University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh RELIGIOSITY, COPING AND SOCIAL SUPPORT AS PREDICTORS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING AMONG TEACHERS OF INTELLECTUALLY DISABLED CHILDREN BY MARIAN ADUONIMAA BRITWUM (10342582) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY DEGREE JULY, 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing DECLARATION I, Marian Aduonimaa Britwum, declare that this research is conducted by me under the supervision of Prof. Charity Akotia and Dr. Joseph Osafo. This work has neither been published nor presented in part or whole to any other University for the award of any other degree. All references to the works of other researchers have been duly acknowledged. This work is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Master of Philosophy (MPhil) Degree in (Clinical) Psychology. .............................................. ............................... Marian Aduonimaa Britwum Date (MPhil Candidate) ............................................. ...................................... Prof. Charity S. Akotia Date (Principal Supervisor) ............................................... ...................................... Dr. Joseph Osafo Date (Co-Supervisor) I University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing DEDICATION This is dedicated to my family and significant others whose continuous prayers, assurance, love and support have made this thesis a reality and to all teachers of intellectually disabled children, the work you do has treasures stored up in heaven for you. God bless you. II University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing ACKNOWLEDGMENT What shall I render unto the Lord for all the things He has done, great and holy is His name. First of all, I thank the Lord Almighty who has been the source of my strength, His divine wisdom and provision of understanding and inner peace has brought me thus far. I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisors Prof. Charity S. Akotia and Dr. Joseph Osafo .Your patience, understanding and guidance throughout this work has been immeasurable. I am truly grateful. To my parents, Mr. And Mrs. Britwum, my siblings, and my better half your prayers, support and words of encouragement have been a light when days seemed so dark. I am utterly grateful. To my friends and colleagues your support, time and effort in the attainment of this height will never be forgotten. May God richly bless you for all your contributions. Finally to all the participants of this study and the institutions that granted me access to conduct this research, for your warm and welcoming nature may your resources never run dry and may you continue to provide hope for a brighter future for these children. III University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION...................................................................................................................... I DEDICATION........................................................................................................................ II ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...................................................................................................... III ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... VII LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... VIII LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ IX LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... X CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of study ........................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Statement of the problem ................................................................................................. 8 1.3 Aims and Objectives of the study .................................................................................... 9 1.4 Relevance of the study ................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................. 11 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 11 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 11 2.2 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 11 2.2.1 Thought of Wellbeing Theory (Ryff, 1989) ........................................................... 12 2.2.2 Transactional model of stress and coping .............................................................. 15 2.2.3 Religious Coping Theory (Pargament, 1997)......................................................... 21 2.3 Review of related studies .............................................................................................. 22 2.3.1 Demographic characteristics and psychological wellbeing. .................................. 22 2.3.2 Religiosity, intellectual disability and Psychological wellbeing ............................ 25 2.3.3 Coping, intellectual disability and Psychological well-being ................................ 31 2.3.4 Social support, intellectual disability and psychological wellbeing ...................... 35 2.3.5 Teachers and children with ID ............................................................................... 39 2.3.6 Psychological wellbeing of Teachers ..................................................................... 40 IV University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 2.4 Rationale for the study .................................................................................................. 42 2.5 Statement of Hypotheses ............................................................................................... 43 2.6 Proposed model ............................................................................................................. 43 2.7 Operational Definition................................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................. 45 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 45 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 45 3.2 Research Setting and Population ................................................................................... 45 3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique .................................................................................. 45 3.4 Research Design ............................................................................................................ 46 3.5 Inclusion Criteria ........................................................................................................... 46 3.6 Exclusion Criteria .......................................................................................................... 47 3.7 Instrument/ Materials .................................................................................................... 47 3.8 Demographic Data......................................................................................................... 47 3.8.1 Psychological Well-being Scale (Ryff, 1989) ........................................................ 47 3.8.2 The Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire (Plante & Boccaccini, 1997) ............................................................................................................ 49 3.8.3 The Brief Cope Inventory (Carver, 1997) ............................................................. 49 3.8.4 Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social support (Zinet, Dahlem, Zimet & Farley, 1988) ................................................................................................................... 50 3.9 Pilot Study ..................................................................................................................... 51 3.10 Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 52 3.11 Analysis of data ........................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................. 54 RESULTS .............................................................................................................................. 54 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 54 4.2 Demographic Data......................................................................................................... 54 4.3 Preliminary Analyses .................................................................................................... 56 V University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 4.3.1: Exploratory Factor Analysis for the Construct Validity of Scales ..................... 58 4.4 Testing the Hypotheses ................................................................................................. 68 4.5 Additional findings ........................................................................................................ 71 4.6 Observed model............................................................................................................. 74 CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................. 75 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................ 75 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 75 5.2 Religiosity and Psychological Wellbeing ..................................................................... 76 5.3 Coping and Psychological Wellbeing ........................................................................... 79 5.4 Social Support and Psychological Wellbeing ............................................................... 82 5.5 Gender Differences in Psychological Wellbeing .......................................................... 84 5.6 Marital Status and Psychological Wellbeing ................................................................ 86 5.7 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................ 87 5.8 Implications of the findings .......................................................................................... 88 5.9 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 89 5.10 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 90 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 91 APPENDIX 1 ....................................................................................................................... 110 APPENDIX 2 ....................................................................................................................... 111 APPENDIX 3 ....................................................................................................................... 112 APPENDIX 4 ....................................................................................................................... 115 VI University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing ABSTRACT Intellectual disability (ID) is one of the most pervasive disabilities in the world. Caregivers of intellectually disabled children face many stressors which have an effect on their psychological wellbeing. This study was a cross-sectional survey that assessed the impact of religiosity, coping and social support on psychological wellbeing among teachers of children with intellectual disability. The role of gender and marital status on psychological wellbeing were also assessed. Ninety two (92) teachers of children with intellectual disability in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana were selected for the study. Data were collected using the Psychological well-being scale by Ryff, the Santa Clara strength of religious faith scale, the Brief Cope scale by Carver and the Multidimensional scale of perceived social support. The regression analysis and the independent t-test were used for data analysis. The results indicated that social support significantly predicted psychological well-being among teachers of children with ID. Religiosity and coping did not account for a significant relationship with psychological wellbeing. There was no sex difference in psychological wellbeing. Married teachers of children with ID had a significantly higher level of psychological wellbeing than unmarried teachers of children with ID. Implications of findings are discussed with reference to relevant literature. Recommendations for future research and implications for stake holders are also discussed. VII University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Proposed Model Figure 2: Observed Model VIII University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Summary of reliabilities of scales used for pilot study Table 2: Summary of demographic characteristics of participants in the study Table 3: Summary of descriptive statistics of the variable in the study Table 4: Factor loadings based on Principal Component Analysis of the Psychological wellbeing scale Table 5: Factor loadings based on Principal Component Analysis of the Brief Cope scale Table 6: Factor loadings based on Principal Component Analysis of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support Table 7: Factor loadings based on Principal Component Analysis of the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith scale Table 8: Summary of independent Pearson-Product Moment Correlations between the study variables Table 9: Summary of multiple regression for religiosity, perceived social support and coping Table 10: Summary of Independent t-test on Gender and Psychological well-being Table 11: Summary of Independent t test on marital status and psychological wellbeing Table 12: Summary of multiple regression for sub-dimensions of perceived social support Table 13: Summary of multiple regression for sub-dimensions of coping IX University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASD-Autism Spectrum Disorders BC-Brief Cope EF-Emotion focused coping ID- intellectual disability MPSS- Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support PF- Problem focused coping PWB-Psychological Wellbeing RF-Religiosity WHO-World Health Organization X University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1Background of study Intellectual disability(ID) is defined as a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behaviour as expressed in conceptual, social and practical adaptive skills (APA, 2004). According to Schalock, Luckasson, and Shogen (2007) intellectual disability originates before age eighteen. Persons with intellectual disability are also known to have an intelligence quotient (IQ) lower than 70. The average IQ for a person without an intellectual disability is 100 (Buntix & Schalock, 2010). Previously, the cause and course of intellectual disability were unknown and explanations were predominantly mythical than scientific (Avoke, 2002). Some of these mythical explanations were attributed to past evil deeds or due to sexual misconducts and debauched life of parents (Avoke, 2002; Oliver-Commey, 2001). Most Africans living and lifestyle are heavily weighted in the traditional culture and most misunderstood phenomenon is easily explained away as supernaturally or divinely initiated (Oliver-Commey, 2001). Hitherto, in most African countries, children with intellectual disability are associated with spirits that lurked in the forest and had come to inhabit the child thus causing the child to have an intellectual disability (Anderson, 2004; Avoke, 2002; Foreman, 2009; Ingstad & Whyte, 1995; Oliver- Commey, 2001). For example, Dogbe (as cited in Agbenyega, 2003) states that in some tribes children born with Down syndrome are considered to be river gods. Some Ghanaians attribute the causes of disability to curses from the gods for some wrongdoing done by the family, thus intellectual disability is seen as a punishment. Some people also believe that a mother is to be blamed for a child who is born with disability, this is because the belief is that the mother may not have performed the necessary rituals or taken the necessary steps to 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing prevent the child from being disabled and thus she is to blame(Agbenyega, 2005; Anum, 2011; Avoke,2002; Oliver-Commey, 2001). A wealth of literature demonstrates that certain factors such as chromosomal disorders, developmental, neural or brain disorders, maternal infection, use of drugs such as alcohol or other narcotics during pregnancy among others cause disorders such as Fragile X syndrome, Cerebral Palsy, Autism, Turner syndrome, Down syndrome and these in turn, affect the child's intellectual ability (Harris, 2006; Payne & Isaacs, 2002; Schalock et al., 2007). Intellectual disability may be one of the most common and serious pervasive disabilities with prevalence estimates between 1% to 10% depending on the co-morbid conditions as well as symptoms that are manifested in the individual (Maulik, Mascarenhas, Mathers, Dua & Saxena, 2011). It is also one of the most stigmatised deficits in Ghana (Agbenyega, 2005; Inclusion Ghana, 2011; Nartey, 2013; Slikker, 2009). The upbringing of children is not an easy task in itself with its associated stress including personal life changes such as changing sleep patterns, work schedules, home budget among others to cater for the needs of the child, and the workload increases when one has to care for a child with an intellectual disability (Pelchat, Lefebvre & Perreaullt, 2003). The physical and psychological needs of individuals with ID essentially vary and thus require disparate levels of care and attention. Care for an individual with an intellectual disability is specific to the symptoms presented by the child (Garguilo & Metacalf, 2013). For instance, two children suffering from intellectual disability due to autism may demonstrate varying levels of ability and dependence which significantly informs the levels of care they would each require. To make this vivid, imagine two children who have been diagnosed with Autism spectrum Disorder (ASD); child A is unable to communicate using speech but may not involve himself/herself in certain traits that may be peculiar to autism such as head banging. