Manuscript received: 02/05/2022 – Revised manuscript received: 27/06/2022 - Published: 27/06/2022 http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.23.38.1-21 Traditional medicinal plants used in the management of cutaneous Leishmaniasis diseases in Sokoto State, Northern Nigeria Aishatu Ishaq Jumare, Abdulrahman Mahmoud Dogara and Wandayi Emmanuel Amlabu Correspondence Aishatu Ishaq Jumare1, Abdulrahman Mahmoud Dogara2* and Wandayi Emmanuel Amlabu3,4 1Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Kaduna State University, Nigeria 2Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Tishk International University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq 3Department of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria 4West Africa Center for Cell Biology and Infectious Pathogens, WACCBIP, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana *Corresponding Author: abdulrahman.mahmud@tiu.edu.iq Ethnobotany Research and Applications 23:38 (2022) Research Abstract Background: Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a serious public health problem in Nigeria, with a high prevalence in the northern part of the country. Plants with therapeutic value are still the only way forward, as their acceptance and acknowledgment grow over the world. There is vast traditional knowledge and use of medicinal plant species in Sokoto state and the country at large. However, because cultural systems are dynamic, skills are fragile and often forgotten, as most indigenous knowledge is passed down through the generations by oral transmission. This study documented traditional medicinal plants used by the traditional practitioners for the treatment of CL in Sokoto State, Northern Nigeria. Methods: The method of non-random probability and the strategy of master sampling were applied in this research. A total of 23 informants were interviewed. Results: The ethnobotanical survey revealed 48 plant species, trees accounting for 57.9%, of which 84.1 % of the reported plants are wild. For therapy, leaves are the most utilized (43.7%), with topical and oral remedies (72.2%) as the most preferred form of administration. Quantitatively, Bauhinia reticulata DC was found to be effective in the treatment of CL with Fidelity Level (FL) 93%. Conclusion: Plants with therapeutic value are still the most promising, as their acceptance and acknowledgment keeps growing all over the world. This study provides useful information for various fields, especially in exploring the plant parts as a source of lead for future chemotherapeutics against CL and possible development of plant monographs for biodiversity conservation. Keywords: Biodiversity, Conservation, Ethnobotanical survey, Master sampling, Traditional medicinal plants Ethnobotany Research and Applications 2 Background People in rural areas, particularly indigenous peoples, have long used traditional health care approaches based on medicinal plants (Dogara et al., 2021). Ethnobotany, then, is an interdisciplinary speciality that is concerned with the understanding and application of plants and their ecosystems in connection with their cultural, social, and economic significance (Gaoue et al., 2017). It is the study of human-plant interactions at various spatial, chronological, historical, and cross-cultural scales, with a focus on the cultural value of plants, how humans have used and modified plants, and how they represent plants in their knowledge systems. (Awang et al., 2018; Mahmoud et al., 2020). Because of the expensive cost of modern treatment, people choose to use therapeutic plants. Communities in various parts of the world have produced all plant resources, use, natural resource management, and its conservation. Climate change and human activities have been demonstrated to have a significant impact on a vast number of valuable medicinal plants (Sher et al., 2020). On the other side, the predatory exploitation of medicinal plants has had a severe impact on biodiversity (Barbosa et al., 2019). Documenting the use of medicinal plants in a specific place across time is crucial for biological study and conservation. Traditional medicine has been also thought to be employed by around 80% of Asian and African communities for their healthcare needs (Abdulrahman et al., 2022; Dogara et al., 2022). Traditional popular medicines are the most often used cures in Sub-Saharan Africa's rural and urban areas, where people's purchasing capacity is often limited (Barbosa et al., 2019). Nigeria is known for its biodiversity and is regarded as a natural repository of medicinal plants that are dispersed across the country in several geographical regions. Because of its complicated topography and diverse climatic circumstances, the country is endowed with genetic diversity of flora and animals. