University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh THE AVAILABILITY AND QUALITY OF WATER SUPPLY SOURCES IN PERI-URBAN ADENTAN, GHANA. By FREDINAH OWUSU ANKOMAH (10600261) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND SANITATION STUDIES, COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE JULY, 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that apart from the sources specifically acknowledged as contributions in the text, this work constitutes the results of my research and that it has not been admitted in part or in whole to any other university. 19 – 10 - 2020 Fredinah Owusu Ankomah (Student) Date 19 – 10 – 2020 Dr. Samuel S. Koranteng Date (Principal Supervisor) ……………………… 19 – 10 - 2020 Dr. Jesse Ayivor Date (Co-Supervisor) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, Amen. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My heartfelt gratitude goes to God almighty for his grace and mercy throughout this programme. I also wish to acknowledge my supervisors Dr Samuel Koranteng and Dr. Jesse Ayivor for their time and patience through the period of my project and all the sleepless nights they spent in supervising this thesis. My mum; Mrs Alberta Ankomah, Mrs Victoria Ayekpa, Madam Victoria Turkson and my siblings for all their love and encouragement, I pray God’s blessings upon them. Not forgetting the workers of Ecolab who assisted me in analysing the water samples (Mr Ansah, Mr Amponsah and Mr. Amartei). To you all I say God bless you. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Globally, urban growth has been increasing tremendously. This rapid growth has escalated the difficulties in water provision. The rate of urbanisation is also rampant in Sub-Saharan Africa and has led to peri-urban settlements. Access to water sources in such areas in developing countries has being a challenge. In Ghana, Adentan Municipality is one of the peri-urban communities where access to water supply has been a challenge over the years. This study therefore focused on determining the sources available, uses, access to these sources, physico-chemical and bacteriological quality and the source suitable for drinking. Household survey was done in 6 communities where 402 households were interviewed to access the necessary data such as sources mainly used for other purposes, drinking water source, access to water and cost. The results revealed a variety of water sources which included pipe borne, hand-dug well, rain harvesting, tanker service provision were used for cooking, washing, and other purposes. Pipe borne water was the most widely used source for other purposes while sachet water was used mainly (77.9% of all household) for drinking purposes. The financial analysis revealed that, household water expenditure was high due to expenditure on drinking water and water for other purposes. There were considerable variation in physico-chemical quality. With the exception of most boreholes and hand-dug wells across the communities, all other sources fluctuated within the expected limits. The sources were also identified to contain nutrients and bacteria not of faecal origin. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS TSS Total Suspended Solids TDS Total Dissolved Solids EC Electrical Conductivity GWCL Ghana Water Company Limited DALYs Disability-Adjusted Life Years WHO World Health Organisation MDGs Millennium Development Goals GSS Ghana Statistical Service CFU Coliform Forming Unit v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. v TABLE OF CONTENT ......................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. x LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................ 3 1.3. Hypothesis ........................................................................................................................ 7 1.4. Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 7 CHARPTER TWO .................................................................................................................. 8 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Peri-urban Areas ............................................................................................................... 8 Peri-urban areas are zones of transition from rural to urban land uses located between the outer limits of urban and regional centres and the rural environment (Simon, 2008) or areas on the urban periphery into which cities expand or which cities influence and thus embody some characteristics of both areas (Aguilar, 2008). ................................................................ 8 The boundaries of peri-urban areas are porous and transitory as urban development extends into rural and industrial land, thus in terms of growth dynamics, the urban areas expand into and replace parts of the peri-urban areas (Fertner, 2012). ...................................................... 8 2.2 Domestic Water Sources in Peri-urban Areas ................................................................... 9 2.2.1 Groundwater......................................................................................................... 10 2.2.2 Rainwater ............................................................................................................. 13 2.2.3. Sachet Water ....................................................................................................... 15 2.3 Domestic Uses Of Water ................................................................................................. 16 2.3.1 Water for Consumption ........................................................................................ 16 2.3.2 Water for Hygiene ................................................................................................ 18 2.4 Water Availability ........................................................................................................... 19 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 Water Quality .................................................................................................................. 23 CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................. 25 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 25 3.1 Study Area ...................................................................................................................... 25 3.2. Sources of Data ............................................................................................................. 27 3.3 Social Survey .................................................................................................................. 27 3.3.1 Sample Size .......................................................................................................... 27 3.4 Water Sampling Methods................................................................................................ 28 3.4.1 Sample Collection ........................................................................................ 29 3.5 Laboratory Analysis ....................................................................................................... 29 3.5.1 Physico-chemical Analysis of Samples ............................................................... 29 3.5.2 Bacteriological Analysis of Samples ................................................................... 32 3.6.1 Frequency of water sources .................................................................................. 34 3.6.2 Water Quality ....................................................................................................... 34 CHARPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................. 35 RESULTS ............................................................................................................................. 35 4.0. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 35 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ................................................................ 35 4.1.1. Gender of Respondents ....................................................................................... 35 Figure 4.1.1: Gender of respondents. .................................................................................... 36 4.1.2 Age of Respondents ............................................................................................. 36 4.1.3. Educational Level of Respondents ...................................................................... 36 4.1.4 Number of Years lived in the Community ........................................................... 37 4.1.5 Household size ..................................................................................................... 38 4.2 Available Sources of Water ............................................................................................ 38 4.3 Uses of Available Water Sources .................................................................................... 40 4.3.1 Drinking Water Sources ....................................................................................... 40 4.3.1.1 Number of Bags of Sachet Water use Weekly .................................................. 41 4.3.2 Water for Cooking ............................................................................................... 42 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.3 Water for Bathing ................................................................................................. 43 4.3.4 Water for Washing ............................................................................................... 44 4.4 Availability of Water Sources to Households ................................................................. 45 4.4.1. Time within a Day that a Water Source can be accessed .................................... 45 4.4.2. Distance covered to access the water .................................................................. 46 4.4.3 Cost Incurred Accessing a Water Source ............................................................. 47 4.4.3.1 Monthly Cost Incurred by Sachet Water Users ................................................. 47 4.4.3.2 Monthly Cost Incurred Using Other Sources .................................................... 48 4.5 Physico-Chemical Parameters Investigated .................................................................... 49 4.5.1 Turbidity .............................................................................................................. 49 4.5.2. Alkalinity ............................................................................................................ 49 4.5.3 Total Suspended Solids ........................................................................................ 50 4.5.4 Electrical Conductivity ........................................................................................ 50 4.5.5. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) ............................................................................. 50 4.5.6 pH ......................................................................................................................... 51 4.5.7 Temperature ......................................................................................................... 51 4.6 Nutrient Content .............................................................................................................. 57 4.6.1 Anions .................................................................................................................. 57 4.6.1.1 Phosphate .......................................................................................................... 57 4.6.1.2 Sulphate ............................................................................................................. 58 4.6.1.3 Nitrate ............................................................................................................... 58 4.6.1.4 Fluoride ............................................................................................................. 59 4.6.1.5 Chloride ............................................................................................................. 60 4.6.2.1 Sodium .............................................................................................................. 61 Figure 4.6.2.1: Comparison of mean sodium in water sources ............................................. 62 4.6.2.2 Potassium .......................................................................................................... 62 4.6.2.3 Calcium ............................................................................................................. 63 4.6.2.4 Magnesium ........................................................................................................ 64 Figure 4.6.2.4: Comparison of mean magnesium in water sources ...................................... 65 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.7. Bacterial Load ................................................................................................................ 69 4.7.1 Total Plate Count ................................................................................................. 69 4.7.2 Total Coliform...................................................................................................... 69 CHARPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................ 72 DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................................... 72 5.1 Sources of Water and its Uses ......................................................................................... 72 5.2 Availability of Water Sources ......................................................................................... 73 5.3 Physico-chemical Quality ............................................................................................... 74 5.5 Bacteriological Quality ................................................................................................... 82 CHAPTER SIX ..................................................................................................................... 83 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ............................................. 83 6.1 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 83 6.2 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 86 6.3 Recommendation ............................................................................................................ 87 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................. 89 APPENDIX A: Social Survey ..................................................................................... 102 APPENDIX B: Demographic characteristics .............................................................. 106 APPENDIX C: Cost incurred ..................................................................................... 108 APPENDIX D: Physico-chemical quality .................................................................. 109 APPENDIX E: WHO and Ghana Water Quality Standard ......................................... 115 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.2a: Sources of Water ……………………………………………………47 Table 4.2b: Chi-Square Tests ……………………………………………………48 Table 4.3.1.1a: Number of Sachet Water Bags use Weekly per household size ………………………………………………………………………………50 Table 4.4.3.1: Monthly Cost Incurred by Sachet Water Users …………………..57 Table 4.4.3.2: Monthly Cost Incurred by using each main source ………………58 Table 4.5a: Mean physico-chemical parameters (Physico-chemical parameters of water sources in the study area compared to WHO standards) ………………….62 Table 4.5b: Comparison of water quality by one-way ANOVA …………………64 Table 4.5c: Paired Samples T-Test ………………………………………………65 Table 4.6: Comparison of nutrients in water sources by One-way ANOVA ……76 Table 4.7a: Bacteriological analysis of water supply sources in Adenta municipality. ….…………………………………………………………………………………81 Table 4.7 b: Comparison of bacteria in water sources by One-way ANOVA ……82 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: …………………………………………………………………………33 Figure 4.1.1: Gender of respondents ………………………………………………43 Figure 4.1.2: Age of Respondents …………………………………………………44 Figure 4.1.3: Educational level of respondents ……………………………………45 Figure 4.1.4: Number of years lived in the community ……………………………46 Figure 4.1.5: Household size ………………………………………………………47 Figure 4.3.1: Drinking Water Sources ……………………………………………..49 Figure 4.3.1: Water for Cooking …………………………………………………..51 Figure 4.3.2: Water for Bathing……………………………………………………52 Figure 4.3.3 Water for Washing……………………………………………………53 Figure 4.4.1: Accessible Time in a Day……………………………………………54 Figure 4.4.2a: Distance covered to access water in each Community……………..55 Figure 4.4.2b: Average Distance covered to access water in the study area……….56 Figure 4.6.1.2: Comparison of mean phosphate in water sources………………….67 Figure 4.6.1.1: Comparison of mean phosphate in water sources………………….68 Figure 4.6.1.3: Comparison of mean nitrate in water sources ……………………..69 Figure 4.6.1.4: Comparison of mean fluoride in water sources…………………….70 Figure 4.6.1.5: Comparison of mean chloride in water sources……………………71 Figure 4.6.2.2: Comparison of mean Potassium in water sources…………………72 Figure 4.6.2.1: Comparison of mean sodium in water sources…………………….73 Figure 4.6.2.3: Comparison of mean Calcium in water sources…………………...74 Figure 4.6.2.4: Comparison of mean magnesium in water sources ………………..75 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Water in its pure state is said to be a key to good health, thus water is more basic to survival than all other things (Wilk, 2006). Water also forms a major component of the human cells protoplasm (Heilbrunn,2013) and it is also needed for vital physiological and biochemical processes (Muyi, 2007). The importance of water to humans cannot be overemphasized hence the need for its availability in the right quantity and quality. In addition to human consumption and health requirements, water is also needed in agriculture, industrial, recreational industry and for other purposes (De Groot et al, 2002). Water is also considered a purifier of people and places in most religions (Baboo, 2009). Though all these needs are important, water for human consumption and sanitation is considered to be of greater social, health and economic importance (WHO, 2004). According to Odiette (1999), environmental water usage includes artificial wet lands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat, fish ladders around dams and water releases from reservoirs to help fish spawn. In developing countries, access to safe drinking water can be a daily struggle and water-related problems persist due to microbiological contamination of water sources (Thomas et al, 2015; WHO 2006). For example diarrhoea disease alone accounts for an estimated 4.1 % of the total Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) global burden of disease and is responsible for the deaths of 1.8 million people every year. It was estimated that 88% of that burden is attributable to unsafe 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh water supply, sanitation and hygiene and is mostly concentrated on children in developing countries (WHO, 2004a). Ukpong, and Okon, (2013) asserts that most developing countries like Ghana has dangerous and highly toxic industrial and domestic wastes disregard for aquatic lives and rural dwellers (medium for the transmission of enteric diseases in most communities). Poisonous chemicals are known to percolate the layers of the earth and terminate in ground waters thereby constituting public health hazards (Itah and Akpan,2005). With rapid urbanization and increasing land values in Ghana as a result of high population growth in urban areas due to rural urban migration (www.statsghana.gov.gh) which occurs as a result of wrongly perceived opportunities in urban areas, there are widespread trends for the growing numbers of residents causing the urban poor to move from the central city to the outskirts or peri-urban areas (Thomas et al., 2015). Peri- urban areas are areas that are difficult to define due to their location in between the urban and rural settings. Such areas serves as transitional zones where urban and rural activities are juxtaposed (Simon, 2008) and sometimes a zone of chaotic urbanization that spread irregularly. Consequently, households in these areas experience a change in availability of accessible water sources particularly access to piped water, and after relocation, often have to rely on a variety of poorer quality water sources (Thomas et al, 2015; Truelove, 2011). In most cases, they have to trek long distances to access clean water. In the event of acute shortage in supplies they end up paying high prices to water vendors for this special commodity. The clear need for basic water and sanitation services for the poor assumes even greater significance when the linkages with other dimensions of poverty are considered. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Water and sanitation related sicknesses put severe burdens on health services and keep children out of school (Ahmed et al., 2012). This study therefore intends to look at the various sources of water available to such communities for household usage, the purity of the water, how readily available the various sources are and which source(s) is/are good for drinking. 1.2 Problem Statement Clean water is not merely a human need but a human right. Access to safe and adequate water supply is essential to man and all living things, and these form part of Ghana‘s Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy and also linked to the Sustainable Development Goal number 6 (sdgs.un.org). According to Benton-Short (2013), most developing countries such as Ghana, has their peri –urban areas characterized by the impact of high demands for land resulting from urban growth leading to congestion, high pollution rate and inaccessible supply to good and wholesome drinkable water. Hence most inhabitants of peri-urban areas make their own inadequate arrangements or pay excessively high prices to water vendors for meagre water supplies (Hofmann, 2011). For instance, in Accra, the provision of clean and safe drinking water is one of the major infrastructural problems. In urban Accra, it is estimated that 95% of households have access to treated piped water, which is received directly in their homes or at community standpipes (Ghana Water Company, 1998). However, this is not the case in the peri-urban communities. According to Hutton and Chase(2016), Ghana has currently exceeded its 2015 target of 78% coverage for use of improved drinking water by 6%. This was achieved by the construction of the Accra sea water 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Desalination plant at Nungua and the expansion of the Kpong water works. The Desalination plant was estimated to produce 13 million gallons of water per day to serve about 500,000 people whiles the Kpong expansion project produced extra 40 million gallons of water per day (80 million gallons of water at its speak when the second phase of the project is completed) to inhabitants of Accra and some communities in the Eastern region of Ghana (Citi News, 2015). However, with this significant step in improving drinking water facilities in the country, some communities still do not have access to improved sources of water. This was affirmed by The Chief Manager of Accra Production of treated water at Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), Mr Charles Brobbey, who said even with the company’s operation at the highest capacity, the company still had a deficit of about 30 million gallons per day, which had compelled it to manage water supply in the national capital (www.lorlornyofm.com). And as such, communities with access to improved water source will even have their water supply curtailed or disrupted in case of any treatment shortfall in any of the treatment plants because of power challenges (www.lorlornyofm.com; Daily Graphic, 2018). Also, the shut down of Desalination plant in January, 2018 has led to rationing of water supply in the catchment area (acadamicjournals.org). The situation of inadequate supply of water to some communities within the capital region not to talk about its peri-urban area has risen as a result of government’s inability to supply enough water to keep pace with the growing population. It was noted that the main water supplier in Ghana, Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), lacked the necessary funds to ensure sustainable water supply in peri urban communities (Nyarko, 2007). 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Moreover, the operational cost incurred by the company, including payment for electricity is very high. This coupled with revenue leakages in the system as a result of illegal connections, inefficient transmission system resulting from leakage from broken pipeline and price regulation by Public Utilities Regulatory Commission (PURC) affects the company’s operations and reduces its capacity to expand supplies to peri-urban areas. For example, concerning Teshie Desalination plant, a consolidation of all the costs of the plants culminates in GWCL buying the water from the plant at about GH¢ 6.5 per cubic meter, and selling at the PURC regulated rate of about GH¢ 1.5 per cubic meter (mobile.ghanaweb.com), thus a loss of GH¢ 5.0 per cubic meter (Citi News, 2018). This has compelled individuals living in such areas to resort to their own means of water supply including construction of boreholes, hand-dug wells, pipe borne water and dependence on tanker supply services, which is characterizes by the payment of excessively high prices. Furthermore, according to WHO chronicle (2011), one of the priorities in selecting a water source is its quality. The quality and protection of the source is important regardless of whether the water will be treated or not. Good quality water needs less, or no, treatment; and if treatment fails there will be fewer health risks (Fewtrell et al., 2005). A domestic water supply can take different forms such as a stream, a spring, a hand-dug well, a borehole with hand pump, a rainwater collection system, a piped water supply with tap-stand or house connection, sachet water or water vendors (Reed et al, 2013). With all these sources of water and the various uses of it, drinking water is valued to have the highest quality since it acts as an important vehicle for the transmission of a large variety of infectious diseases (Leclerc et al.,2002). This leads the WHO to estimate that 70 per cent of disease 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh episodes in developing countries are deeply related to polluted water and inappropriate excreta treatment (UN-Water/Africa, 2006). Good drinking water and sanitation are therefore used as socio-economic development indicators of nations. Sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation has become essential in many developmental programs and consequently a cross cutting theme in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In Ghana, almost all citizens seems to perceive sachet water as best for drinking purposes. In the 2010 Ghana census, 28% of households across the Accra metropolitan area reported using sachet water (GSS, 2013), a rare product just a decade prior, as the primary drinking water source. This is because, sachets have gained public affinity due to low price, convenience, ubiquity, and the perception of higher quality (Stoler et al., 2012) compared to tap water and other sources of water. Considering the Adentan municipality, which has been known for their disadvantage in accessing pipe borne water and the struggle for water over the decades, it is not certain whether this improvement in water supply in Ghana has been able to solve this difficulty and even if water is currently available to inhabitants, it is still important to find out how widespread the various water sources are and how the quality of their drinking water has improved in the study area. It is therefore imperative to undertake a full assessment of the water supply sources available, what the various sources are used for, their availability considering time,cost and distance, which source is suitable for drinking, the physico-chemical and biological quality of the sources in six peri-urban communities in the Adentan Municipality of the Greater Accra Region. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3. Hypothesis For this study, the following hypotheses are generated; 1. There is no difference in the sources and uses of water within the communities. 2. There is no significant difference in the availability of water to inhabitants. 3. The average levels of physico-chemical and microbiological quality of the various sources of water from the study communities are not significantly different from permissible limits. 4. There is no significant difference in the suitability of the various sources of water for drinking. 1.4. Objectives The main objective of the study is to determine access to water supply and to assess the quality and assess the the quality of their drinking water in the study area. Specific objective include; 1. To identify the sources of water and its use in the study area. 2. To determine the availability of the water sources to inhabitants based on distances, cost in accessing a particular source and time within a day that the water can be accessed. 3. To compare the levels of physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of all the drinking water sources and their health implications. 4. To determine the best source suitable for drinking. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHARPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Peri-urban Areas Peri-urban areas are zones of transition from rural to urban land uses located between the outer limits of urban and regional centres and the rural environment (Simon, 2008) or areas on the urban periphery into which cities expand or which cities influence and thus embody some characteristics of both areas (Aguilar, 2008). The boundaries of peri-urban areas are porous and transitory as urban development extends into rural and industrial land, thus in terms of growth dynamics, the urban areas expand into and replace parts of the peri-urban areas (Fertner, 2012). In terms of demographics, peri-urban areas tend to attract newcomers, who are likely to belong to diverse ethnic groups (backgrounds) (Hirts, 2007). Unsurprisingly, according to Ward and Peters (2007), squatters usually settle in peri-urban area, and as a result slums develop in these area but peri-urban areas are not synonymous with slums. Housing in peri-urban areas is usually of mixed types, with quality and value that are generally inferior to those in urban areas (Douglas, 2006). The population density is likely to be lower than in the urban areas, whereas house occupancy is likely to be higher (McMillen and Smith, 2003). The quality of community facilities in general (schools, hospitals, etc.) is commonly inferior in these areas than in urban areas (Douglas, 2006). Naturally, income levels in peri- urban areas are lower than those in urban areas. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The planning status of peri-urban areas is usually ‘unplanned’ because of the former rural status of these areas. However, the status may change later through land regularization (Kombe, 2005). Accessibility of their different parts and circulation within peri-urban areas is generally difficult. This is because roads and other infrastructure services are deficient in terms of service level and standard (Aguilar et al., 2003). Owing to the lower service level and standards of infrastructure services, environmental health conditions in peri-urban areas are impacted more drastically. This is mainly as a result of peri-urban areas having higher population and housing densities, use more resources, and generate considerably more wastes. Poor environmental health conditions in peri-urban areas in developing countries are manifested in higher cases of such diseases as malaria, diarrhoea, worm infections, and upper respiratory track infections (Allen et al., 1999). 2.2 Domestic Water Sources in Peri-urban Areas In its Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, WHO (Ghana Standard Authority; WHO, 1993) defines domestic water as being ‘that which is used for all usual domestic purposes including drinking, cooking, washing hands and body, washing clothes, cleaning cooking utensils, cleaning the house, watering animals and irrigating the garden’, thus the adequacy of water used in our homes encompasses all including, but not limited to: i. water used for human consumption and public water supply; ii. water used in agriculture and aquaculture; iii. water used in industry; 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv. water used for recreation; and v. water used for electrical power generation (Howard et al., 2003). According to International Fact-finding Mission, (2000) access to treated water is available to 62-70 per cent in urban areas and 35-40 percent in rural areas. However, in urban areas, only 40 per cent of the population have access to tap water (Agarwal, 2011). According to the 2000 Population and housing census of Ghana, 42.1 % have access to pipe borne water and tanker services, 33.0 % to wells and boreholes and 4.9 % to rivers, streams, rainwater etc. (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), 2002). Thus most peri-urban areas do not have access to pipe borne water . Water supply sources used domestically can take different forms: a stream, ground water (a spring, a hand-dug well, and a borehole with hand pump), a rainwater collection system, a piped water supply with tap-stand or house connection, sachet water or water vendors (Reed et al, 2013). 2.2.1 Groundwater Groundwater may be defined as that portion of the total precipitation which has percolated downward into the porous space in the soil and rock where it remains, or from which it finds its way out to the surface (Bear, 2012). It also refers to all the water occupying the voids, pores and fissures within geological formations (Otieno et al., 2012). Examples of groundwater are wells, boreholes and springs (Calow et al, 2010). According to National Ground Water Association of the United States of America, approximately 25% of the earth’s total fresh water supply is stored as ground water, while less than 1% is stored in surface water resources, such as rivers and lakes . 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Godfrey et al. (2010) indicated that, as many as two billion people depend on it directly with 40% of the world’s food (William et al., 2006) produced by irrigating agricultural lands with groundwater. Groundwater constitutes about 95% of the freshwater on our planet making it fundamental to human life and economic development. In Ghana for example, borehole and well water remains the number one source of water for many rural and peri-urban poor households in Ghana, making up 41% of available water sources (GSS, 2008). About 16.0% of the urban population resort to wells as their major sources of water whiles 59.4% of the rural inhabitants use well water as their main source of water (GSS, 2008). The recent census (2010) also listed boreholes as the most common primary source of drinking water (42.5% on average), with rivers and streams being second (Alexandra et al., 2017; GSS, 2013). In rural Ghana, over 95% of improved water supplies intended for domestic purposes are groundwater supplies, primarily communal boreholes or wells (Alexandra et al., 2017). With the above assertions, then Ackah et al. (2011) was right to say groundwater resources are under increasing pressure in response to threats of rapid population growth, coupled with the establishment of human settlements lacking proper water supply and sanitation services in Ghana. Groundwater was the most practical and safe in nature based on the fact that groundwater excluded from the atmosphere would be less susceptible to pollution (Rahman, 2008). However, groundwater in hard-rock aquifers is vulnerable to quality problems that may have serious impact on human health. The rocks are often carbonate-deficient and has been given rise to poorly buffered water (Kortatsi et al., 2008), thus, some ground water pollutants occur naturally. Ground water can also be polluted through anthropogenic activities. For example, the increasing mining 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh operations in the Pra Basin and its environs has led to chemical pollution of groundwater and streams, siltation through increased sediment load, increased faecal matter and de-watering effects. Thus, the publication by Project underground (2000) that lack of access to clean water in small scale gold mining communities has a relationship with the reduced health status of these communities is a true fact. The quality of groundwater is constantly changing in response to seasonal and climatic factors (Moris et al., 2003). These changes occur by reducing precipitation and increasing evapo-transpiration (Bjorn et al., 2014), leading to reduction in recharge and possibly increase groundwater withdrawal rates. Groundwaters are generally acidic to alkaline with pH ranging from 6.0 to 8.2 pH units. Though the health impacts of such non-compliance are not clear, the possibility of causing health problems such as acidosis cannot be overlooked and also values of very low pH would make the water corrosive and hence place further strain on equipment (Bowen and Benison, 2009). Groundwater with unpleasant taste or excess hardness, even when readily available, can drive consumers to continue using micro biologically contaminated unimproved sources (Alexandra et al., 2017). For example, drilling records in the Eastern Region of Ghana, indicated that 20–30% of rural boreholes have iron and manganese concentrations in excess of the Ghana water quality standards and WHO water quality(WQ) guidelines (0.3 mg/L and 0.1 mg/L, respectively), causing them to be abandoned or marginally used (Alexandra et al., 2017). Despite the assertion above, physico-chemical parameters, such as pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), hardness, and levels of non-toxic compounds, such as iron, manganese, sulphate, and phosphate ions of groundwater, do not necessarily pose a 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh health threat at minimal levels. However, these parameters define the organoleptic and aesthetic quality of water, which affects its acceptability for drinking and domestic uses (Alexandra et al., 2017). 2.2.2 Rainwater Most often, in rainy season, people collect and store rainwater in buckets and tanks. This commonly referred to as rainwater harvesting and has been practised for centuries (Worm, 2006) since it is a simple low - cost technique that requires minimum specific expertise or knowledge and offers many benefits. Rainwater can be used for multiple purpose, ranging from irrigating crops to washing, cooking and drinking hence can supplement other water sources when they become scarce or are of low quality like brackish groundwater or polluted surface water in the rainy season (Marks et al., 2006). Effective rainwater harvesting strategies are essential to meet the escalating demand for good quality water in sufficient quantities in urban areas that experience urban stream depletion and water shortages. However, several studies have reported that rainwater harvesting may pose a public health risk because of its potential to carry microbial pathogens (Lee and Han, 2012). For example, in five districts of the Northern region of Ghana, fourteen dugouts in which rainwater are stored were all found to contained coliform bacteria, thus making them unwholesome for human consumption unless treated (Cobbina et al., 2013). Other studies have suggested that harvested rainwater used for drinking water should be assessed by monitoring the presence of faecal indicators and bacterial pathogens (Lee, 2012). It should be noted that the presence of micro-organisms in a rainwater tank does not always necessitate their removal. Some earlier studies 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concluded that the probability of illness caused by drinking microbial-contaminated rainwater is very low, and no link was made between untreated rainwater consumption and illness (Minju et al., 2017; Australian Government Department of Health, 2011). Minju et al.(2017) further reported that the chance of contracting an illness from drinking rainwater is significantly lower compared with drinking piped water, even though most of the rainwater was not treated. Nonetheless, the presence of possible illness suggests that caution is needed to minimise microbial contamination. The quality of harvested rainwater has also been found to be dependent both on the roof type and environmental conditions, i.e., the local climate and atmospheric pollution (Lee et al., 2012). Representative potential sources of non point pollution on a rooftop are classified according to whether they are external or internal. External sources include airborne pollutants and organic substances from human activity, leaves and birds waste. Pathogens are found primarily in the faeces of birds and mammals that have access to the rooftop. Internal sources of non point pollution originate in the roofing materials themselves. Rainwater reacts physico-chemically with roof materials, and the presence of lichens and mosses on the roof also influences water quality over the long term (Lee, 2012). With this, Sazakli et al., (2007) is right to say the quality of harvested rainwater is contradictious. For example, the pH of the samples taken from the wooden shingle, concrete tile and clay tile roofs was higher than that from the galvanized steel roof (Lee, 2012). Rainwater has nearly neutral pH and no hardness, disinfection by-products, or man- made contaminants (Texas Water Development Board, 2005; Lee, 2012). 