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing However, child B is able to communicate using moderate speech but may have other traits such as head banging and social isolation which has to be addressed. In such an instance the care, intervention and rehabilitation procedures that will work for child A may not be the same care, intervention and rehabilitation procedures that will work for child B. It is therefore essential that multiple rehabilitation programmes that target specific needs of the child are developed, evaluated and promoted (Wolraick, 2003). Research demonstrates that children born with ID and other forms of disabilities could still live a fulfilling life and make remarkable contributions to society. Based on this; many more parents are seeking outside support and providing educational needs for their intellectually disabled children (Cramm & Nieboer, 2011). For example, Christy Brown (1932-1951) born with cerebral palsy wrote an autobiography with his foot. He also managed to paint and write poetry with his foot. Evidence abounds that suggests that children born with developmental and intellectual disabilities could be rehabilitated to function and perform at equal levels as their peers who do not have any intellectual disability (Auluck, 2007; Dew-Hughes & Blandford, 1999; Hebron & Humphrey, 2014). It is in view of this capability for children with intellectual disability to learn and become quite self-reliant that the inclusive education policy by UNICEF was implemented in Ghana in the year 2016. With this policy, the expectation is that more intellectually disabled children will be enrolled in school and receive education which will enhance their potential to be independent and contribute significantly to the progress of society. Despite the potential children with ID possess, accessing that potential is difficult depending on the symptoms the child manifests, the prognosis of the disorder they may be suffering from and the level of intellectual disability. Catering for them requires a lot of patience, care and determination and the resilience not to give up in the face of challenges (Allington-Smith, 2006; Kelso, French & Fernandez, 2005; Pisula, 2007). Research has shown that children with ID due to autism and cerebral palsy show the highest levels of behaviour problems while children with ID due to down syndrome show lower 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing levels (Eisenhower, Baker, & Blacher, 2005). Research evidence suggests that combining children with different symptoms and varying degrees of intellectual disability will invariably increase that difficulty for teachers to cater for the needs of these children, this coupled with the fact that the educational setting in itself is stressful and thus will have an effect on their psychological well-being (Turner, Barking & Zacharatos, 2002). Research has also shown that stress is directly related to the level of behaviour problems the child may have (Eisenhower et al., 2005). Thus combining the stressors of the educational setting with the stressors of taking care of intellectually disabled children, it is imperative that the psychological well-being of teachers who take care of these children must be looked at. The term well-being is used on a number of occasions to try to depict either a state of happiness, or equilibrium or sense of achievement, among others. It is often used interchangeably with life satisfaction. Wellbeing is sometimes used to depict the absence of disease or the presence of good health both physical and emotional (Kashdan, Biswas-Diener & King, 2008). Due to the numerous dimensions that well-being may entail Thomas (2009), ascertained that well-being is "intangible, difficult to define and even harder to measure." Often wellbeing is used to connote the quality of an individual's life. Wellbeing is dynamic, that is it changes depending on the situation the individual finds himself or herself (Statham & Chase, 2010). Based on one's appraisal of where they are in life in terms of their goals, health status, finances, one's feelings or where one stands in terms of global measures or assessment of wellbeing one may assess that they either have a high sense of wellbeing or a poor sense of wellbeing. Thus well-being is seen to be both objective and subjective. Objective measures of well-being may include health status, income, educational resources, availability and access to basic necessities or goods and services such as healthcare. Subjective indicators may include happiness, life satisfaction and quality of life (Statham & Chase, 2010). Well-being is therefore based on a total interaction between the individual and 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing the world or environment on a daily basis and doesn't necessarily connote happiness though happiness is a factor (Government Office for Science, 2008). Diener (2000) defined subjective well-being as how people evaluate their lives. These evaluations may be based on cognition and affect. The cognitive part is an information-based appraisal of one's life. Therefore the person consciously evaluates his or her satisfaction with life as a whole. For example, a person may not feel like they are rising through the ranks in their job as fast as they would want. Thus using cognition to evaluate the situation the person will analyze his/her qualifications, how long he/she has been at the place of work and based on the results appraise if where he/she is befits what he/she possess in terms of his/her qualifications and the requirements of the job. The affective part deals with the evaluation or judgment of life, based on emotions and feelings and the frequency with which people experience pleasant/ unpleasant moods in reaction to things that happen in their life. Thus people's evaluation of their well-being may be either based on how they feel; for example the person may feel he/she has a high well-being because he/she is happy or how they think, for example, a person may think that he/she has accomplished the things that he/she desires and thus has a high well-being. Religiosity has been associated with psychological well-being and this can be seen in the way religiosity influences society and interacts with public life. Thus values of selflessness, peace, tolerance which are embedded in various religious practices and believes translate into the society one finds himself in and a sense of togetherness and security affect psychological well-being (Oleckno & Blacconiere, 1991). For example, in Christianity, the Bible teaches one to love one's enemies and pray for those who persecute us. Thus this quotation teaches about love and tolerance for one another (Matthew5:44). Research has found that about 86% 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing of the world's population subscribes to some religious or spiritual system (Barrett, Kurian & Johnson, 2001). In psychological literature, the study of religion and its relation to well-being accounts for a small percentage even though research has shown that one's religion and religious orientation has an impact on the individual's life (Ano & Vasconcelles, 2005). Studies that have been done have found that religiosity has positively correlated with well- being and inversely related with health-compromising behaviours and illnesses (Oleckno & Blacconiere, 1991) other studies, however, have found mixed results between the link between religiosity and psychological well-being (Hackney & Sanders, 2003). Intellectually disabled people and people with other forms of disability are most often stigmatized. Very often this stigmatization is not restricted or confined to the disabled person but transcends to others who interact with them on a daily basis such as their parents, siblings and on some occasions the formal caregivers including teachers (Nartey, 2013; Anum, 2011). With all the stressors of the academic setting, the stress of catering for an intellectually disabled child and the general stressors of life it is important that effective coping strategies are employed as well as having social support to help enhance one's psychological well- being. Coping and perceived social support have been attributed to psychological well-being. Thus an individual's ability to handle stressors well using good coping mechanisms and having high social support leads to a higher psychological well-being, while poor coping mechanisms and low social support lead to a lower psychological well-being (Lazarus, 2006). Coping is defined as a response that one employs to help diminish the physical, emotional and psychological burdens that everyday life brings. Coping is seen to be most effective when it has the ability to reduce immediate distress and eventually result in long-term 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing outcomes such as improving psychological well-being or reducing disease outcomes (Bonsu, 2014; Parks & Novielli, 2000; Snyder, 1999). The above statement buttresses the statement of Snyder (1999) which says that "coping is part of the very essence of the human change essence, thus coping is basic for human survival and it also relates to the quality of life and thus ensuring constructive meaning of our own lives." Social support has been defined by many people over the years and a few definitions will be enumerated below. Firstly Lin, Simeone, Ensel and Kuo (1979), defined social support as support that is accessible to individuals through social ties with other individuals, groups and the larger community. For example, ties with family, friends, colleagues, as well as religious societies or some social groups (example Rotary club) and even ties with the community such as neighbours around one's place of abode can be seen as a form of social support. The National Cancer Institute's Dictionary (2017) defines social support in a similar fashion as Lin and colleagues but they define the type of support which may be accessible. Thus social support is seen as support provided by a network of family, friends, neighbours, and community members that are available in times of need to provide psychological, physical and financial help (www.cancer.gov, Ozbay, Johnson, Dimoulas, Morgan, Charney & Southwick, 2007). Albrecht and Adelman (1987) defined social support as verbal and/ or nonverbal communication between recipients of the support providers of the support and this support reduces uncertainty about the situation, the self, the other or the relationship and functions to enhance a perception of personal control in one's life experience. From the above definitions social support can be seen to be an interaction among individuals that enhances ones perception or experience that one is cared for, esteemed, belongs to a mutually supportive social network and this interaction improves coping, esteem, belonging and competence through actual or perceived exchanges of physical or psychosocial resources (Gottlieb 2000; Taylor, 2011). This definition will form the basis of this study. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing It is important to think about social support in two ways; firstly there is actual support and this is support received by an individual, in terms of what is said to the individual, what is given to the individual, or what is done for the individual(Norris & Kaniastry, 1996; Sarason, Sarason & Pierce, 1990). For example, if an individual is to undergo an operation and other individuals support him by giving him money, providing encouragement by talking to him before the surgery, donating blood for the surgery among others this can be said to be actual support. Secondly is perceived support, this is an individual's belief that social support is available. This support may be negative or positive, however it provides what is considered needed by the individual (Norris & Kaniastry, 1996; Sarason, Sarason & Pierce, 1990). For this study perceived social support is the main focus. This is because research has shown that in comparison to actual social support, perceived social support affects well-being more than actual social support (McDowell & Serovich, 2007). 1.2 Statement of the problem Awareness on the intellectual potential of children with intellectual disability is growing (Bonnah Nkansah & Unwin, 2010; Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell & Algozzinexya, 2006; Coyne, Pisha & Dalton, 2012) and with the implementation of the inclusive education policy in Ghana, there is a high probability that more children with intellectual disability being admitted into school. Teachers spend an appreciable amount of time with children in school with an average of between 6-8 hours each day, 5 times a week. For students who are in the boarding house the average amount of time spent with the teachers increases and may even be more than the amount of time spent with parents for the duration of their school-going years. Research has shown that the educational setting is stressful and has an impact on the psychological 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing wellbeing of teachers. Research has also confirmed the interaction between stress and psychological wellbeing and how this interaction may have an effect on the students the teachers teach in terms of their social, emotional and behavioural wellbeing (Benn, Akiva, Arel & Roeser, 2012; Gutman & Feinstein, 2008; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Investigations have also been done on the numerous challenges that caregivers of children with ID face (Agbenyega, 2005; Anum, 2011; Dekker, Koot, Ende, Verhulst, 2002; Nartey, 2013). Since teachers can be seen to be caregivers of children with ID (Medina & Luna, 1999) coupled with the stress of the educational setting, it is important to assess the psychological wellbeing of these teachers. This is because exposure to the daily stressors of caring for these intellectually disabled students may cause physical and mental exhaustion which can affect their psychological wellbeing. Research on teachers pertaining to education of children with ID have also been centred on the teachers perception or opinions of inclusive education (Agbenyega, 2007; Petlier,1997; Tiegerman-farber & Radziewicz, 1998) but research pertaining to the wellbeing of teachers who are already taking care of these children in Ghana and sub-Saharan Africa scarce. It is for these reasons that it is important to investigate the psychological wellbeing of teachers of children with ID. 1.3 Aims and Objectives of the study This study is being conducted to; i. To examine if religiosity predicts psychological well-being. ii. To examine if coping strategies predict psychological well-being. iii. To determine if perceived social support predicts psychological well-being. iv. To determine if there are gender differences in the psychological well-being of teachers of children with ID. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing v. To explore if marital status has an effect on the psychological wellbeing of teachers of children with ID. 1.4 Relevance of the study Most studies look only at the psychological well-being of parents caring for intellectually disabled children (Benson, 2010; Bromley, Hare, Davison & Emerson, 2004; Cram & Nieoer, 2011). This study however will look at the psychological well-being of teachers who care for these children. Literature on the wellbeing of individuals who cater to the needs of children with ID have focused on dimensions such as anxiety, depression and anger but this study aims to assess wellbeing in terms of more positive dimensions such as self-esteem, growth, positive relations towards others, self-esteem and autonomy. Also little research has been done in this area and thus this study will help provide information on what factors help contribute to the wellbeing of teachers of children with ID. The findings of this study will be used to plan intervention programmes to help reduce the stress of teaching these intellectually disabled children. The reduction of stress will improve the psychological well- being of the teachers; this is important because poor psychological well-being of the teachers will invariably affect the children as well. In furtherance, the findings of this study will help government bodies and agencies in charge of education as well as heads of educational institutions put in place measures to ensure that the well-being of the teachers are catered for which will enhance the effectiveness of the educational setting and promote holistic care of students. Due to the implementation of the exclusive education policy some intellectually disabled individuals will be admitted into the mainstream schools instead of the usual special schools it is therefore imperative to know which factors contribute to their wellbeing and how to incorporate these factors into the mainstream schools. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This research seeks to explore the relationship between religiosity, coping and perceived social support on the psychological wellbeing of teachers who teach intellectually disabled children. Differences in demographic characteristics and psychological wellbeing were also investigated. This chapter presents an overview of the theoretical framework that guided this research. The theories guiding this research include the Thought of well-being theory by Carol Ryff (1989), the transactional model of stress and coping by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) and the religious coping theory by Pargament (1997). Theoretical and empirical reviews of existing literature are also explored. Due to the scarcity of literature pertaining to the variables investigated in caregivers of children with ID in the Ghanaian and African context, theoretical and empirical reviews pertaining to the variables and psychological wellbeing outside the context of ID in Ghana and Africa are also explored. The operational definition of some key terms and hypothesised model are also stated. 2.2 Theoretical Framework Psychological or subjective well-being may be defined as one's emotional and cognitive evaluations of his or her life (Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003). These evaluations include one's moods, emotional reactions to events, judgments about fulfilment and life satisfaction, and satisfaction with specific life domains. It also includes what laypeople might refer to as happiness (Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003). A lot of prior work done on psychological wellbeing was centred around the definition of psychological wellbeing, based on this, theories such as the bottom-up situational influence (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999) the dynamic equilibrium model (Headey & Wearing, 1992) discrepancy theories (Michalos, 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 1985) and telic theories (Diener, 1984) all emerged. These theories had one thing in common; the basis for measuring wellbeing was related to one's feelings of happiness. The limitation, however, is that emotional happiness does not necessarily connote wellbeing but should include effective functioning in life (Ryff, 1989). Carol Ryff (1989) addresses the limitation of the above mentioned theories and will be one of the main theories that guide this study. 2.2.1 Thought of Wellbeing Theory (Ryff, 1989) Ryff (1989) argued that happiness is not only about feeling good in life, but it is also functioning well in life. The thought of wellbeing theory stems from Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics. Aristotle investigates eudemonia (happiness) and examines character traits necessary for individuals to live life at its best (Kraut, 2017). Since there are diverse opinions on what is best for human beings and what connotes wellbeing Aristotle stipulates that wellbeing should be investigated in terms of doing something that will enhance one to live well and not just be about being in a certain state or condition; thus lifelong activities that enable one to actualize his or her potential should be the focus of investigation for psychological wellbeing (Kraut, 2017). Ryff systematically reviewed theories in psychology and based on the results identified six broad facets associated with optimal psychological functioning and these are as follows: Self-acceptance, positive relations, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and sense of personal growth. These six facets form the theory of thought of wellbeing. Thus this theory stipulates that when an individual has full control over these six facets and can harness and utilize them effectively the individual attains a sense of wellbeing that transcends each sphere of his or her life (Ryff, 1989). The six dimensions of psychological wellbeing will briefly be discussed below. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Self-acceptance; this is characterised by an individual having a positive attitude and accepting both the negative and positive feelings he or she may have about his/her past life. It also includes the acknowledgement of one's present life and taking steps to enhance positive functioning. Positive relation with others; the concept of love is central to one's wellbeing (Ryff, 1989). This dimension of psychological wellbeing focuses on an individuals’ ability to love, care, show empathy, maintain deep friendships and identify with others. Thus an individual with positive relations is able to recognize and respond appropriately to the emotions and needs of other individuals. Autonomy; this encompasses one’s ability to be independent and self-determined. It also takes into account the ability for an individual to resist social pressures to think or act in a certain manner to satisfy social fads but rather highlights internal locus of control and evaluation. An individual with a high sense of autonomy is seen to have a high wellbeing because his/her evaluation of whom he/she is, is based on his/her personal standards and not approval from others. Thus such individuals do not cling to collective fears, beliefs or laws of the masses but strive to form his /her own path. Ones’ ability to be autonomous equips the person to face challenges the best way he/she knows how and allows freedom from the norms governing everyday life. Environmental mastery; this is an individuals’ ability to create environments that enhance effective functioning. Thus an individual manipulates and controls complex environmental situations that promote his/her wellbeing. If an individual has ‘mastered’ the environment, it connotes that the individual has the ability to advance in the world and promote change creatively through physical and mental activities. Thus this facet highlights the importance of 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing control, choice and utilization of opportunities and situations to promote effective functioning. Purpose in life; this is the belief that one's life is purposeful and meaningful. It is the ability to recognize and define the direction of one's life. This recognition and definition ensure productivity, creativity and achievement towards emotional integration in life. Personal growth; Openness to experiences is key in a fully functioning person. This allows the individual to grow and develop as a person. It prevents one from being in a fixed state but rather ensures that the challenges one encounters in life are faced head-on. This theory has been to be very useful in determining the psychological wellbeing of individuals. One critique of this theory is the fact that culture plays a huge influence in determining an individual's definition of psychological function (Christopher, 1999) thus the fact that this highly important construct was not taken into account limits the holistic nature of this theory. However, this theory utilized in different cultural spheres and the dimensions purported have seen to be reliable and valid measurements of psychological wellbeing (Abbott, Ploubidis, Huppert, Kuh & Croudace, 2010; Dierendonck, Diaz, Rodriguez- Carvajal, Blanco & Moreno-Jimenez, 2008; Kulkarni & Patwardhan, 2015). This theory is suited for this research because it aims to measure the psychological wellbeing of teachers in a multifaceted dimension taken into account all areas of their lives and how the care of intellectually disabled children may affect their view or sense of the world in terms of self-acceptance, positive relations, mastery, autonomy and the other dimensions of the thought of wellbeing theory. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 2.2.2 Transactional model of stress and coping Another theory that will guide this work is the transactional model of stress and coping by Lazarus and Folkman (1984). This theory was chosen because the care of an individual with a disability of any kind is stressful including the care of an intellectually disabled individual (Bazzano, Wolfe, Zylowska, Wang, Schuster, Barrett & Lehrer, 2015; Bonsu, 2014; Nartey, 2013). Schultz and Sherwood (2008) have suggested that stress-coping models are ideal when conducting caregiver research and since teachers can be seen to be caregivers (formal) this model suits this research. Research has found that life stressors though they may account for poor wellbeing is not enough to explain negative feelings. The use of coping as well as the effect of behavioural factors gives more insight into the differences that may arise between life stressors and poor outcomes of wellbeing (Mausbach, Roepke, Chattillion, Harmell, Moore, Romero-Moreno, Bowie & Grant, 2012). Psychological stress is characterised by an interaction between an individual and the environment in which the individual appraises the significance of that interaction and its effect on the individual’s wellbeing. Psychological stress comes about when the demands from this interaction exceed the coping resources the individual has available to handle the difficulties that may arise from this interaction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1986). The above definition of psychological stress points to two key concepts in the interaction between an individual and the environment; first is the idea of cognitive appraisal and the second is the idea of coping (Krohne, 2002). Cognitive appraisal is how an individual evaluates what is happening to him and how this affects his wellbeing. Coping is a tool used by an individual to minimise or handle specific demands; this can be done based on thought or action (Lazarus, 1993). 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Appraisal is key in understanding stress- relevant transactions. Appraisal stems from the idea that emotional processes including stress depend on an individual's expectancy of the outcome of an encounter and based on this expectancy and the significance the individual attaches to the encounter certain emotional responses may arise (Krohne, 2002). The concept of appraisal aids the explanation of why there are individual differences in the quality, intensity and duration of an elicited emotion in situations or environments that are objectively the same for different individuals (Krohne, 2002). Two factors mediate appraisals these are personal dispositions such as motivation, one's goals, values as well as ones general expectation of a situation. The second factor includes situational parameters, that is how predictable, controllable or imminent is the potentially stressful event (Krohne, 2002). Lazarus (2006) stipulates that appraisal of a situation can either increase or decrease stress and the coping strategies one adopts have an effect on stress. Thus the situation in itself does not have an effect on stress level but rather the way on appraises the situation in which they find themselves in. Generally, there are two forms of appraisal primary appraisal and secondary appraisal. Primary appraisal includes a personal belief that the situation in which they find themselves affects them personally. Primary appraisal is a person's judgment about the significance of an event as stressful, positive, controllable, challenging or irrelevant (Lazarus, 2000, 1999; Wood, Wood & Boyd, 2005). Thus primary appraisal has three components; first is goal relevance; this is the extent to which an encounter refers to issues about which the person cares. The second component is goal congruence; this is the extent to which an episode proceeds in accordance with personal goals. The third component is the type of ego-involvement; this deals with personal commitment such as self-esteem, morals, values, ego- ideal or ego identity (Krohne, 2002). Facing a stressor, the second appraisal follows, which is an assessment of people’s coping resources and options available to the individual on how to handle the stressor (Cohen & McKay, 1984; Wood, Wood & 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Boyd, 2005). Secondary appraisals address what one can do about the situation to ensure the best positive outcome. Thus during secondary appraisal, an individual cognitively assess the options and resources available to him in order to handle the stressor most effectively (Wood et al. 2005). Questions an individual may ask during secondary appraisal may include; ‘what options are available to me?' ‘Can I successfully apply the needed mechanisms to help alleviate this stress?' ‘Will the application of these mechanisms result in the desired outcome which will lead to the alleviation of my stress?'