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a common disease throughout the world. It is endemic throughout the world's tropical and subtropical regions (Bailey et al., 2017). The disease has affected over 88 countries, putting an estimated 350 million people at risk (Okwara & Ighorodje, 2020). Since the 1980s, transmission of CL in African nations has been on the rise, with a substantial increase in the number of cases and an expansion of the disease's geographic spread (Aoun & Bouratbine, 2014). Niger reported the first verified case of leishmaniasis in West Africa; since then, cases have been reported in a number of countries, including Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Cameroon, and Gambia (Bukar et al., 2015). Most countries' incidence figures are likely to be underestimated because cases are not recognized, and reporting is not mandatory (Okwara & Ighorodje, 2020). There were confirmed reported cases of CL in Sokoto state, Nigeria (Okwara & Ighorodje, 2020). Thus, this study was necessitated to document traditional medicinal plants that are used by the traditional herbalist for the treatment of CL in Sokoto State, Northern Nigeria. The inferences derived from this study will serve as the bedrock for herbal formulation and eventual production of plant-based modern drugs with CL. Materials and Methods Study area Sokoto is located in the northwestern part of Nigeria (Figure 1). Sokoto is one of the warmest cities in Nigeria, with an annual average temperature of 28.3 °C, however maximum daytime temperatures are normally under 40 °C for most of the year, and the dryness makes the heat bearable (Omolere et al., 2016). They are mainly Hausa and Fulani (nomadic). Their major occupations are farming, animal rearing, fishing, and hunting. Sampling The methods of non-random probability and expert sampling method were employed following Awang et al. (2018). The people interviewed were traditional medical practitioners and traditional herbalists. The open-ended questionnaire was validated pretested before administering it to the informants. The informants were interviewed using their local dialect (Hausa). Data collection The data was obtained through direct interviews with local people during October 2019 – October 2020. The verbal consent of the informants was sorted. Importance of the study were explained to them with the aid of the administrative chief, district heads, and community elders. Seventy-four informants were contacted and 23 were interviewed as confirmed and verified registered members of their union. These key elders authenticated and affirmed the respondents to be interviewed. Three major markets of traditional herbalists were selected; station 1: Kara market, station 2: Behind Maryam Abacha hospital, and station 3: Kofar Gawo (Figure 1). Plant collection and specimen The plant species recorded during the interviews were collected individually in the field with the aid of respondents confirmed by the Sokoto State chairman traditional herbalist. The plants with variations in their local names were avoided. Collected plant specimens were identified at Usmanu Danfodio University, Sokoto (UDUS), Kaduna State Ethnobotany Research and Applications 3 University (KASU), and Ahmadu Bello University (ABU). However, all documented plants were finally authenticated and assigned voucher numbers by Malam Sanusi Namadi in the herbarium of the Department of Botany, Faculty of Life Sciences, ABU Zaria. The identified plant species were subsequently accessioned and deposited in the herbarium (Table 1). Figure 1. Map of the Study Area Ethnobotany Research and Applications 4 Table 1. Preparations, part used and voucher number of documented plants Scientific Name Preparations Plant part Voucher number Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Fry the seeds, grind into powder and drink with milk, apply on the wound Seeds/ leaves ABU0935 Annona senegalensis Pers. Make decoction and drink, apply the powder on the wound Leaves/ Bark ABU07193 Ampelocissus africana (Lour.) Merr. Boil and drink Tuber ABU01114 Amblygonocarpus andongensis (Oliv.) Exell & Torre Boil the root and wash the wound with extracts. Apply dried powdered Leaves on the wound Root ABU0972 Bridelia ferruginea Benth Dry and grind into powdered form, apply to the wound, make infusion and drink Bark ABU090060 Bauhinia reticulata DC. Dry the leaves and grind into powdered form, apply to the wound, make infusion of the bark and drink Leaves/ Bark ABU0765 Boswellia ameero Balf.f. Make decoction with the bark and drink Bark ABU01077 Bauhinia rufescens Lam. Heat fresh leaves on a hot surface, make plaster on the leaf for few minutes Leaves ABU0346 Burkea africana Hook. Make infusion and drink, apply the dried powder on the wound ABU0815 Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Infuse in hot water and drink Leaves/ Seeds ABU06123 Combretum collinum subsp. geitonophyllum (Diels) Okafa Dry and grind into powdered form, apply to the wound, make infusion and drink Bark/leaves ABU09051 Chamaecrista nigricans (Vahl) Greene Dry, grind into powder, sieve, drink with honey, milk, or kunu, also clean the wound and apply the powder on the wound Leaves ABU07001 Combretum collinum subsp. geitonophyllum (Diels) Okafa Boil the bark and drink. Apply dried powder on the wound Bark ABU0256 Carica papaya L. Apply the leaves powder on the wound Leaves ABU01203 Cassia arereh Delile Make decoction of the bark and drink/apply the dried powder on the wound Bark ABU05023 Cryptolepis oblongifolia (Meisn.) Schltr. Apply dried powder on the wound Root ABU06120 Cordia africana Lam. Dry and grind the bark into powdered form, apply to the wound, make infusion and drink Bark ABU01972 Celosia trigyna L. Boil and drink; Mix the dried powdered of leaves with alum and apply on the wound Leaves ABU09811 Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. Plaster the leaf on the wound Leaves ABU0712 Combretum micranthum G. Don Infuse in hot water and drink Leaves/ Bark ABU04560 Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. Apply the leaf