the 24-items of the TPB in this section (final part) continued/commenced from 
number nineteen (19) (i.e. after numbering the 18 demographic variables).  Therefore, the 5 
items of Attitude (AT) were labeled from AT 19 to AT23; the 4 items of Subjective Norm 
(SN) labeled from SN24 to SN 27; the 4 items of Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC) 
numbered from PBC28 to PBC 31; the 5 of items of Behavioural Intention (BI) were labeled 
from BI32 to BI 36; and the 6 items of Actual Behaviour (AB) were numbered from AB37 
to AB42.  This indicates that the questionnaire contained a total of forty-two (42) questions 
/statements (see, Appendix 1).  This numbering/labelling was maintained in the Structural 
Equation Models (diagrams) presented in the analysis stage of chapter five of this work (see, 
figures 5.2 – 5.4).   
The study resorted to the use of Likert scales as the measurement scale for the study.  
Malhotra (2006) explains that Likert scales are an effective means of collecting data in a 
more structured way usually using a set of variables on five (5), or six (6) point scales.  
Saunders et al. (2007), also explain that using ranking methods such as the Likert scales 
help in collecting sets of responses to a range of agreement or disagreement to a statement.  
The Likert scale adopted ranges from 1 meaning strongly disagree to 5 meaning strongly 
agree.   
79 
 
4.7.1 Procedure for Data Collection 
The survey questionnaires were administered to respondents by the researcher. The 
questionnaires were delivered by hand to the participants to complete and researcher also 
helped administer the questionnaire, where necessary, to facilitate the respondents’ 
understanding and maximum response.  This is intended to expedite the data collection 
process and to increase the response rate. A total number of about three hundred and thirty 
(330) respondents were contacted; however, 310 persons co-operated for the study as the 
researcher could not return to few participants who for want of time, collected the 
questionnaire with the intention to complete same at a later date. 
4.7.2 Reliability and Validity of Research Items 
It is important to consider the reliability of the measurements used in order to ascertain the 
degree of consistency in the results (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson & Tatham, 2006).  This 
in simple terms is, to what extent a test, an experiment, and a measurement could yield the 
same results on repeated trials (Carmines & Ziller, 1979).   Hair, Ringle, and Sarstedt (2011) 
explain that major issues are of concern in conducting reliability and validation test.  The 
first is that if a researcher is not confident of the variables used in the research, then there is 
a little reason to use them to determine structural relationship; and the second issue is 
assessing the structural model estimates.  In using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), 
Hair et al. (2011), came up with the following reliability and validity measures: 
a) For internal consistency reliability, composite reliability must be higher than 0.70. 
b) Indicator reliability loadings must be larger than 0.70 
c) Convergent validity using average variance extracted (AVE) should be higher than 
0.50 
80 
 
d) Discriminant validity must have its average variance extracted (AVE) of a construct 
must be higher than the construct’s highest squared correlation with any other latent 
construct.  
These measurements above were used to test for reliability and validity of variables through 
a confirmatory factor analysis. 
 
4.8 ANALYSIS METHOD OF STUDY 
This segment describes the strategies or techniques that were employed as a part of the 
examination of information for this study. There are two notable techniques as to examining 
information or dissecting data – quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis. A 
quantitative analysis is a numerical or statistical representation and control of 
information/perceptions to describe and clarify the phenomena which those 
perceptions/information reflect. Alternatively, the qualitative analysis refers to the non-
statistical examination and understanding/interpretation of information to discover basic 
implications and patterns of connections (Babbie, 2004). In this study, the quantitative 
techniques were adopted because it quantifies the information generated and give meaning 
in an objective manner. 
The data analysis was conducted using a quantitative data analysis.  A structural equation 
modelling (SEM) was employed in analysing the quantitative data.  According to Hair et al. 
(2011), SEM is now considered as the quasi-standard for marketing researchers as it seeks 
to establish a relationship between multiple variables.  SEM analysis could be compared to 
other statistical analysis such as regression, correlation, ANOVA, MANOVA, and factor 
analysis.  However, Hair et al. (2011), posit that the SEM is very useful in studies trying to 
establish causalities.  Also, SEM is very useful when the researcher is relying on a 
hypothesis that has been developed from a very sound theory.   Furthermore, Hoe (2008), 
81 
 
argues that SEM provides a simultaneous measure of confirmatory factor analysis and a 
structural model.  
With SEM, the independent variables are referred to as the exogenous variables whereas the 
dependent variable is the endogenous variable.  In relation to this study, the antecedents of 
behavioural intention as proposed in the theory of planned behaviour namely attitudes, 
perceived behavioural control and subjective norms are the exogenous variables and the 
intention to perform proper waste disposal is the endogenous variable.  
As explained by Hoe (2008), conducting an analysis using SEM consists of two major 
measures.  The first is specifying the relationship between the latent variables, and secondly, 
using the structural model to establish a relationship between constructs.  The confirmatory 
factor analysis was used to test for hypothesised factor structure by ensuring that each factor 
loads heavily on other latent factors.  The second part of the SEM analysis is to establish 
the relationship between the latent variables.  This is very important in specifying the 
hypothesised relationship that has been proposed through theory.  Finally, the SEM analysis 
was also performed on assessing the effect of demographic variables as moderating or 
mediating factors (conditional indirect effect).  The Baron and Kenny (1986) technique and 
bootstrapping resampling procedures were used to resolve this issue.  
 
4. 9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 
In performing a research, it is required of the researcher to consider ethical issues.  Malhotra 
and Peterson (2001) argue that researchers should seek the consent of participants prior to 
research, in both qualitative and quantitative research approaches.  Thus, the researcher 
encouraged respondents’  voluntary participation and also ensured them that the 
respondents’ rights to be informed, rights to privacy and rights to choose was regarded by 
maintaining the confidentiality of all the information given to aid this study. 
82 
 
In an attempt not to disregard the rights of respondents to consent, all prospective research 
partakers were educated that the investigation was for scholarly purposes. To ensure 
anonymity, the respondents were assured that the information disclosed would be treated 
with most extreme privacy.  The respondents were, in this way, requested not to show their 
names on the questionnaires. 
This information was clearly communicated on the questionnaire sheet.  Besides, the 
respondents were given ample time to answer questions and some shop owners were 
allowed to take the questionnaires home and submit them after a day or two.  However, the 
researcher was unable to receive about 20 of these questionnaires.  
 
4.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY 
This section describes the different research methodological approaches used as a part of 
the investigation. Detailed opinions for the adoption of the various philosophical 
foundations were discussed. Based on the discussion progressed for the philosophical 
foundations alongside the objective of the study, a quantitative methodology was viewed as 
an appropriate methodical standpoint. A general idea of both quantitative and qualitative 
research methods was exhibited requiring the discourse of particular methodological issues. 
In such manner, the section portrays the plan or design.  The part at that point talks about 
the reason for the kinds of examination embraced.  The rest of the chapter then focused on 
the measurement and measures used in the study, the population, sampling technique and 
units of analysis, together with a description of the time limit.   The section finishes up by 
describing survey and the questionnaire that was used for data collection as well as how the 
research questionnaire and protocol were developed for the study.  
 
83 
 
 CHAPTER FIVE 
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSES 
 
5.0 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter comprises the results and the presentation of analyses of the study.  First, 
summary statistics of the demographic characteristics and background characteristics of 
sanitation campaign and their patronage of waste management of respondents were 
presented.  Initial descriptive statistics were calculated for all the items in the 24-item of the 
theory of planned behaviour (TPB) questionnaire. Next, exploratory factor and confirmatory 
factor analyses were performed.  Finally, the study or hypothesised model was tested.  
 