(Bonsu, 2014). Krohne (2008) identifies three components of secondary appraisal; these are blame or credit, coping potential and thirdly future expectations. Blame or credit; this is an individual’s appraisal of who is to blame for the situation one finds himself in. Coping potential; this is an individual’s evaluation of the behavioural or cognitive operations he can employ which will ensure a positive influence on a situation or encounter he deems relevant to him. Future expectations; this involves an individual’s appraisal of the future course or progression of an encounter keeping in mind the individual’s goal congruence or incongruence. Based on primary or secondary appraisal, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) came up with three types of stress; harm, threat and challenge. They stipulate that if an event is appraised as harmful it connotes damage (psychological) that has already occurred. If the event is appraised as threatening then this event is seen as demanding and potentially damaging to the individual. When an individual appraises a situation as harmful or threatening, negative emotions arise and this leads to anxiety, fear, anger and resentment (Jerusalem & Schwarzer, 2014; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The third type of stress which is challenge results from a person’s feeling of confidence about a demand that he feels he can handle. When an individual appraises a situation as a challenge, positive emotions are elicited when the individual feels he has the competence to overcome the demand placed on him. Positive 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing emotions such as eagerness, joy, and excitement are felt (Jerusalem & Schwarzer, 2014; Wood et al, 2005). Based on one’s appraisal of the situation the appropriate coping strategies may be employed. Coping involves utilising cognitive, emotional and behavioural resources aimed at managing a demand that the individual finds taxing or that exceeds the resources that the individual has available (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Thus coping strategies are used to master, tolerate or reduce external and internal demands. Stressful situations increase the need for an individual to cope; the concept of coping however is not as simple as it sounds rather it is a complex multidimensional process because it is situation specific and thus it is almost impossible for an individual to say that they have mastered coping for all spheres or categories of problems or events which are appraised as demanding (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004; Schafer, Schafer, Bultena & Hoiberg, 1993).There are two forms of coping; problem-based coping and emotional based coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). With problem-based coping, strategies are adapted to change the stressful situation or manage the stressful situation so that a positive outcome is derived from it. When one uses problem-based coping strategies, the person usually feels that they have control over the situation and therefore can manage it effectively. Problem-based coping is usually used in work contexts (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). In this study, the teachers of intellectually disabled children may see the role of teaching the children to be independent and acquire social skills as challenging and as such may need to employ some coping strategies in order to deal with the demands of handling these children. The teachers may employ either problem focused or emotion-focused coping strategies as well as the use of social support from friends, a significant other or family or a combination of all in order to improve or sustain a high psychological wellbeing. Research has been inconsistent in the benefit of problem focused coping; though some research has shown that problem focused coping usually yields positive outcomes because of its direct 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing nature and its ability in reducing, modifying or eliminating the source of the stress (Pande & Tewari, 2011;Wood et al, 2005) other researchers have found problem focused coping to be counter-productive especially if one decides on a strategy to eliminate a stressor without taking into regard the persons emotions as a guide in finding a solution to the problem (Baker & Berenbaum, 2007). Problem-focused coping is directed towards an individual acquiring resources to help deal with the problem, these resources may be situation-specific, instrumental and task-oriented (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Problem-focused coping seems to have an advantage of not only internal modifications but external modifications as well. For example, if a teacher finds the care of intellectually disabled children to be too stressful aside changing the way he appraises the situation to help improve his wellbeing he can also decide to change his methodology in handling the child or children in order to make the experience less stressful for him and in some instances if that does not work he may decide to find another job altogether. Emotional based coping involves the use of strategies aimed at changing how one feels about the situation. This type of coping is aimed at managing or reducing emotional stress. The aim of emotional focused coping is not to change the current situation but rather to regulate the emotional response (Dias, Cruz & Fonseca, 2012).With emotional based coping the person may feel that they have little control over the situation and may seek support from others, other strategies that are adopted when emotional coping is used include looking at the bright side, drinking, humour among others. Teachers in most cases handle more than one student at a time; intellectual disability doesn't manifest itself in one way but may encompass a wide range of symptoms as such different coping strategies may be employed based on the situation the teacher currently finds himself 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing or herself. For example a child who is finding it difficult to learn how to sit still to go through a class; the teacher can deduce that though it is sometimes tough to teach a child with intellectual disability to sit still example students with severe forms of autism he/she can devise a way which will help the student to accomplish the task. Thus the teacher may use acceptance that is acknowledging that the task is a difficult one and if the child is not able to accomplish the task immediately, with time the child will be able to accomplish the task. This may prevent the teacher from feeling like a failure and may not equate inability to help this child as a poor reflection of his/her teaching capabilities. On the other hand, the teacher may use avoidance whereby he/she will try to concentrate on students who easily show improvement and scarcely pay attention to the student who is more ‘difficult' to teach. People's adapting procedures change to changing stressors after some time and consequently extraordinary adapting methodologies are utilized at various stages when dealing with an intellectually disabled child (Lefley, 1997; Nolan, Grant and Keady, 1996). It is imperative to call attention however to the fact that research has discovered advantages for the utilization of both issue centred(problem-focused) and feeling concentrated(emotion focused) coping and in view of how the individual uses these techniques it could either enhance psychological wellbeing or make it break down significantly further, in this way a blend of issue centred and feeling centred adapting systems is in all likelihood the best type of stress management (Folkman and Lazarus, 1980). This theory suggests that appraisal of a situation, as well as the use of problem-focused coping, will reduce the intensity of problems an individual will encounter that could be stressful while the use of emotion-focused coping will lessen the level of internal emotional distress (Lazarus, 2006). Lazarus and Folkman’s theory of stress and coping is not without criticism, firstly Cohen(1991), stipulates that it lacks a standard in terms of measurement of human perceptions of the environment and coping methods also this theory weighs heavily on 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing situational factors but does not explain the selection process people use to choose coping strategies (Suls, David & Harvey,2008). However the strengths of this theory which include the fact that it caters for the individuals’ sense of autonomy and ability to change their response to a situation based on the individual’s appraisal (dynamic nature) as well as the theory’s identification that humans are unique and thus there will be alternate forms of managing psychological responses to stress is the reason why this theory has been chosen for this study. 2.2.3 Religious Coping Theory (Pargament, 1997) The third theory to be used is the theory of religious coping (Pargament, 1997). This theory postulates that people draw on religious beliefs and practices to understand and deal with life stressors and this, in turn, influences their psychological well-being in many ways. Pargament (2002) postulates that religion that is internalized and motivated by intrinsic factors, as well as one's feeling of having a stable and secure relationship with God leads to one having a higher or better psychological well-being. On the other hand, if a person feels that the religion in which he/she finds himself/herself is an imposition is uncertain about his/her relationship with God as well as does not understand the religious beliefs pertaining to that religion, it can lead to a poor psychological well-being. Thus religious coping could be positive or negative. Positive religious coping encompasses components such as forgiveness, collaborative problem solving with God, religious participation and spiritual connection with others. Negative religious coping which can also be seen as detrimental religious coping encompasses demonic reappraisals, spiritual discontent, self directing coping efforts as well as punitive religious appraisals; for example with religious coping method such as demonic reappraisal, an individual may feel that his life stressors are as a result of a demonic attack when such an appraisal occurs the individual may feel that since it is demons causing his problem he has no control over it and as such will not take any steps to 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing handle the situation and this may be detrimental to his wellbeing. Thus the use of religion and religious coping in a detrimental way may account for why religious faith could be associated with negative health outcomes. Pargament’s theory on religious coping addresses both sides of how religion can influence wellbeing and as such it is the ideal theory to use for this study. This is because Ghanaians are seen to be religious people (Yirenkyi, 2001) and studies done have shown links between religiosity and psychological wellbeing among some samples in the Ghanaian population (Addaai, Opoku-Agyeman & Aanfu, 2014; Atefoe, 2013; Dorahy, Lewis, Schumaker, Akuamoah-Boateng, Duze & Sibiya, 1998; Pokimica, Addai & Takyi, 2012) thus it will be interesting to see if religiosity influences wellbeing in a sample of teachers who teach intellectually disabled children. 2.3 Review of related studies 2.3.1 Demographic characteristics and psychological wellbeing. In a study to ascertain the effect of age on psychological wellbeing 340,847 participants were studied in the United States. It was hypothesised that psychological wellbeing will yield a different form of ageing as compared to global wellbeing measures. Findings reported showed that after age 50 there was an increase in wellbeing. However, factors like stress and anger which have an effect on psychological wellbeing declined from early 20' s. There was no difference in gender in this sample. From the findings, it was concluded that wellbeing measures are different over the lifespan (Stone, Schwartz, Broderick & Deaton, 2010). In a study by Pinquart & Sörensen (2006) the association between gender and psychological variables such as life satisfaction, happiness, self-esteem, loneliness subjective health and 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing age in late adulthood were explored. Results from the study indicate that women, who are advanced in age, have lower subjective wellbeing and less positive self-concept, unlike their male counterparts who are advanced in age. They also noted that gender differences in subjective wellbeing decreased when gender is statistically controlled for when widowhood, health and socioeconomic status are assessed. Another important finding from this study was small gender differences were found in younger adults as opposed to older adults on subjective wellbeing. Gender differences have also been seen among parents of intellectually disabled children. In a study conducted by Olsson & Hwang (2008) they found out that mothers of children with ID had lower levels of psychological wellbeing as compared to fathers of children with ID. Other important findings of that study were the fact that economic hardship and self-rated health of the parents were the strongest predictors of psychological wellbeing. Other studies have found no gender differences in psychological wellbeing (Jung-Hwa, Hong, Seltzer & Greenberg, 2008; Williams, 2003). In a study examining the effect of having a child with ID on the mental and physical health of the parents, researchers found that there were no gender differences in wellbeing of the parents of children with ID though both groups reported having a low psychological wellbeing. Also, older parents had a higher psychological wellbeing and lower levels of stress as compared to younger parents (Jung- Hwa, Hong, Seltzer & Greenberg, 2008). In a study to assess the effects of marital status on one's psychological wellbeing Williams (2003) explored the differences between being unmarried or separated as opposed to being in an unstable marriage and its effects on psychological wellbeing. Gender differences underlying marital status disparities in wellbeing were also explored. The negative and 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing positive quality of marriage was also looked at. The study also assessed if being divorced or widowed undermined psychological wellbeing much more than being in an unstable marriage and if there were gender differences in this relation. No gender differences were seen in the above measures and psychological wellbeing. It was also seen that unsatisfying marriage was more detrimental to psychological wellbeing than being divorced or widowed for both sexes. Across the world, studies have established a relationship between marital status and subjective wellbeing. In a study across 42 nations results obtained indicated that married couples had a higher wellbeing than did people who were cohabiting, separated, divorced, widowed or single. This was very evident in countries that tend to be collectivist in nature (Diener, Gohm, Suh & Oishi, 2000). Similar studies have affirmed the influence marriage has on wellbeing and in some populations, being married tended to prevent high blood pressure (Holt-Lunstad, Birmingham & Jones, 2008) thus being married has been seen to enhance psychological wellbeing both in men and women (Dush & Amato, 2005; Kim & McKenry, 2002). Studies have also been conducted to investigate the relationship between income and psychological wellbeing. In a study to assess the role of income on emotional wellbeing and life satisfaction, results found indicate that income, marital status and education are significant predictors of life satisfaction and emotional wellbeing. Income was seen to be the highest predictor of life satisfaction and emotional wellbeing (Kahneman & Deaton, 2010).One limitation of this study, however, is the fact that factors like self-esteem, personal growth and autonomy which are also key components of wellbeing were not looked at. Also, the study failed to investigate the effect income will have on wellbeing when the individual's basic needs are fulfilled. Diener, Diener & Diener (2009) in their study to determine the 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing predictors of subjective found out that income was a significant predictor of wellbeing and even when basic need for fulfilment had been controlled, income was still a strong predictor of wellbeing. In a study by Creed and Watson (2003) the interaction between age, gender and employment and its effects on psychological wellbeing were explored. Three age categories were explored, the young (18-24.9 years), the middle-aged (25-34.9) and the mature (35-55). In relation to gender, no significant differences were observed between these groups however in relation to the age groups, the young people reported a higher wellbeing, increased social support and higher status than the matured group. It was also observed that the young group had less time structure than the middle-aged group. Financial strain was observed to be a strong predictor of wellbeing among the young and middle-aged group. 