powder on the wound, make decoction with the leaves and drink Leaves/ Bark ABU0281 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 5 Detarium microcarpum Guill. & Perr. Dry and grid into powdered form, apply to the wound, make infusion and drink Bark ABU004561 Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Apply the leaves powder on the wound Leaves ABU0971 Euphorbia hirta L. Dry and grid into powdered form, drink with milk Leaves ABU0789 Ficus sur Forssk Dry and grind into powdered form, apply to the wound, make infusion and drink Bark ABU045671 Ficus abelii Miq. Dry and grind the bark into powdered form, apply to the wound, make infusion and drink Leaves/Bark ABU0671 Ficus sycomorus L. Apply the leaf powder on the wound, make decoction with the leaves and drink Leaves/ Bark ABU06031 Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle Make decoction of the leaves and drink Leaves ABU05843 Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel Apply the leaf powder on the wound, make decoction with the leaves and drink Leaves ABU0689 Isoberlinia doka Craib & Stapf Dry and grind into powdered form, apply to the wound, make infusion and drink Bark ABU0789 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Boil the root and wash the wound. Root ABU05231 Mitracarpus acunae Alain Cook leaves with meat and eat. Leaves ABU0491 Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. Make infusion and drink, also apply the powder on the wound Leaves ABU0206 Ozoroa insignis Delile Apply the leaf powder on the wound, make decoction with the leaves and drink Leaves ABU05001 Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.) Taub. Dry grind into powder and drink with honey, also apply the powder on the wound, Bark ABU090021 Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) G. Don Dry and grind into powdered form, mix with alum and apply on the wound Seed ABU05478 Ximenia americana L. Dry grind into powder and drink to Kunu (gruel), also apply the powder on the wound Bark/ Leaves ABU0819 Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. Infuse in water and drink Bark/ leaves ABU09312 Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby Make infusion and drink, also apply the powder on the wound Leaves ABU0415 Sida acuta Burm.f. Dry the leaves and grind into powdered form, apply on the wound, make decoction of the fresh leaves and drink Leaves ABU08123 Senna singueana (Delile) Lock Apply the leaf powder on the wound, make decoction and drink Leaves ABU0681 Syzygium abbreviatum Merr. Dry and grind the bark into powdered form, apply to the wound, make infusion and drink Bark ABU0548 Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A. Bruce Apply the leaf powder on the wound, make decoction with the leaves and drink Leaves ABU0378 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 6 Salix ledermannii Seemen Apply the leaves powder on the wound Leaves ABU0956 Terminalia avicennioides Guill. & Perr. Dry and grind the bark into powdered form, apply to the wound, make infusion and drink Bark ABU0856 Tacazzea apiculata Oliv. Apply the leaf powder on the wound, make decoction with the leaves and drink Leaves ABU06975 Tamarindus indica L. Boil the leaves and wash the wound, dry the bark, grind into powdered form, and drink with kunu (gruel). Leaves/ Bark ABU03314 Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn. Dry grind into powder, make infusion and drink, and apply the powder on the wound Leaves ABU2140 Kunu = is a local drink made by millet, Sorghum, or maize in the region The study employed a simple descriptive analysis of the collected ethnobotanical data to determine the frequencies and percentage based on the following information: i. Socio-demographic information of informants (Mahmoud et al., 2020). ii. Plant taxonomic information, mode of administration, mode of preparation, growth form, and parts of plants used (Awang et al., 2018). iii. The following quantitative ethnobotany indices were determined: I. Used Value: UV is equal to Ui / N. Where Ui is the total number of uses reported by each respondent, and N represents the total number of informants interviewed (Mahmoud & Abba, 2021). II. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC): = Fc/N, Where Fc is the number of people who mentioned a particular plant species and N is the overall number of respondents interviewed. III. Fidelity level: FL = Ns / N × 100. Where, Ns = total number of respondents who indicated they employed a specific plant species to treat a specific condition, and N = total number of informants who mentioned the plant species during the interview (Mahmoud et al., 2020). Results and Discussion Informant profile Traditional practitioners in the research area were discovered, as they play an important part in the primary healthcare systems of the local people, especially in the treatment of leishmaniasis. In Africa, traditional medicinal practice is largely dominated by men (Semenya & Potgieter, 2014). Males made up roughly (91.3%) of the informants participated in this study, which is consistent with a number of earlier studies in Africa (Mahmoud et al., 2020; Semenya & Potgieter, 2014). The dominance of the phenomenon is due to the culture and religion of the study community. Women in the community are saddled with the responsibility of taking care of the house. This occurrence could be explained, at least in part, by the fact that these men are typically