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.3. Sachet Water Sachet water is popularly known as “pure water”. This product is 500ml of water in clear nylon square sachets which have been electrically heated and sealed at both ends and widely patronized by both low and middle income earners (Addo et al., 2009). The production of sachet water has increased tremendously in Ghana. According to the Food and Drugs Authority of Ghana, majority of sachet water are produced under questionable hygienic environmental conditions and they have had cause to impose a ban on some producers (Owusu Ansah, 2016). Besides, some products do not bear the stamp of approval of the Food and Drugs Authority. Even those who have registered do not always meet the standard required of them (Accra Daily Mail, Ghana News Agency (GNA), 2005) hence sachet water is not completely sterile and may not be entirely free of all infectious micro organisms. The potential danger associated with sachet water contamination can be the source of the water itself, treatment, packaging materials, dispensing into packaging materials and closure (Akinde et al., 2011). Under prolonged storage of packaged water at favourable environmental conditions, total heterotrophic bacteria can grow to levels that may be harmful to humans since they are practical indicators of water treatment efficiency as well as after-growth and biofilm formation ( Marsh and Bugusu, 2007). Regardless of all these problems, the production of sachet water enjoys a high patronage because apart from affordability, it is considered wholesome for drinking purposes as compared to tap or well water (Ernest et al., 2007). Although a recent review of this literature through 2010 found that most sachet quality studies have suffered design flaws such as tiny samples sizes or egregiously 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh non random sampling (Stoler et al., 2014). The sachet water industry has also undergone significant transformation since the late 2000s because many cottage- industry players have been replaced by large corporate-type producers who are importing heavy industrial machinery to filter and process sachet and bottled water (Ernest et al., 2016). Consistent quality control of sachet water has so far been unattainable in Nigeria, but in Ghana, the comparatively smaller and more concentrated urban market has enabled the Ghana Standards Authority to register most sachet producers and enforce standards over the past few years (Jideonwo, 2014). Our field work now suggests that brand awareness among consumers is on the increase and that the conscious patronage of brands exhibiting better taste and no particles constitutes substantial market-based pressures for quality control by producers. Low-quality sachet brands may only persist in poor neighbourhoods with severe drinking water shortages (Stoler et al., 2014). 2.3 Domestic Uses Of Water In relation to normal domestic supply, water is used for so many things. Such uses include; 2.3.1 Water for Consumption Water is a basic nutrient of the human body and is critical to human life. It supports the digestion of food, adsorption, transportation and use of nutrients and the elimination of toxins and wastes from the body. Water is also essential for the preparation of foodstuffs and requirement for food preparation (Falkenmark, 1997). The human body requires a minimum intake of water in order to be able to sustain life and prevent mild (a loss of 3-5% of body weight) and then severe dehydration (a 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh loss of 9-15% of body weight) since Wilmore (2012), suggested that 2.6 litres of water per day is lost through respiratory loss, insensible perspiration, urination and defecation. In addition, a significant quantity of water is lost through sensible perspiration if hard work is performed (Howard et al., 2003). These led to the suggestion that a daily minimum of water required in tropical climates would be around 3 litres per person, although the volume of water loss suggests that this should be at the upper end of the scale ( Grandjean, 2005). However, under extreme conditions of hard work at high temperatures in the sun this figure could rise to as much as 25 litres per day (Howard et al., 2003). The quality of water that is consumed is well-recognised as an important transmission route for infectious diarrhoeal and other diseases causing organisms (Bosch et al., 2008). Disease may also result from consumption of water containing toxic levels of chemicals. The health burden is most significant for two chemicals: arsenic and fluoride. Arsenic contamination of drinking water sources is being found in increasing numbers of water supplies world-wide although the total disease burden is as yet unknown (Goldhaber, 2003). Fluoride is also a significant global problem and WHO (1999) suggest that over 60 million people are affected by fluorosis in India and China. Nitrate is also of concern since it leads to methemaglobinaemia. Water provided for direct consumption and ingestion via food should be of a quality that does not represent a significant risk to human health. A 'zero-risk' scenario for public supplies is however not achievable and evidence points to the need to define tolerable risks which are commonly based on estimates of numbers of excess cases per defined population size. This approach underpins much risk assessment thinking 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh within the water sector for both microbial and chemical contaminants (Fewtrell and Bartram, 2001). 2.3.2 Water for Hygiene The need for domestic water supplies for basic health protection exceeds the minimum required for consumption (drinking and cooking). Additional volumes are required for maintaining food and personal hygiene through hand and food washing, bathing and laundry (Bartram et al, 2003). Poor hygiene may in part be caused by a lack of sufficient quantity of domestic water supply. The diseases linked to poor hygiene include diarrhoea and other diseases transmitted through the faecal-oral route; skin and eye diseases, in particular trachoma and diseases related to infestations, for instance louse and tick- borne typhus (Fewtrell et al, 2005). More so, several pathogens can be transmitted through infectious skin or contaminated clothes. Certain vectors of disease live on clothes, or prefer people with a poor personal hygiene. All infections that spread by direct contact can be transmitted via direct person-to-person contact through contaminated skin or clothes (Pittet et al, 2006). Washing hands after every contact that could potentially pick up the pathogen, and before doing anything that could transmit the pathogen onward, can prevent transmission (Bloomfield et al, 2006). Faecal-oral infections can largely be prevented if hands are washed after defecation, after coming in contact with animals, and after contact with anything that could be contaminated with faeces. In addition, hands should be washed before preparing or handling food, and before 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh eating. The transmission of trachoma and conjunctivitis can also be prevented by washing hands after touching a person’s face or after handling material used to wipe somebody’s eyes or face, and before coming into contact with another person’s face or eyes. Also keeping body and clothes clean will reduce the transmission risk of all these infections (Neira and Prüss-Üstün, 2016). The effectiveness of hand washing, body washing and clothes washing depends mainly on how thoroughly they are washed, and for how long. Hence, water alone is not as effective as water with a washing agent such as soap or ash, which are both effective in removing pathogens from hands, body and clothes (Bloomfield and Nath, 2009). The evidence from the literature consistently points that there is no definition for a minimum quantity of water recommended for use to ensure effective hygiene practices and while benefits are accrued from increased availability of water, this is not solely related to quantities of water used, although increased availability is likely to increase quantities used. The evidence further suggests that it is the effective use of both water and cleansing agents and the timing of hygiene practices that are more important than volumes of water used. Furthermore, as some hygiene behaviour is protective of health, for example laundry and bathing, may be carried out off-plot, the quantity of water required to sustain good hygiene may vary significantly with water collection behaviour. 2.4 Water Availability Water is only available if it is at hand when needed. The amount of water that people need, or use, will depend on its availability and what it is used for. Factors 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that influence water use include the socio-economic status of the users, whether and how people have to pay for the water, whether water is easy to get, and whether water is used for special activities (Kundzewicz and Stakhiv, 2010). Whether water is available or accessible to people depends on the time, energy, and money they have to invest to obtain it. The collection time of water is a good indicator of water availability as it takes into account distance, waiting times, and to a certain extent the effort needed to obtain water. Studies have shown that people will not really restrict their water use if collection times are less than three minutes, or a distance of about 100m in easy terrain with no waiting times. Longer collection times will result in a restriction on the use of water (Bartram et al, 2003). For example, water from a hand pump that is 25m from the home but always has a long queue may be as inaccessible as water from a river that is 1.5km away or water that has to be bought. In addition, safety problems, such as mines or a hostile population near the water may also limit accessibility. Ideally, all users should have a convenient, culturally acceptable source that provides an unlimited amount of water at an affordable price and without degrading the environment (Turner, 2004). In practice, it will rarely be possible to provide this, and a compromise will have to be made which takes into account the local, social, cultural, physical, financial, and environmental constraints. According to studies organized by Geels (2005), the quantities of water used for bathing, washing of clothes and dishes is sensitive to service level. For houses using water sources outside the home, an average of 6.6 litres per capita are used for washing dishes and clothes and 7.3 litres per capita for bathing. By contrast for houses with a household connection to piped water supply use on average of 16.3 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh litres per capita for washing dishes and clothes and 17.4 litres per capita for bathing. This suggest that for the households using a water source outside the home, the lesser volume collected has a negative impact on hygiene although this is not quantified. The importance of water availability has been shown above to influence health in the preceding discussion. As noted above, the benefit from increased quantity of water is only felt in relation to the gross differences of service level. It is therefore useful to review the evidence of the interaction between accessibility and quantity in order to assess how health may be influenced by these factors. 2.5. Accessibility And Cost of Water Supply to the Urban Poor In Sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and its cost has been a major challenge to the urban poor. Kosoe and Osumanu (2015) observed and rated the challenges of accessing potable water in the Wa Municipality (an urban centre in northern Ghana) as follows: “long queues” rate 35.7%, follow by “high cost” which rated 24%. The next challenge was time of repair of broken down water facilities (15.6%), followed by “irregular flow” rating 10.4%, then the challenge of distance (7.8%) and finally, “high chemical input” (6.5%). Whilst government believes that the subsidies reach the people who deserve it, the question remains whether a non-targeted subvention like lower water price does reach the right people (the poor including peri-urban habitant)), under the present conditions of inadequate water supply (poor reliability and accessibility) (Van Rooijen et al., 2008). 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In the city of Accra (Ghana), only 45% of the population has direct access to tap water (i.e household connection) and these mainly in the higher income classes. Other household are completely dependent on water vendors (Van Rooijen et al, 2008). Furthermore, Peloso and Morinville (2014) observed in a study that when consumers were asked whether the price charged by vendors was good or fair, respondents generally said it was manageable but were also clear that they had to accept whatever price it was since there was nothing they could do about it; the price of water was up to the discretion of the vendor. Access to domestic water and reliability is much worse in peri-urban areas and consumers generally spend between 4 and 18 times the normal tariff that is charged to consumers with direct access to piped water. The social and physical constraints to planning are affecting the poor more than the rich in terms of access and affordability (Van Rooijen et al, 2008). Zuin et al, (2011) asserted that in Maputo (Mozambique), households with water connections in their premises have better service across virtually all indicators measured. These households express greater satisfaction with their service as compared with those using other water sources. However households purchasing water from their neighbours pay lower time and money costs per litre of water, on average, as compared with those using standpipes. On the other hand, where the poor are enabled to access household connections, they benefit significantly from the convenience and cost savings of piped water. The benefits can also be significant in terms of economics and health (Franceys, 2005). 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 Water Quality The incidents of water borne disease and epidemics nationwide arising from drinking water of doubtful quality have become of great concern. The primary purpose of the guideline for drinking water quality is the protection of public health (WHO, 2006). Considering the quality of drinking water in general, certain requirements must be met for water to be fit for human consumption. If these requirements are met, the water can be described as „wholesome‟, „potable‟ or simply „water supply‟. According to Eja (2002), the requirements are: i. Freedom from organism and chemical substances which might be injurious to health. This is the most important requirement. ii. Drinking water should be of such composition that consumers do not question the safety of the water. This requirement implies that turbidity, colour, taste and odour should be low. Macro organisms (e.g. warms, aquatic and fly nymphs) should be absent. iii. Drinking water should be suitable for house-keeping and for this reason, iron and manganese content should be low, because these substances colour laundry (like shirt) during washing. Iron causes a brown colour, while manganese causes a black colour. Hardness should be low, because water with a high hardness causes scale formation in water heaters by precipitation of calcium carbonates. Moreover, a high hardness implies that a high dosage of detergents is required for washing. iv. Drinking water should not be aggressive to materials such as lead, copper, asbestos, cement and concrete, cast iron, galvanized steel, PVC (Polyvinylchloride) 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and PE (Polyethylene). This is because pipes, tubes and apparatus used in distribution systems and plumbing installations may consist of these materials. Pipes, tubes and apparatus affected by water cause many problems. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Study Area The area where this study was conducted is within Adentan Municipality. The municipal consists of thirteen (13) peri-urban communities and it lies 10 kilometres to the North east of Accra, in the Greater Accra region of Ghana, West Africa. It is geographically located within latitude 5′ 43′′ north and longitude 0′ 09′′ West. The municipal has a total population of about 78,215(Ghana Statistical Service, 2010) with an average household size of 3.7 and household population of 76,601 with a total number of 20,478 households (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). About 62.5 percent of the population resides in urban and 37.5 percent in rural areas. The type of settlement in the municipality is the dispersed form. About 74.1 percent of the population aged 15 years and older are economically active while 25.9 per cent are economically not active. Of the economically active population, 91.2 percent is employed while 8.8 percent is unemployed. For those who are economically not active, about half of them are students (50.9%), 23.9 percent perform household duties and 2.4 percent are disabled or too sick to work. The major occupation for the inhabitants can be categorized as skilled self- employed which include people who offer services with a particular skill they have acquired to earn an income in return. Examples include sowing, carpentry, driving, hair dressing etc. However, there are also others who own their private enterprises and a few government employees. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Generally the main water supply for drinking in the Municipality are sachet water (53.4%), pipe-borne outside dwelling (15.4%) and tanker supply/Vendor provided (13.4%). Figure 3.1: Map of study area 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2. Sources of Data Data for this study was obtained from both primary and secondary sources. With the primary source, questionnaires were administered to inhabitants within the study area in exploring the reactions of the communities in response to some commonly experienced aspects of accessing water (Tsiboe, 2004). Water samples were also taken and analyse at the laboratory using standard methods. The secondary source of information included literature from books, papers from peer-reviewed journals as well as the review of both published and unpublished articles. 3.3 Social Survey A household survey was conducted using questionnaires for inhabitants Adenta, Adjinkano, Amanfrom, Ashiyie, Ashaley Botwe and Ogbojo communities (within the municipality) to identify access to water, sanitation, water quality, and their knowledge on the possible link between poor water quality and health. The social survey was conducted within the months of May and June, 2018. 3.3.1 Sample Size In order to get a representation of the inhabitants within the area, the study used a sample size of 402 respondents which was obtained using the formula below. 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sample Size = (www.surveymonkey.com) (Where; Population Size = N Margin of error = e z-score = z e is percentage, put into decimal form (for example, 5% = 0.05). Z=1.96 N=78,215 e= 0.05 ≅ 383 3.4 Water Sampling Methods A representation of the water sources (5 samples for each source) were selected randomly from each of the community under study. A total of 160 samples were collected which was made up of 80 samples for dry season and 80 samples for the wet or rainy season. The samples were put on ice and conveyed to the Ecological Laboratory of the University of Ghana for analysis. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4.1 Sample Collection For physico-chemical analysis, water samples were collected using clean containers, labelled and transported on ice immediately to the Ecological laboratory of the University of Ghana . Samples for physico-chemical analysis were collected into one litre plastic bottles previously washed and rinsed several times with distilled water. Bacteriological samples were collected into narrow-mouthed pre-sterilized 500 ml glass bottles. In taking samples for bacteriological analysis, the taps were sterilized by cleaning the inside and outside of the nozzles with 70% alcohol. Cotton soaked in the alcohol was then set ablaze and used to strongly heat the nozzles. The taps were then turn on and allowed to run waste for about a minute before samples were taken. 3.5 Laboratory Analysis 3.5.1 Physico-chemical Analysis of Samples i) Temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids were measured on the field using HORIBA U-50 series. ii) Sulphate (SO 2-4 ) analysis The level of the sulphate in the sample was determined using Sulpha Ver 4 powder pillows in a direct reading by means of Hach spectrophotometer Model DR. 2000. Twenty five (25) millilitres of the sample was measured into sample cell. One Sulpha 4 Reagent powder pillow was added to the sample and swirl to dissolve. A 5- minutes reaction period was allowed. Another sample cell (the blank) was filled with 25ml of sample and placed into the cell holder to calibrate it. After the reaction period the prepared sample was placed into the cell holder and the concentration of 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the phosphorus was determined at 450 nm. The Sulphate ions in the sample react with barium in the Sulfa Ver 4 Sulphate Reagent and form insoluble barium sulphate turbidity. The amount of turbidity form is proportional to the sulphate concentration. (APHA, 1996). iii) Nitrate Nitrogen (NO -3 -N) analysis The method used for the Nitrate analysis was Cadmium Reduction Method. The nitrate level in each sample was measured using Nitrate Powder Pillows in a direct reading HACH spectrophotometer Model DR. 2010. Ten (10) ml of the sample was measured into sample cell of the Spectrophotometer. One Nitraver 5 Nitrate Reagent Powder Pillow was added to the sample. The mixture was then shaken vigorously for 1 minute. Five minutes was be allowed for the solution to react. An orange colour of the mixture indicates the presence of Nitrate. After five minutes, another cell was filled with 10ml of only the sample (blank). The blank sample will be placed in the spectrophotometer for calibration. Then the prepared sample will be placed into the cell holder to determine the Nitrate concentration at 500nm in mg/l (HACH, 1992) iv) Total Suspended Solids About 500ml of sample was blended for exactly 2 minutes. The blended sample was poured into a 1 litre beaker, stirred and 25ml aliquots immediately poured into a sample cell. The prepared sample was swirled to remove any bubbles and the reading recorded with a spectrophotometer set at 810 nm which has previously been calibrated using 25ml of de-mineralized water (blank) to zero reading. (APHA, 1995). 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v) Turbidity Turbidity of the water was determined using Turbidimeter Model 2100P. The water Sample was vigorously shaken and Twenty five (25) millilitres measured into the cell holder. The cell was closed and the read button of the instrument pressed. The reading was taken from a screen after the figure had stabilized. Turbidity was recorded in Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU). Each measurement was preceded by a calibration (APHA, 1995). vi) Phosphate (PO 3-4 ) analysis A 10ml of water sample (the prepared sample) was placed in the sample cell. Phos Ver 3 Phosphate Powder pillow was added to the cell content and swirled immediately to mix. A two-minute reaction period was allowed. A blue colouration of the mixture indicates the presence of phosphate. Another sample cell (the blank) was filled with 10ml of sample and placed into the cell holder to calibrate it. After reaction period the prepared sample was placed into the cell holder and the level of phosphorus was determined at 890 nm. The Spectrophotometer displayed the results in mg/l PO 3-4 (HACH, 1992). viii) Fluoride and Chloride Fluoride and chloride were measured by using Aquaprobes ( AP - 2000). ix) Alkalinity 25 ml of the sample was diluted to 50ml with distilled water in a flask and 1 ml of ammonia buffer solution was added. Two drops of Eriochrome black T-indicator was added. A standard EDTA titrant (0.01M) was added slowly with continuous stirring the colour changed. The volume of EDTA titrant added is noted and used to calculate alkalinity in milligram per litre as calcium bicarbonate. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5.2 Bacteriological Analysis of Samples i) Sterilization of Glassware: All glassware used for this study were sterilized in a hot box oven at 160oC for one hour. ii) Serial Dilution of Samples: Nine millilitres of sterile water was transferred into 5 sterile tubes labelled 10-1 to 10-5. One millilitre of the sample aseptically transferred into the first test tube (10-1) with a sterile pipette and mixed. From the first test tube, one millimetre was equally transferred to the test tube labelled 10-2 and mixed using fresh pipette. This was repeated until the test tube labelled 10-5. iii) Total Plate Count (Total Viable Bacteria): The Pour Plate Technique was used and the culture medium was Plate Count Agar (PCA). The Plate Count Agar was prepared according to the manufacturer‟s instruction (20.5g of the agar was put into one litre deionised water and allowed to soak for 10 minutes and then swirled to mix. It was then autoclaved at 121oC for 15 minutes) and allowed to cool to 47oC. One millilitre of the sample from each of the test tube was aseptically transferred into sterile petri dishes using sterile pipette. Twenty millilitres of the culture medium was poured into the petri dish and properly mixed with the sample by swirling. This was done in triplicates. A control was equally prepared, but without adding the sample. The plates were labelled, allowed to solidify and finally incubated at 37oC for 24-48 hours. The plates were observed for development of bacterial colonies. iv) Total Coliform: The Pour Plate Technique was used and the culture medium was Violet Red Bile. One millilitre of the sample from each of the test tube was 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh aseptically transferred into sterile Petri dishes using sterile pipette. The Violet Red Bile was prepared according to the manufacturer‟s instruction (thus, 38.5g of the Violet Red Bile was suspended in 1 litre of distilled water and boiled to completely dissolve the agar) and allowed to cool to 45oC. Twenty millilitres of the culture medium was poured into the Petri dish and properly mixed with the sample. This was done in triplicates. A control was equally prepared, but without adding the sample. The plates were labelled, allowed to solidify, inverted and finally incubated at 37oC for 24-48 hours. The plates were observed for development of bacterial colonies. v) Faecal Coliform: The Pour Plate Technique was used and the culture medium was Eosin methylene blue agar (EMB agar). One millimetre of the sample from each of the test tube was aseptically transferred into sterile Petri dishes using sterile pipette. The EMB agar was prepared according to the manufacturers instruction (thus, 35.9g of the EMB agar was suspended in 1 litre of distilled water and boiled to completely dissolve the agar. It was then autoclaved at 121oC for 15 minutes ) and allowed to cool to 45oC. Twenty millilitres of the culture medium was poured into the Petri dish and properly mixed with the sample. This was done in triplicates. A control was equally prepared, but without adding the sample. The plates were labelled, allowed to solidify, inverted and finally incubated at 37oC for 24-48 hours. The plates were observed for development of bacterial colonies. 3.6 Data Analysis 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.6.1 Frequency of water sources Chi-square test was used to test how likely the distribution of water sources in the various communities is due to chance. 3.6.2 Water Quality Paired T-test was used to determine whether there is significant difference between data collected in the wet and dry seasons and the One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether there were any statistically significant difference between the means of the physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters. 3.6.3 Household survey Descriptive analysis was used to measure the frequency of sources in the communities, counts of the sachet water used in each household and the amount spent to access the sources. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHARPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.0. Introduction The chapter begins by a presentation on the demographic background of respondents followed by the findings of the study. 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 4.1.1. Gender of Respondents The results show that generally, more of male respondents participated in the questionnaire survey compared to their female counterparts. According to the results, out of the 402 total number of respondents, 210, representing 52.2% were males while 192 representing 47.8% were females. Fig. 4.1.1 shows the breakdown of males as against the female respondents in all the five communities selected for the survey. From the figure, whereas there was almost equal representation of gender in Adjringano, Amanfrom and Ashiyie, more males were represented in Ashaley-Botwe and Ogbojo The results further revealed that less males participated in Adenta (Fig. 4.1.1). 50 40 30 20 10 0 MALE FEMALE COMMUNITIES 35 NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.1.1: Gender of respondents. 4.1.2 Age of Respondents Fig. 4.1.2 shows that the maximum number of respondents have the age 15 to 24 years. This depicts a broad base population pyramid which tapers off with a small number of elderly persons. Majority of the number of respondents in Amanfrom, Ashiyie, and Ashaley-Botwe ranged in age between 25 and 34 years; those from Adjringano and Ogbojo were between the age range of 15 to 24 years and while majority of those from Adenta were between the 25 to 44 years (Fig. 4.1.2). 40 35 30 25 20 15_24 15 25_34 10 35_44 5 45_60 0 >60 COMMUNITIES Figure 4.1.2: Age of Respondents 4.1.3. Educational Level of Respondents Fig. 4.1.3 shows the breakdown of educational level in all the five communities selected for the survey.According to the results, out of the 402 total number of respondents, 38, representing 8.5% had no formal education while 364 representing 90.5% had formal education. Whiles those in Adenta, Adjringano, Ashiyie, 36 NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ashaley-Botwe and Ogbojo had majority of the respondent with secondary education, those in Amanfrom had more respondent with basic education. 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 none 10 5 basic 0 secondary tertiary COMMUNITIES Figure 4.1.3: Educational level of respondents 4.1.4 Number of Years lived in the Community Whiles Adenta, Adjringano, Amanfrom and Ashiyie had majority of the respondents lived in the community less than five years, those from Ashaley-Botwe and Ogbojo had the majority of the respondent lived in the community between 5 to 10 years (Fig 4.1.4). Per each community, only a few respondents had lived beyond 10 years. 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 < 5 5_10 11_15 16_20 21_25 26_30 > 30 NUMBER OF YEARS ADENTA ADJRIGANOR AMANFROM ASHIYIE ASHALEY-BOTWE OGBOJO Figure 4.1.4: Number of years lived in the community 37 NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.5 Household size Where as most of the respondent from Adjringano, Ashiyie, Ashaley-Botwe and Ogbojo were in a household size of 2 to 4 persons, those in Adenta were in a size of 4 to 6 persons (Fig 4.1.5). 50 45 40 35 30 25 below 2 20 15 2_4 10 5 4_6 0 6_8 8_10 COMMUNITIES Figure 4.1.5: Household size. 4.2 Available Sources of Water The results of this study shows that there are five sources of water available to the residents in the municipality. These are vendor supplied sources involving mainly treated water for drinking, hand-dug wells, boreholes, rain water harvesting and water from tanker service providers. From Table 4.2a below, unlike other communities, Adjringano and Ogbojo have two and three sources of water respectively. These are rain water harvesting and pipe- borne water for Adjringano and hand-dug well, rainwater harvesting and water from tanker service providers for Ogbojo. Adenta, Adjringano and Ashaley-Botwe have high access to pipe-borne water, representing about 79.1%, 97% and 67.2% 38 HOUSEHOLD SIZE University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh respectively. In all the communities, households that harvest rain water are few, ranging from 1.5% to 4.0%. Communities like Adenta, Amanfrom, Ashiyie, Ashaley-Botwe and Ogbojo also use other sources such as hand-dug well and borehole. The chi-square test for the for the distribution of water sources in the communities (Table 4.2b), indicates that there is a relationship between communities and the water sources available. Table 4.2a: Sources of Water COMMUNITY SOURCE OF WATER USED WELL BOREHOLE RAIN TANKER PIPE ADENTA 7.50% 4.50% 3.0% 6.0% 79.10% ADJINGANO 0 0 3.0% 0 97% AMANFROM 11.90% 16.40% 3.0% 32.30% 36.30% ASHIYIE 28.90% 14.90% 2.0% 6.0% 46.80% ASHALEY-BOTWE 10.40% 6.0% 1.50% 16.40% 67.20% OGBOJO 5.50% 0 4.0% 90.50% 0 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2b: Distribution of water sources by Chi-squre test (at confidence level of 0.05) Value df Asymp. Sig. (2- sided) Pearson Chi-S . 342.434a 20 .000 9quare Likelihood Ratio 347.007 20 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 21.055 1 .000 N of Valid Cases 402 4.3 Uses of Available Water Sources 4.3.1 Drinking Water Sources Fig. 4.3.1 indicates that the households of study area use sachet water as the main drinking source than other sources. The percentage of sachet water users range from 68.7%, to 88.1%, pipe borne water from 20.9% to 22.4%, bottled water from 3.0% to 9.0%, hand-dug well from 1.5.0% to 9.0%, borehole from 1.50% to 4.5% and rain water about 4.4%. Also, among the communities, households in Ogbojo are the majority in sachet water usage represented by 88.1% . 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 100 90 80 70 60 50 SACHET WATER BOTTLED WATER 40 PIPE-BORNE 30 HAND-DUG WELL BOREHOLE 20 RAIN 10 0 COMMUNITIES Figure 4.3.1: Drinking Water Sources 4.3.1.1 Number of Bags of Sachet Water use Weekly Table 4.3.1.1a indicates that, households in the communities studied used one to five bags of sachet water weekly depending on the size of the household. Out of 402 households, 89 of them representing 22.1% do not use sachet water at all whiles 77.9% use sachet water. Out of those that use sachet water, a maximum of 141 households representing 35.1% use two bags of sachet water, 56 households representing 17.9% use one bag, 87 households representing 27.8% use 3 bags, 25 households representing 7.99% use 4 bags and the least 4 households representing 1.3% use five bags of sachet water weekly across the communities studied. Table 4.3.1.1a: Number of Sachet Water Bags use Weekly per household size 41 PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh NUMBER OF SACHET WATER BAGS USE WEEKLY Total HOUSEHOLD none 1 2 3 4 5 SIZE below 2 7 20 0 1 0 0 29 2_4 47 32 99 11 1 0 190 4_6 28 2 40 47 4 0 121 6_8 3 2 2 22 14 0 42 8_10 4 0 0 6 6 4 20 Total 89 56 141 87 25 4 402 4.3.2 Water for Cooking Considering Fig. 4.3.1 below, it shows that the households in Adenta, Adjringano, Amanfrom and Ashaley-Botwe use pipe-borne water for cooking representing a range within 29.9% to 97.0% whilst 47.8% of Ashiyie and 92.5% of Ogbojo use hand-dug well and water from the tanker service providers for cooking respectively. About 1.5% to 4.0% use harvested rain. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 ADENTA ADJRINGANO AMANFROM ASHALEY-BOTWE ASHIYIE OGBOJO COMMUNITIES HAND-DUG WELL BOREHOLE RAIN TANKER SERVICE PROVIDERS PIPE-BORNE Figure 4.3.2: Water for Cooking 4.3.3 Water for Bathing From Figure 4.3.2, about 100% to 68.7% of households in Adjringano, Adenta and Botwe use pipe borne water for bathing, whilst 49.3% and 92.5% households of Ashyie and Ogbojo use hand-dug well and water from tanker service providers for bathing respectively. Few households in the various communities use boreholes and water harvested from rains. 43 PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 COMMUNITIES HAND-DUG WELL BOREHOLE RAIN TANKER SERVICE PROVIDERS PIPE-BORNE Figure 4.3.3: Water for Bathing 4.3.4 Water for Washing Fig 4.3.4, shows that 35.8% to 100% of households in Adjringano, Adenta, Amanfrom and Ashaley-Botwe use pipe-borne water for washing, 49.3% and 92.5% households of Ashiyie and Ogbojo use hand-dug well and water from tanker service providers for washing. Few households of the various communities use boreholes and water harvested from rains. 44 PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 COMMUNITIES HAND-DUG WELL BOREHOLE RAIN TANKER SERVICE PROVIDERS PIPE-BORNE Figure 4.3.4 : Water for Washing 4.4 Availability of Water Sources to Households 4.4.1. Time within a Day that a Water Source can be accessed Considering Fig 4.4.1, 55.20% to 82.10% of the households in Adenta, Adjringano, Amanfrom and Ashiyie communities have access to water throughout the day whilst 17.90% to 44.80% during day time. 44.80 to 46.30% households in Ashaley-Botwe and Ogbojo communities access water 24hours whiles 53.70% to 55.20% access water supply sources during day time. 4.5% of the households in Amanfrom access water 3 to 5 hours and 6 to 8 hours in a day. 45 PERCNTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 ADENTA ADJRINGANO AMANFROM ASHALEY-BOTWE ASHIYIE OGBOJO COMMUNITY 24 HOURS DAYTIME 3-5 HOURS 6-8 HOURS Figure 4.4.1: Accessible Time in a Day 4.4.2. Distance covered to access the water As shown by Fig 4.4.2, 73% of the households were able to accessed a source of water over a distance less than 100 meters, 16% between 100 to 300 meters, 7% between 300 to 500 meters, 2% between 500 to 700 meters and 1% between 700 to 1100 meters. Households in Adjringano covers the shortest distance (within <100M to 500M) to access a water source. 46 PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DISTANCE COVERED TO ACCESS WATER 1% 1% 2% <100m 7% 100_300 16% 300_500 500_700 73% 700_900 900_ 1100 Figure 4.4.2: Average Distance covered to access water in the study area. 4.4.3 Cost Incurred Accessing a Water Source 4.4.3.1 Monthly Cost Incurred by Sachet Water Users A maximum of GH¢ 70 and a least of GH¢ 10 is spent monthly on sachet water. Within a total of 313 households that use sachet water, 53 households spend GH¢10 to GH¢20, 112 households spend GH¢21 to GH¢30, 76 households spend GH¢31 to GH¢40, 59 households spend GH¢41 to GH¢50, 11 households spend GH¢51 to GH¢60 and 2 households spend GH¢61 to GH¢70 on sachet water monthly (table 4.4.3.1). 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.4.3.1: Monthly Cost Incurred by Sachet Water Users MONYHLY COST OF SACHET WATER USED (GH¢) Total COMMUNITY 10 - 20 20 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 61 - 70 ADENTA 3 11 19 13 1 0 47 ADJRIGANOR 4 11 19 15 1 1 51 AMANFROM 8 18 14 8 1 0 49 ASHIYIE 11 22 6 6 1 0 46 BOTWE 14 23 10 7 2 1 60 OGBOJO 13 27 8 10 5 0 63 Total 53 112 76 59 11 2 313 4.4.3.2 Monthly Cost Incurred Using Other Sources Amount spent on other sources of water ranged from GH¢ 20 to GH¢ 80. 145 households spend GH¢21 to GH¢30, 138 households spend GH¢31 to GH¢40, 55 households spend GH¢41 to GH¢50, 4 households spend GH¢ 51 to GH¢60, 19 households spend GH¢61 to GH¢70 and 5 households spend GH¢71 to GH¢80 on main source of water monthly (table 4.4.3.2). Also, table 4.4.3.2 shows that cost of hand-dug wells, boreholes and tanker or vendor services are relatively low. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.4.3.2: Monthly Cost Incurred by using each main source MONTHLY COST (GH¢) SOURCE_USED Total 10 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 61 - 70 71 - 80 Hand-dug_Well 0 24 5 8 1 0 0 38 Borehole 0 6 5 3 0 0 0 14 Water from tanker service 0 59 42 4 0 0 0 105 providers Pipe_borne 0 57 86 40 3 19 5 210 Total 0 145 138 55 4 19 5 367 4.5 Physico-Chemical Parameters Investigated 4.5.1 Turbidity Mean turbidity recorded differ from each source. Sachet water recorded the lowest with a range of 1.38 to 1.86 NTU and boreholes recorded the maximum with the range 4.91 to 7.54 NTU. At 0.05 confidence level (4.5a), there is a significant different between the turbidity of different sources (p= .000). 