2.3.2 Religiosity, intellectual disability and Psychological wellbeing Many authors debate the issues of whether religion has beneficial or detrimental effects on the mental well-being of individuals and the results which have been obtained are mixed. Majority of the research done however points to the fact that religiosity is linked to increased health and psychological wellbeing (Ano & Vaconcelles, 2005; Ellis, 1980; Hackney & Sanders, 2003; Maltby & Day, 2000; Pargament, Smith, Koening & Perez, 1998). A large number of studies show positive effects of religiosity on mental well-being. Studies have revealed that religious beliefs and spirituality are associated with psychological well-being in persons catering for individuals with ID. Thus, those who are more religious and spiritual tend to have a higher psychological well-being than those who are not. Biggs & Carter (2016) conducted a study to investigate the effect of religiosity, social support, positive traits, parental relations, autonomy and physical wellbeing on the quality of 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing life among young adults with an intellectual disability. Parents and other caregivers of young adults with an intellectual disability were asked to assess their perception of the wellbeing of their wards on the above domains. Results obtained indicate that in comparison with youth with no form of intellectual disability, parents rated their children with an intellectual disability to have a lower quality of life. The physical wellbeing and availability of social support from peers for youth with ID were also low. Religiosity was seen to be predictive of quality of life among youth with ID and enhanced autonomy and parental relations. Positive traits such as courage, empathy, gratitude, self-control also enhanced quality of life. One limitation of this study is the fact that the parents were the ones who rated their children on these dimensions based on what they thought they saw but in actuality, it could be possible that their perception of the issues on the ground may not be what is going on exactly. For example, parents rated availability of social support from peers as low however it is possible that the children do not feel that their peers do not support them enough. In a qualitative study assessing the influence of religiosity on psychological wellbeing of families with children with ID, it was observed that religiosity contributed to the enhancement of emotional wellbeing and the overall quality of life of the parents. Faith gave the parents strength and helped them make meaning of the events and challenges that they face. The parents also stipulated that religion aided coping and provided strength and solace during difficult times. Religious communities and organisations were seen to provide support and promote friendships and this enhanced and promoted wellbeing (Poston & Turnbull, 2004). Religiosity was seen to be indirectly associated with improved maternal wellbeing when maternal perception of a child's symptoms and marital status were taken into consideration in 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing a sample of Christian mothers who had children suffering from ASD. Multiple dimensions of religiosity were explored such as religious practice, spirituality, religious coping and religious support. Results obtained showed that marital satisfaction and the mother's perceptions of the child's condition were mediators between religiosity and a mother's anxiety. However, for mothers whose children had severe symptoms of ASD, religiosity and their wellbeing were negatively correlated. This study did not find a direct relationship between religiosity and wellbeing but rather religiosity mediated by marital satisfaction and perception of the child's condition rather enhanced wellbeing (Kristin, 2015). This study gives insight into the fact that religiosity may not be a good predictor of wellbeing when the stressors are so high. In such an instance the likelihood of the individual resorting to negative coping practices and extrinsic religion may result in religiosity influencing their wellbeing, unlike other circumstances whereby the individual finds the stressors manageable and as such can lean on religiosity as a form of support. Ekas, Whitman & Shivers (2009) in their study examined mothers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Variables such as religious beliefs, religious activities and spirituality as coping resources and how these variables affected their wellbeing were studied. Wellbeing was measured on dimensions of stress levels, depression, self-esteem, life satisfaction, positive affect and sense of control. A hundred and nineteen (119) mothers who had a child younger than 18 years and had been diagnosed with ASD formed the sample for the study.82.9% of the mothers were married accounting for a greater percentage in the population. The remaining 17.1% of mothers were either separated, divorced, widowed or single.89.8% had educational background to the tertiary level and 10.1% had educational background to high school level. The mothers' ages were between 23 to 61 years. Results showed that religious beliefs and spirituality were associated with less negative outcomes and greater positive maternal psychological wellbeing. In contrast, religious activities were 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing associated with more negative and less positive outcomes. Spirituality was also seen to predict life satisfaction, positive affect, wellbeing and control of internal states but religious beliefs uniquely were seen to be a predictor of optimism. Thus religious beliefs sort to help individuals to appraise situations in a more positive light. Religious beliefs and spirituality assisted mothers in cognitive reappraisal and shifted their focus from their child’s disability and towards the importance and meaning of life which had a positive impact on their wellbeing. The way and manner in which religiosity and religious coping are used has an effect on its ability to enhance psychological wellbeing or reduce psychological wellbeing (Ano & Vaconcelles, 2005; Coulthard & Fitgerald, 1999; Tarakeshwar & Pargament, 2001). Ano and Vaconcelles (2005), reviewing literature pertaining to religious coping in times of stressful events found that positive forms of religious coping were related to positive psychological adjustment to stress and negative forms of religious coping were related to negative psychological adjustment. Literature pertaining to religiosity and its significance in the lives of parents, siblings and intellectually disabled individuals has found that religiosity plays a role in enhancing psychological wellbeing especially when positive religious coping methods are employed (Ano & Vaconcelles, 2005; Coulthard & Fitgerald, 1999; Tarakeshwar & Pargament, 2001). Other research studies outside the domain of intellectual disability have however found no relationship between religiosity, stress and psychological wellbeing (Dezutter, Soenens & Hutsebaut, 2006; Schnittker, 2001; Ward, 2010). Green and Elliott (2010) compared the effects of religiosity on health and wellbeing controlling for work and family. Four thousand, five hundred and ten (4510) participants above the age of 18 were studied. Work and family were controlled to reduce the confounding nature these variables may have on the wellbeing of an individual. In controlling for these variables the researchers sort to ensure that the 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing results obtained were due to the individual's religiosity. Results obtained indicated that religious affiliation was not related to wellbeing; however one's personal identification as being religious regardless of the context of religion had an effect on the individual's health and wellbeing. Engagement in religious activities was not seen to be significantly correlated to wellbeing. These results indicate that engaging in religious activities independent of a meaningful commitment to them may account for poor psychological wellbeing because these activities may then be seen as a routine or ritual that one has to perform and as such the benefits that are to be derived from it the individual may not achieve it. Studies have been done in Ghana to determine the role religiosity plays in the psychological wellbeing of Ghanaians. In a study by Atefoe (2013), the effect religiosity, social support and social negativity had on the psychological wellbeing of women in Accra was studied. 200 women living in Accra were sampled. 46% of the participants had history of some mental illness such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder while 54% of the sample had no history of mental illness. Using instruments such as the Santa Clara Strength of Religious faith questionnaire, the multidimensional scale of perceived social support and the mental health index the study sort to find out if these measures were predictive of psychological wellbeing among women in Accra. Results of the study indicated that religiosity had a significant positive relationship with psychological wellbeing and overall mental health. Social support was not seen to be predictive of psychological wellbeing in this study and religiosity accounted for more variance in psychological wellbeing than social negativity. Similarly, Addai, Opoku-Agyeman and Amanfu (2014) in a research to determine the predictors of psychological wellbeing in Ghana found that ethnicity, income, religious attendance and religious involvement were strong predictors of psychological wellbeing in a sample of 1534 men and women in Ghana. However, results of the study indicated that 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing religiosity was not a predictor of psychological wellbeing. The results in the above study have also been replicated in other studies. Other factors such as religious importance and religious importance pertaining to religiosity were seen to be predictors of wellbeing but not religiosity in itself (Pokimica, Addai & Takyi, 2012). Religiosity was not seen to be a predictor in a study conducted using 180 adults with a history of abuse from the Tema SOS home. However, differences in the type of abuse they suffered predicted their psychological wellbeing (Dodoo, 2014). Payne, Bergin, Bielema and Jenkins (1991) reviewed a number of studies, a search revealing several ambiguous findings. Religiosity was positively related to a number of measures of psychological well-being such as self-esteem and personal adjustment. However, no evidence was found for a relationship between religiosity and prevention of major clinical disorders such as bipolar disorder, major depression among others. Based on the literature, researchers have found ambiguous results in the effect religiosity may or may not have on psychological wellbeing. These results may be due to religion's multifaceted nature, and researchers call for greater specificity in how psychologists operationally define both religiosity and mental health. It has been acknowledged that religious convictions can shape a man's mental view of torment or handicap. Religious convictions create an attitude that empowers the individual to unwind and permits recuperation from torment or handicap. With regards to articulating the fundamental structure of psychological wellbeing, discussions constantly fixate on the distinction amongst positive and negative effect and life-fulfilment (Joshi, Kumari & Jain, 2008). Teachers of children with ID are seen to be formal caregivers of these children; literature reviewed has shown that for the informal caregivers of children with ID religiosity plays an important role in predicting their wellbeing; however other researches done outside 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing the context of intellectual disability have found varying results. Since religious convictions have been seen to have psychological implications, this study is therefore interested in investigating if religiosity predicts psychological wellbeing among teachers of children with ID as it does in parents of children with ID or if religiosity will not contribute to psychological wellbeing in teachers of children with ID as has been seen in some other populations that have been studied. 