responsible for taking care of their families (Semenya & Potgieter, 2014). It is also possible that because medicinal plant collection occurs in the wild, women are unable to take the risk and danger associated with being in the wild. Out of the 23 informants interviewed (43.5%) were found between the ages of 41-60, followed by 20-40 (39.1%) and 61-80 (17.4%) years (Table 2). The distribution of their respective ages expresses how knowledgeable the people of Sokoto state are in terms of traditional herbal medicine in the treatment of leishmaniasis. This study is not in line with many studies where only people of old age are found to be the most knowledgeable of traditional herbal medicine (Abdulrahman et al., 2018; Mahmoud et al., 2020). None of the informants attained tertiary education, 65.2% attended informal education (handcrafts, swing, and other local manufacturing), 30.4% attained basic primary education, while only 4.3% attained post-primary education (Table 2). Similar observation was reported from previous studies carried out in Nigeria (Dogara et al., 2021; Mahmoud et al., 2020). All interviewed informants were found to be highly experienced and knowledgeable in the treatment of the study disease (Figure 2) and 21.7% informants have more than 30 years of experience. Seventy percent informants have reported that their ability to cure diseases with traditional medicinal plants is ancestral, while those inherited and at the same time underwent training (21.7%) and those that acquired it through training alone (8.7%). The study supported other studies carried out in Nigeria, Ethnobotany Research and Applications 7 whereby the traditional medicinal practitioners inherited their knowledge from their parents (Kankara et al., 2015; Shinkafi et al., 2015). Table 2. Demographic information of the informants Parameters Frequency Percentage (%) Gender Male 21 91.3 Female 2 8.7 Age 20-40 9 39.1 41-60 10 43.5 61-80 4 17.4 Education Informal 15 65.2 Basic 7 30.4 Secondary 1 4.3 Figure 2. Experienced of the informants interviewed Data analysis Plants traditionally used in CL The results revealed that the taxonomic family with the highest number of utilized plants was Fabaceae (14 species), followed by Combretaceae (5 species), Moraceae, Apocynaceae (3 species each) and Anacardiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Phyllanthaceae and Rubiaceae (2 species each; Table 1). The remaining plant families were represented by only one species (Figure 3). This indicates the widespread importance of the abovementioned families in the study area. These results are in general agreement with previous investigations that indicated that Fabaceae was the most prominent family (Issa et al., 2018). The wide spread of this family is in relation to the ability of the members of the family to withstand drought and some other factors as reported by the informant during field collection. The traditional medicinal practitioners also revealed that the documented plants were also used for the treatment of other diseases like common cold, fever, diabetes, cancer, ulcers, hemorrhoid, and many others (Table 1). Ethnobotany Research and Applications 8 Figure 3. Family distribution of the documented medicinal plants for the treatment of C. leishmaniasis diseases in Sokoto state Form and domestication status of the documented plants The study found out that trees were the most reported form of medicinal plants in the present study (57.9%), followed by shrubs (31.0%) and herbs (11.1%) (Figure 4). The dominancy of the trees is because they are more suited for surviving the detrimental effects of Sahel environments; thus, trees can be found all year round (Kankara et al., 2018). Similarly, it was attributed to the fact that certain growth forms are available practically year-round due to their drought resistance and lack of seasonal changes (Kankara et al., 2015). The majority of the medicinal plant species used to cure human illnesses were found in the wild, according to the study, 84.1% were found in the wild, cultivated ones were 3.2 %, and both wild and cultivated ones were 12.7% respectively. This means that traditional healers have yet to cultivate the bulk of medicinal herbs utilized in their communities (Kankara et al., 2015; Yineger & Yewhalaw, 2007). This could be because wild medicinal plants are seen to be more effective than their cultivated equivalents as reported by the informants. Overuse of wild plants endangers the biodiversity of plants, as certain species may become extinct as a result of over exploitation (Kankara et al., 2015). Hence, they were enlightened on the importance of sustainable usage of medicinal plants to allow for their conservation for future use. Parts used, preparation, and administration The usage of plant aerial parts is quite useful (Vasquez et al., 2013). The metabolic content of these herbs, however, is not widely understood among healers (Vasquez et al., 2013). Despite the lack of actual knowledge of the plant parts content, traditional healers utilize different parts of the plants. Among the various parts of plants that are utilized in therapy, leaves are the most utilised (43.7%), followed by bark (38.7%), and whole plants (8.5%; Figure 5, Table 3). From the literature search, leaves were the most used part of the plant in Africa and other parts of the world (Abdulrahman et al., 2018; Bibi et al., 2014; Mahmoud et al., 2019; Yineger & Yewhalaw, 2007). These