5.1 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS 
Most of the respondents are females (n=168, 54.2%).  Most of the respondents indicated 
that they were within the age group of 25-30 years (n=95, 30.3%). Majority of the 
respondents have no formal education (n=93, 30.0%).  Most of the respondents identified 
themselves as self-employed (n=143, 43.2%).  Most of the respondents earned a monthly 
income of GH¢ 500 and above (n=139, 44.8%).  Most of the respondents indicated that they 
were married (n=135, 43.5%).  Most of the respondents resided in slums (n=253, 81.6%). 
Majority of them were residing at their current place of residence between 0-5 years (n=121, 
39.0%).  The detailed summary statistics for the demographic characteristics are reported in 
Table 5.1. 
84 
 
Table 5.1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 
Variable  Frequency  Percentage 
Gender   
Male  142 45.8 
Female  168 54.2 
Age   
18-24 33 10.6 
25-30 94 30.3 
31-40 90 29.0 
41-50 36 11.6 
51 and above  57 18.4 
Education   
No formal Education 93 30.0 
Primary  38 12.3 
JHS 41 13.2 
SHS/A-Level 77 24.8 
Tertiary 49 15.8 
Other 12 3.9 
Employment   
Unemployed 43 13.9 
Employed 133 42.9 
Self-Employed 134 43.2 
Income   
1-100 52 16.8 
101-200 7 2.3 
201-300 32 10.3 
301-400 13 4.2 
401-500 67 21.6 
500 and above 139 44.8 
Marital Status   
Single  107 34.5 
Co-habiting 39 12.6 
Married  135 43.5 
Separated 5 1.6 
Divorced 19 6.1 
Widowed 5 1.6 
Residents   
Slum 253 81.6 
Non-slum 57 18.4 
Duration of Stay (years)   
0-5 121 39.0 
6-10 77 24.8 
11-15 43 13.9 
15-20 13 4.2 
Above 20 56 18.1 
Source: Field data, 2017 
  
85 
 
5.1.1 Respondents’ Awareness of Sanitation Campaigns and Patronage of Sanitation 
Services 
Frequency and percentages were calculated for variables that collected information on 
respondents’ awareness of sanitation campaigns and patronage of sanitation services in 
densely populated suburbs of Accra. Most of the respondents were aware of sanitation 
campaigns (n=192, 61.9%).  Lager part of the respondents showed that they were exposed 
to sanitation campaigns through other mediums (n=163, 52.6%) apart from TV (n=99, 
31.9%).  Most of the respondents noted that they have ever engaged the services of waste 
disposal companies (n=183, 59.0%).  Most of the respondents indicated that waste disposal 
companies visited their homes twice a week to collect wastes (n=139, 44.8%).  Most of the 
respondents noted that weekly cost of waste disposal was GHC 10-15 (n=107, 34.5%).  Most 
of the respondents indicated that they do not dispose wastes at a central dumping site in their 
suburbs (n=205, 66.1%); as a result, most of them indicated that the frequency of disposing 
of waste at a central place was inapplicable in their case (n=197, 63.5%). For respondents 
who indicated that they visited central dumping sites, they noted that they spent above GHC 
5.00 per disposal. The detailed summary statistics of respondents’ awareness of sanitation 
campaigns and patronage of sanitation services are reported in Table 5.2. 
  
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Table 5.2: Respondents’ Awareness of Sanitation Campaigns and Patronage of 
Sanitation Services 
Variables Frequency  Percentage 
Awareness of sanitation campaign   
Yes 118 38.1 
No 192 61.9 
Medium of awareness   
TV 99 31.9 
Radio 35 11.3 
Print 7 2.3 
Online 6 1.9 
Other 163 52.6 
Service Engagement of Waste Disposal Companies   
Yes 183 59.0 
No 127 41.0 
Waste Disposal Company Weekly Visits   
Once 62 20.0 
Twice 139 44.8 
Thrice  11 3.5 
Not at all 98 31.6 
Cost of waste disposal   
10-15 107 34.5 
16-20 56 18.1 
21-25 26 8.4 
26-30 31 10.0 
Above 30 90 29.0 
Disposal of Refuse at Central Dump site   
Yes 105 33.9 
No 205 66.1 
Frequency of Disposal   
Once 8 2.6 
Twice 97 31.3 
Thrice  8 2.6 
Not at all 197 63.5 
Cost per disposal   
1-2 30 9.7 
3-5 15 4.8 
Above 5 71 22.9 
Not applicable 194 62.6 
Source: Field work, 2017 
 
5.2 SUMMARY STATISTICS FOR THE ITEMS IN THE TPB WASTE DISPOSAL 
QUESTIONNAIRE 
Summary statistics were calculated for responses to the statements in the TPB waste 
disposal questionnaire.  Respondents were instructed to pick any of the following responses 
87 
 
from the Likert scale response checklist: strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), neutral (3), 
agree (4), and strongly agree (5).  Mean (M) and standard deviations (SD) were calculated 
for all the responses to the statements in each of the domains of TPB.  Small standard 
deviations (SD) with respect to the mean indicated that majority of the respondents selected 
response option closer to the mean (M) and vice versa.  For questions in the Attitude (AT) 
domain of the questionnaire, results in Table 5.3 indicated that most of the respondents 
selected responses that are not close to the mean response, which is likely to be among either 
strongly disagree (1), or agree (4), and strongly agree (5). Whereas all questions in the 
perceived behavioural control (PBC), subjective norm (SN), behavioural intention (BI), and 
actual behaviour (AB) domains of the questionnaire results in Table 5.3 indicated that most 
of the respondents selected responses that are closer to the mean response. This means that 
most of the respondents were neutral in their response to the questions in those four domains. 
  
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Table 5.3: Summary Statistics for the items in the TPB waste disposal questionnaire 
  Mean SD 
ATTITUDES AT 3.29 1.02 
In my opinion, proper waste disposal is a good activity AT19  3.44 1.21 
I think proper waste disposal activity will be an interesting AT20  3.38 1.18 
task 
For me, proper waste disposal is useful  AT21  3.25 1.18 
In my opinion, proper waste disposal protects the AT22  3.18 1.12 
environment 
Waste management practices should be further promoted in AT23  3.18 1.22 
Ghana 
    
PERCEIVE BEHAVIOURAL CONTROL PBC 3.41 0.82 
The decision to dispose of waste is completely up to me PBC28  3.47 .99 
For me, the decision to properly dispose of waste will be an PBC29  3.51 1.01 
easy task 
I have complete control in deciding whether or not to PBC30  3.52 .98 
properly dispose of my waste 
If I wanted to, I could dispose of my waste at home PBC31  3.15 1.06 
    
SUBJECTIVE NORMS SN 3.57 0.86 
My family thinks I should dispose of my waste properly SN24  3.75 1.06 
My neighbours think I should participate in proper waste SN25  3.52 1.08 
disposal 
My colleagues think I should be involved in proper waste SN26  3.41 1.07 
disposal at work  
The community in which I live think I should properly SN27  3.58 1.03 
dispose of my waste 
    
BEHAVIOURAL INTENTION  BI 3.84 0.71 
I intend to dispose of my waste on a regular basis if there are BI32  4.00 .95 
waste collection measures 
I plan to regularly dispose of my waste if I am satisfied with BI33  4.03 .80 
waste collection measures by the local authorities 
I will try my best to dispose of waste if I am convinced with BI34  3.93 .87 
the benefits of proper waste disposal 
I will make an effort to properly dispose of my waste if the BI35  3.65 .94 
local authorities enforce public participation in proper waste 
disposal 
I intend to dispose of my waste if the local authorities provide BI36  3.59 1.05 
satisfactory services for proper waste disposal 
    
ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR  AB 3.37 0.74 
I regularly dispose of my waste by sending them to the AB37  3.47 1.03 
required dump site or bin (container) 
I regularly attempt to reduce the waste in my home  AB38  3.49 1.04 
I regularly make use of the waste generated at home for other AB39  3.45 1.04 
purposes 
89 
 
I have never recycled any part of my waste in my home AB40  3.43 1.01 
I have never disposed of my waste indiscriminately AB41  3.21 1.06 
I am regularly influenced to properly dispose of waste due to AB42  3.16 1.10 
campaign messages 
Source: Field work, 2017 
 
5.3 FACTOR ANALYSES 
5.3.1 Exploratory Factor Analyses 
An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the 24 items of the TPB questionnaire was 
performed on the data from 310 respondents from densely populated suburbs of Accra, 
Ghana.  Before running the examination with IBM SPSS, the information was screened by 
analysing descriptive statistics on every item, inter-item correlations, and potential 
univariate and multivariate assumption violations.  From this basic assessment, all factors 
or variables were observed to be interval-like, variable sets had all the earmarks of being 
bivariate normally distributed, and all cases were free (independent) of each other.  On 
account of the substantial sample size, the variables-to-cases ratio was considered sufficient. 
The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of examining sufficiency was 0.86, 
demonstrating that the present data were appropriate for principal components analysis.  
Likewise, Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (p< 0.001), showing an adequate 
relationship between variables to continue with the analysis (see, Table 5.5). 
In light of the subscales that are said to involve TPB questionnaire, the five factors were 
extracted, and all with eigen values more prominent than 1, in total representing 66.77% of 
the aggregate fluctuation (variance) explained in the Varimax with Kaiser Normalization 
rotation solution.  The five-factor Varimax rotated component matrix mirrored the existent 
scoring schema of the 24-item TPB questionnaire with some few exceptions.  Two of the 
items (AB37: I regularly dispose of my waste by sending them to the required dump site or 
bin [container], and AB42: I am regularly influenced to properly dispose of waste due to 
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campaign messages) in the Actual Behaviour subscale had loadings less than 0.60; thus, 
they were removed from the questionnaire in subsequent factor analyses for each of the 
subscales. The two items did not correlate most strongly (loadings greater than 0.60) with 
the actual behaviour subscale as expected.  It would seem that from the perspectives of the 
respondents, regularly disposing of their waste by sending them to the required dump site 
or bin (container) was not something they consider important.  Also, from the perspectives 
of the respondents, regularly being influenced to properly dispose of waste due to campaign 
messages was not effective.  
Subscales were constructed based on the organisation as shown in table 5.4, whilst table 5.5 
displays the sample adequacy.  The internal consistency of each of the subscales as assessed 
by coefficient alpha is shown in table 5.6.  All the subscales exhibited very good internal 
consistency.  
  