2.3.3 Coping, intellectual disability and Psychological well-being Coping has been linked to psychological wellbeing with poor coping mechanisms being associated with high job stress and poor psychological well-being (Griffith, Steptoe, & Cropley, 1999; Mabekoje, 2003; Samadi, & McConkey, 2014). Research has found that coping strategies help individuals to manage burden and helps improve wellbeing this is achieved because coping has been found to prevent negative outcomes related to daily stressors such as anxiety (Bonsu, 2014; Parks & Novielli, 2000). Research was conducted on a hundred and thirty-five parents who had children with intellectual disability due to autism. Of this sample, eighty-nine parents had children who were of preschool going age and the remaining forty-six parents had children of school going age. The aim of the study was to find out if coping strategies were effective in helping parents deal with stress associated with catering for a child with autism and which type of coping strategies were most effective and if these strategies had a predictive effect on the psychological wellbeing of these parents. Results of the study indicate that coping reduced the level of distress parents felt and affected their psychological wellbeing positively. Positive coping, problem-focused coping and religious coping were seen to improve wellbeing (Hastings, Kovshoff & Brown, 2005) Similar results were observed in a study by Gray (2002) his study was a longitudinal study over a span of 10 years that sort to find out if 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing coping over the years in any way caused an improvement in the psychological wellbeing of parents of children with intellectual disability due to autism. Coping increased the psychological wellbeing of these parents over the period however he reported that the change in perception of the stressful situations that arose over the years led to adoption of better coping strategies such as problem-focused coping and less use of emotion-focused coping and this translated into improved psychological wellbeing. The effect of coping strategies on the psychological wellbeing of mothers with intellectually disabled autistic children was assessed. Three hundred and fifty-four mothers were assessed using the brief cope by Carver and dimensions of growth were assessed using the personal growth subscale of Ryff’s psychological wellbeing scale. Aspects of anger were also assessed and results indicated that mothers who had adolescents were angrier than those who had toddlers this could be due to the fact that hormonal changes that occur during puberty may have an effect on the symptoms the adolescents possess and thus make it more difficult for the mothers to handle them because they may not be able to fully communicate the implications of this stage to the child and the ‘confusion' the adolescents may be experiencing may make it more difficult for the mothers to handle them. Both groups had elevated symptoms of depression. In terms of coping strategies used there were no differences between the two groups on in the use of problem-focused coping or emotion- focused coping except for the dimension of behavioural disengagement in which mothers with adolescents were seen to draw towards that particular coping strategy. In terms of wellbeing, results showed that coping strategies were related to growth with lower levels of emotion-focused coping and higher levels of problem-focused coping linked to higher wellbeing. Thus it is evident that coping strategies do have an effect on psychological wellbeing and the nature of coping is dynamic and continues and changes depending on the level of stress one finds himself in (Smith, Seltzer & Tager-Flusberg et al. 2007). Benson 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing (2010) conducted a similar study using 113 mothers of intellectually disabled children who had been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder using the brief Cope he discovered that engagement coping, distraction coping, disengagement coping and cognitive reframing were the four reliable coping dimensions that were often used by the mothers. Avoidant coping was the most used and results obtained indicate that it is associated with increased levels of depression and anger. However, the use of cognitive reframing was associated with high levels of wellbeing. Majority of research conducted in the area of coping and psychological wellbeing have reported that depending on the type of coping strategy employed it could affect psychological wellbeing either in a positive or negative way. However other researchers have found no significant correlation between coping and psychological wellbeing. Thus coping strategies in some instances have been seen not to be predictors of psychological wellbeing (Abbeduto, Seltzer, Shattuck, Krauss, Orsmond & Murphy, 2004; Higgins, Bailey & Pearce, 2005). In a study comprising 53 parents/caregivers of children with autism spectrum disorder in Australia, relationship between family functioning and coping strategies were examined. Adaptability, cohesion, marital satisfaction, self-esteem and coping strategies of the respondents were explored. Results indicated that coping strategies were not significant predictors of wellbeing and marital satisfaction among these participants was low (Higgins et al 2005). One may argue that the fact that the individuals had a child with autism spectrum disorder may not necessarily have an effect on the dimensions explored and thus the reason why coping did not predict wellbeing however in a study by Abbeduto et al. (2004) similar results were obtained when mothers of children suffering from autism, fragile x and down syndrome were studied. In this study as well there was no evidence of coping influencing 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing psychological wellbeing despite the intensity or severity of the behavioural symptoms the children exhibited. Coping strategies are very important as they help individuals manage burden and help improve wellbeing and in Ghana the utilisation of coping and its effects on wellbeing have been studied. In a study by Bonsu (2014), he explored the effects of coping, and social support on formal and informal caregivers of burns victims at the Plastic and reconstructive centre at the Korle Bu teaching hospital. A hundred caregivers were sampled fifty of them were informal caregivers and the other fifty were formal caregivers. The Brief Cope, the Multidimensional scale of perceived social support, Beck Anxiety inventory as well as Beck Depression Inventory and the World Health Organisation Quality of Life questionnaire were administered. Results indicated that formal caregivers reported better quality of life in comparison to informal caregivers. Formal caregivers also reported adopting more problem-focused coping strategies to help them cope than informal caregivers did. A significant positive relationship was also seen between social support and caregivers' quality of life while a negative relationship was seen between social support and anxiety. As with previous research, it was confirmed that coping and social support had an effect on the wellbeing of the individuals studied and the use of these two factors help to lessen the burden of the caregiving role and improve wellbeing. Similar results were found when 70 burn patients were examined; adaptive coping and Africentric cultural values correlated significantly and positively to quality of life (Durowaa, 2016). Studies have also been done in terms of coping, psychological wellbeing and chronic illness, while some results indicated that coping was a factor in enhancing wellbeing of people with a chronic illness(Anang,2014) other studies, however, did not find any correlation with coping, wellbeing, medication adherence and psychological distress (Owiredua, 2015). 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing From the literature reviewed above it can be seen that coping strategies have been seen to be useful in reducing stress and improving psychological wellbeing in some instances and in other instance when it was deemed that the stress levels were too high or the coping strategies employed were ineffective, coping was not seen to be predictive of psychological wellbeing. Teachers of children with ID find themselves in an environment that may be seen as highly stressful; they encounter stress from the students they teach (Pelchat, Lefebvre & Perreaullt, 2003) and the educational setting in itself is also seen to be stressful (Benn, Akiva, Arel & Roeser, 2012). This study therefore seeks to find out if coping could predict psychological wellbeing for the teachers of children with ID considering the fact that their work environment brings its own stressors and teaching these intellectually disabled children also has its own set of stressors. 2.3.4 Social support, intellectual disability and psychological wellbeing Social support has been characterized as "those social interactions or connections that provide individuals with actual assistance. It is also a feeling of attachment that an individual has towards a person or group that they perceive as caring or loving" (Pugliesi & Shook, 1998). Social support is seen to influence wellbeing in two ways; firstly it modifies and diminishes the effect of stressors on an individual (Benson & Karlof, 2009; Mutkins, Brown & Thorsteinsson, 2011; Turner & Noh, 1983, Weiss, 2002) and secondly it influences an individual’s wellbeing and health (Afun, 2016; Fordjour, 2015; Pugliesi & Shook, 1998). There are a number of disparities among scholars as to what makes social support function. Some researchers subscribe to the person-environment model which highlights the need to distinguish help in general from social contact and others believe social support functions when the individual feels valued and loved (Winefield, Winefield, & Tiggemann, 1992). Based on a study conducted by Winefield and colleagues that examined the correlation between social support and wellbeing the results obtained indicate that type of support 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing received by an individual was not as significant to wellbeing as the source of support. Thus investigating social support in terms of its various components may limit one’s understanding of this construct (Winefield, Winefield, & Tiggemann, 1992). One important research finding in the area of social support worth noting is the fact that perceived social support has been seen to be a higher predictor of psychological wellbeing than actual support received (Ensel & Lin, 1991; VanderZee, Buunk, & Sanderman, 1997; Winefield, Winefield, & Tiggemann, 1992). Parents of children with ASD were interviewed to examine the impact social support, mental health status and satisfaction with services offered to persons with ID had on their psychological wellbeing. Results obtained indicate that lower levels of family support coupled with higher levels of challenging symptoms of the child were associated with poor psychological wellbeing. However, mothers who had good social support reported lower levels of distress and better psychological wellbeing (Bromley, Hare, Davidson & Emerson, 2004). Similar results were found in a study conducted by Ekas, Lickenbrock and Whitman (2010), in assessing mothers of children with ASD, Ekas and colleagues found that sources of social support pertaining to partner, family and friends increased the optimism levels of mothers with children who have ASD and this directly increased their psychological wellbeing. The quantity of social support that is the number of members in one's social network, as well as the type of social support received, is seen to have an influence in one's psychological wellbeing. Thus large numbers in ones social network based on research is seen to enhance psychological wellbeing. One interesting finding is the fact that social support has the ability to predict changes in wellbeing above and beyond the impact of child behaviour problems among mothers of children with ASD (Smith, Greenberg & Seltzer, 2012). 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Researchers have also been interested in the role social support plays among staff members that provide support to people with ID. Associations between work stressors, staff emotional responses and social and organizational support resources and burnout were investigated. Results indicate that satisfaction with one social support results in feelings of personal accomplishment, less psychological stress and less emotional exhaustion. These have an effect on an individual’s psychological wellbeing (Mutkins, Brown & Thorsteinsson, 2011). Researchers have been interested in the influence of socioeconomic status (SES) and ones social network on wellbeing. Results indicate that exploring demographic variables such as income and education, income was seen to be a stronger predictor of wellbeing than education. The quality of one's social contacts was more strongly associated with wellbeing than the quantity of contacts an individual has. This study also found that having contact with friends was more strongly related to wellbeing than having contact with adult children (Pinquart & Sorensen, 2000). The findings of this study suggest the quality of support one has such as having good friends whom one can rely on supersedes the number of friends one may have and this has an influence on the individual’s wellbeing. Differences in social support across gender have also been explored. Results in this area have been ambiguous. While some have found that women have larger networks (Antonucci & Akiyama, 1987; Moore, 1990; Turner, 1994) others have found no differences (Cheng & Chan, 2006; Pinquart & Sorensen, 2006). In relation to the composition of individuals' social networks, it has been found that women's networks tend to be comprised of family and friend relationships (Hulbert & Acock, 1990) whereas men's networks are made up of employment (Moore, 1990) or neighbourhood ties (Ishii-Kuntz & Seccombe, 1989). 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Similar results have been found in Wohlgemuth and Betz's (1991) study aimed at investigating gender differences in social support. Using a sample of 115 undergraduate students results obtained indicate that women report significantly socially supportive behaviours, more stressful events, significantly larger perceived social support networks, and are more satisfied with the support they received from friends than men are (Wohlgemuth & Betz, 1991). In relation, Pugliesi and Shook (1998) found that when compared to women, males reported lower average network size. In Ghana, studies on social support indicate that social support accounts for significant variance in psychological wellbeing among mothers who have suffered from postpartum depression especially during the period in which the depressive symptoms are most high (Afun, 2016) thus high social support resulted in high psychological wellbeing. The role of health belief, psychological wellbeing, social support, age, number of children as well as gender on caregivers’ compliance to treatment of children who have sickle cell disease and children who are acutely ill has also been explored. Social support and health belief were found to be the most significant predictors of medical treatment compliance (Fordjour, 2015). Research has found that social support is a key element in the determination of psychological wellbeing of individuals. However in a study conducted by Atefoe (2013), investigating the influence of religiosity, social support and social negativity taking into account demographic variables such as age, education, income, marital status and number of children, on women with mental health issues results indicate that social support was not significantly correlated to psychological wellbeing. This may be due to the fact that generally in Ghana people who have mental health issues are stigmatized and shunned (Anum, 2011;Nartey, 2013) and thus there is the probability that social support is not available to these people and that may account for the inability of social support to predict wellbeing amongst this group. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Research has shown that social support may have varying effects on wellbeing of caregivers across different populations that pertain to intellectual disability and other mental health issues, it is important to assess if the benefits that social support provides is seen in teachers of children with ID or to assess whether social support may or may not have an influence on the psychological wellbeing of teachers of children with ID 2.3.5 Teachers and children with ID In relation to children with ID and teachers, studies have been focused on the perceptions that teachers have about inclusive education and for those teaching in inclusive environments (an environment where children with ID and children without any form of disability study together) what challenges they face. In a study of 169 teachers in Nigeria investigating the opinions they had on inclusive education, 57.4% of the regular teachers sampled said they could not cope with having a child with ID in their class because of the learning difficulties children with ID face. When culture was investigated as reason for this perception of difficulty, 84% of the teachers sampled disagreed that culture had a role to play with their discomfort in inclusive education but rather the stress of handling a child with ID coupled with the attention children with ID demand made it difficult to embrace the idea of inclusive education but rather preferred that children with ID be taught in schools specialised for them (Eni-Oloninda, 2016). Forty-nine South African teachers were interviewed in a qualitative study on their views of inclusive education practices. Results indicated that teachers felt they did not have the expertise to juggle children with ID and children without ID in one class and this combination may hamper the quality of care or education that may be provided. Policy, structure and school culture were also seen to be factors that could hamper the effectiveness of inclusive education policy (Engelbrecht, Nel, Nel & Tlale, 2015). 