findings are consistent with those of research undertaken in other parts of the world, while some studies have reported other parts of the plant (Ahmed, 2016). This disparity is most likely due to differences in plant diversity, environmental conditions, and chemical compounds contained in plant sections between research regions (Ahmed, 2016). Leaves are also more accessible or available in nature and are considerably more abundant than other plant parts, which may explain why they are used (Bibi et al., 2014). Moreover, they were previously reported to be more Ethnobotany Research and Applications 9 effective as a result of secondary metabolites are primarily produced before they are transported to other parts of the plant (Abdulrahman et al., 2018; Bibi et al., 2014; Kankara et al., 2015; Mahmoud et al., 2019). The informants have reported different methods of preparation of each of the medicinal plants listed during the study (Table 3). In this study, the most common mode of administration of plant treatment was both (oral and topical) (72.2%). The dominance of a mix of techniques and topicals, on the other hand, was attributable to the nature of the disease. Figure 4. Mode of administration of medicinal plants for the treatment of CL Diseases Figure 5. Parts of the plants used for the management of CL Diseases Ethnobotany Research and Applications 10 Table 3. Taxonomic profile of the documented plants for the management of CL diseases in Sokoto Family Scientific Name Vernacular Name Growt h Form Other Diseases treated Anacardiaceae Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst. Danya Tree Leprosy and Related Diseases, Cancer Ozoroa insignis Delile Kasheshe Tree Gizogizo, Haemorrhage Amaranthaceae Celosia trigyna L. Nannoha Herb Maganin Yara, Increase Breast milk secretion in nursing mothers Acanthaceae Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. Bagaruwan kasa Herb Hallucination, Postpartum care, Epilepsy Apocynaceae Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. Tumpapiya Shrub Rashes, Cough Cryptolepis oblongifolia (Meisn.) Schltr. Kahon batse Tree Typhoid Fever Tacazzea apiculata Oliv. Yadiyar kada Shrub Ciwon Nono, Postpartum Care, Arthritis Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Pers. Gwandan daji Shrub Common Cold, Arthritis Burseraceae Boswellia ameero Balf.f. Hanu Tree Haemorrhoid, Heart Disease, Diarrhea Boraginaceae Cordia africana Lam. Alulluba Tree Typhoid Fever, Yellow Fever Combretaceae Combretum collinum subsp. geitonophyllum (Diels) Okafa Kukuki Tree Cancer, Diabetes, Cough, Epilepsy, Haemorrhage, Arthritis, stopped uterine bleeding, High Blood Pressure, Evil Spirit Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel Sabara Shrub Hallucination, Postpartum care, Rashes, Leprosy and Related Diseases, Pruritus Combretum micranthum G. Don Geza Shrub Inflammation of Legs, Postpartum care, Haemorrhage Combretum collinum subsp. geitonophyllum (Diels) Okafa Kaba-kaba Tree Skin rashes Terminalia avicennioides Guill. & Perr. Baushe Tree Yellow Fever Convolvulaceae Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Saye dubu Tree Typhoid Fever Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Malam tara Herb Skin infection, sexual enhancement in women Caricaceae Carica papaya L. * Gwanda Shrub Common Cold, Typhoid Fever, Abdominal Pain, Ebenaceae Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. Kanya Tree Ulcer, Haemorrhoid Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta L. Nonon kurciya Herb Increase Breast Milk Secretion in nursing mothers, Tinea pedis (Athlete’s foot) Fabaceae Detarium microcarpum Guill. & Perr. Taura Shrub Haemorrhoid Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) G.Don Dorawa Tree Haemorrhoid, Wounds Bauhinia rufescens Lam. Katsari Tree Rashes, Epilepsy, Evil Spirit, Ulcer, Pruritus, Boils Isoberlinia doka Craib & Stapf Doka Shrub Evil Spirit, Hallucination Chamaecrista nigricans (Vahl) Greene Madacin kasa Herb Abdominal Pain, Heart disease Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.) Taub. Kirya Tree Venereal Diseases, Haemorrhoid, Diarrhea, Common Cold Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile * * Bagaruwa Tree Haemorrhoid, Ulcer, Wound Healing, Burn Bauhinia reticulata DC. Kalgo Shrub Ear Infection (Otitis Media, Otitis Externa), Postpartum care Ethnobotany Research and Applications 11 Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby Tafasa Herb Cancer, Leprosy and other related diseases, Abdominal Pain, Diarrhoea Senna singueana (Delile) Lock Runhu Tree Skin infection, Rashes, High Blood Pressure, Diabetes, Leprosy and Related Diseases Cassia arereh Delile Malga Tree Colicky Abdominal Pain, hypertension, diabetes, sex enhancement in men Amblygonocarpus andongensis (Oliv.) Exell & Torre Tsage Tree Haemorrhoid Burkea africana Hook. Kolo Tree Cancer Tamarindus indica L. * * Tsamiya Tree Paralysis, Leprosy and Related Diseases Malvaceae Sida acuta Burm.f. Miyar tsanya Herb Cancer Moraceae Ficus sur Forssk Bera Tree Infertility in women Ficus sycomorus L. Bore Tree Haemorrhoid, Anaemia, Venereal Diseases, increased breast milk secretion in nursing mothers, Diarrhoea Ficus abelii Miq. Kawuri Tree Epilepsy, Evil Spirit, Leprosy and Related Diseases Myrtaceae Syzygium abbreviatum Merr. Malmo Tree Inflammation, Venereal Diseases, Arthritis Olacaceae Ximenia americana L. Tsada Tree Snake bite, Ulcer Phyllanthaceae Bridelia ferruginea Benth Kizni Tree