4.5.2. Alkalinity As shown in Table 4.5, mean alkalinity of water sources in boreholes were higher than the other sources with a maximum value of 309 mg/L as CaCO3. Sachet water 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh recorded the minimum value with the range of 5.5 to 21 mg/L as CaCO3. At a confidence level of 0.05 (table 4.5b), there is a significant difference between the alkalinity of the sources of water (p= .000) . 4.5.3 Total Suspended Solids In terms of total suspended solids (TSS), almost all the supply sources did not record any except for Ashaley-Botwe pipe borne water and Adenta hand-dug wells which recorded an average of 2.50 mg/L each (Table 4.5). 4.5.4 Electrical Conductivity From Table 4.5, borehole supply sources recorded high electrical conductivity with a maximum of 677µscm-1as compared to the other sources. Sachet water recorded the minimum values between 33 to 58.5 µscm-1, pipe borne water recorded range between 81 to 544.5 µscm-1 and hand-dug wells between 67.5 to 596.5 µscm-1 Although there is no significant difference between electrical conductivity of we and dry season, at a confidence level of 0.05 (table 4.5a) there is a significant difference between the electrical conductivity of the water sources(p = .036). 4.5.5. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) The mean value of total dissolved solids of some hand-dug wells and some boreholes supply sources were high. The maximum value of 1209 mg/L was recorded by Ashaley-Botwe boreholes and the minimum of 15 mg/L recorded by Eva-pure sachet water. Where as pipe borne water ranged between 52.5 to 541 mg/L, hand-dug well ranged between 39.5 to 1044.5 mg/L. At a confidence level of 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 0.05 (table 4.5a), there is no significant difference between the mean TDS values of the sources of water (p = .236). 4.5.6 pH The mean pH of supply sources (Table 4.5) range from 5.08 to 7.07. Boreholes and hand-dug wells recorded the lowest pH between the range 5.08 to 6.12 whiles sachet waters recorded the highest pH between the range 6.6 to 7.07. At a confidence level of 0.05 (Table 4.5b), there is a significant difference between the mean pH values of the sources of water (p=.006). 4.5.7 Temperature Considering Table 4.5, the mean temperature recorded varies greatly with the community. The maximum temperature of 30.09 oC was recorded by Adenta pipe borne water and the minimum of 25.94 was recorded by Adjringano. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.5a: Mean Physico-chemical parameters of water sources in the study area compared to WHO standards. Average Turbidity Average Alkalinity(ppm AverageTSS Average Average Average (NTU) as CaCO3) (mg/l) EC(µscm-1) TDS(mg/L) Average pH Temperature(0C) W.H.O STANDARD 5 NTU 100– 500mg/L CaCO3 (50-300 µs/cm) 1000mg/l 6.5 to 8.5 pH 22 to 29 oC SOURCES Adjringano-Pipe borne Water 1.86 36 0 87 52.5 6.91 25.94 Ashaley-Botwe Pipe borne Water 1.98 24 0 252 93.5 6.95 28.83 Adenta-Pipe borne Water 1.96 42 0 81 255.5 6.89 30.09 Ashiyie-Pipe borne Water 2.11 85 0 621 381.5 6.89 29.09 Amanfrom-Pipe borne Water 1.87 149 0 844.5 541 7 27.93 Ashaley-Botwe Borehole 11.43 309 0 1717 1209 5.69 29.24 Adenta-Borehole 13.07 236 0 1277.5 709.5 5.78 29.15 Ashiyie Borehole 10.51 279 0 802 525.5 5.28 27.54 Amanfrom Borehole 9.83 148.5 0 83.5 46 5.64 29.98 Ashaley-Botwe Hand-dug Well 3.7 144 0 76.5 45.5 5.97 27.66 Adenta Hand-dug Well 3.71 251 2.5 896.5 543 6.11 28.98 Ashiyie Hand-dug Well 3.3 142.5 0 820.5 818.25 5.08 28.2 Amanfrom Hand-dug Well 2.71 43 0 67.5 3044.5 5.8 26.24 Ogbojo Hand-dug well 3.03 30 0 72.5 39.5 6.12 28.01 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sachet Water A – Evapure 1.38 8 0 3 1.5 6.81 27.31 Sachet Water B - Voltic Cool 1.86 21 0 58.5 33 7.01 27.39 Sachet Water C - Ice Drop 1.45 10 0 33 19.5 7.01 26.87 Sachet Water D - Special Ice 1.59 10.5 0 52 30.5 6.9 26.66 Sachet Water E - Ice Cool 1.64 5.5 0 5.5 3.5 7 27.26 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.5b: Comparison of water quality by One-Way ANOVA ( At 0.05 confidence level) PIPE HAND-DUG SACHET PARAMETERS BOREHOLES SIG. BORNE WELL WATER TURBIDITY 1.96A 5.85B 3.29C 1.58A .000 ALKALINITY 67.2A 243.1B 122.1D 11C .000 ELECTRICAL 277.1A 470B 266.7A 30.4C .036 CONDUCIVITY TOTAL DISSOLVED 264.8A 622.5B 498.2C 26.6D .236 SOLIDS pH 6A 5.6B 5.8B 6A .006 Within rows, means with different superscript letters are statistically different, p ≤ 0.05 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.5c Paired Samples T-Test for physical parameters ( At 0.05 confidence level) Paired Differences t df Sig. (2- tailed) Mean Std. Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval of Deviation Mean the Difference Lower Upper Turbidity wet - Pair 1 1.59053 2.02739 .46511 .61336 2.56770 3.420 18 .003 Turbidity dry Alkalinity wet - Pair 2 9.88421 120.53339 27.65226 -48.21103 67.97945 .357 18 .725 Alkalinity dry Pair 3 TSS wet - TSS dry .52632 1.57651 .36168 -.23354 1.28617 1.455 18 .163 - Pair 4 EC wet - EC dry 789.27093 181.07117 -709.89009 50.94273 -1.820 18 .085 329.47368 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Pair 5 pH wet - pH dry -1.20842 .60055 .13778 -1.49788 -.91897 -8.771 18 .000 - Pair 6 TDS wet - TDS dry 521.23598 119.57973 -414.06981 88.38559 -1.362 18 .190 162.84211 Temperature wet - Pair 7 .07105 1.78092 .40857 -.78732 .92943 .174 18 .864 Temperature dry 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6 Nutrient Content 4.6.1 Anions 4.6.1.1 Phosphate Mean phosphate content in the water supply sources were generally low with values ranging from 0.085 to 0.6 mg/L (as seen in figure 4.6.1.1). Ashaley-Botwe hand-dug well recorded the maximum phosphate content of 0.6 mg/L whiles Ashaley-Botwe pipe borne recorded the minimum of 0.029 mg/L. At a confidence level of 0.05 there was a statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F = 3.143, p =0.056). 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Water Supply Sources Figure 4.6.1.1: Comparison of mean phosphate in water sources 57 Mean Phosphate (mg/L) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6.1.2 Sulphate The mean sulphate content recorded was generally low for many supply sources. Sachet waters recorded the least sulphate content. Ashaley-Botwe hand-dug wells recorded the maximum of 148.0 mg/L whereas Eva-pure and Voltic cool sachet waters recorded the minimum of 2.5 mg/L. At a confidence level of 0.05 there was no statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F = 1.695, p = 0.211) 160.00 140.00 120.00 100.00 80.00 60.00 40.00 20.00 - Water Supply Sources Figure 4.6.1.2: Comparison of mean sulphate in water sources 4.6.1.3 Nitrate Mean nitrate content in sachet waters were low for most of the supply sources except for some hand-dug well and boreholes. Sachet waters recorded the lowest nitrate content between 0.1 to 0.9 mg/L whiles Adenta hand-dug well recorded the maximum of 1.5 to 18.6 mg/L. At a confidence level of 0.05 there was no statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F = 2.18, p =1.32) 58 Mean Sulphate (mg/L) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Water Supply Sources Figure 4.6.1.3: Comparison of mean nitrate in water sources 4.6.1.4 Fluoride Fig 4.6.1.4 indicates that mean fluoride content was high in Adenta borehole water with 0.67 mg/L. The rest of the supply sources recorded low fluoride content with the least of 0.005mg/L recorded by Amanfrom hand-dug wells. At a confidence level of 0.05 there was no statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F = 1.904, p =1.72) 59 Mean Nitrate (mg/L) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Figure 4.6.1.4: Comparison of mean fluoride in water sources 4.6.1.5 Chloride From Fig 4.6.1.5, mean chloride content ranged from 1.915 mg/L to 217.51. Ice cool sachet water recorded the least with 1.915 mg/L whilst Adenta hand-dug wells recorded the highest with 217.51 mg/L. The other sources aside hand-dug wells values for chloride were fluctuating between the communities. At a confidence level of 0.05 there was no statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F = 2.868, p =0.71) 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 250 200 150 100 50 0 Water Supply Sources Figure 4.6.1.5: Comparison of mean chloride in water sources 4.6.2 Cations 4.6.2.1 Sodium Values recorded by boreholes and hand-dug wells were higher than those recorded in pipe borne and sachet water. Sachet and pipe borne waters recorded the least values (0.5915 mg/L to 3.972 mg/L) for sodium content. Some boreholes and hand-dug wells recorded high sodium content with Ashaley-Botwe hand-dug well recording the highest of 181.756 mg/L. At a confidence level of 0.05 there was no statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F = 3.39, p =0.46) 61 Mean Chloride (mg/L) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 200.00 180.00 160.00 140.00 120.00 100.00 80.00 60.00 40.00 20.00 0.00 Water Supply Sources Figure 4.6.2.1: Comparison of mean sodium in water sources 4.6.2.2 Potassium Fig 4.6.2.2 shows that some boreholes and some hand-dug wells recorded high potassium content. Ashaley-Botwe hand-dug well recorded the highest potassium content of 19.571 mg/L whereas Eva-pure recorded the least of 0.03 mg/L. At a confidence level of 0.05 there was no statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F = 3.326, p =0.48) 62 Mean Sodium (ppm) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 20 15 10 5 0 Water Supply Sources Figure 4.6.2.2: Comparison of mean Potassium in water sources 4.6.2.3 Calcium Fig 4.6.2.3 shows that boreholes recorded the maximum calcium content of 139.24 mg/L by Adenta boreholes. Ice-cool sachet waters recorded the minimum content of calcium of 0.178 mg/L.At a confidence level of 0.05 there was no statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F = 3.96, p =0.29) 63 Mean Potassium (ppm) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Water Supply Sources Figure 4.6.2.3: Comparison of mean Calcium in water sources 4.6.2.4 Magnesium Boreholes were found to contain high amount of magnesium with a range between 24.85 to 68.95 mg/L. Whiles hand-dug wells were between the range 18.04 to 59.85 mg/L, pipe borne water were between 14.77 to 15.20 mg/L and sachet waters’ were between 0.15 to 0.67 mg/L. At a confidence level of 0.05 there was no statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F = 2.538, p =0.96) 64 Mean Calcium (ppm) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Water Supply Sources Figure 4.6.2.4: Comparison of mean magnesium in water sources 65 Mean Magnesium (ppm) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.6: Comparison of nutrients in water sources by one-way ANOVA Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval for Mean F Sig. Parameters Sources Lower Bound Upper Bound pipe-borne 27842.8000 25983.33220 11620.09942 -4419.7681 60105.3681 boreholes 103507.2500 75709.94083 37854.97041 -16964.1607 223978.6607 Potassium 6.844 .004 hand-dug-wells 8374.6000 7827.60393 3500.61090 -1344.6540 18093.8540 sachet water 2790.8000 2236.17177 1000.04642 14.2260 5567.3740 pipe-borne 210808.0000 333785.77629 149273.53714 -203641.7815 625257.7815 boreholes 132062.7500 180417.27321 90208.63661 -155021.3923 419146.8923 Calcium .848 .489 hand-dug-wells 136209.4000 175512.48580 78491.56983 -81718.1348 354136.9348 sachet water 1798.2000 1528.22502 683.44300 -99.3420 3695.7420 pipe-borne 46770.4000 63513.10540 28403.92423 -32091.5364 125632.3364 boreholes 37885.5000 29170.06252 14585.03126 -8530.5789 84301.5789 Ma gnesium 1.455 .267 hand-dug-wells 23689.6000 23608.36468 10557.98165 -5624.0565 53003.2565 sachet water 137.4000 139.18800 62.24677 -35.4247 310.2247 pipe-borne 135.2000 92.00924 41.14778 20.9554 249.4446 Phosphate .868 .479 boreholes 187.2500 91.55099 45.77549 41.5719 332.9281 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hand-dug-wells 250.0000 198.55226 88.79527 3.4648 496.5352 sachet water 241.4000 82.73633 37.00081 138.6693 344.1307 pipe-borne 2450.0000 2307.32529 1031.86724 -414.9227 5314.9227 boreholes 4812.5000 2952.22374 1476.11187 114.8532 9510.1468 Sulphate 1.695 .211 hand-dug-wells 5810.0000 7270.26478 3251.36125 -3217.2260 14837.2260 sachet water 350.0000 93.54143 41.83300 233.8530 466.1470 pipe-borne 120.2000 117.25059 52.43606 -25.3858 265.7858 boreholes 109.0000 122.59690 61.29845 -86.0790 304.0790 Nitrate 3.863 .031 hand-dug-wells 363.2000 292.62809 130.86726 -.1458 726.5458 sachet water 6.0000 5.91608 2.64575 -1.3458 13.3458 pipe-borne 53.6000 46.62403 20.85090 -4.2914 111.4914 boreholes 69.5000 34.53983 17.26992 14.5394 124.4606 Fluoride .548 .657 hand-dug-wells 130.6000 182.65623 81.68635 -96.1977 357.3977 sachet water 68.0000 57.34108 25.64371 -3.1984 139.1984 pipe-borne 1674.4000 1080.81603 483.35562 332.3896 3016.4104 Chlorine boreholes 15912.2500 13979.46168 6989.73084 -6332.1931 38156.6931 1.891 .174 hand-dug-wells 33104.4000 40047.67635 17909.86533 -16621.3579 82830.1579 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sachet water 7180.4000 10878.85850 4865.17343 -6327.4869 20688.2869 pipe-borne 49759.6000 42635.22156 19067.05073 -3179.0197 102698.2197 boreholes 394928.0000 565098.91937 282549.45968 -504270.4840 1294126.4840 Sodium 1.202 .343 hand-dug-wells 329121.4000 563196.66047 251869.20350 -370179.6172 1028422.4172 sachet water 3086.0000 2031.25478 908.40476 563.8641 5608.1359 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.7. Bacterial Load 4.7.1 Total Plate Count Considering table 4.7a, the total bacteria count recorded was much less in pipe borne water in each community than its counterparts. Whereas pipe borne water bacteria count were between 1.5 * 102 to 3.5 * 102 cfu/mL, sachet waters’ were between 1.25 *103 to 1.65 *103 cfu/mL, boreholes were between 2.15*103 to 2.60 *103 cfu/mL and hand-dug wells were 2.4 *103 to 3.3 *103 cfu/mL. At 0.05 confidence level, there is a significant difference between total bacteria count of the various water sources. 4.7.2 Total Coliform Generally, maximum values were recorded by boreholes between the range 2 to 9 cfu/100mL. Whereas pipe borne water and sachet water recorded the minimum coliform count between 0 to 1cfu/100mL, hand-dug wells recorded between 1 to 4100mL (table 4.7a). At 0.05 confidence level, there is a significant difference between total coliform count of the water sources. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.7a: Bacteriological analysis of water supply sources in Adenta municipality. MEAN TOTAL MEAN TOTAL MEAN FEACAL SOURCES PLATE COUNT COLIFORM COLIFORM (CFU/mL) (CFU/100mL) (CFU/100mL) Adjringano-Pipe borne Water 150 0.5 0 Ashaley-Botwe Pipe borne Water 250 1 0 Adenta-Pipe borne Water 300 0.5 0 Ashiyie-Pipe borne Water 200 1 0 Amanfrom-Pipe borne Water 350 1 0 Ashaley-Botwe Borehole 2350 8.5 0 Adenta-Borehole 2600 6.5 0 Ashiyie Borehole 2150 3.5 0 Amanfrom Borehole 2200 2 0 Ashaley-Botwe Hand-dug Well 2750 2 0 Adenta Hand-dug Well 3300 1 0 Ashiyie Hand-dug Well 2450 3.5 0 Amanfrom Hand-dug Well 2800 2.5 0 Ogbojo Hand-dug well 2900 3.5 0 Sachet Water A - Evapure 1650 0.5 0 Sachet Water B - Voltic Cool 1250 0.5 0 Sachet Water C - Ice Drop 1250 1 0 Sachet Water D - Special Ice 1500 0 0 1250 0.5 0 Sachet Water E - Ice Cool 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.7 b: Comparison of bacteria in water sources by one-way ANOVA 95% Confidence Interval for Mean F Sig. Parameter Sources Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Upper Bound Bound pipe-borne 250.0A 7.905.694 3.535.534 1.518.378 3.481.622 143.870 .000 boreholes 2325.0B 20.207.259 10.103.630 20.034.574 26.465.426 Total Plate Count hand-dug-wells 2840.0C 30.700.163 13.729.530 24.588.071 32.211.929 sachet water 1380.0D 18.574.176 8.306.624 11.493.711 16.106.289 pipe-borne 1.0A .27386 .12247 .4600 11.400 9.463 .001 boreholes 5.0B 292.617 146.309 .4688 97.812 Total Coliform hand-dug-wells 3.0C 106.066 .47434 11.830 38.170 sachet water 1.0A .35355 .15811 .0610 .9390 Within columns, means with different superscript letters are statistically different, p ≤ 0.05 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHARPTER FIVE DISCUSSION 5.1 Sources of Water and its Uses The domestic water supply sources available to communities studied were rain harvesting, pipe borne water, hand-dug well, boreholes, sachet water and tanker service providers or vendor services which were used for drinking, cooking, washing and bathing purposes.. The dependency of less income groups on public taps, water vendors, hand-dug wells and boreholes might be as result of the inability of government or lack of funds by Ghana Water Company Limited to supply enough water to keep in pace with the growing population in the peri-urban areas (Nyarko, 2008). Also pipe borne water that was peculiar to areas such as Adenta, Adjringano and Ashaley-Botwe might be due to these communities been inhabited by certain class of individuals or people of affluence. Most households from each community use other sources apart from their main source. Since one of the determinants for selecting a water source for drinking is its quality, sachet water is most dependent upon (Fig 4.3.1) despite the availability of other sources (Fig 4.3.1.2). This might be due to increase in concern of the safety of other sources of water especially pipe borne water, the salty nature of some of the hand-dug wells and boreholes and the perception that the quality of water from public pipe stands, hand-dug wells and water bought from the tankers service providers or vendor services can be compromised during transport (Obiri-Danso et al., 2003). Doria, (2006) however opined that there are cases where pipe-borne water are purer and safer than sachet water. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Beside drinking, most households were not that particular about the source of water for other uses such as cooking, washing and bathing. Using water from other sources other than pipe borne water to cook is deemed safe as residents believed that the water will boil and most pathogens might be killed through the process of cooking. Washing and bathing also involve the use of detergents that will remove or kill the germs or pathogen either in the water or on the body and clothes. 5.2 Availability of Water Sources In general there was a higher frequency of water sources to the households since majority of the households were able to access a water source over a distance less than 100 meters and 24 hours a day. This is due to the fact that communities such as Adenta and Adjringano had most of the dwelling units connected to pipe borne water whiles households in the other communities had reservoirs to store water bought from tanker service providers and in-house hand-dug wells and boreholes. Communities such as Ashaley-Botwe and Ogbojo had most of the household not been able to access their main source of water an entire day because most inhabitant of these communities get access to water vendor services that open at particular times. In terms of drinking water, Ogbojo community had a high dependency rate on sachet water (63 households out of 67 sampled used sachet water) which is due to inhabitants access to vendor-service providers. The number of bags of sachet water used by a household depends on the size of a household, availability of alternative drinking water sources, purchasing power and the availability of the sachet. Boreholes and hand-dug wells were low in terms of cost, hence was patronised by low income households. Low household water expenditure for users of boreholes and hand-dug wells may be due to the fact that the owners do not pay monthly bills for 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh accessing it and also believe it can be accessed all-time for longer period. However, high expenditure of pipe borne water sources may be due to the type of housing unit. This is because, base on the Ghana Water Company Limited billing system, estate housing units have their bills drawn from a cumulative meter point. Also, the dependence on sachet water as main drinking water source express some financial stress on the inhabitants. However, the study revealed pipe borne water as the best for drinking purposes which is in agreement to the opinion of Doria, (2006). Low expenditure of most household in Ashaley Botwe, Ogbojo, Ashiyie and Amanfrom on sachet water indicates the financial status of the inhabitants hence their ability to buy less expensive sachet water. High expenditure on sachet water of households in Adenta and Adjringano indicates that most of the inhabitant have taste for most popular, and expensive and well packaged brands as well as indicating their financial status. 