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Ten mainstream teachers with a learner with Down syndrome in their class were studied to investigate the stressors with handing a child with an intellectual disability as well as investigate the coping skills employed in handling these stressors. The teachers investigated had varying opinions on what stressed them out and the various coping mechanisms they employed. Some stressors identified by the teachers included lack of support, doubts about their personal and professional competence to adequately equip a child who has an intellectual disability with the skills he/she needs, safety and hygiene issues; some of the teachers reported that the learner with an intellectual disability was aggressive and were concerned for the safety of the other children. Some teachers also found the parent-teacher relationship stressful. The teachers adopted a number of coping strategies to help them manage the situation effectively. These included problem- focused strategies such as making a plan and following it through, finding alternate ways to handle an issue and focusing on the next course of action needed instead of the current state of affairs. Having support from colleagues, parents, administrators and even other learners in the class eased the stress they faced considerably. Teachers also used humour, spiritual and religious support as well as having a positive outlook to cope (Engelbrecht, Swart & Eloff, 2001). Review of the studies above shows that though teachers taking care of children with ID have been explored their perceptions on how effectively they can handle a child with ID have been the focus. This study aims therefore to ascertain if some of the strategies used to handle stress in this environment have an influence on the psychological wellbeing of the teachers. 2.3.6 Psychological wellbeing of Teachers School teachers have been found to be one group of professionals with the highest amount of job stress (Stoeber & Rennert, 2008). This is often caused by factors such as excessive workload, improper behaviour by students, poor relationships with colleagues, lack of suitable resources for teaching, constant changes within the profession, an inadequate salary 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing and difficult interactions with the parents of students (Santavirta, Solovieva, & Theorell, 2007). The psychological wellbeing of teachers has therefore been an area of interest in research studies. Marilize (2009) conducted a cross-sectional survey on the effects of coping behaviour on the stress and psychological well-being as experienced by South African teachers. Results obtained indicated that, although stress levels were high, stress had no direct and significant relation to either coping or well-being. The use of certain coping strategies, however, correlated positively with some aspects of mental health. A positive significant correlation was reported between seeking social support and the social well-being of this group of teachers. Another significant finding was the existence of a positive association between problem-solving and the social and psychological well-being reported by participants. The use of avoidance as a coping strategy was negatively associated with the emotional well- being of participants. The results indicated that coping behaviour had little effect on the amount of stress that the teachers experienced, although it seems that coping behaviour does have a significant effect on some aspects of mental health. Jantarapat, Suttharangsee and Petpichechian (2014) conducted a study to examine the relationship between coping, sense of meaning, social support, sense of control and psychological wellbeing of teachers residing in a situation of unrest in Southern Thailand. Two hundred and forty (240) teachers were examined. Data collection was conducted through the use of the following questionnaires: the Jalowiec Coping Scale, the Meaning in Life Questionnaire, the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List, Perceived Control Questionnaire, and Psychological Well-Being Inventory. The findings indicate that high social support, sense of meaning, and used optimistic coping strategies had higher psychological well-being, Individuals’ using more fatalistic coping strategies had lower 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing levels of psychological well-being. They concluded that good levels of social support, sense of meaning, optimistic coping strategies, and sense of control should be incorporated into intervention programs aimed at promoting psychological health and psychological well-being of teachers. 2.4 Rationale for the study Most of the studies conducted looked at the psychological well- being of the parents and siblings of children with ID but this study will look at teachers who teach or take care of these intellectually disabled children. Also, most studies have looked at psychological well- being in terms of depression, anxiety, loneliness among others but this study will look at psychological well-being in terms of self-acceptance, establishment of quality ties, autonomy, self-esteem, emotional mastery and purpose in life. Research on teachers in relation to education and intellectual disability has also focused on the teachers' perceptions on inclusive education. However, for the teachers that are already engaged in caring for children with intellectual disability, there is scarce literature on how such a responsibility may affect their psychological wellbeing. Teachers spend between 6-8 hours with these children a day, 5 times a week and in some instances where the children attend some form of boarding school, the teachers spend even more time with them. Sometimes more than their parents do. Daily exposure to the stressors of caring for these children may have an effect on their well-being and thus it is imperative that their psychological wellbeing is studied since poor psychological wellbeing will affect the quality of care they provide to these children. The findings from this study will be used to plan intervention programmes to reduce the adverse effects on the teachers and help inform policies and shape structures to ensure that the implementation of the inclusive education policy is a success. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 2.5 Statement of Hypotheses Based on the studies reviewed, the following hypotheses were tested: 1. Religiosity will significantly predict psychological well-being among teachers of children with ID. 2. Coping strategy will significantly predict psychological well-being among the teachers of children with ID. 3. Social support will significantly predict psychological well-being among teachers of children with ID. 4. Male teachers will have a higher psychological well-being than female teachers. 5. Married teachers of children with ID will have a significantly higher level of psychological wellbeing than unmarried teachers of children with ID. 2.6 Proposed model RELIGIOSITY COPING PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING SOCIAL SUPPORT Figure 1: Proposed Model Figure 1 proposes that religiosity, coping and social support will significantly predict one level of psychological wellbeing. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 2.7 Operational Definition Teachers are people who educate the children both in academic subjects as well as social, behavioural and communication skills in an educational/academic institution. These include volunteers and teaching assistants. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter provides information on the research methodology used in investigating the predictors of psychological well-being among teachers of intellectually disabled children. It includes the population/sample, sampling technique, research design, measures, instruments as well as the procedures involved in the data collection process. 3.2 Research Setting and Population Teachers of intellectually disabled children in the Accra Metropolis who had been teaching for at least a month were the focus for this study. This population was chosen because in Ghana, the bulk of schools that cater for the needs of intellectually disabled children are found in the Greater Accra Region. Six special schools were used for the study. However, to ensure confidentiality and the for the sake of anonymity their names will not be provided. Teachers in this population cater for children with intellectual disabilities. These disabilities may be due to disorders such as Down syndrome, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Cerebral Palsy, and Fragile X Syndrome among other disorders. 3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique The study was conducted using ninety-two (92) participants who had been teaching intellectually disabled children for at least a month. The purposive and convenient sampling technique was used. The purposive sampling technique was used to identify potential participants and the convenient sampling technique was used to recruit participants into the 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing study. These sampling techniques were used because of the limited number of people found working with Intellectually Disabled children in the Greater Accra Metropolis. The sample size determination was based on Cohen(1992) and Tabanick and Fidell (1996), Cohen stipulates that the minimum sample size needed to notice a medium effect change for regression analysis with three predictors is seventy-six (76). Therefore ninety-two (92) participants meet the requirement to run a regression analysis according to Cohen (1992). Tabanick and Fidell (1996) also stipulate that the formula N>50+8(m) is an appropriate way of determining sample size for data analysis; where “m” is the number of independent variables being used for the study. This study used three independent variables namely, religiosity, coping and perceived social support. Thus 50 + 8(3) =74. Thus a sample size of 92 in this study is adequate to see a medium effect change for a regression analysis. 3.4 Research Design The research design that was used was the cross-sectional survey method. The teachers were handed questionnaires that sort to measure their level of religiosity, determine their coping strategies as well as investigate the level of social support available to them and see how these predicted their psychological well-being. 3.5 Inclusion Criteria All persons that teach the children were included in the study. Thus subject teachers, as well as teachers who teach other social skills such as communicating with others, personal grooming, identification of emotions among others, were included in the study. This included teaching assistants, careers and volunteers. These teachers should have been teaching for at least a month. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 3.6 Exclusion Criteria People who do not have direct contact with the children in terms of teaching such as those in administrative positions or those who handle security measures and preparation of meals of the children were excluded. 3.7 Instrument/ Materials The variables in the study were measured using various inventories and questionnaires. Four main scales were used to gather data for the study. These included; the Psychological well- being scale by Ryff, the Santa Clara strength of religious faith scale by Plante and Boccaccini, the Brief Cope scale by Carver and the Multidimensional scale of perceived social support by Zinet and colleagues. In order to collect information on the socio- demographics of the teachers, a self-designed demographic questionnaire was created. The details of these inventories have been enumerated below. 3.8 Demographic Data The demographic questionnaire was used to gather information on the teachers. The teachers were expected to provide information on their gender, age, religious affiliation, highest educational level attained, their years of working experience as well as the amount of money they earn monthly, their marital status and the number of children they have. 3.8.1 Psychological Well-being Scale (Ryff, 1989) The Psychological well-being scale created in 1989 by Ryff was used to measure psychological well-being. Though this scale is quite dated it was chosen because of its reliability and validity over time; also it has been used in multiple populations and has been found to be a good measure of psychological well-being (Ryff, 1989). The Psychological well-being scale is a self-report measure which measures multiple facets of psychological 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing well-being. These facets are categorised into six areas namely autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life and self-acceptance. A Likert scale ranging from 1-6 with 42 items was used to assess psychological well-being; 1 indicating strong disagreement and 6 indicating strong agreement on the items provided. The scale has a reliability coefficient of 0.82 for test-retest and internal consistency coefficient of between 0.86-0.93 (Ryff, 2014; Ryff & Singer, 2013). Sample questions under each facet include the following: 1. Autonomy (“I tend to worry about what other people think of me”, “It is difficult for me to voice my opinions on controversial matters.), 2. Positive Relations with others (“Most people see me as loving and affectionate”; “I have not experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others”) 3.Environmental mastery (“I often feel overwhelmed by my responsibilities”; “I have been able to build a home and a lifestyle for myself that is much to my liking.”) 4. Personal growth (“I gave up trying to make big improvements or changes in my life a long time ago”, “I have the sense that I have developed a lot as a person over time”.) 5. Purpose in life (“I sometimes feel I have done all there is to do in life”, “Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them.”) 6. Self- acceptance (“When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out”, “In many ways, I feel disappointed about my achievements in life”). The Cronbach alpha for this scale as used in this study was .85 and a validity of .61, this scale assessed the psychological well-being of the teachers of intellectually disabled children. Some items were negated and thus reversed scored; this was to reduce the incidence of socially desirable answers being given. The minimum score an individual can obtain is 42 and the maximum score an individual can obtain is 252. High scores on this scale was an indication of high or good psychological well-being while lower scores on this scale was a reflection of poor psychological well-being. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 3.8.2 The Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire (Plante & Boccaccini, 1997) The Santa Clara strength of religious faith created by Plante and Boccaccini in 1997 was used to measure religiosity. It is a 10 item self-report measure designed to measure strength of religious faith regardless of religious denomination or affiliation. A 4- point likert scale was used in the assessment, 1- indicating strong disagreement,2- indicating disagreement 3- indicating agreement and 4- indicating strong agreement. The scale has been found to be internally consistent with a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.94-0.97 (Plante & Boccaccini, 1997; Plante, 2010). Sample questions on this scale include, “My faith impacts many of my decisions”, “I look to my faith as providing meaning and purpose in my life”, and “ I enjoy being around others who share my faith” The total score is gotten by summing up all the responses with a minimum score of 10 and a maximum score of 40. Higher scores represent a higher level of religiosity while lower scores reflect a lower level of religiosity. In this study, the Santa Clara strength of religious faith inventory had a Cronbach alpha of 0.91 and a validity of 0.88. 