Ulcer, Cancer Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle Tsa Shrub Hallucination, Evil Spirit, Leprosy and Related Diseases Rubiaceae Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A.B ruce Tafashiya Shrub Typhoid Fever, Venereal Diseases Mitracarpus acunae Alain Gogamasu Herb Arthritis, Skin infections, Cold, Skin rashes Sapotaceae Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn. * * Kade Tree Haemorrhoid, Ulcer, Wound Healing, Burns, Inflammation Salicaceae Salix ledermannii Seemen Rimmi Tree Diabetes, Haemorrhoid, Venereal Diseases, Callus, Hemorrhage Vitaceae Ampelocissus africana (Lour.) Merr. Rogon daji Shrub Leprosy and Related Diseases, Toothache, Epilepsy Zygophyllaceae Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Aduwa Shrub Stomach Disorder. High blood pressure, Diabetes and Abdominal pain * = Cultivated, * * = Wild/Cultivated Ethnobotany Research and Applications 12 Diagnosis, toxicity and treatment The informants claimed that they diagnosed CL in their patients by looking for signs like skin color, body swelling, open sows, cutaneous lesions/ skin ulcers, and itching in the affected area (Figure 6). The majority of the informants were found to be unaware of the proper dosage to be ingested or applied in the diseased area. This could be due to the low toxicity of the traditional healers' remedy mixtures of medicinal plants. A similar situation was previously reported (Mahmoud et al., 2020). The informants have reported that none of the documented medicinal plants is toxic. The majority of the informants reported 2 weeks as the effective day for the treatment of the infection, 47.6%, followed by 1 week, 31.89%, then 3 weeks, and more than 3 weeks at 19.5 and 1.1 % respectively (Figure 6). The informants attributed to the long-term treatment period of the disease, as the lesions take a longer time before healing. Figure 6. The sandfly bite is the means by which cutaneous leishmaniasis is transmitted to humans. Intracellular replication occurs within human macrophages once Leishmania enters them. When a person is bitten, a red, raised lesion forms at the location (often weeks or sometimes years afterwards). Secondarily, germs may infect the ulcerated lesion. Quantitative evaluations UV, RFC, and FL were measured quantitatively to estimate the popularity and efficacy of the recorded plant species used to treat CL. The plant species documented in the following studies are very popular for the treatment of CL (Table 4). Numerous studies utilised the above parameters to determine the effectiveness of the documented plant species in their studies (Mahmoud et al., 2020; Mahmoud & Abba, 2021; Kayfi & Abdulrahman, 2021). Ethnobotany Research and Applications 13 Table 4. UV, RFC, and FL of documented medicinal plants Scientific Name UV RFC FL% Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile 0.21 0.47 72.7 Amblygonocarpus andongensis (Oliv.) Exell & Torre 0.17 0.47 81.8 Ampelocissus africana (Lour.) Merr. 0.30 0.39 77.7 Annona senegalensis Pers. 0.17 0.43 90.0 Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile 0.26 0.43 70.0 Bauhinia reticulata DC. 0.13 0.65 93.3 Bauhinia rufescens Lam. 0.13 0.35 62.5 Boswellia ameero Balf.f. 0.17 0.39 88.8 Bridelia ferruginea Benth 0.21 0.43 90.0 Burkea africana Hook. 0.39 77.7 Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. 0.21 0.78 72.2 Carica papaya L. 0.17 0.39 88.8 Cassia arereh Delile 0.13 0.43 70.0 Celosia trigyna L. 0.26 0.35 50.0 Chamaecrista nigricans (Vahl) Greene 0.21 0.43 80.0 Combretum collinum subsp. geitonophyllum (Diels) Okafa 0.30 0.47 72.7 Combretum micranthum G.Don 0.17 0.39 88.8 Cordia africana Lam. 0.13 0.43 70.0 Cryptolepis oblongifolia (Meisn.) Schltr. 0.17 0.35 62.5 Detarium microcarpum Guill. & Perr. 0.13 0.35 62.5 Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. 0.21 0.78 72.2 Euphorbia hirta L. 0.21 0.78 88.8 Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. 0.13 0.43 70.0 Ficus abelii Miq. 0.13 0.43 60.0 Ficus sur Forssk 0.17 0.78 61.1 Ficus sycomorus L. 0.17 0.35 75.8 Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle 0.30 0.39 77.7 Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel 0.08 0.43 80.0 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. 0.08 0.43 80.0 Isoberlinia doka Craib & Stapf 0.17 0.35 62.5 Mitracarpus acunae Alain 0.17 0.35 50.0 Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. 0.30 0.35 62.5 Ozoroa insignis Delile 0.08 0.35 62.5 Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) G. Don 0.17 0.43 70.0 Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.) Taub. 0.30 0.65 86.6 Salix ledermannii Seemen 0.26 0.35 75.8 Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A. Bruce 0.17 0.43 70.0 Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. 0.17 0.78 61.1 Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby 0.08 0.39 77.7 Senna singueana (Delile) Lock 0.17 0.47 63.6 Sida acuta Burm.f. 0.26 0.35 87.5 Syzygium abbreviatum Merr. 0.30 0.35 62.5 Tacazzea apiculata Oliv. 0.30 0.43 80.0 Tamarindus indica L. 0.26 0.35 50.0 Terminalia avicennioides Guill. & Perr. 0.21 0.78 88.8 Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn. 0.21 0.78 50.0 Ximenia americana L. 0.21 0.35 75.8 Literature review on Biological Activity Evaluation of the mentioned plants by the Informants In vivo, in vitro studies were searched in Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed. Only research articles written in English were considered. All biological evaluations showed good efficacy on the target activity carried out except for Ficus sur (Table 5). None of the studies reported toxicity of any of the plant parts (Table 5). Therefore, the literature review supports the claim of the traditional practitioners of the effectiveness of the documented plants in the treatment of CL and other related diseases in the region. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 14 Table 5. Biological activity evaluation of medicinal plants mentioned by informants Plants names Solvents used Biological activity Results References Acacia nilotica Water and methanolic Antioxidant, and antimicrobial evaluations Antioxidants, enzyme inhibitors, antimicrobials, and antiproliferative agents are abundant in this plant (Zheleva et al., 2021) Methanolic Wound healing potential The medicated cream was shown to be faster than the control and non-medicated creams. (Baravkar et al., 2008) Bridelia ferruginea Ethanol Hyperglycaemic activity Potential agent in the management of diabetes (Nwanelo et al., 2021) n-Hexane, Ethyl acetate and Methanol Antioxidant Secondary metabolites' discovery backs up local plant use and traditional healers' claims that the plant medicine might be used to treat specific conditions. (Ogbonnia et al., 2021) Bauhinia rufescens Methanol, acetone and water Antioxidant Show a good antioxidants potential (Mahamat et al., 2021) Ethanol/water mixture (70/30). Antimicrobial Properties Plant has an antibacterial activity and that their use in traditional phytotherapy is justified. (Issa et al., 2021) Aqueous and ethanolic Antibacterial activities A good source of antibacterial compounds. (Kwa et al., 2021) Bauhinia reticulata Ethanol I-nvivo antihyperglycemic activity Purification of the fractions could generate active compound(s) that could be used as a starting point for the development of new antidiabetic medicines. (Umar et al., 2021) Burkea africana Ethanol extract Antiplasmodial, antinociceptive and antipyretic Antiplasmodial, antinociceptive, and antipyretic. (Ezenyi et al., 2021) Carica papaya Aqueous Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis in Human Prostate the plant anti-cancer properties (Singh et al., 2021) Chloroform, petroleum ether, ethanol, ethyl acetate, methanol, and water Antimicrobial and anticancer Discovered a novel and cost-effective natural anticancer and antibacterial agent (Devanesan et al., 2021) Calotropis procera Methanol Antiarthritic It may be a viable therapeutic candidate. (Singh et al., 2021) Ethanolic Neuropharmacolo gical Assessment Has significant central nervous system depressant and analgesic effects in mice. (Obese et al., 2021) Detarium microcarpum Ethanol Antioxidant Activity Excellent outcomes (Kurmi et al., 2021) Methanolic and Aqueous Antioxidant Activity Good scavenging activity more than the standard (Kagambega et al., 2021) Ethnobotany Research and Applications 15 Ethyl-acetate, n- hexane and methanol Anti-Tuberculosis Can be used for the management of the tuberculosis (Olatunji et al., 2021) Diospyros mespiliformis Methanol Inflammatory effects In infected mice, it has immunomodulatory effects, reducing malaria parasite multiplication and so protecting liver cells. (David et al., 2021) Methanol resistant strains of malarial parasites Are not toxic in mice and have antimalarial actions against resistant Plasmodium berghei infection. (Olanlokun et al., 2021) Ethanol, Trypanosoma evansi-mediated haematological and hepatic impairment As a result, it could be regarded a novel agent for the creation of a new trypanosomiasis medication. (Agbadoronye et al., 2021) Evolvulus alsinoides Ethanolic Acetylcholinestera se Inhibition and Anti-inflammatory Good agent (Patil & Jain, 2021) Euphorbia hirta Methanol Phytochemical, In Vitro Antioxidant and Anti- inflammation Good source of antioxidants and anti- inflammatory compounds (Basyal et al., 2021) Ficus sur Methanol and Aqueous Antimycobacterial activity No activity (Singh et al., 2021) Dichloromethane, petroleum ether, 80% ethanol and water Antimycobacterial activity strains related to respiratory ailments Potential as antimycobacterial agent (Madikizela et al., 2014) Ficus sycomorus Dichloromethane, hexane and ethanol Phenolic content, inhibition enzyme and antioxidant activities Probable that it contains a high concentration of bioactive compounds that serve as antioxidants and enzyme inhibitors. (Suliman et al., 2021) Guiera senegalensis Methanol and aqueous Pharmacognostic and antimicrobial At 100 mg/ml, the aqueous leaves and root extracts inhibited Staphylococcus aureus with greater zones of inhibition (22 mm and 18 mm, respectively) than the methanol leaves and root extracts against Escherichia coli (19 mm) and Bacillus subtilis (19 mm), respectively. The root and leaf extract of Guiera senegalesis has been proven to be effective in treating infections caused by the bacteria studied in this study. (Namadina et al., 2021) Acetone GC-MS analysis, antioxidant, and Contain strong antioxidant and antibacterial properties. (Satti et al., 2021) Ethnobotany Research and Applications 16 antibacterial activity Prosopis africana Ethanol Toxicological and Phytochemical studies Tannins, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, anthocyanins, quinones, terpenoids, and steroids are some of the compounds found in plants. There was no indication of toxicity. (Obode et al., 2021) Methanol