91 
 
Table 5.4: Factor Coefficients: Five Factor Solution. Rotated Component Matrix.  
 Component 
1 2 3 4 5 
AT19  0.81     
AT20  0.84     
AT21  0.87     
AT22  0.85     
AT23  0.82     
BI32   0.68    
BI33   0.80    
BI34   0.78    
BI35   0.71    
BI36   0.72    
PBC28     0.79  
PBC29     0.71  
PBC30     0.62  
PBC31     0.73  
SN24      0.79 
SN25      0.81 
SN26      0.74 
SN27      0.65 
AB37       
AB38    0.72   
AB39    0.79   
AB40    0.82   
AB41    0.73   
AB42       
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with 
Kaiser Normalization. Variance explained: 63.77. 
 
Source: Field data, 2017 
 
 
Table 5.5: KMO and Bartlett's Test 
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .862 
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 3714.957 
df 276 
Sig. .000 
 
  
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5.3.1.1 Principal Component Analysis and Inter-Item Reliability Analyses for Each 
Subscale 
Each of the subscales of the TPB scale were subjected to principal components analysis 
(PCA) and Inter-Item reliability test using SPSS version 21. Inspection of the correlation 
matrix for all the subscales revealed the presence of many coefficients of .3 and above.  
For the subscale Attitude (AT), the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value was 0.85, exceeding the 
recommended value of .6 (Kaiser, 1970; 1974) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (Bartlett, 
1954) reached statistical significance, supporting the factorability of the correlation matrix. 
The Cronbach alpha coefficient for Attitude (AT) was 0.91, suggesting that the AT subscale 
has very good internal consistency.  
The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value, Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity, and the Cronbach alpha 
coefficient of Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC), Subjective Norm (SN), Behavioural 
Intention (BI), and Actual Behaviour (AB) are reported in Table 5.6. The values indicated 
that the subscales themselves support the factorability of the correlation matrix. The 
Cronbach alpha coefficient of PBC, SN, BI, and AB suggest that the subscales have good 
internal consistency. 
 
  
93 
 
Table 5.6: Principal Component Analysis Inter-item reliability analyses for each 
subscale 
Principal Component Loadings                                            Internal Consistencies 
Items Variable Factor Variance Cronbach's Item-total Alpha if 
 Codes Loadings Explained Alpha Correlation item is 
deleted 
Factor 1 AT19  0.85 74.30 0.91 0.76 0.90 
 AT20  0.87   0.80 0.89 
 AT21  0.89   0.81 0.89 
 AT22  0.87   0.79 0.89 
 AT23  0.83   0.74 0.90 
KMO: 0.85; Bartlett's Test of Sphericity: Chi-square=1111.97; df= 10; p= 0.000. 
       
Factor 2 SN24  0.83 65.13 0.82 0.67 0.76 
 SN25  0.88   0.75 0.72 
 SN26  0.75   0.58 0.80 
 SN27  0.77   0.59 0.80 
KMO: 0.79; Bartlett's Test of Sphericity: Chi-square= 441.38; df= 6; p= 0.000. 
       
Factor 3 PBC28  0.86 65.54 0.82 0.72 0.74 
 PBC29  0.80   0.64 0.78 
 PBC30  0.79   0.62 0.79 
 PBC31  0.78   0.61 0.79 
KMO: 0.79; Bartlett's Test of Sphericity: Chi-square= 437.77; df= 6; p= 0.000. 
       
Factor 4 BI32  0.74 59.47 0.83 0.58 0.80 
 BI33  0.81   0.68 0.78 
 BI34  0.79   0.65 0.78 
 BI35  0.73   0.58 0.80 
 BI36  0.77   0.63 0.79 
KMO: 0.83; Bartlett's Test of Sphericity: Chi-square=532.09; df= 10; p= 0.000. 
       
Factor 5 AB38  0.80 64.34 0.81 0.62 0.77 
 AB39  0.84   0.68 0.74 
 AB40  0.84   0.69 0.74 
  AB41  0.72     0.54 0.81 
KMO: 0.76; Bartlett's Test of Sphericity: Chi-square=432.42; df= 6; p= 0.000. 
Source: Field data, 2017 
 
5.3.2 Confirmatory Factor Analyses  
The 22 items that were retained at the EFA stage were further subjected to a confirmatory 
factor analysis (CFA).  Factor loadings for the 22-item TPB are reported in table 5.7.  During 
94 
 
the CFA stage, items with factor loadings below a threshold of (less than) 0.70 were 
removed. Standardised regression weights were accepted to be statistically significant at a 
p-value of 0.01.  At this stage, the researcher purposed to retain items with strong regression 
weights.  Thus, the final TPB questionnaire consist of 15-items.  This 15-item TPB scale 
formed the measurement model of the Structural Equation Model (SEM) of the study.  The 
factor loadings of the new 15-item TPB questionnaire are subsequently reported in table 5.8.   
 
Table 5.7: Factor loadings (Standardised regression weights) for the 22-item TPB 
questionnaire 
 β t-values P-value 
AT19  0.82  0.00 
AT20  0.85 17.34 0.00 
AT21 0.86 17.66 0.00 
AT22 0.82 16.48 0.00 
AT23 0.78 15.35 0.00 
    
SN24  0.77  0.00 
SN25  0.85 14.06 0.00 
SN26  0.65 10.94 0.00 
SN27  0.68 11.44 0.00 
    
PBC28 0.82  0.00 
PBC29 0.71 12.50 0.00 
PBC30  0.73 12.90 0.00 
PBC31  0.69 12.12 0.00 
    
BI32 0.69  0.00 
BI33 0.76 11.32 0.00 
BI34 0.72 10.88 0.00 
BI35 0.64 9.76 0.00 
BI36 0.70 10.61 0.00 
    
AB38 0.73  0.00 
AB39 0.80 12.29 0.00 
AB40 0.76 11.92 0.00 
AB41 0.60 9.58 0.00 
Source: Field data, 2017 
 
5.4 THE STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL (SEM) 
The hypothesised model of the study is displayed in figure 5.1.  Firstly, the study 
hypothesised that an individual’s intention to adopt a sound waste disposal behaviour does 
95 
 
not mediate the individual’s attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control 
towards waste disposal and the actual behaviour.  Secondly, the study hypothesised that 
demographic characteristics (gender, age, education, and income) of respondents have no 
statistical signifcant effect on individual’s actual waste disposal behaviour. 
 
 
Figure 5.1: The Hypothesised Model 
Source: Field data, 2017 
 
5.4.1 Basic Composition of SEM 
In SEM, there are two models: the measurement model and the structural model.  The first 
model, which is the measurement model, is a representation of the relationship between the 
observed and the unobserved variables in the model.  This measurement model reveals the 
correlation between the scores on a measuring instrument and the underlying constructs they 
are expected to measure.  From the foregoing explanation, the measurement model, 
therefore, represents the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), in that, it specifies the pattern 
by which each measure or item loads on a particular factor.  During the CFA, the focus is 
96 
 
on validating the model and no attempt is made at explaining the relationships between or 
among the constructs.  In other words, CFA assists in understanding how the measured 
variables cluster together to portray a construct(s). CFA is mainly used for validation and 
reliability checks purposes.  Two purposes structure the use of CFA: 
1) It confirms a hypothesised factor structure; and 
2) It is used to validate the measurement model. 
Unlike measurement models, in the structural model, relationships among unobserved 
variables are explained.  Structural models explain how latent variables influence each other 
in a direct or indirect way.  Because structural models seek to explain how variables are 
related to each other, they are very useful in hypotheses testing. 
A two-step structural equation modelling strategy using IBM SPSS Amos 21 (Arbuckle, 
2010) was adopted in this study. In the first instance, the estimation of the measurement 
model was performed.  Secondly, the estimation of the structural model was performed.  
The factor loadings from the estimation of the measurement model were presented.  
5.4.2 Validation of the Measurement Model: Psychometric Checks 
A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was carried out through Amos 21.  Measurement 
model validity relies on verifying adequate levels of goodness-of–fit for the measurement 
model and finding particular proof of construct validity.  Validity is described as the degree 
to which information gathering techniques definitely measure what they were meant to 
measure (Saunders & Thornhill, 2003).  To fulfil the validity process, the following are the 
two main validity and reliability checks that were conveyed: 
 Convergent validity 
 Composite Reliability 
 