5.3 Physico-chemical Quality There were considerable variation in the physico-chemical parameters of the samples across the sampling communities. The turbidity of pipe borne water, hand-dug wells and sachet water were low and did not exceed GSA and WHO (2011) drinking water quality of 5 NTU. The high clarity of pipe borne water and sachet water indicate that the filtration processes were adequately done in all the production centres and also there is no leakages along the pipe lines underground whiles low turbidity in the hand-dug well might be due to the fact that water is not seeping down the water table such that fine particles from the aquifer are stable and not mixed with the water (Kettridge et al., 2014). Unlike sachet water, pipe borne water and hand-dug wells, boreholes were highly turbid. Whereas 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh high turbidity in Ashaley-Botwe, Adenta and Ashiyie boreholes may be caused by incorrectly sized borehole filters leading to entry of sediments(Donelly et al., 2000), that of wells might be due to in-filtration or seeping of water into the wells (http//www.filterwaer.com, 2003). Schafer et al. (2010) found turbidities in the range of <2–266 NTU in most borehole water throughout Ghana. Cloudy water is not just unappealing but can also pose a health risk by serving as food and shelter to other micro-organisms in the water, protect pathogens against disinfectants (http//www.filterwaer.com, 2003). Also higher turbidity might be as a result of larger particles such as organic matter, pathogens and dissolved solids and also rivers that are the raw sources of water in pipe borne water production may get contaminated from soil run off and as high turbidity waters are difficult to filter (Schwartz et al., 2000). The electrical conductivity measured for the water sources were higher than the background levels(50-300 µs/cm). Also, most hand-dug wells and boreholes recorded high values which might be so, because, groundwater is susceptible to high mineral salt concentration which comes from the dissolution of minerals in the soil as a result of human activities such as construction of boreholes and hand-dug wells which disturb mineralized rocks and could release ions into the water to increase the ionic content, and subsequently the conductivity of the water (Ntengwe, 2006). Thus, it provides an indication that the composition of the water particularly the mineral concentration has changed (Deekae et al., 2010). Tay and Kortatsi (2007) also observed conductivity range of 134–7,780 lS/cm with the highest value of 7,780 lS/cm occurring at Pokuase. The amount of electrical charge on each ion, ion mobility, and water temperature all have an influence on conductivity. Hence high electrical conductivity of water indirectly shows the concentration of dissolved solids, 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which can affect the flavour and salinity of the water. Therefore, conductivity is important because it allows guidelines to be established for water that make it acceptable to users as well as an indication of contamination from sources such as human excreta. Mean total dissolved solids (TDS) was very low. Ashaley-Botwe boreholes and Amanfrom hand-dug wells recorded TDS of 1209 and 3044.5 mg/L respectively. This is confirmed by the results of Anhwange et al., (2012) High TDS in ground water indicate that there is high amount of materials such as carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, calcium, magnesium, sodium, organic ions, and other ions within the earth and dissolved in the water sources. TDS concentration beyond 500 mg/L, decreases palatability and may cause gastrointestinal irritation and constipation effects. High TDS can also cause an increase in surface water temperature, because the suspended and dissolved particles absorb heat from sunlight. This can cause dissolved oxygen (DO) levels to fall even further. Dissolved and suspended particles in a water can often mean higher concentrations of bacteria, nutrients, pesticides, and metals in the water. GSA and WHO guideline values for TDS is 1000 mg/l and all other sources were below this permissible level hence clean for human consumption contrary to results obtained by Meena et al., (2012). The differences in the levels of contamination were because of different sources studied and other factors such as type of cover, and rainfall amount (Kiptum et al., 2012). The level of TSS was zero in most of the sources. Except with Adenta hand-dug wells which recorded an average of 2.50 mg/L each. High TSS in wells could be 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh dangerous to human health when the water is consumed without filtering. TSS has tendency to shield harmful micro-organisms. Most pH values of boreholes and hand-dug wells sources were acidic and also falls below the WHO and GSA guideline for drinking water (i.e. 6.5 to 8.5 pH). The observed pH values is similar to the results obtained by Akinbile et al. (2011) in an analysis of water samples from some boreholes near a landfill in Akure, Nigeria. Kortatsi (2006) also reported values between 3.7 and 6.9, whilst a mean of 5.71 was reported by Asante et al., (2007) in the Takwa township area. The low pH might be due to the nature of soil surrounding the boreholes and hand-dug wells. The soil might be more acidic (R.F. Fisher et al., 1996) due to the increased rain fall (naturally acidic), compared to the dry Savannah (Manassaram et al., 2006). Low water pH can cause gastrointestinal irritation in sensitive individuals and also heavy metals such as cadmium, lead and chromium dissolve more easily in more acidic water (lower pH) and this is important because many heavy metals also become much more toxic when dissolved in water (Mesner and Geiger, 2010). Low pH influences the taste and odour of water significantly (Ojo et al., 2012) and increases the solubility of nutrients like phosphates and nitrates, thereby corroding pipes in drinking water distribution systems and releases lead, cadmium, copper, zinc and solder into drinking water. Pipe borne and sachet water recorded values that were within the GSA and WHO standard for drinking water. The mean values obtained by Fasunwon et al. (2008), Adetunde et al. (2011) and Nkansah et al. (2010) in similar studies are comparable to this value. This indicates that biochemical reactions such as metal toxicity and solubility for the sachet and pipe borne water was effectively checked to ensure no harm to befall consumers. 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Temperature of any water body depends upon several factors amongst which are the time, season and water depth. Variations in temperatures in the study area followed the ambient temperature pattern (Agbaire et al., 2009). Mean temperatures value recorded varied for the different water sources. And The variation in water temperature could have been affected by the weather, storm water and groundwater influx (Whitehead et al., 2009). Also high water temperatures in pipe borne water, hand-dug wells and boreholes is in accordance with results obtained by Parmar et al., (2012).This high temperature is an indication that, the external environment such as the soil surrounding the water had high temperatures (Tang & Feng, 2001). Temperature is a factor influencing bacterial growth (Gardner et al., 2012). Thus warm climatic zones support rapid bacterial growth than cold climatic zones (WHO, 2003). The concentration of dissolved gases and their solubility in water is also influenced by temperature (Deekae et al., 2010). Increased temperatures also increases the concentration of total dissolved solids through the evaporation of water leading to decrease in water volumes. Alkalinity in pipe borne water were low as compared to the other sources. This low alkalinity might be as a result of the water having low buffering capacity or the water might come from or passed through areas rich with granites and sandstones (Kirby et al., 2005). Although within the GSA and WHO desirable limit for total hardness (100–500 mg/L as CaCO3), boreholes and hand-dug wells recorded the maximum. Alkalinity of most underground water is determine by the soil and bedrock through which the water passed, hence high alkalinity might be due to high amount of bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide compounds in the water (Panno et al., 2003). All water sources contained some nutrients, though at different levels. Low phosphate content in pipe borne water and sachet water depicts efficient purification 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh processes. Comparatively high phosphate content in Ashley- Botwe and Adenta hand- dug wells might be the use of fertilizers for agriculture or residential gardening lands close to some of these sources which are carried into surface water through run-off and into ground water (APHA,1998). Although, hand-dug wells recorded the maximum value, they were however below the U.S EPA recommended safe value of 2.5 mg/L. Low sulphate content of sachet water and pipes depicts that purification processes were not compromised or the raw water source used was much clean off sulphates. Groundwater such as borehole from Amanfrom, hand-dug wells from Ashaley-Botwe and Ogbojo might have low oxidation of sulphite ores or no shales in the surrounding soil (Railsback, 2003) which is also in agreement with values obtained by Amoako et.,al (2011). However, Adenta and Ashiyie hand-dug wells recorded high values like that of Tay and Kortatsi (2007). This high values recorded might be due to abundant sulphate ion in the earth's crust surrounding theses sources (Railsback, 2003). All the other water sources were below the GSA and WHO (2004) limit of 250mg/L. Nitrate in natural waters may be traced to percolating nitrate from sources such as decaying plant and animal materials, agricultural fertilizers as well as domestic sewage (Adeyeye et al., 2004). Generally, the origin of nitrates in natural waters comes from organic and inorganic sources, the former including waste discharges and the latter comprising chiefly artificial fertilizers (EPA, 2001). Many of the water sources recorded low nitrate content compared to the GSA and WHO guidelines limit of 10 mg/L except for Adenta borehole and Ashiyie hand-dug well. This high concentration therefore may be the use of pesticides, fertilizers, and other materials to increase agricultural yields that normally runs off into surface water and consequently seeps into underground water. This is essentially in agreement with reports by Vinger 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh et al. (2012) that effluents from pit latrines and chemical fertilizers applied to maize field were responsible for nitrate pollution. Nitrate is toxic when present in excessive amounts in drinking water and in some cases may cause methemoglobinemia in infants (Zheng et al., 2015). The health effects of nitrate are the consequences of its ready conversion to nitrite in the body (Straskraba and Tundisi, 1999). The low levels of nitrates in the water therefore pose no risks to human health. According to Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA, 2009), fluoride is one of the most reactive non-metal compounds that are common in groundwater in Ghana. Studies. Hence it is not surprising that whereas Adenta borehole water recorded the highest fluoride content of 0.67mg/L, all other sources recorded lower values. This high value recorded is however below the GSA and WHO standard of 1.5 mg/L and also not in agreement with value recorded by Amoako et al (2011). High fluoride in Adenta borehole water might be that the bedrock geology is dominated by granites and some birimian rocks (British Geological Survey, 2001). Fluoride has a significant mitigating effect against dental caries if the concentration is approximately 1 mg/L (Armfield et al., 2013). However, continuous consumption of higher concentrations can cause dental fluorosis and in extreme cases even skeletal fluorosis (Dai et al., 2011). High fluoride concentrations are especially critical in developing countries, largely because of lack of suitable infrastructure for treatment (Freestra et al., 2007). The low values recorded by sachet water and pipe borne water depicts effective purification processes. The results from the various sources indicated presence of chlorine residual. According to Chlorine Residual Testing Fact Sheet, the presence of chlorine residual in water indicates that sufficient amount of chlorine was added initially to the water to inactivate the bacteria and some viruses that cause diarrhoea disease and against 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh recontamination during storage. It goes on further to assert that the presence of free chlorine residual in drinking water is correlated with the absence of disease-causing organisms, and thus is a measure of the portability of water. Sachet water, pipe borne water and boreholes sources recorded low chloride values of 1.915 to 30.79 mg/L while hand-dug wells recorded 5.74 to 217.5 mg/L. In a related study, Muruka et al. (2012) established that the presence of coliforms in 98% of sampled wells implied that there was practically no chlorination. High chloride content in hand-dug wells might have occurred naturally or deposits of underground salts, and pollution from septic systems. Although, none of the sources were above the GSA and WHO (2011) recommended limit of 250 mg/L in drinking water and chloride ions are non- cumulative toxins, however, an excess amount of which, if taken over a period of time, can lead to a health hazard as well as leading to corrosion of metals (Tay et al., 2008). Calcium, magnesium and sodium content was very low in sachet and pipe borne water samples. Low content of calcium, magnesium and sodium in sachet water pipe borne water depict effective purification process of the brands used in the area. However, boreholes and hand-dug wells recorded high values for these parameters. Normally, the presence of these nutrient in higher amount in ground water indicates the soil and rocks surrounding the source have these nutrients embedded in them and can easily dissolve in the water body (Hwang et al., 2005). High calcium, magnesium and sodium in water sources confer hardness of the water source (Momeni et al., 2014). Although hard water do not affect health, but its a nuisance due to mineral build up on fixtures and poor soap performance. It also affects the taste of the water (http://www.water-research.net>hardness). WHO has giving a permissible limit of 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 200 mg/L for sodium, it is believed that a level of 20 mg/L in drinking water can minimize the risk to hypertensive persons and heart patients (Sievers, E., 2005). Mean potassium content like other cations were very low in sachet and pipe borne water used in the area and high in ground water. High phosphate content of pipe borne water as compared to sachet water might be due to the use of potassium chloride in treatment devices such as water softeners (Kerwick et al., 2005) . Also higher potassium content in boreholes and hand-dug wells might as be as a result of the fact that some of these sources were surrounded by gardens and since potassium fertilizers can strongly be held by clay particles in soil, hence leaching of potassium through the soil profile and into ground waters. Excess potassium intake can interfere with magnesium intake (WHO, 2009). 5.5 Bacteriological Quality There was much considerable variation in the bacteriological quality of the samples across the sampling points. The bacteriological quality (either total bacterial count or coliform)of the samples was unsatisfactory since the results obtained were not in WHO permissible unit. Almost all sources recorded high bacteria count and contained some coliform bacteria. The maximum bacteria and coliform count of boreholes and hand-dug wells may be attributable to source of organic pollution like agricultural and household wastes and the sanitary integrity of the sources. Also the large number of total bacteria count in sachet water analysed might be due to over used filters and mishandling of vendors. The presence of large number for total plate count of bacteria do not necessarily indicate a health risk as pathogenic water borne bacteria’s are generally heterotrophic (Allen et al., 2004). More-so, WHO guideline requires that 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh water proposed for drinking should not contain any pathogen or zero micro organisms indicative of faecal contamination. CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 6.1 Summary The main purpose of the study was to identify and investigate the various sources of water, its uses in households and its availability in terms of distance covered, cost involved and the time of the day the water can be assessed. The study also sought to, among others, determine physico-chemical and bacteriological quality, and the source of water supply suitable for drinking. Six communities were strategically chosen after a reconnaissance survey for the study. These communities were Adjringano, Adenta, Amanfrom, Ashaley-Botwe, Ashiyie and Ogbojo. The study was undertaken in two phases. The first phase involved social survey at the selected communities. The second phase involved the determination of water quality of the various sources at the selected communities comprising physico-chemical and bacteriological analysis. The quality of water samples were analysed for wet and dry season. It was found from the study that, pipe-borne water, hand-dug well, rain harvesting, borehole and sachet water were the sources mainly used in the communities studied. The households from lesser income groups do not have pipe connections in their homes and most of them are depended on public taps, water vendors, hand-dug wells and boreholes. The sources are used for drinking, cooking, washing and bathing 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh purposes. Whereas 77.9% of the households depended upon sachet water for drinking 22.1% depended on bottled water and other sources. For other household chores, other sources other than sachet water were used. Communities such as Adjringano, Adenta, Botwe and Amanfrom mostly used pipe borne water for such purposes whiles Ashyie and Ogbojo used hand-dug well and water from the tankers service providers. It was discovered that Adenta and Adjringano had most of the dwelling units connected to pipe borne whiles households in Amanfrom and Ashiyie do not have in- house connection to pipe borne water but had reservoirs to store water bought from tanker service providers and in-house hand-dug wells and borehole hence could access water 24 hours. Ashaley-Botwe and Ogbojo had most of the household not been able to access their main source of water an entire day because most inhabitant of these communities get access to water vendor services that open at particular times. In terms of expenditure on drinking water, most household spent extra on buying sachet water. Ashaley-Botwe and Ogbojo accessed sachet water at a lower cost (i.e.between GH¢10 to GH¢20) whiles majority of the households in Adenta and Adjringano did so at a higher cost between GH¢30 to GH¢50. A household spent a minimum of GH¢ 21 and a maximum of GH¢ 80 monthly on water supply sources used for other purposes. Boreholes and hand-dug wells sources were less expensive to access for example, users of boreholes and hand-dug wells spend as less as GH¢20 to GH¢40 to access such sources. Pipe borne water was expensive in some households. In terms of physico-chemical parameters, there were considerable variation. The turbidity of pipe borne water, hand-dug wells and sachet water were low and did not exceed WHO (2011) drinking water quality of 5 NTU whiles that of boreholes were highly turbid between the range 4.91 to 7.54 NTU. The electrical conductivity measured for the water sources were higher than the background levels(50-300 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh µs/cm). Borehole supply sources recorded a maximum electrical conductivity of 677µscm-1as compared to the other sources. Sachet water recorded the minimum values between 33 to 58.5 µscm-1, pipe borne water recorded a range between 81 to 544.5 µscm-1, hand-dug wells between 67.5 to 596.5 µscm-1 and boreholes between 83.5 to 677.5µscm-1. Ashaley-Botwe borehole and Amanfrom hand-dug well recorded the maximum TDS of 1209 and 3044.5 mg/L respectively. TSS was generally nill in most sources except for Ashaley-Botwe pipe borne water and Adenta hand-dug wells which recorded an average of 2.50 mg/L each (Table 4.5). Most pH values of the pipe borne, boreholes and hand-dug well sources were acidic and also below the WHO guideline for drinking water (i.e. 6.5 to 8.5 pH) except Eva-pure and Ice-cool sachet water which recorded between 6.54 to 6.71 respectively. Mean temperatures value recorded varied for the different water sources. The maximum temperature of 30.09 oC was recorded by Adenta pipe borne water and the minimum of 25.94 was recorded by Adjringano. Alkalinity in pipe borne water were low as compared to the other sources. All water sources contained some nutrients, though at different levels. Mean phosphate content in the water supply sources were generally low with values ranging from 0.029 to 0.6 mg/L (fig. 4.6.1.1). Although, hand-dug wells recorded the maximum value, they were however below the U.S EPA recommended safe value of 2.5 mg/L. sulphate content recorded was generally low for many supply sources. Sachet waters recorded the least sulphate content. Ashaley-Botwe hand-dug wells recorded the maximum of 148.0 mg/L whereas Eva-pure and Voltic cool sachet waters recorded the minimum of 2.5 mg/L. Many of the water sources recorded low nitrate content compared to the WHO guidelines limit of 10 mg/L except for Adenta borehole and Ashiyie hand-dug well which recorded the maximum of 148.0 mg/L. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Whereas Adjringano pipe borne water recorded the maximum fluoride content of 1.6mg/L, all other sources recorded lower values. Concentration of chloride were low in sachet water, pipe borne water and boreholes sources. High chloride content in hand-dug wells might have occurred naturally or deposits of underground salts, and pollution from septic systems. Calcium, magnesium and sodium content was very low in sachet water samples. Whereas boreholes and hand-dug wells recorded high values for these parameters, pipe born water recorded comparatively low values. Mean potassium content like other cations was very low in sachet water and high in ground water. High phosphate content of pipe borne water as compared to sachet water might be due to the use of potassium chloride in treatment devices such as water softeners (Kerwick et al., 2005). Almost all sources recorded high bacteria count and contained some coliform bacteria but none contained faecal coliform bacteria. the total bacteria count recorded was much less in pipe borne water in each community than its counterparts. Whereas pipe borne water bacteria count were between 1.5 * 102 to 3.5 * 102 cfu/mL, sachet waters’ were between 1.25 *103 to 1.65 *103 cfu/mL, boreholes were between 2.15*103 to 2.60 *103 cfu/mL and hand-dug wells were 2.4 *103 to 3.3 *103 cfu/mL (table 4.7a). Maximum values of total coliform were recorded by boreholes between the range of 2 to 9 cfu/100mL. 6.2 Conclusion The study revealed that; Pipe borne water is widely used than other supply sources. As much as 52.2% depend upon pipe borne water for other purposes. All water sources is available to the 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh residents. 55.2 to 82.1% could access water 24 hours and 73% cover less than 100 metres to access a particular source. Sachet water is inevitably in high demand as a major source of drinking water. 77.9% of households purchase sachet water. Hence water expenditure of most households has been increased by the additional cost of purchasing sachet water for drinking. Also, pipe borne water was not accessible to all in terms of cost. Lower income groups depended upon the use of hand-dug wells and boreholes that came at a lower cost of GH¢21 to GH¢41. Physico-chemically, most hand-dug wells and boreholes are unsatisfactory for drinking. They had low pH or acidic pH values, high turbidity, EC, TDS values and high nutrient contents. Bacteriologically, all sources were safe for drinking since they contain no faecal coliform . Generally, pipe borne water was the safest for drinking. It is physico-chemically and bacteriologically wholesome 6.3 Recommendation Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made to help improve the quality of well water in the study area. 1. The Municipal Assemblies in conjunction with GWCL should aid residents in testing their hand-dug well and borehole waters and make available disinfectants free or cheaper to improve the quality status of wells found to be contaminated. 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. Aquifer vulnerability assessment should be conducted such as the DRASTIC (Depth, Recharge, Aquifer, Soil, Topographic slope, Impact of vadose zone, Conductivity of aquifer) approach by Aller et al., (1994) to ascertain the impacts of depth, recharge, aquifer, soil, topography, impact of vadose zone and conductivity on the levels of contamination in the area which this study has not been able to cover. 3. There is the need for awareness campaigns to alert sachet water producers on the effect of deviation from the standards of drinking water on human health. 4. The Food and Drug Authority and the Ghana Standard Authority should pick samples of sachet water from the market randomly to analyse their quality. 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh BIBLIOGRAPHY Accra Daily Mail, Ghana News Agency (GNA), 2005 Ackah, M., Agyemang, O., Anim, A. K., Osei, J., Bentil, N. O., Kpattah, L., ... & Hanson, J. E. K. (2011). Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation: the case study of Teiman-Oyarifa Community, Ga East Municipality, Ghana. Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 1(3-4), 186 Addo, K. K., Mensah, G. I., Bekoe, M., Bonsu, C., & Akyeh, M. L. (2009). Bacteriological quality of sachet water produced and sold in Teshie-Nungua suburbs of Accra, Ghana. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 9(4). Adetunde, L. A., Glover, R. L. K., & Oguntola, G. O. (2011). Assessment of the ground water quality in Ogbomoso township of Oyo State of Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Reviews in Applied Sciences, 8(1), 115- 122. Adeyeye, K., Gibberd, J., & Chakwizira, J. (2020). Water marginality in rural and peri-urban communities. Journal of Cleaner Production, 273, 12259 Agarwal, S. (2011). The state of urban health in India; comparing the poorest quartile to the rest of the urban population in selected states and cities. Environment and Urbanization, 23(1), 13-28. Agbaire, P. O., & Oyibo, I. P. (2009). Seasonal variation of some physico-chemical properties of borehole water in Abraka, Nigeria. African Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 3(6), 116-118. Aguilar, A. G. (2008). Peri-urbanization, illegal settlements and environmental impact in Mexico City. Cities, 25(3), 133-145. 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Aguilar, A. G., Ward, P. M., & Smith Sr, C. B. (2003). Globalization, regional development, and mega-city expansion in Latin America: analyzing Mexico City’s peri-urban hinterland. Cities, 20(1), 3-21. Ahmed, T., Hossain, M., & Sanin, K. I. (2012). Global burden of maternal and child undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 61(Suppl. 1), 8-17. Akinbile, C. O., & Yusoff, M. S. (2011). Environmental impact of leachate pollution on groundwater supplies in Akure, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 2(1), 81. Akinde, S. B., Nwachukwu, M. I., & Ogamba, A. S. (2011). Storage effects on the quality of sachet water produced within Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria. Jordan Journal of Biological Sciences, 147(621), 1-8. Alexandra V. Kulinkina, Jeanine D. Plummer, Kenneth K.H. Chui, Karen C. Kosinski et al. "Physicochemical parameters affecting the perception of borehole water quality in Ghana",International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 2017 Allen, A., da Silva, N., & Corubolo, E. (1999). Environmental problems and opportunities of the peri-urban interface and their impact upon the poor. Allen, M. J., Edberg, S. C., & Reasoner, D. J. (2004). Heterotrophic plate count bacteria—what is their significance in drinking water?. International journal of food microbiology, 92(3), 265-274. Aller, R. C. (1994). Bioturbation and remineralization of sedimentary organic matter: effects of redox oscillation. Chemical Geology, 114(3-4), 331-345. Amoako, J., Karikari, A. Y., & Ansa-Asare, O. D. (2011). Physico-chemical quality of boreholes in Densu Basin of Ghana. Applied Water Science, 1(1-2), 41-48. Anhwange, B. A., Agbaji, E. B., & Gimba, E. C. (2012). Impact assessment of human activities and seasonal variation on River Benue, within Makurdi Metropolis. International journal of Science and Technology, 2(5), 248-254. Apha, A. (1995). WEF, 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 20. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APHA, A. (1996). WPCF: Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater analysis. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, USA. Armfield, J. M., Spencer, A. J., Roberts-Thomson, K. F., & Plastow, K. (2013). Water fluoridation and the association of sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and dental caries in Australian children. American journal of public health, 103(3), 494-500. Asante, K. A., Agusa, T., Subramanian, A., Ansa-Asare, O. D., Biney, C. A., & Tanabe, S. (2007). Contamination status of arsenic and other trace elements in drinking water and residents from Tarkwa, a historic mining township in Ghana. Chemosphere, 66(8), 1513-1522. Baboo, S. S., & Narasimhan, B. (2009, December). An energy-efficient congestion- aware routing protocol for heterogeneous mobile ad hoc networks. In 2009 International Conference on Advances in Computing, Control, and Telecommunication Technologies (pp. 344-350). IEEE. Bartram, J., Cotruvo, J. A., Exner, M., Fricker, C., & Glasmacher, A. (Eds.). (2003). Heterotrophic plate counts and drinking-water safety. IWA publishing. Bear, J. (2012). Hydraulics of groundwater. Courier Corporation. Benton-Short, L., & Short, J. R. (2013). Cities and nature. Routledge. Bjørn Kløve, Pertti Ala-Aho, Guillaume Bertrand, Jason J. Gurdak et al. "Climate change impacts on groundwater and dependent ecosystems", Journal of Hydrology, 2014 Publication Bloomfield, S. F., & Nath, K. J. (2009). Use of ash and mud for handwashing in low income communities. In International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene (IFH). Bloomfield, S. F., Stanwell‐Smith, R., Crevel, R. W. R., & Pickup, J. (2006). Too clean, or not too clean: the hygiene hypothesis and home hygiene. Clinical & Experimental Allergy, 36(4), 402-425. Bosch, F. X., Burchell, A. N., Schiffman, M., Giuliano, A. R., de Sanjose, S., Bruni, L., ... & Muñoz, N. (2008). Epidemiology and natural history of human 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh papillomavirus infections and type-specific implications in cervical neoplasia. Vaccine, 26, K1-K16. Bowen, B. B., & Benison, K. C. (2009). Geochemical characteristics of naturally acid and alkaline saline lakes in southern Western Australia. Applied Geochemistry, 24(2), 268-284. Calow, P. (2000). Critics of ecosystem health misrepresented. Ecosystem Health: Letter to Editor, 6(1), 3-4. Carpenter, S. R., Stanley, E. H., & Vander Zanden, M. J. (2011). State of the world's freshwater ecosystems: physical, chemical, and biological changes. Annual review of Environment and Resources, 36, 75-99. Cobbina, S. J., Michael, K., Salifu, L., & Duwiejua, A. B. (2013). Rainwater quality assessment in the Tamale municipality. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res, 2, 1-10. Dai, S., & Seol, Y. (2014). Water permeability in hydrate‐bearing sediments: A pore‐ scale study. Geophysical Research Letters, 41(12), 4176-4184. Daily Graphic. (2013). Water is life and Death issues at Sang. December, 23 edition. De Groot, R. S., Wilson, M. A., & Boumans, R. M. (2002). A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecological economics, 41(3), 393-408. Deekae, S. N., Abowei, J. F. N., & Alfred-Ockiya, J. F. (2010). Seasonal variation of some physical and chemical parameters of Luubara Creek, Ogoni Land, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Research journal of environmental and earth sciences, 2(4), 208-215. Donnelly, A., Caffarra, A., & O’Neill, B. F. (2011). A review of climate-driven mismatches between interdependent phenophases in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. International Journal of Biometeorology, 55(6), 805-817. Doria, M. F. (2006). Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers' preferences. Journal of water and health, 4(2), 271-276. 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Douglas, I. (2006). Peri-urban ecosystems and societies transitional zones and contrasting values. Peri-urban interface: Approaches to sustainable natural and human resource use, 18-29. Ernest, B. A., Aleruchi, C., Tiku, D. R., Godwin, O., & Vivian, A. (2016). Comparative Study of Bacteriological Quality of NAFDAC Registered and Unregistered Sachet Water Sold in Lafia Metropolis. Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology, 1-9. Falkenmark, M. (1997). Society's interaction with the water cycle: a conceptual framework for a more holistic approach. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 42(4), 451-466. Fasunwon, O., Olowofela, J., Akinyemi, O., Fasunwon, B., & Akintokun, O. (2008). Contaminants evaluation as water quality indicator in Ago-Iwoye, South- western, Nigeria. The African Review of Physics, 2(1). Feenstra, L., Erkel, J. V., & Vasak, L. (2007). Arsenic in groundwater: Overview and evaluation of removal. International groundwater resources assessment centre. Fertner, C. (2012). Urbanisation, urban growth and planning in the Copenhagen Metropolitan Region with reference studies from Europe and the USA. Forest & Landscape. Fewtrell, L., & Bartram, J. (Eds.). (2001). Water quality: guidelines, standards & health. IWA publishing. Fewtrell, L., Kaufmann, R. B., Kay, D., Enanoria, W., Haller, L., & Colford Jr, J. M. (2005). Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet infectious diseases, 5(1), 42-52. Fisher, R. F. (1996). Broader and deeper: The challenge of forestry education in the late 20th century. Journal of Forestry, 94(3), 4-8. Franceys, R. W. (2005). Charging to enter the water shop? The costs of urban water connections for the poor. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 5(6), 209-216. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Gardner, M., Comber, S., Scrimshaw, M. D., Cartmell, E., Lester, J., & Ellor, B. (2012). The significance of hazardous chemicals in wastewater treatment works effluents. Science of the Total Environment, 437, 363-372. Geels, F. (2005). Co-evolution of technology and society: The transition in water supply and personal hygiene in the Netherlands (1850–1930)—a case study in multi-level perspective. Technology in society, 27(3), 363-397. Ghana. Statistical Service. (2000). 2008 report. Ghana Statistical Service Ghana. Statistical Service. (2014). 2010 population and housing report. Ghana Statistical Service Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F., ... & Toulmin, C. (2010). Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people. science, 327(5967), 812-818. Goldhaber, S. B. (2003). Trace element risk assessment: essentiality vs. toxicity. Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, 38(2), 232-242. GWCL (Ghana Water Company Limited). (2011). National. Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing:, (pp. 56-63). Accra. Grandjean, A. C. (2005). Water requirements, impinging factors, and recommended intakes. Nutrients in drinking water, 25. Hach Company. (1992). Hach water analysis handbook. Hach Company. Heilbrunn, L. V. (2013). The dynamics of living protoplasm. Academic Press. Hirt, S. (2007). Suburbanizing Sofia: Characteristics of post-socialist peri-urban change. Urban Geography, 28(8), 755-780. Hofmann, P. (2011). Falling through the net: access to water and sanitation by the peri-urban water poor. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 3(1), 40-55. Howard, G., Bartram, J., Water, S., & World Health Organization. (2003). Domestic water quantity, service level and health (No. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.02). World Health Organization. http://www.water-research.net>hardness 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hutton, G., & Chase, C. (2016). The knowledge base for achieving the sustainable development goal targets on water supply, sanitation and hygiene. International journal of environmental research and public health, 13(6), 536. Hwang, J. S., & Wong, C. K. (2005). The China Coastal Current as a driving force for transporting Calanus sinicus (Copepoda: Calanoida) from its population centers to waters off Taiwan and Hong Kong during the winter northeast monsoon period. Journal of Plankton Research, 27(2), 205-210. Itah, A. Y., & Akpan, C. E. (2005). Potability of drinking water in an oil impacted community in southern Nigeria. Jideonwo, J. A. (2014). Ensuring sustainable water supply in Lagos, Nigeria. Ju Young Lee, Gippeum Bak, Mooyoung Han. (2012) "Quality of roof-harvested rainwater – Comparison of different roofing materials", Environmental Pollution. Kerwick, M. I., Reddy, S. M., Chamberlain, A. H. L., & Holt, D. M. (2005). Electrochemical disinfection, an environmentally acceptable method of drinking water disinfection?. Electrochimica Acta, 50(25-26), 5270-5277. Kettridge, N., Humphrey, R. E., Smith, J. E., Lukenbach, M. C., Devito, K. J., Petrone, R. M., & Waddington, J. M. (2014). Burned and unburned peat water repellency: Implications for peatland evaporation following wildfire. Journal of Hydrology, 513, 335-341. Kiptum, C. K., & Ndambuki, J. M. (2012). Well water contamination by pit latrines: a case study of Langas. International Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, 4(2), 35-43. Kirby, R. R., Johns, D. G., & Lindley, J. A. (2006). Fathers in hot water: rising sea temperatures and a Northeastern Atlantic pipefish baby boom. Biology letters, 2(4), 597-600. Kombe, W. J. (2005). Land use dynamics in peri-urban areas and their implications on the urban growth and form: the case of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Habitat International, 29(1), 113-135. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kortatsi, B. K. (2006). Concentration of trace metals in boreholes in the Ankobra Basin, Ghan. West African Journal of Applied Ecology, 10(1). Kortatsi, B. K., Tay, C. K., Anornu, G., Hayford, E., & Dartey, G. A. (2008). Hydrogeochemical evaluation of groundwater in the lower Offin basin, Ghana. Environmental geology, 53(8), 1651-1662. Kosoe, A. E., & Osumanu, I. K. (2015). Water is life: situation analysis of access to household water supply in the Wa Municipality, Ghana. Kundzewicz, Z. W., & Stakhiv, E. Z. (2010). Are climate models “ready for prime time” in water resources management applications, or is more research needed?. Hydrological Sciences Journal–Journal des Sciences Hydrologiques, 55(7), 1085-1089. Leclerc, H., Schwartzbrod, L., & Dei-Cas, E. (2002). Microbial agents associated with waterborne diseases. Critical reviews in microbiology, 28(4), 371-409. Lee, J. Y., Bak, G., & Han, M. (2012). Quality of roof-harvested rainwater– comparison of different roofing materials. Environmental Pollution, 162, 422- 429 Lee, J.Y.. (2012)"Quality of roof-harvested rainwater Comparison of different roofing materials", Environmental Pollution. Manassaram, D. M., Backer, L. C., & Moll, D. M. (2005). A review of nitrates in drinking water: maternal exposure and adverse reproductive and developmental outcomes. Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(3), 320- 327. Marks, J. S., Martin, W. C., & Zadoroznyj, M. (2006). Acceptance of water recycling in Australia: national baseline data. Marsh, K., & Bugusu, B. (2007). Food packaging—roles, materials, and environmental issues. Journal of food science, 72(3), R39-R55. McMillen, D. P., & Smith, S. C. (2003). The number of subcenters in large urban areas. Journal of urban economics, 53(3), 321-338. 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Meena, M. L., & Singh, D. (2012). Technological and extension yield gaps in greengram in Pali district of Rajasthan, India. Legume Research-An International Journal, 40(1), 187-190. Mesner, N., & Geiger, J. (2010). Understanding Your Watershed: pH. Water Quality Extension, Utah State University. Minju Lee, Mikyeong Kim, Yonghwan Kim, Mooyoung Han.