Antibacterial Antibacterial activity was found in all extracts tested, with zones of inhibition ranging in size from 10 to 15 mm respectively. (Doughari & Saa-Aondo, 2021) Aqueous Haematological and Parasitaemia The parasite in the blood of infected mice was dramatically reduced. (Abubakar & Oloyede, 2021) Parkia biglobosa Methanol Antidiabetic Protocatechuic acid, which is found in the bark of this plant, has antidiabetic properties and at least partially supports its traditional usage in the management of diabetes, according to our findings. (Oyedemi et al., 2021) Aqueous Reproductive toxicity This suggests that it could be harmful to humans' reproductive systems. (Auta, 2021) Sclerocarya birrea Ethanol Antimicrobial Antibacterial activity was observed in these extracts. (Paré et al., 2021) water and a chronological partition with n- hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate Determination of Phenolics and Flavonoids, antimicrobial The positive control with the highest inhibition zone had no MBC and no inhibition zone, but the extract at 10 mg/ml of the S. birrea stem (bark) ethyl acetate fraction extract, followed by the extract at 10 mg/ml, was susceptible to the positive control with the highest inhibition zone. (Abdallah & Mustafa, 2021) Methanolic, aqueous Antioxidant Activity According to these studies, bark has a little stronger reducing power than leaves. In terms of activity, alcoholic extracts outperformed aqueous extracts, whereas the bark has a greater degree of activity. (Niang et al., 2021) Senna singueana ethanol Chemical constituents These phytoconstituents may be responsible for Senna singueana's pharmacological characteristics, as they are indicated as a (Kolawole et al., 2021) Ethnobotany Research and Applications 17 phytotherapeutically significant plant. Sida acuta Water extract Anti-cancer, antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory effects Have demonstrated promising pharmacological activities (Uysal et al., 2021) Terminalia avicennioides Ethanol, Methanol, 30 % ethanol, cold water and hot water Antiproliferative effect Has an antiproliferative impact. (Aliyu et al., 2021) Tamarindus indica Combating SARS- CoV-2 Infection Contribute to the fight against obesity and COVID- 19. (Ana et al., 2021) Vitellaria paradoxa methanol Nitrite Levels in LPS-Stimulated Macrophages Lupeol cinnamate (3) and betulinic acid (5) were found to have a favourable effect in lowering nitrite levels produced following LPS stimulation, out of all substances examined. (Sirignano et al., 2021) Distilled water Antioxidant Hypoglycaemic and antidyslipidemic Anti-diabetic, anti- dyslipidaemia, and antioxidant (Miaffo et al., 2021) Ximenia americana Ethanol Antioxidants Due to the greater phenolic content of red apple flesh, 97 percent more DPPH radical scavenging activity was detected. (Bazezew et al., 2021) Conclusion Medicinal plants have been employed in traditional health treatment by various ethnic groups around the world. Medicinal plants have always played an important part in providing an effective, economical, and safe healthcare system to humans and their animals. Plants with therapeutic value are still the only way forward, as their acceptance and acknowledgment grow all over the world, in the absence of vaccines for some of the ailments. The information on the utilization of traditional medicinal plants in Sokoto state, Northern Nigeria, is still in the hands of the traditional herbalist. The following study used an in-depth interview guide to collect the information of traditional medicinal knowledge from the traditional herbalist. The study found that traditional medicinal practitioners regularly cured people who are infected with Leishmania, causing the parasite CL within and outside Sokoto. The study also found that the younger generations are also well knowledgeable of the culture of medicinal plants utilization against this disease. From the literature search of some biological evaluations carried out on the said plants, they are all found to be positive on their target organisms or health challenges. This is further supporting the traditional herbalist claim on the efficacy of the documented plants. The study will serve as a source of information on plants that could be explored for herbal product formulations, new modern drug development, and monographs of medicinal plants in Nigeria for the treatment of CL. Declarations List of abbreviations: RFC = Relative Frequency of Citation, FL = Fidelity Level, UV = Used Value. AIJ= Aishatu Ishaq Jumare, MDA = Mahmoud Dogara Abdulrahman, WEA = Wandayi Emmanuel Amlabu. Ethics approval and consent to participate: The research was conducted with the approval of the Sokoto State Ministry of Health with the approval number (SKHREC/0116)2019) and Sokoto state wing of the Traditional Practitioner Association, a non-governmental organisation. Prior to the interview, the informants gave their verbal assent. The informants were fully briefed about the study's goals and consented to participate voluntarily. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: There are no competing interests Authors contributions: AIJ Conducted the research, MDA designed, analysed and drafted the manuscripts, and WA English checking and formatting. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 18 Data Availability: All data are available in the manuscript. 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