97 
 
5.4.2.1 Convergent Validity 
Convergent validity is achieved when every item in a construct intensely correlates with its 
expected theoretical construct. The expectation is that the items that are the pointers of a 
construct should converge or share a high proportion of variance in common.  The 
proportion of variance extends within zero and one (0 – 1), and the expected level of 
standardised loadings for items that measure a construct is 0.70, however, 0.60 is likewise 
an adequate level  (Barclay, Higgins & Thompson, 1995).  In this study, convergent validity 
was examined through the t-statistic for each factor loading. From the examination, it has 
been observed that all factor loadings are greater than 0.70 and range from 0.71 to 0.86.  The 
standardised factor loadings (λ) of all items of each construct in the measurement model are 
presented in table 5.7. 
Convergent validity was assessed for the thirteen (13) constructs employing three criteria 
prescribed by Fornell and Larcker (1981):  
(1) All estimation factor loadings must be noteworthy and surpass 0.70;  
(2) Construct reliabilities must surpass 0.80; and  
(3) Average Variance Extracted (AVE) by each construct must surpass the difference 
because of estimation error for that construct (that is, AVE ought to surpass 0.50). 
For a convergent validity in structural equation modelling, the factor loadings and AVE 
ought to be more prominent than 0.5 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The average variance 
extracted (AVE) for each of the variables is manually ascertained for every one of the 
constructs using the given formula below: 
𝑘
∑ 𝜆2
𝑖=1 𝑖𝐴𝑉𝐸 = 𝑘  
∑ 𝜆2 + 𝛴𝑘
𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑖=1 ∨𝑎𝑟(𝑒𝑖)
98 
 
From the forgoing equation, λ is the standardised factor loadings and var(ei) is the 
measurement error of each indicator.  The mathematical equation can be reduced in a simple 
form as sum of squared standard loadings divided by the addition of sum of squared standard 
loadings and sum of indicator measure errors.  For example, the average variance extracted 
(AVE) for the factor ‘Attitude’ was calculated in the following way:  
 
                                        (0.82)2+(0.89)2+(0.86)2+(0.82)2+(0.78)2                        _____       
[(0.82)2 +(0.89)2 +(0.86)2 +(0.82)2 +(0.78)2] + [(0.49) +(0.39) +(0.36) +(0.42) +(0.59)] 
 
That is AVE for Attitude is 3.4 / (3.4 + 2.25).  Therefore, AVE for Attitude = 0.60.  The 
AVE and the construct factor loadings are displayed in table 5.7.  As observed from the 
table, all AVE values and factor loadings are higher than 0.50. For every one of the 
constructs, all items have high loadings, with greater part exceeding 0.70, in this manner, 
indicating convergent validity. 
5.4.2.2 Composite Reliability 
To achieve construct validity, it is required that score reliability must be achieved (i.e. factor 
loadings of items must indicate that they are measuring a construct).  Reliability is 
understood as the degree to which measurements are free from error and thus produces 
consistent results.  From the perspective of Carmines & Zeller (1979), reliability is defined 
in general as the extent to which a measure, procedure, or instrument yields the same result 
on repetitive analyses.  Hair, Anderson, Tathman, & Black (1998) postulates that reliability 
can be helpful in assessing the degree of consistency among multiple measurements of 
variables.  In this study, reliability is explained as the internal consistency of a scale, which 
assesses the degree to which the items are measuring the same construct. In other words, the 
internal consistency of a scale is achieved when all items are viewed as analogous measures 
underlying the same construct of interest. The standard way of assessing composite 
99 
 
reliability is to accept all path loadings from construct to measures greater or equal to 0.70.  
Composite reliability measures the overall reliability of a set of items loaded on a latent 
construct.  The threshold of acceptability is 0.70 and above because values greater than 0.70 
is indicative of a good reliability.  Path loadings between 0.60 and 0.70 are additionally 
acceptable if other indicators of the construct’s validity are good (Hair et al., 2006). 
Fornell's composite reliability (CR) was used in testing the internal reliability of the 
measurement models (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).  Reliability of factor elements was assessed 
by checking composite reliability. The CR ought to be more prominent than the benchmark 
of 0.70 to be viewed as satisfactory (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The formula for 
ascertaining CR is as per the following: 
2
(∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝜆𝑖)
𝐶𝑅 = 2  
(∑𝑘 𝑘?̇?=1 𝜆𝑖) + (∑𝑖=1 𝑒𝑖)
Where λ is the standardised factor loadings and ei is the indicator measurement error. This 
can be explained as the square of sum of standardised factor loadings divided by square of 
sum of loadings plus sum of indicator measurement errors.  For instance, the CR for the 
dimension ‘Attitude’ was calculated as demonstrated below: 
                                         [(0.82) +(0.89) +(0.86) +(0.82) +(0.78)]2                       __        
            [(0.82) +(0.89) +(0.86) +(0.82) +(0.78)]2 + [(0.49) +(0.39) +(0.36) +(0.42) +(0.59)] 
 
That is CR for Attitude is 17.3889 / (17.3889 + 2.25).  Consequently, the composite 
reliability for the construct ‘Attitude’ is found to be 0.89.  Essentially, composite reliabilities 
for different constructs were evaluated. The composite reliability and AVE’S of all 
constructs are exhibited in table 5.8.  All composite reliabilities of constructs have a value 
higher than 0.70, showing sufficient internal consistency. 
  
100 
 
Table 5.8: Psychometric properties of the new 15-item TPB Questionnaire 
Constructs Items Standardised CR AVE Cronbach's 
Loadings Alpha α 
Attitude AT19 0.82 0.89 0.60 0.91 
  AT20 0.85       
  AT21 0.86       
  AT22 0.82       
  AT23 0.78       
      
Subjective Norm SN24 0.82 0.78 0.84 0.80 
  SN25 0.81       
      
      
Perceived Behavioural PBC28 0.79 0.76 0.62 0.76 
Control 
  PBC30 0.77       
      
Behavioural Intention BI33 0.73 0.80 0.58 0.77 
  BI34 0.73       
  BI36 0.71       
      
Actual Behaviour AB38 0.75 0.80 0.58 0.81 
  AB39 0.84       
 AB40 0.71    
            
Source: Field data, 2017 
 
5.5 THE MEASUREMENT MODEL 
The study tested the first measurement model in the study hypothesis.  A confirmatory factor 
analysis of the measurement model was assessed in IBM SPSS Amos 21, and Figure 5.2 
displays the path coefficients generated in the analysis. The Chi-square and fit indexes are 
shown in table 5.9.  Although the Chi-square test of the model was statistically significant 
with a value of 221.86 (80, N=310), p< 0.001, the model yielded acceptable fit indexes for 
RMSEA; however, NFI, CFI, and GFI values indicate a marginal fit of the model.  All path 
coefficients achieved statistical significance (p=0.001) and practical significance 
(standardised regression estimates greater or equal to 0.70).  Therefore, a modification was 
not conducted to improve the measurement model.  The model comparison fit measures, 
101 
 
AIC and BCC were all reasonably small, indicating a marginal fit between the model and 
the data.  The result suggests that Attitude, Perceived Behaviour Control, Subjective Norm, 
Behavioural Intention, and Actual Behaviour are all indicators of the Planned Behaviour 
Model (PBM).  
Table 5. 9: Chi-square and Goodness of Fit Indices for Confirmatory Factor model of 
PBM 
Factor model  χ2 df GFI NFI CFI RMSEA AIC BCC 
Original 221.86 80 0.91 0.90 0.94 0.08 301.86 306.23 
(0.06-0.09) 
χ=Chi-square; df=degree of freedom; GFI=Goodness of Fit Index; Normed Fit Index; 
CFI=Comparative Fit Index; Root Mean Square of Error Approximation; AIC=Akaike 
Information Criterion; BCC= Brown-Cudeck Criterion. 
 