(2017) "Consideration of rainwater quality parameters for drinking purposes: A case study in rural Vietnam", Journal of Environmental Management Momeni, A., Han, J., Montuschi, P., & Lombardi, F. (2014). Design and analysis of approximate compressors for multiplication. IEEE Transactions on Computers, 64(4), 984-994. Morris, B. L., Lawrence, A. R., Chilton, P. J. C., Adams, B., Calow, R. C., & Klinck, B. A. (2003). Groundwater and its susceptibility to degradation: a global assessment of the problem and options for management (Vol. 3). United Nations Environment Programme. Muruka, C., Fagbamigbe, F. A., Muruka, A., Njuguna, J., Otieno, D. O., Onyando, J., ... & Wamalwa, D. (2012). The relationship between bacteriological quality of dug-wells and, pit latrines siting in an unplanned peri-urban settlement: a case study of Langas-Eldoret Municipality, Western Kenya. Public Health Res, 2(2), 32-36. Muyi, T. D. (2007). Water and the body. (p. 3). Daily Sun. Neira, M., & Prüss-Ustün, A. (2016). Preventing disease through healthy environments: A global assessment of the environmental burden of disease. Toxicology Letters, (259), S1. Nkansah, M. A., Boadi, N. O., & Badu, M. (2010). Assessment of the quality of water from hand-dug wells in Ghana. Environmental health insights, 4, EHI-S3149. Ntengwe, F. W. (2006). Pollutant loads and water quality in streams of heavily populated and industrialised towns. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 31(15-16), 832-839. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nyarko, A. A. (2008). Assessment of groundwater quality and urban water provision: a case of Taifa Township in the Ga-East District of the Greater Accra Region, Ghana. Nyarko, K. B. (2007). Drinking water sector in Ghana. Drivers for performance. Obiri-Danso, K., Adjei, B. K. N. S., Stanley, K. N., & Jones, K. (2009). Microbiological quality and metal levels in wells and boreholes water in some peri-urban communities in Kumasi, Ghana. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 3(3), 059-066. Odiette, W. O. (1997). Environmental Physiology of Animals and pollution Diversified Resources., (pp. 187-218). Lagos. Ojo, O. A., & Adeniyi, I. F. (2012). The impacts of hospital effluent discharges on the physico-chemical water quality of a receiving stream at Ile-Ife, Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development, 5(11), 82. Otieno, F. A. O., Olumuyiwa, I. O., & Ochieng, G. M. (2012). Groundwater: Characteristics, qualities, pollutions and treatments: An overview. Owusu Ansah, D. (2016). Quality of sachet water sold in the Techiman Municipality (Doctoral dissertation). Panno, S. V., Hackley, K. C., Hwang, H. H., Greenberg, S. E., Krapac, I. G., Landsberger, S., & O'kelly, D. J. (2006). Characterization and identification of Na‐Cl sources in ground water. Groundwater, 44(2), 176-187. Parmar, K. P. S., Kang, H. J., Bist, A., Dua, P., Jang, J. S., & Lee, J. S. (2012). Photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical water oxidation over metal‐doped monoclinic BiVO4 photoanodes. ChemSusChem, 5(10), 1926-1934. Peloso, M., & Morinville, C. (2014). 'Chasing for Water': Everyday Practices of Water Access in Peri-Urban Ashaiman, Ghana. Water Alternatives, 7(1). Pittet, D., Allegranzi, B., Storr, J., & Donaldson, L. (2006). ‘Clean care is safer care’: the global patient safety challenge 2005–2006. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 10(6), 419-424. 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Rahman, A. (2008). A GIS based DRASTIC model for assessing groundwater vulnerability in shallow aquifer in Aligarh, India. Applied geography, 28(1), 32-53. Railsback, L. B. (2003). An earth scientist's periodic table of the elements and their ions. Geology, 31(9), 737-740. Reed, C., Kim, I. K., Singleton, J. A., Chaves, S. S., Flannery, B., Finelli, L., ... & Cox, N. (2014). Estimated influenza illnesses and hospitalizations averted by vaccination—United States, 2013–14 influenza season. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 63(49), 1151. Sazakli, E., Alexopoulos, A., & Leotsinidis, M. (2007). Rainwater harvesting, quality assessment and utilization in Kefalonia Island, Greece. Water research, 41(9), 2039-2047. Schafer, C. J., Dinsdale, B., Littler IV, W., & Algreen, P. (2013). U.S. Patent No. 8,403,596. Schwartz, J., Levin, R., & Goldstein, R. (2000). Drinking water turbidity and gastrointestinal illness in the elderly of Philadelphia. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 54(1), 45-51. Sievers, E. (2005). Nutrient minerals in drinking water: implications for the nutrition of infants and young children. Nutrients in drinking water, 164. Simon, D. (2008). Urban environments: issues on the peri-urban fringe. Annual review of environment and resources, 33, 167-185. Stoler, J., Tutu, R. A., Ahmed, H., Frimpong, L. A., & Bello, M. (2014). Sachet water quality and brand reputation in two low-income urban communities in greater Accra, Ghana. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 90(2), 272-278. Stoler, J., Weeks, J. R., & Fink, G. (2012). Sachet drinking water in Ghana's Accra- Tema metropolitan area: past, present, and future. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 2(4), 223-240. 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Straskraba, M., & Tundisi, J. G. (1999). Guidelines of lake management (Volume 9): reservoir water quality management. International Lake Environment Committee, 1-60. Tang, K., & Feng, X. (2001). The effect of soil hydrology on the oxygen and hydrogen isotopic compositions of plants’ source water. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 185(3-4), 355-367. Tay, C., & Kortatsi, B. K. (2007). Chemical and microbiological characteristics and water types of springs in the Ho District of the Volta Region, Ghana. West African Journal of Applied Ecology, 11, 141-154. Tay, K. S., & Madehi, N. (2015). Ozonation of ofloxacin in water: by-products, degradation pathway and ecotoxicity assessment. Science of the Total Environment, 520, 23-31. Thomas K., McBean E., Shantz A., Murphy H. M. (2015)"Comparing the microbial risks associated with household drinking water supplies used in peri-urban communities of Phnom Penh, Cambodia", Journal of Water and Health. Turner, J. A. (2004). Sustainable hydrogen production. Science, 305(5686), 972-974. Ukpong, E. C., & Okon, B. B. (2013). Comparative analysis of public and private borehole water supply sources in Uruan Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 3(1). Van Rooijen, D. J., Spalthoff, D., & Raschid-Sally, L. (2008). Domestic water supply in Accra: how physical and social constraints to planning have greater consequences for the poor. Vinger, B., Hlophe, M., & Selvaratnam, M. (2012). Relationship between nitrogenous pollution of borehole waters and distances separating them from pit latrines and fertilized fields. Life Science Journal, 9(1), 402-407. Whitehead, P. G., Wilby, R. L., Battarbee, R. W., Kernan, M., & Wade, A. J. (2009). A review of the potential impacts of climate change on surface water quality. Hydrological sciences journal, 54(1), 101-123. William M Alley, James W La Baugh, Thomas E Reilly. (2006) "Groundwater as an Element in the Hydrological Cycle", Wiley. 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Wilk, R. (2006). Bottled water: the pure commodity in the age of branding. journal of Consumer Culture, 6(3), 303-325. Wilmore, D. W. (2012). The metabolic management of the critically ill. Springer Science & Business Media. World Health Organization. (2009). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (Vol. 1). World Health Organization. (2014). WHO (1993). Life skills education for children and adolescents in schools: Introduction and guidelines to facilitate the development and implementation of life skilles programmes. Geneva: WHO. World Health Organization. (2004). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (Vol. 1). WHO. (2006). Guidelines for drinking Water. 1, pp. 23-48. Geneva: World Health Organisation. WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group. (2006). WHO Child Growth Standards based on length/height, weight and age. Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway: 1992). Supplement, 450, 76. Worm, J. (2006). AD43E Rainwater harvesting for domestic use (No. 43). Agromisa Foundation. www.filterwater.com www.lorlornyofm.com www.sdgfund.org www.statsghana.gov.gh www.surveymonkey.com Zheng, X., Zhang, Z., Yu, D., Chen, X., Cheng, R., Min, S., ... & Wang, J. (2015). Overview of membrane technology applications for industrial wastewater treatment in China to increase water supply. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 105, 1-10. Zuin, V., Ortolano, L., Alvarinho, M., Russel, K., Thebo, A., Muximpua, O., & Davis, J. (2011). Water supply services for Africa's urban poor: the role of resale. Journal of Water and Health, 9(4), 773-784. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES APPENDIX A: Social Survey HOUSEHOLD SURVEY INSTRUMENT ADENTAN MUNICIPALITY– (QUESTIONNAIRE) This questionnaire is designed to aid the collection of data to research into the above topic. It would be appreciated if you could help complete this questionnaire. Responses would be treated confidentially and would be used strictly for academic purposes. Please tick [ √ ] or write the correct answers where appropriate. Name of the enumerator................................................... Date................ Sig................ Community........................................ SECTION A: HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS 1. Gender a. Male [ ] b. Female [ ] 2. Age a.15yrs [ ] b.15-24yrs [ ] c.25-34yrs [ ] d. 35-44yrs [ ] e.45 – 60yrs [ ] f. 60 & above [ ] 3. Marital status a. Single [ ] b. Married[ ] c. Divorced [ ] Separated [ ] Widowed [ ] 4. Level of education a. None[ ]b.Basic[] c.Secondary[ ] d.Tertiary[ ] 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Other (specify).................... 5. Religion: a. Christian [ ] b. Islamic [ ] c. Traditional [ ] d.Pagan[ ] e.Others (please specify)............................................................................. 6. How long have you been in this community? a. Less than 5 yrs [ ] b. 5-10 [ ] c. 11-15 [ ] d. 16-20[ ] e. 21-25[ ] f. 26-30[ ] g. over 30 years [ ] Other (please specify) ......................................................................................... 7. Who owns the house you live in? a. Self-owned [ ] b. Rented [ ] c. Family house [ ] Other (please specify) ........................................................................................... 8. Household size a. Below 2 [ ] b. 2 – 4 [ ] c. 4 – 6 [ ] d. 6 – 8 [ ] e) 8 – 10 [ ] other(please specify) …………… SECTION B: SOURCES OF WATER 9. What source of water do you use the most? a. Hand-dug well [ ] c.Borehole [ ] e. Rainwater [ ] b. Tankers [ ] d. Pipe borne [ ] f. Sachet water [ ] 10. Is the water source shared? Yes [ ] No [ ] 11. Is this water source seasonal? Yes [ ] No [ ] 12. If YES, in which season is it available? a. Dry season [ ] b. Rainy season [ ] c. Both [ ] 13. Do you have to pay for water from this source?Yes [ ] No [ ] 14. How often is water available from this source? 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a.Daily [ ] b. Every other day [ ] c. Once a week [ ] d. Twice a week [ ] e. Irregular [ ] 15. How long is the water available on a daily basis from this source? a. All the time (24 hrs) [ ] d. d. 3-5 hours [ ] b. b. During daylight hours [ ] e. e. 6-8 hours [ ] c. c.1-2 hours [ ] 16. Distance from home (in meters)? ………………………. 17. Is the water source fit for drinking purposes?Yes [ ] No [ ] 18. If NO, what source do you drink? a.Sachet water [ ] b. Bottled water[ ] 19. If sachet water, what brand do you prefer? …………………………………… 20. Which source do you use for cooking? Hand-dug well [ ] Borehole [ ] Rainwater [ ] Tankers [ ] Pipe borne [ ] 21. Which source do you use for washing? Hand-dug well [ ] Borehole [ ] Rainwater [ ] Tankers [ ] Pipe borne [ ] 22. Which source do you use for bathing? Hand-dug well [ ] Borehole [ ] Rainwater [ ] Tankers [ ] Pipe borne [ ] C. WATER CONSUMPTION AND COST 23. How many bags of sachet water do your household use in a week? ………………. 24. What is the cost per bag? ……………………………….. 25. On estimate, how much do u spend on sachet water in a month? GH¢10 to GH¢20 [ ] GH¢21 to GH¢30 [ ] GH¢31 to GH¢40[ ] GH¢41 to GH¢50 [ ] GH¢61 to GH¢70 [ ] GH¢51 to GH¢60 [ ] 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26. Do you pay for your main source? Yes [ ] No [ ] 27. If yes, how often do you pay? Daily [ ] Weekly [ ] Monthly [ ] 28. If daily, what is the price of water per gallon/jerry can? …………….. 29. If monthly, how much? …………………………………. 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B: Demographic characteristics Table B1: Demographic characteristics on gender, age and educational level GENDER AGE EDUCATIONAL LEVEL COMMUNITY MALE FEMALE 15_24 25_34 35_44 45_60 >60 none basic secondary tertiary ADENTA 25 42 12 21 21 11 2 9 18 26 14 ADJRIGANOR 35 32 33 16 14 4 0 2 15 27 23 AMANFROM 32 35 13 25 12 13 4 12 29 20 6 ASHIYIE 28 39 18 21 20 8 0 4 20 40 3 ASHALEY-BOTWE 43 24 16 26 17 6 2 3 13 33 18 OGBOJO 47 20 38 7 19 0 3 8 18 24 17 TOTAL 210 192 130 114 103 42 11 38 113 170 81 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table B2: Demographic characteristics on years lived in the community and household size. YEARS LIVED IN THE COMMUNITY (YEARS) HOUSEHOLD SIZE COMMUNITY <5 5_10 11_15 16_20 21_25 26_30 > 30 <2 2_4 4_6 6_8 8_10 ADENTA 28 20 13 3 3 0 0 4 20 28 4 11 ADJRIGANOR 37 23 2 0 5 0 0 2 43 19 0 3 AMANFROM 25 16 11 7 2 2 4 16 24 14 13 0 ASHIYIE 24 22 4 9 1 0 7 1 37 23 6 0 ASHALEY-BOTWE 20 31 9 1 2 0 4 6 27 20 8 6 OGBOJO 14 22 5 9 7 0 10 0 39 17 11 0 TOTAL 148 134 44 29 20 2 25 29 190 121 42 20 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX C: Cost incurred Table C1: Cost incurred using sachet water per community NUMBER OF SACHET WATER BAGS USE WEEKLY COMMUNITY 1 BAG 2 BAGS 3BAGS 4BAGS 5BAGS ADENTA 4 22 18 3 0 ADJRIGANOR 9 29 9 2 2 AMANFROM 10 15 18 6 0 ASHIYIE 9 23 11 3 0 ASHALEY-BOTWE 14 23 15 6 2 OGBOJO 10 29 16 5 0 TOTAL 56 141 87 25 4 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX D: Physico-chemical quality Table D2: Mean physical parameters in wet and dry season Turbidity ALKALINITY(ppm as CaCO ) TSS(mg/l) EC(µscm -1) TDS(mg/L) SOURCES 3 pH Temperature(0C) Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Adjringano-Pipe borne Water 2.06 1.66 34 38 0 0 88 86 57 48 6.81 7.01 26.42 25.45 Ashaley-Botwe Pipe borne Water 2.60 1.37 30 18 0 0 233 271 150 37 6.90 7.00 29.21 28.44 Adenta-Pipe borne Water 2.10 1.82 36 48 0 0 71 91 46 465 7.00 6.79 30.64 29.54 Ashiyie-Pipe borne Water 2.70 1.52 30 140 0 0 317 925 206 557 6.75 7.02 29.09 29.09 Amanfrom-Pipe borne Water 2.09 1.66 272 26 0 0 1610 79 1030 52 7.02 6.99 26.98 28.88 Ashaley-Botwe Borehole 13.80 9.06 268 350 0 0 828 2606 530 1888 4.81 6.56 30.26 28.22 Adenta-Borehole 15.80 10.33 268 204 0 0 828 1721 530 889 4.81 6.74 30.26 28.03 Ashiyie Borehole 11.80 9.22 270 288 0 0 24 1580 16 1035 4.73 5.83 29.63 25.45 Amanfrom Borehole 11.50 8.16 270 27 0 0 100 67 48 44 6.05 5.22 29.63 30.33 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ashaley-Botwe Hand-dug Well 4.82 2.58 254 34 0 0 83 70 55 36 5.45 6.48 28.62 26.7 Adenta Hand-dug Well 4.02 3.41 254 248 5 0 233 1560 150 936 5.11 7.11 28.62 29.33 Ashiyie Hand-dug Well 3.70 2.22 4 281 0 0 53 1588 603,5 1033 4.63 5.53 28.95 27.45 Amanfrom Hand-dug Well 3.10 2.33 22 64 0 0 53 82 6035 54 4.63 6.97 26.2 28.27 Ogbojo Hand-dug well 3.98 2.07 24 36 0 0 68 77 44 35 5.47 6.77 27.8 28.21 Sachet Water A - Evapure 1.69 1.07 4 12 0 0 3 3 1 2 6.6 7.01 26.3 28.32 Sachet Water B - Voltic Cool 2.37 1.34 10 32 0 0 65 52 32 34 7.00 7.01 26.6 28.17 Sachet Water C - Ice Drop 1.70 1.20 8 12 0 0 23 43 11 28 7.02 7.00 26.5 27.24 Sachet Water D - Special Ice 2.16 1.01 8 13 0 0 37 67 17 44 7.00 6.79 26.1 27.22 Sachet Water E - Ice Cool 2.12 1.16 2 9 0 0 1 10 0 7 6.9 7.07 26.2 28.32 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table D3: Mean anions in wet and dry seasons PO43-(mg/l) SO42-mg/L) NO3- (mg/L) F- (mg/L) Cl- (ppm) SOUCES OF WAER WET DRY WET DRY WET DRY WET DRY WET DRY Adjringano-Pipe borne Water 0.133 0.142 6.000 7.000 2.2 2.8 0.23 0.29 4.35 4.77 Ashaley-Botwe Pipe borne Water 0.133 0.170 6.000 7.000 2.2 3.0 0.24 0.30 4.33 4.71 Adenta-Pipe borne Water 0.125 0.159 6.000 8.000 2.1 2.7 0.23 0.27 4.35 4.75 Ashiyie-Pipe borne Water 0.133 0.145 6.000 8.000 2.1 2.7 0,23 0.27 4.32 4.74 Amanfrom-Pipe borne Water 0.134 0.156 6.000 7.000 2.2 3.0 0.24 0.26 4.35 4.77 Ashaley-Botwe Borehole 0.058 0.212 18.000 125.000 3.2 1.2 0.45 0.17 7.09 54.487 Adenta-Borehole 0.058 0.112 18.000 86.000 3.2 22.4 0.45 0.88 7.09 49.543 Ashiyie Borehole 0.310 0.212 5.000 122.000 1.3 0.9 0.01 0.22 53.175 27.943 Amanfrom Borehole 0.310 0.225 5.000 6.000 1.3 4.2 0.01 0.12 53.175 2.212 Ashaley-Botwe Hand-dug Well 0.770 0.431 3.000 12.000 3.2 8.1 0.1 0.22 3.545 7.943 Adenta Hand-dug Well 0.770 0.324 222.000 75.000 10.7 4.2 0.28 0.12 194.975 45.06 Ashiyie Hand-dug Well 0.075 0.225 222.000 30.000 3.2 33.9 0.28 0.55 194.975 7.821 Amanfrom Hand-dug Well 0.120 0.354 0.044 4.000 3.8 2.3 0 0.01 53.175 12.993 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ogbojo Hand-dug well 0.394 0.199 4.000 5.000 1.0 1.1 0.31 0.12 53.175 17.725 Sachet Water A - Evapure 0.083 0.199 4.000 1.000 0.5 0.1 0.03 0.14 53.175 0.089 Sachet Water B - Voltic Cool 0.554 0.064 3.000 2.000 1.4 0.4 0.11 0.14 3.545 1.508 Sachet Water C - Ice Drop 0.272 0.243 3.000 5.000 0.0 0.3 0.16 0.04 3.545 1.246 Sachet Water D - Special Ice 0.093 0.562 3.000 5.000 0.0 0.4 0.15 0.13 3.545 1.942 Sachet Water E - Ice Cool 0.220 0.122 3.000 6.000 1.0 0.1 0.05 0.18 3.545 0.284 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table D3: Mean cations in wet and dry seasons Na+(mg/L) K+(mg/L) Ca2+(mg/L) Mg2+(mg/L) SOURCES OF WATER WET DRY WET DRY WET DRY WET DRY Adjringano-Pipe borne Water 2.258 1.874 2.101 2.123 3.663 3.923 14.42 15.12 Ashaley-Botwe Pipe borne Water 2.266 1.122 2.191 2.152 3.642 4.036 14.69 15.22 Adenta-Pipe borne Water 2.031 1.231 2.213 2.201 3.294 3.942 14.36 15.99 Ashiyie-Pipe borne Water 2.274 1.661 2.072 2.213 3.789 3.623 14.85 15.33 Amanfrom-Pipe borne Water 2.202 1.282 2.021 2.091 3.523 3.925 14.96 15.44 Ashaley-Botwe Borehole 79.92 280.44 7.47 28.88 98.24 120.55 28.17 109.22 Adenta-Borehole 79.92 249.12 7.47 14.21 98.24 180.24 2.77 66.92 Ashiyie Borehole 1.11 265.55 0.66 14.03 18.02 90.75 28.17 46.77 Amanfrom Borehole 1.11 4.22 0.66 1.40 18.02 2.41 2.77 2.99 Ashaley-Botwe Hand-dug Well 0.603 245.65 0.39 24.03 2.11 60.75 0.438 46.92 Adenta Hand-dug Well 120.3 243.21 22.93 16.21 83.52 20.36 64.51 54.66 Ashiyie Hand-dug Well 120.3 135.12 22.93 8.15 83.52 88.91 64.51 14.22 Amanfrom Hand-dug Well 3.71 1.23 0.13 0.008 17.55 4.11 0.617 8.08 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ogbojo Hand-dug well 1.80 4.51 2.07 1.52 6.21 4.62 4.06 3.16 Sachet Water A - Evapure 0.71 0.47 0.006 0.054 0.112 0.331 0.02 0.01 Sachet Water B - Voltic Cool 4.40 3.53 0.58 0.992 0.213 0.423 0.024 0.04 Sachet Water C - Ice Drop 1.32 1.45 0.91 0.006 0.133 0.224 0.606 0.03 Sachet Water D - Special Ice 3.53 2.98 0.44 0.308 0.213 0.883 0.014 0.12 Sachet Water E - Ice Cool 0.471 1.32 0.34 0.609 0.213 0.612 0.011 0.04 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX E: WHO and Ghana Water Quality Standard Parameter Method Unit Value GS 175-1 WHO No. Guideline Turbidity 3 NTU 5 5 Colour (apparent) 2 Hz 5 15 Odour - - Inoffensiv Inoffensiv e e pH 4 pH Units 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 Conductivity 1 µS/cm - - Tot. Susp. Solids 5 mg/l 0 - (SS) Tot. Dis. Solids 6 mg/l 1000 1000 (TDS) Sodium 30 mg/l 200 200 Potassium 29 mg/l 30 30 Calcium 23 mg/l 200 200 Magnesium 26 mg/l 150 150 Total Iron 31 mg/l 0.3 0.3 Ammonia (NH4-N) 13 mg/l 0.00 – 1.5 0.00 – 1.5 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chloride 24 mg/l 250 250 Sulphate (SO4) 19 mg/l 250 250 Phosphate (PO4-P) 17 mg/l - - Manganese 26 mg/l 0.4 0.4 Nitrite (NO2-N) 14 mg/l 1.0 1.0 Nitrate (NO3-N) 15 mg/l 10 10 Total Hardness (as 25 mg/l 500 500 CaCO3) Total Alkalinity (as 22 mg/l - - CaCO3) Calcium Hardness 23 mg/l - - (as CaCO3) Mag. Hardness as 26 mg/l - - CaCO3) Fluoride 20 mg/l 1.5 1.5 Bicarbonate (as 22 mg/l - - CaCO3) Carbonate 22 mg/l - - Aluminium - mg/l 0.20 0.20 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Free Chlorine - mg/l - - Lead - mg/l 0.01 0.01 Copper - mg/l 2.0 2.0 Cadmium - mg/l 0.003 0.003 Chromium - mg/l 0.05 0.05 Mercury - mg/l 0.001 0.001 Arsenic - mg/l 0.01 0.01 Cyanide - mg/l 0.07 0.07 Zinc - mg/l - - Barium - mg/l 0.7 0.7 Selenium - mg/l 0.01 0.01 Antimony - mg/l 0.0.02 0.02 Nickel - mg/l 0.02 0.02 117