 
 
Figure 5.2: The Measurement Model 
Source: Field data, 2017 
102 
 
5.5.1 Study—or Hypothesised—Model 
A two-stage structural equation modelling technique using IBM SPSS Amos 21 (Arbuckle, 
2010) was adopted; a full-information maximum likelihood procedure was utilised in 
assessing the parameters.  This procedure or technique incorporates the diverse estimation 
of the measurement model preceding the simultaneous estimation of the measurement 
model and the structural model.  Despite the fact that the measurement model gives an 
evaluation of convergent validity and discriminant validity of the latent variable (planned 
behaviour model), the measurement model in conjunction with the structural model supports 
an exhaustive appraisal of the full model.  The present structural model, shown 
schematically in figure 5.3, assessed: the direct effect of behavioural intention on actual 
behaviour; direct effect of perceived behavioural control on actual behaviour; the indirect 
effect of subjective norm on actual behaviour via behavioural intention; the indirect effect 
of attitude on actual behaviour via behavioural intention; and the indirect effect of perceived 
behavioural control on actual behaviour via behavioural intention.  The structural model 
also assessed the direct effects of gender, age, education, and income on actual behaviour. 
The hypothesised model accounted for 25% of the variance in actual behaviour, which was 
mostly due to the direct effect of perceived behavioural control. To assess how well the 
hypothesised model fits the data, many fit indexes from the SEM text output (under model 
fit) are to be reported against the thresholds of the various fit measures.  Therefore, values 
of fit measures that are within acceptable range suggest the acceptability of the hypothesised 
model. Several fit measures are to be reported to be certain about how well the hypothesised 
model fits the data.  Several criteria (fit measures) were employed to assess the hypothesised 
model. 
Five criteria were employed to assess the hypothesised model.  The Chi-square test was 
statistically significant, χ2 (144, N= 310) =406.89, P= 0.00, suggesting the model failed to 
103 
 
fit the data.  However, the significance of the chi square is influenced by sample size, 
therefore, reporting other fit measures can truly explain how well the model fits the data.  
The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) was 0.07 (with a 90% confidence 
interval: 0.07 and 0.09) indicated that the model is acceptable.  However, other fit measures 
suggest that the hypothesised model is unacceptable.  The Normed Fit Index (NFI), the 
Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI), the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Comparative Fit 
Index (CFI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI), and Parsimonious Goodness of Fit Index (PGFI) 
indicated unacceptable fit at values of 0.84, 0.84, 0.88, 0.89, 0.89, and 0.67, respectively.  
Four of the path coefficients achieve statistical significance (p=0.001), and one achieved 
practical significance (standardised regression estimates greater or equal to 0.30).  None of 
the demographic variables achieved both statistical and practical significance, indicating 
that there was no significant relationship between any of the demographic variables – 
gender, age, education, and income and actual behaviour of properly disposing of waste.  
The only path that achieved practical significance is Perceived behavioural control on 
Actual Behaviour.  Therefore, a modification was conducted to improve the full model. To 
improve the study model, all the demographic variables were removed (see, tables 5.10 and 
5.11). 
Table 5.10: Path and Statistical Coefficients of the Study Model 
 β S.E. t-value P 
Behavioural Intention <---Perceived Behavioural Control 0.25 .11 2.20 0.03 
Behavioural Intention<---Attitude 0.26 .05 3.75 0.00 
Behavioural Intention<---Subjective Norm 0.11 .09 0.99 0.32 
Actual Behaviour<---Gender 0.06 .09 1.08 0.28 
Actual Behaviour<---Age 0.06 .04 1.09 0.28 
Actual Behaviour<---Education -0.01 .03 -0.19 0.85 
Actual Behaviour<---Income -0.03 .02 -0.50 0.62 
Actual Behaviour<---Behavioural Intention 0.23 .08 3.04 0.00 
Actual Behaviour<---Perceived Behavioural Control 0.35 .08 4.46 0.00 
Source: Filed data, 2017. 
 
104 
 
 
Figure 5.3: The tested Study Model 
Source: Field data, 2017. 
Labelling of all the 24-items of the planned behaviour model commenced from number 19 
and continued all through to number 42 (as explained in chapter 4).  This implies that 5 
items for Attitude (AT) labeled from: AT 19 to AT23; 4 items under subjective norm (SN): 
SN24 – SN 27; 4 items for Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC): PBC28 – PBC 31; 5 items 
for behavioural intention (BI): 32 – BI 36; and 6 items under actual behaviour (AB): AB37 
– AB42.  The above tested study model is further modified.  
5.5.2 The Modified Study Model 
The modified model explained 24% of the variance in actual behaviour, which was due to 
the direct effect of perceived behavioural control.  In the modified model (Figure 5.4), the 
chi-square test was statistically significant, χ2(82, N=310) = 224.11, P=0.00, suggesting that 
the model does not fit the data well.  Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), 
Normed Fit Index (NFI), and Adjusted Goodness of Fit index (AGFI) indicated good fit at 
values of 0.07 [with a 90% confidence interval: 0.06-0.09], and marginal fits at values of 
105 
 
0.90, and 0.87, respectively.  Other fit measures indicated marginal fits.  Goodness of Fit 
index (GFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Parsimonious Goodness of Fit index (PGFI) 
indicated that the model marginally fit the data at values of 0.91, 0.94, and 0.62, 
respectively.  One relative measure and parsimonious measure indicated that the model is a 
good fit.  Incremental Fit Index (IFI) and Parsimonious Normed Fit Index (PNFI) at values 
of 0.94 and 0.71, respectively, suggest that the model is a good fit to the data.  Only one of 
the path coefficient in the modified model failed to achieve statistical significance 
(p=0.001).  Only one path coefficient achieved practical significance (standardised 
regression estimates greater or equal to 0.30). This is also presented in table 5.11 below. 
Table 5.11: Path and Statistical Coefficients of the Modified Study Model 
 β S.E. t-value P 
Behavioural Intention <---Perceived Behavioural Control 0.25 .11 2.20 0.03 
Behavioural Intention<---Attitude 0.26 .05 3.75 0.00 
Behavioural Intention<---Subjective Norm 0.11 .09 0.99 0.32 
Actual Behaviour<---Behavioural Intention 0.23 .08 3.04 0.00 
Actual Behaviour<---Perceived Behavioural Control 0.35 .08 4.42 0.00 
Source: Field data, 2017. 
 
Figure 5.4: The Modified Study Model 
Source: Field data, 2017. 
106 
 
5.6 INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS IN RELATION TO THE 
HYPOTHESES 
The following interpretations from tables 5.9 and 5.10 have been arrived at and how they 
related with the study’s hypothesis: 
Perceived behavioural control positively and statistically related with Behavioural intention 
of disposing of waste (β=0.25, p=0.03) with t-value greater than 1.96 (2.20). [This result 
does not support the following hypothesis: H3: There is no statistically significant 
relationship between individual perceived behavioural control and their intentions to engage 
in waste disposal behaviour. Thus, the study failed to accept the hypothesis]. 
Attitude positively and statistically related with behavioural intention of disposing of waste 
(β=0.26, p=0.00) with t-value greater than 2.575 (3.75). [This result does not support the 
following: H1: There is no statistically significant relationship between attitude and 
individuals’ intentions to engage in waste disposal behaviour. Thus, the study failed to 
accept the hypothesis]. 
Subjective norm did not statistically relate with behavioural intention of disposing of waste 
(β=0.11, p=0.32) with t-value less than 2.575 (0.99). [This result does support the following 
hypothesis: H2: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ 
subjective norms and their intentions to engage in waste disposal behaviour. Thus, the study 
failed to reject the hypothesis]. 
Gender does not positively and statistically relate with Behavioural intention of disposing 
of waste (β=0.06, p=0.28) with t-value less than 2.575 (1.08). [This result does support the 
following hypothesis: H6b: There is no statistically significant relationship between 
individual’s gender and their waste disposal behaviour. Thus, the study failed to reject the 
hypothesis]. 
107 
 
Age did not statistically relate with behavioural intention of disposing of waste (β=0.06, 
p=0.28) with t-value less than 2.575 (1.09). [This result does support the following 
hypothesis: H6a: There is no statistically significant relationship between individuals’ age 
and their waste disposal behaviour.  Thus, the study failed to reject the hypothesis]. 
Education did not statistically relate with Behavioural intention of disposing of waste (β=-
0.01, p=0.85) with t-value less than 2.575 (-0.19). [This result does support the following 
hypothesis: H6c: There is no statistically significant relationship between individual’s 
education level and their waste disposal behaviour. Thus, the study failed to reject the 
hypothesis]. 
Income did not positively and statistically relate with Behavioural intention of disposing of 
waste (β=-0.03, p=0.62) with t-value less than 2.575 (-0.50). [This result does support the 
following hypothesis: H6d: There is no statistically significant relationship between 
individual’s income levels and their waste disposal behaviour.  Thus, the study failed to 
reject the hypothesis]. 
Perceived behavioural control positively and statistically related with actual behaviour of 
disposing of waste (β=0.35, p=0.00) with t-value greater than 2.575 (4.46). [This result does 
not support the following hypothesis: H4: There is no statistically significant relationship 
between individuals’ perceived behaviour control and their actual waste disposal behaviour. 
Thus, the study failed to accept the hypothesis]. 
Behavioural intentions positively and statistically related with actual behaviour of disposing 
of waste (β=0.35, p=0.00) with t-value greater than 2.575 (3.04). [This result does not 
support the following hypothesis: H5: There is no statistically significant relationship 
between individuals’ subjective norms and their intentions to engage in waste disposal 
behaviour. Thus, the study failed to accept the hypothesis]. 
108 
 
5.7 DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS 
In this section, the research findings discuss in relation to the research objectives that were 
postulated. The discussions are under two main issues which seek to answer the research 
objective. The first issue is to discuss in relation to existing literature, the findings of the 
relationship between the antecedents of waste disposal behaviour and the actual behaviour.  
In this discussion, four major hypothesis are discussed based on what the study found and 
the arguments that were presented in literature.  The second aspect of this section also 
discusses the findings on the moderating effect of the demographic variables of age, gender, 
educational level and income.  The fundamental issue underpinning this study is to examine 
the behavioural factors that will determine waste disposal behaviour of individuals.  
5.7.1 The Relationship between Antecedents of Waste Disposal and Waste Disposal 
Behaviour 
The section on the discussions of findings is organised under the waste disposal behaviour 
variables of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and intentions and 
comparing these results with the findings of other studies.  This study sought to test the 
hypothesis that the attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control do not 
lead to the adoption of waste disposal behaviour among respondents.  These hypotheses are 
very different from the numerous studies which proposed a statistical and significant 
relationship between these variables and waste disposal behaviour.  The four antecedents of 
waste disposal behaviour were adopted from the Theory of Planned Behaviour by Ajzen 
(1991).  This theory, serving as the fundamental basis for this study, posits that before an 
individual decides and becomes willing and capable to adopt a behaviour, the individual’s 
attitude towards the behaviour, the subjective norms relating to the behaviour, the perceived 
behavioural control must lead to the development of intentions to perform the behaviour.  
The second path of the relationship is to test for a hypothesis on the relationship between 
109 
 
intentions of performing waste disposal behaviour and the adopting the behaviour.  This led 
to a proposed hypothesis that there is no significant and statistical relationship between 
intentions and waste disposal behaviour.  
With the first variable which is attitudes towards waste disposal, the study found that there 
exist moderate levels of positive attitudes towards waste management.  The means that 
individuals did not have very strong positive attitudes towards proper waste disposal.  The 
highest mean (in my opinion proper waste disposal is a good activity) was an average 
response, therefore, there was a sign that the respondents did not strongly agree to have the 
positive attitude to adopt waste disposal. The existence of some level of positive attitude 
towards the behaviour (waste disposal) is very important in developing the initiation process 
of marketing the behaviour change (proper waste disposal) to the people.  The study of 
Tucker and Spiers (2003) argue that attitudes of individuals are very crucial in attaining 
behavioural change in household waste management.  On the relationship between 
individual attitudes and the intention to adopt waste disposal practices, the study found that 
there was a significant relationship.  This result is consistent with a number of studies which 
have sought to link individual attitudes and waste management practices (Rex, Lobo & 
Leckie, 2015; Tonglet et al., 2004).  These studies propose that before individuals develop 
the intention to perform a behaviour, there should be a positive attitude towards that 
behaviour.  However, the study of Cordano and Frieze (2000) found that attitude is not 
positively related to friendly environmental behaviour. This research adds to the result that 
the attitudes of respondents in this Ghanaian study are found to be significant to the 
development of intentions to perform proper waste disposal.  The implication, therefore, is 
that social marketing campaigns on waste disposal have been able to build positive attitudes 
among individuals in the study area in the Greater Accra Region.  The hypothesis, therefore, 
110 
 
is not supported as attitudes were seen to have a positive and significant relationship with 
behavioural intentions to dispose of waste.  
The findings on the effect of subjective norms on the behavioural intentions of respondents 
were also presented.  The findings suggest that just as attitudes, respondents did not agree 
they possess high levels of subjective norms when in relation to waste disposal.  The means 
of the questionnaire items is an indication that respondents do not believe they are highly 
influenced by family, and other people in their communities to properly dispose of waste.  
On the average, the respondents somehow believe subjective norms play a role in their 
attempt to dispose of waste.  Therefore, the study in an attempt to establish the relationship 
between subjective norms and behavioural intentions to dispose of waste was necessary.  
The study found that there was no statistical and significant relationship between subjective 
norms and behavioural intentions to dispose of waste. This was the only hypothesis that was 
supported by the entire study.  This also was surprising as majority of social marketing 
studies have argued that subjective norm is significant in predicting behaviour change 
especially, with waste management studies, (Mancha & Yoder, 2015; Rex et al., 2015; 
Pakpour et al., 2014; Ramayah et al., 2012; Mannetti et al., 2004; Tonglet et al. 2004).  The 
findings in the Ghanaian context indicate that subjective norm is not a predictor of proper 
waste disposal intentions is very surprising and thus calls for scrutiny.  One of the reasons 
that this work could attribute to this situation is that individuals within the study area in the 
Greater Accra Region are not influenced by other community members as there are 
inadequate social environmental programmes having the support of the people.  There is 
also a belief that the waste disposal campaigns in Ghana are not designed using referent 
groups in order to help build up the subjective norms of the people.  According to Wang et 
al. (2016), one referent group is the government which, must be seen to be at the forefront 
of waste management campaigns. It is, therefore, obvious that contrary to other studies, this 
111 
 
study does not acknowledge the existence of social pressure emanating from family (internal 
referents), friends, neighbours, and social groups (external referents) to perform certain 
waste disposal behaviours.  
Furthermore, this study also presented the findings on the effect of perceived behavioural 
control on intention to dispose of waste.  The four items measuring the perceived 
behavioural control were very low; meaning that the respondents did not have a firm control 
over their ability to properly perform waste disposal behaviour. The general perception of 
the respondents indicates they did not possess higher behavioural control in performing 
waste disposal behaviours.  The study further sought to assess the relationship between 
perceived behavioural control and waste disposal behavioural intentions.  In this regard, the 
study found that there is a statistical and significant relationship between perceived 
behavioural control and behavioural intentions to properly dispose of waste.  Again, the 
hypothesis proposed that there is no significant relationship between perceived behavioural 
control and intentions to dispose of waste was found not to be supported.  However, these 
findings in the Ghanaian context is collaborated by other studies that perceived behavioural 
control is a predictor of behavioural intention to dispose of waste (Hasan, Harun, & Hock, 
2015; Tonglet et al, 2004; Pakpour et al., 2014).  This implies that respondents within the 
study area have the requisite control over disposing of waste which is an indication that 
respondents believe it is easy to properly dispose of waste. 
The study also conducted a second path analysis to establish the relationship between 
behavioural intentions of disposing of waste and the actual behaviour of waste disposal.  
The study found that there is a statistical significance between behavioural intentions and 
actual waste disposal behaviour.  This finding did not support the proposed hypothesis that 
the behavioural intentions to adopt waste disposal behaviour is not statistically related to 
actual waste disposal behaviour. 
112 
 
5.7.2 The Impact of Demographic Variables on the Relationship between Antecedents 
of Waste Disposal and Waste Disposal Behaviour. 
In the bid to discover the impact of demographic variables on the relationship between 
antecedents of waste disposal and the actual waste disposal behaviour, the study built on the 
first objective by conducting a moderation test to determine the effect of age, gender, 
education, and income on waste disposal behaviour. This objective of this research was 
informed by the arguments made by scholars that social marketing campaigns have different 
results depending on the demography of respondents (Hasan et al., 2015; Pakpour et al., 
2014; Ghani et al., 2013).  
The age of respondents was found not to be statistically significant with waste disposal 
behaviour.  This result is consistent with the findings of Ghani et al. (2013), that age is not 
a discriminator in adopting waste disposal behaviour.  This implies that the age of target 
audience does not impact the adoption of waste disposal behaviour.  There is, therefore, no 
difference in the perception of young and old target audiences of social marketing 
campaigns.  In this context, the intention and actual disposal of waste could be done by both 
young and older individuals.  
The gender of respondents is not a discriminator of waste disposal behaviour.  This findings 
of this study imply that male and female target audience of waste disposal social marketing 
campaigns is likely to respond in a similar manner.  This finding is not in line with the study 
of Hasan et al. (2015), who found that the gender of the individual is statistically significant 
with the intention to recycle waste.  Hasan et al. (2015), found that females are more likely 
to adopt a higher pro-environmental behaviour than men.  However, this study did not find 
a difference in the adoption of waste disposal behaviour among female and male. This 
113 
 
implies that waste disposal activity could be performed equally between male and female 
targets.  
This study also sought to assess the effect of educational level of respondent on the adoption 
of waste disposal.  The findings of this study found that education of the individual is not a 
discriminator of waste disposal behaviour.  This is however surprising, as other studies have 
found that educational level of an individual determines the adoption of waste disposal 
behaviour (Pakpour et al., 2014; Ghani et al., 2013).   Nonetheless, a study by Hasan et al. 
(2015), is consistent with this results as the findings suggest that there is no difference 
between the waste disposal behaviour of undergraduate and postgraduate respondents. This 
implies that the waste disposal behaviour of respondents is likely to be performed 
irrespective of their level of education.  
Finally, this study found that the income level of respondents does not discriminate the 
adoption of waste disposal behaviour.  A study by Aung and Arias (2006), however, found 
different results which sought to imply that the income level of the target audience of waste 
management behaviour change campaigns plays a vital role.  This study, nonetheless, did 
not agree with such assertion as there is no difference in waste disposal behaviour due to 
the income of individuals.  
 
5.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY 
This chapter provides the outcomes and analysis of the study. Synopsis measurements of 
the statistic qualities and attributes of sanitation campaign and the support from respondents’ 
perspective were exhibited. Distinct measurements were computed for every one of the 
items in the 24-item of the TPB questionnaire. The exploratory factor and confirmatory 
factor analyses were performed so as to test and present the hypothesised model.  The basic 
114 
 
composition of the structural equation modelling is further explained for the purposes of 
analysis. Finally, results are interpreted and discussed in relation to the hypothesis of this 
study. 
  
115 
 
CHAPTER SIX 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
6.0 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter is organised into three major sections.  The chapter begins with the summary 
of the findings of the study based on the two research objectives.  The second issue relates 
to the general conclusions drawn from the study on theoretical issues, methodology and 
findings.  Finally, the chapter ends with some recommendation on future research directions 
and industry practice based on the findings, theoretical and methodological issues. 
  
6.1 SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 
This study was originally intended to assess the factors affecting waste disposal intention 
and behaviour. Therefore, two major research objectives were formulated to achieve this. 
The first objective was to assess the relationship between attitudes, subjective norms, and 
perceived behavioural control on waste disposal intentions and behaviour. The second 
objective was to determine the effect of demographic variables of age, gender, education, 
and income on waste disposal behaviour.  A conceptual framework using the theory of 
planned behaviour was used to show a two path relationship between three antecedents of 
waste disposal behaviour namely, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural 
control and intentions to dispose of waste, and waste disposal behaviour. The first 
relationship is between the antecedents of waste disposal and intentions to properly dispose 
of waste, and finally the relationship between intentions to dispose of waste and actual waste 
disposal.  The three antecedents of waste disposal behaviour were selected based on the 
theory of planned behaviour and were used to collect data.  The survey questionnaires were 
developed using semi-structured questions adapted from other studies on waste 
management. The assessment is based on the premise that attitudes, subjective norms, and 
116 
 
perceived behavioural control are necessary determinants of intentions towards adopting 
proper waste disposal behaviour, and the resulting effect is that favourable intentions will 
lead to actual waste disposal behaviour.  Based on propositions and findings of other studies, 
four hypothesis were formulated to establish that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived 
behavioural control has no statistical and significant relationship with intentions to dispose 
of waste, and also establish that intentions to dispose of waste has no statistical and 
significant relationship with waste disposal.  The study results found that there was a 
statistical and significant relationship between individual attitudes, perceived behavioural 
control and intentions to dispose of waste.  The study also found that the subjective norm 
does not have a statistical and significant relationship with intentions to properly dispose of 
waste.  These findings meant that only subjective norm supported the hypothesis that there 
is no statistical and significant relationship with waste disposal intentions.  Thus, this 
findings was found not be consistent with other studies.  From the discussions of the findings 
in the previous chapter, it was observed that majority of the studies had found that subjective 
norm is a determinant of proper waste management behaviour.  This, therefore, presents a 
unique findings in the Ghanaian context that subjective norms of respondents used for the 
study is not a predictor of intentions to dispose of waste.  The findings on the effect of 
attitudes and perceived behavioural control on intentions to properly dispose of waste were 
consistent with majority of studies reviewed.  On the relationship between intentions to 
dispose of waste and the actual disposal of waste, the study found that there is a significant 
relationship between intentions to dispose of waste and actual waste disposal behaviour.  
This result was consistent with majority of studies identified.  
The second objective of this study was to assess the impact of demographic variables on 
waste disposal behaviour.  This objective of the study was informed by the need to determine 
the effect age, gender, education, and income of individuals have on waste disposal 
117 
 
behaviour.  Other studies had advocated for the need to assess the potential effect these 
demographic variables could have on waste disposal behaviour in order to inform how social 
marketing campaigns could appeal to these segments.  However, the results found that none 
of these demographic variables was statistically and significantly related to proper waste 
disposal behaviour. This implied that the differences in age, gender, income, and educational 
level would not affect the adoption of waste disposal behaviour in the Ghanaian context.  
 
6.2 CONCLUSIONS 
This section of the chapter is dedicated to providing a conclusion on the entire research 
relating to the processes, approach, and findings.  The section presents a conclusion on the 
two objectives that were formulated by the researcher.  A conclusion on how the objectives 
of the study were achieved and is crucial in determining the fitness of theoretical and 
methodological issues.  This calls for a review of the theories, conceptual framework, 
methodology and analysis adopted to achieve the research objectives.  
The researcher believes that the methodology applied in undertaking the study is in line with 
the methodology proposed in other studies on the subject matter. The selection of a 
quantitative approach implied that the research sought to test for a relationship between two 
or more variables.  Therefore, an explanatory study was adopted to establish the relationship 
between antecedents of waste disposal and actual waste disposal.  A survey was used as the 
data collection method in order to agree with the quantitative nature of the study.  Survey 
questionnaires were developed using structure items adopted from other studies.  This 
served as the primary source of data collected from respondents.  Survey questionnaires 
were considered appropriate as the researcher sought to collect data that could aid in the 
testing of hypothesis formulated for the study.  However, the use of a quantitative approach 
could not have been possible without an available theoretical and conceptual framework for 
118 
 
the study.  The factors affecting waste disposal behaviour was informed by the use of the 
theory of planned behaviour in similar studies.  This, therefore, made the use of a 
quantitative approach very possible.  
The development of a conceptual framework was possible due to the existence of literature 
on the various behaviour intentions and adoption constructs. However, the researcher 
introduced demographic variables into the original theory of planned behaviour to assess 
the effect age, gender, educational and income level have on waste disposal behaviour.  The 
literature review found that the use of the theory of planned behaviour to develop conceptual 
frameworks was abundant, cutting across divergent waste management and environmental 
protection studies.  The conceptual framework showed a two path relationship between 
waste disposal behaviour variables. The first path relationship involved the relationship 
between individual attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control and the 
individual intentions to dispose of waste.  The second path is the relationship between 
individual intention to dispose of waste and actual waste disposal. This led to the 
development of four hypothesis illustrated in the conceptual framework.  The importance of 
considering the demographics of a target audience in social marketing campaigns was also 
considered in the development of the conceptual framework.  
The data collected was analysed using structural equation modelling. The analysis led to the 
study findings supporting or rejecting the study hypothesis.  The findings suggest that there 
was a statistical and significant relationship between individual attitudes, perceived 
behavioural control and individual intentions to properly dispose of waste.  Subjective norm 
was found not to have a statistical and significant relationship with behavioural intentions 
to properly dispose of waste.  This suggests that the first path relationship relating to 
attitudes and perceived behavioural control were not supported.  The study, therefore, found 
that the subjective norms of the respondents are likely not to affect their intentions of 
119 
 
properly disposing of waste which was a profound outcome of this study.  It was, therefore, 
explained that the social marketing campaigns on waste management had not considered 
how the influence of other individuals and society at large could positively affect waste 
disposal intentions.  The study also found that the attitudes and perceived behavioural 
control of individual are very important in ensuring the development of intentions to dispose 
of waste in Ghana.  The second path relationship between the intentions to dispose of waste 
and actual waste disposal was consistent with other studies that an individual who has an 
intention to dispose of waste is likely to perform waste disposal behaviour.  
The introduction of four behaviour variables of age, gender, education, and income resulted 
in very interesting findings.  It was surprising to find out that these demographic variables 
did not have statistical significance with waste disposal behaviour.  This implies that the 
demographic variables relating to age, gender, education, and income are not likely to 
discriminate the adoption of waste disposal.  The findings also may be as a result of the 
nature of waste disposal which is a behaviour that may not be prevalent among certain 
groups in a society.  These findings, however, are not consistent with that of other studies 
which demand an in-depth enquiry.  
This study, therefore, provides insight into the antecedents of waste disposal intentions 
which is crucial in determining the adoption of waste disposal behaviour.  Social marketing 
campaigns should, therefore, consider the behaviour change issues relating to individual 
attitudes, perceived behavioural control, and subjective norms.  The social marketing 
campaigns should be dedicated to developing a positive attitude towards waste disposal, 
increasing individual perceived behavioural control to ensure they have the self-efficacy to 
perform proper waste disposal behaviours.  The subjective norms were found not to be 
related to intentions to dispose of waste.  This could be due to the fact that there is little 
influence of community, governmental and individual influence on waste disposal.  The 
120 
 
major contribution of this study to literature is the revelation that subjective norms are not 
statistically and significantly related to intentions to properly dispose of waste.  
 
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCHERS 
This section of the study presents some future research direction to inform the conduct of 
research on social marketing and waste disposal.  The factors affecting waste disposal 
behaviour in Ghana require further studies on how social marketing principles could be used 
to improve the situation. The findings imply that individual attitudes and perceived 
behavioural control are predictors of waste disposal behaviour intentions and there is, 
therefore, the need to conduct studies on these variables.  Also, the findings relating to the 
subjective norms require that future research could identify why this variable is not a 
predictor of the waste disposal behaviour.  This could help to identify the challenges social 
marketers face in selling waste disposal behaviour to residents.  
There is also the need to propose some research directions considering the few studies that 
exist on the use of social marketing to resolve the waste situation in developing countries 
and in Ghana. The paucity of studies on social marketing and waste management is an 
indication that research has not contributed much to the marketing of proper waste disposal 
behaviour.  There is enough evidence to show that the theoretical and conceptual 
development is satisfactory; however, the application of these theories and concepts should 
be replicated in different contexts due to societal and cultural factors.  
From the findings of this study, the effect of individual attitudes and perceived behavioural 
control of individuals is very crucial in building the intentions to adopt proper waste disposal 
practices.  It is, therefore, prudent to replicate these variables in other studies.  Also, studies 
on social marketing interventions could adopt the theory of planned behaviour as this theory 
provides the bases for understanding the intentions and the actual performance of social 
121 
 
change behaviour.  Other social marketing theories should be adapted to replicate waste 
disposal studies. Some of these notable theories and models include the health belief model 
and the stages model amongst others.  
On methodological issues, a qualitative study could be applied to study each of the 
behaviour change variables used in this study.  This could help provide an in-depth 
understanding on individual attitudes towards waste disposal, the perceived behavioural 
control in adopting waste disposal behaviour, and the subjective norms that exist in 
Ghanaian communities that either promote or hinder waste disposal behaviour.  The views 
of social marketing and waste management experts in Ghana could also help identify 
relevant prospects and challenges relating to waste management in Ghana.  This qualitative 
insight could identify some distinct social marketing issues that could be incorporated in the 
conceptualisation of studies.  Furthermore, a study on a particular social marketing 
intervention on waste management could serve as a case study.  This case study may 
consider the strategies that were employed, the challenges they were faced and how target 
audience finally adopted or failed to adopt waste disposal behaviour.  Such an approach may 
be considered more as a pragmatic study.  The effect of a social marketing campaign in 
waste management could be effectively researched when there is a measure of behaviour 
before and after the intervention. This approach could be used to build up strategies that 
could be regarded as tried and tested.  
 
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INDUSTRY PRACTITIONERS 
This section now offers some recommendations for industry practitioners and social 
marketers in waste management campaigns.  The findings of the study suggest that social 
marketers and waste management experts and stakeholders should first and foremost 
consider the intentions of individuals to adopt waste disposal behaviour.  The attitudes and 
122 
 
perceived behavioural control relating to waste management is very crucial in determining 
waste disposal intentions.  This Ghanaian study is an indication that social marketers should 
consider the attitudes and perceived behavioural control as important factors in changing 
waste disposal behaviour.  With subjective norms, social marketers might introduce 
strategies that will increase the consciousness of community members, and family so they 
could not act as influencers in an attempt to pressurise individuals to adopt proper waste 
disposal behaviour.  
From the literature review, it is obvious social marketers should adopt the use of social 
marketing theories in developing social marketing campaigns.  In this regard, the various 
waste management campaigns in Ghana could adopt the theory of planned behaviour to 
underpin the behaviour change campaign.  This will require that the social marketer 
considers the attitudes, the perceived behaviour control, and subjective norms to ensure 
there exist the intention to adopt proper waste disposal behaviour.  This will help resolve 
the challenge in social marketing where the emphasis is laid on the communication 
campaign only.  
 
6.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY 
This chapter provides the summary of the entire study composing of three noteworthy areas.   
The section starts with the rundown of the discoveries of the examination in light of the two 
research targets; identifies with the general conclusions drawn from the investigation on 
hypothetical issues, methodology and findings; and closes with some suggestion on future 
research bearings and industry practice in view of the discoveries. 
 
 
123 
 
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APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE 
 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL 
DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP 
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN MARKETING 
 
The researcher is an M.PHIL Marketing student at the University of Ghana Business School. 
This survey seeks to elicit responses on the topic: Social Marketing on Waste Disposal 
Behaviours in Ghana using the theory of Planned Behaviour. Information provided will be 
used for academic purposes and will be treated with much confidentiality. Please take a few 
moments and fill out this questionnaire by ticking where appropriate. 
 
SECTION A: Background / Demographic data of respondents  
1. Are you aware of any sanitation campaign?  Yes ( )  No ( ) 
2. Name any sanitation campaign 
………………………………………………………………….. 
3. Which medium exposed you to the campaign?  Tv ( )   Radio ( )    Prints ( ) Online ( )   
other; specify ……... 
4. Gender:  Male ( ) Female ( ) 
5. Age:  18–24 years ( ) 25–30 ( )     31–40 ( ) 41–50 ( ) Above 50 years 
( ) 
6. Educational Qualification: No formal Education ( )    Primary ( )      JHS Education ( )  
SHS/ A ‘Level ( )         Tertiary ( ) 
7. Occupation:   Unemployed ( ) Employed ( )  Self-employed ( ) 
8. Income:  GH¢0 – 100 ( ) GH¢101 – 200 ( ) GH¢201 – 300 ( )    GH¢301 – 400( )   
GH¢401 – 500 ( )  above GH¢500 ( ) 
9. Marital status:  Single ( )      Co-habitation ( )  Married ( )   Separated ( )    
Divorce ( ) Widowed ( )        
10. Where do you live? ……………………………………………………………..…….. 
141 
 
11. How long have you lived in this area 0 - 5 ( )  6 – 10 ( ) 11 - 15 ( ) 16-20 ( )   
Above 20 years ( ) 
12. Mention any waste company that works in this community? 
………………………………....... 
13. Do you engage in their services?  Yes ( )  No ( )  
14. How often does a waste company visit to collect refuse in a week?   Once ( )    Twice 
( ) Trice ( ) Not at all ( ) 
15. How much does it cost you per month to deposit your refuse?  GH¢ 10–15 ( )   GH¢ 16–
20 ( ) GH¢ 21–25 ( )   above GH¢ 30 ( ) Not Applicable ( ) 
16. Do you go to central point (container) to dump refuse?   Yes ( )  No ( ) 
If YES, Please answer questions 17 and 18 
17 How often in a week? Once ( ) Twice ( ) Trice ( ) Not at all ( ) 
18. How much does it cost you to deposit your refuse, each time? GH¢ 1 -2 ( )    GH¢ 3–4 
( )  Above GH¢ 5 ( ) Not applicable ( ) 
 
142 
 
  SECTION B: Measuring Instrument for Theory of Planned Behaviour 
 
This section of the questionnaire seeks for your candid opinions on the factors that could 
influence your intention to properly dispose of waste. On a scale of 1-5, please Tick [√] the 
response that reflect your level of agreement or otherwise in each of the under listed 
statements. 
1 = Strongly Disagree (SD) 2 = Disagree (D) 3 = Neutral (N)  4 = Agree (A)   
5 = Strongly Agree (SA)   
NO STATEMENT SD D N A SA 
 
       
ATTITUDES 
19 In my opinion, proper waste disposal is a good activity      
20 I think proper waste disposal activity will be an      
interesting task 
21 For me, proper waste disposal is useful       
22 In my opinion, proper waste disposal protects the      
environment 
23 Waste management practices should be further promoted      
in Ghana 
       
SUBJECTIVE NORMS 
24 My family thinks I should dispose of my waste properly      
25 My neighbours think I should participate in proper waste      
disposal 
26 My colleagues think I should be involved in proper waste      
disposal at work  
27 The community in which I live think I should properly      
dispose of my waste 
       
PERCEIVE BEHAVIOURAL CONTROL 
28 The decision to dispose of waste is completely up to me      
29 For me, the decision to properly dispose of waste will be      
an easy task 
30 I have complete control in deciding whether or not to      
properly dispose of my waste 
31 If I wanted to, I could dispose of my waste at home      
 
143