3.8.3 The Brief Cope Inventory (Carver, 1997) The Brief Cope (Carver, 1997), was used in assessing coping strategies employed by participants. This has 28 items on a 4- point likert scale with 1 connoting ‘I haven’t been doing this at all’, 2 connoting ‘I have been doing this a little bit’, 3 connoting ‘I have been doing this a medium amount’ and 4 connoting ‘I have been doing this a lot.’ This scale is an abridged version of the Cope inventory (Carver, Scheier & Weintraub, 1989) and is a self- report measure. The participant indicates the frequency with which they have been using a particular coping mechanism. The scale assesses the use of coping strategies on 14 dimensions, these include self-distraction, denial, active coping, substance use, use of 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing emotional support, behavioural disengagement, acceptance, humour, instrumental support, venting, positive reframing, planning, religion and self-blame. These dimensions can further be grouped into two broad coping mechanisms; namely, emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping mechanisms. The scale has a reliability coefficient of 0.72- 0.84 (Benson, 2010; Pozo, Sarria & Brioso, 2014). Sample questions include, "I've been making jokes about it", "I've been turning to work or other activities to take my mind off things", "I've been criticizing myself", and "I've been trying to come up with a strategy about what to do." The scale doe does not assess what coping strategies are working for the participant but seek to see all the coping mechanisms the participant may be employing to help them cope. One of the advantages of this scale is the fact that it is rooted in theoretical models such as the transactional model of stress by Lazarus (1984), which forms one of the theoretical frameworks for this study and the behavioural self-regulation model (Carver and Scheier, 1981, 1998). In this study, the scale had a Cronbach alpha of 0.86 and a validity of 0.71. 3.8.4 Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social support (Zinet, Dahlem, Zimet & Farley, 1988) Multidimensional scale of perceived social support as created by Zinet et al (1988) was used to assess the participants’ perception of the availability of social support they have. This scale is a self-report measure designed to measure perceptions of support from three sources; family, friends and a significant other. A likert scale ranging from 1-7 with 12 items was used to assess perceived social support; 1 indicating very strong disagreement, 2 indicating strong disagreement, 3 indicating mild disagreement, 4 indicating neutrality, 5 indicating mild agreement, 6 indicating strong agreement and 7 indicating very strong agreement. This scale is known to have reliability coefficient of 0.88 (Benson & Kersh, 2011). Sample questions included, “I have friends with whom I can share my joys and sorrows”, “My 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing friends really try to help me”, “My family is willing to help me make decisions”, “I have a special person who is a real source of comfort to me” and “There is a special person in my life who cares about my feelings”. In this study, the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social support had a Cronbach alpha of 0.89 and a validity of 0.80. 3.9 Pilot Study Prior to the commencement of the actual study, a pilot study was conducted to ascertain the reliability of the measures to be used in the study. The pilot study was conducted using 10 teachers who taught intellectually disabled children in the Accra Metropolis. The Internal consistency or reliability of these scales was run to ascertain the Cronbach alphas and to see if they are reliable enough to be used in the actual study. The results obtained are summarised below. TABLE 1: Summary of reliabilities of scales used for pilot study Scale Cronbach Alpha (Internal Consistency) Religious Faith Inventory .72 Perceived Social Support .91 Brief Cope Inventory .91 Psychological well-being .86 From the table above, the Cronbach alpha for Religious Faith (Santa Clara Strength of religious faith scale) was 0.72. A Cronbach alpha of 0.91 was obtained for Multidimensional of Perceived Social Support scale. The Cronbach alpha for the Brief Cope Inventory was 0.91 and the Psychological well-being scale by Ryff yielded a Cronbach alpha of 0.86. These values exceed the minimum requirement of 0.50 needed to be used in a study and thus were used for the main study. Due to the few number of respondents found in the area of teaching 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing children with intellectual disability the results of the pilot study were incorporated into the main study. 3.10 Procedure Approval for the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University of Ghana, Legon. Approval and an introductory letter were obtained from the Department of Psychology at the University of Ghana. The introductory letter sort to introduce the researcher to the various special schools in which the study was to be conducted. Some special schools requested a short proposal explaining the research and this was done and presented to the administrators before approval was given for the study to be conducted. The teachers in these schools did not have access to the proposal so as to minimise the likelihood of bias or socially desirable answers being given. Consent forms were designed and sent to the various schools and handed to each participant who had volunteered to take part in the study. The consent form explained the purpose of the study as well as outlined any benefits to be derived from partaking in the study. Also, any potential form of harm was explained to the participant through the consent form. Ethical issues were also addressed through the consent form. Participants were made to understand that the study was voluntary and they could opt out of the study at any time without giving any reason for their withdrawal and would not be penalized for it. Confidentiality and privacy were also assured. After the consent form was signed, participants were handed the questionnaires to be filled. Questionnaires were then collected for scoring and subsequent analysis. Data collection lasted for a period of six weeks. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 3.11 Analysis of data Data was analyzed using the version 20 of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Hypotheses one, two and three were analyzed using regression analysis this is because the researcher aimed to investigate the relationship and variance that religiosity, coping and social support account for in psychological wellbeing. Hypothesis four and five were analyzed using the independent t-test. This is because the researcher aimed to find out if there are group differences in relation to gender and marital status on psychological wellbeing. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.1 Introduction The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of religiosity, coping and social support on the psychological well-being of teachers who teach children with intellectual disability. Coping skills, perception of the availability of social support as well as how religious one was were stated as predictors of psychological well-being. The effect of gender differences and marital status on psychological well-being were also explored. Analysis were run using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 20. Hypotheses were tested using regression analysis, and independent t. This chapter summarizes the key findings as well as additional findings that are not part of the main hypotheses, these are enumerated below. 4.2 Demographic Data With reference to the table below (Table 2), majority of respondents were female, 49 in number which accounted for 53.3% of the total sample. Male respondents were 43 in number accounting for 46.7% of the sample. 93.5% of the sample were Christians while 5.4% of the sample were Muslims. 1.1% of the sample were Traditionalist. Majority of the respondents had a first degree certificate that is 48.9% of the sample. 41.3% had a secondary school certificate while 6.5% of the respondents had no formal education. Those with a master’s degree accounted for 3.5% of the sample of respondents. Moreover, 51.1% of the respondents were single, 38% were married while 3.3% of the respondents were separated from their partners. 1.1% were divorced, 5.4% were widowed and another 1.1% were cohabiting with their partner. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 55.4% of the respondents had no children while the remaining 44.6% of respondents had between one child to ten children. Respondents were between the ages of nineteen years to fifty-seven years (19-57) with an average age of 33 years. Respondents earned between a hundred Ghana cedis and two thousand five hundred and fifty Ghana cedis monthly (₵100- ₵2550) this excludes respondents who were volunteering their services and thus earned no salary or form of remuneration. The mean amount of money earned monthly was ₵733.64. The years of work tenure was between one month and thirty-eight years for respondents. On an average most respondents had been working for a little over six (6) years. TABLE 2: Summary of Demographic Characteristics of Participants in the study Variable Frequency Percent Sex  Male 43 46.7  Female 49 53.3 Marital Status  Unmarried 47 51.1  Married 35 38.0  Separated 3 3.3  Divorced 1 1.1  Widowed 5 5.4  Cohabiting 1 1.1 Religion  Christianity 86 93.5  Islamic 5 5.4  ATM 1 1.1 Educational Level  No Formal Education 6 6.5  Secondary 38 41.3  Degree 45 48.9  Masters 3 3.3 Age Mean=33.36 SD=10.36 Tenure of Work Mean=6.72 SD=7.48 Income Mean=733.64 SD=561.06 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 4.3 Preliminary Analyses Prior to hypothesis testing, preliminary analyses were done. These were the analyses of the normal distribution of variables, descriptive statistical analysis of demographic variables, reliability analysis and analysis to check the validity of the measures used in the study. The correlations between the study variables were also established. The analysis revealed that all the study variables were normally distributed (Table 3). According to Garson (2012), to establish normality of a value, the variables should have a skewness and kurtosis ranging between ±2. Based on this assumption variables that met the assumption of normality were used accordingly during analysis. TABLE 3: Summary of descriptive statistics of the variables in the study MEAN STD.DEV SKEWNESS KURTOSIS ALPHA VALUES PSS 4.981 1.126 -.478 -.020 .891 Significant other 5.353 1.445 -.987 .536 .869 Family 5.038 1.399 -.482 -.339 .868 Friends 4.552 1.309 -.135 -.380 .803 BC 60.446 12.580 -.573 -.477 .864 Self distraction 4.685 1.637 .201 -.667 .304 Active coping 5.261 1.977 -.224 - 1.144 .680 Denial 3.967 1.757 .498 -.649 .452 Substance abuse 2.315 .797 2.690 6.960 .349 Emotional support 4.728 1.804 .142 -.748 .645 Instrumental 5.010 1.896 -.056 -1.014 .642 support Behavioural 3.630 1.682 .859 -.222 .671 disengagement Venting 4.674 1.716 .070 -.665 .235 Positive reframing 5.380 1.977 -.172 -1.232 .673 Planning 5.859 1.849 -.684 -.417 .588 Humour 4.087 1.908 .610 -.727 .660 Acceptance 5.294 1.764 -.067 -.901 .555 Religion 6.315 1.797 -.906 -.161 .760 Self blame 4.098 1.710 .586 -.178 .452 Emotion focused 49.174 9.867 -.436 -.435 .796 Problem focused 16.130 4.731 -.398 -.853 .801 RF 35.870 4.388 -1.361 2.044 .906 PWB 188.989 22.033 -.068 -.469 .852 PSS= Perceived social support, BC= Brief cope, RF= Religiosity, PWB= Psychological well-being 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing From the table above (table 3), it was observed that participants had a mean score of 4.981 on perceived social support with a standard deviation of 1.126 and a reliability of 0.891. On the sub dimensions of perceived social support, participants had mean scores of 5.353, 5.038, and 4.552 for significant other, family and friends respectively. Significant other had a standard deviation of 1.445 with a Cronbach alpha of 0.869. On the family sub dimension, participants had a standard deviation of 1.399 and internal consistency of 0.863. The standard deviation obtained for the sub scale pertaining to social support from friends was 1.309 with an internal consistency of 0.803. In terms of coping, participants had a mean score of 60.446 and a standard deviation of 12.580 and an internal consistency of 0.864. In the various coping strategies adopted by the participants, participants reported a mean self-destruction of 4.685 (standard deviation of 1.637 and an internal consistency of 0.354). For active coping a mean score of 5.261 with a standard deviation of 1.977 and a Cronbach alpha of 0.680 was obtained. For denial, a mean score of 3.967 and a standard deviation of 1.757 with a reliability of 0.452 were obtained. On the use of substance abuse to cope participants scored a mean score of 2.315 with a standard deviation of 0.797 and an internal consistency of 0.349. Participants obtained a mean score of 4.728 on emotional support with a standard deviation of 1.804 and an internal consistency of 0.645. On instrumental support a mean score of 5.010 was obtained with a standard deviation of 1.896 and reliability of 0.642. On using behavioural disengagement as a coping strategy, participants scored an average of 3.630, a standard deviation of 1.682 and reliability of 0.671. A mean score of 4.764 with a standard deviation of 1.716 and reliability of 0.235 was obtained for venting as a coping strategy. Participants obtained a mean score of 5.380, a standard deviation of 1.977 with an internal consistency of 0.673 on positive reframing. For the sub dimension of planning, a mean score of 5.859 and a standard deviation of 1.849 with 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing a reliability of 0.588 were obtained. On humour, participants scored a mean score of 4.087, a standard deviation of 1.908 and a reliability of 0.660. Acceptance had a mean score of 5.294, a standard deviation of 1.764 and a reliability of 0.555. On the dimension of religion a mean score of 6.315 with a standard deviation of 1.792 and reliability of 0.760 was obtained. Self blame had a mean score of 4.098, a standard deviation of 9.867 and an internal consistency of 0.796. Collectively, emotion focused coping strategies participants scored an average of 49.174 with a standard deviation of 9.867 and an internal consistency of 0.796. Using problem focused coping, participants scored a mean of 16.130, a standard deviation of 4.731 with a reliability of 0.801. Participants scored a mean of 35.870 and a standard deviation of 4.388 with a reliability of 0.906. On the dimension of Psychological well-being, participants scored an average of 188.989, a standard deviation of 22.033 and a reliability of 0.852. 4.3.1: Exploratory Factor Analysis for the Construct Validity of Scales Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was conducted to determine the construct validity of all the instruments used in the study. This was done to establish the extent to which each item on the various scales measured the construct that it was designed to measure. In so doing the meaningfulness of each item on the various instruments was established. For each item to be considered relevant in measuring the construct, the item should yield a loading factor of at least .3 (Field, 2009). Psychological Wellbeing scale The 42 items on the Psychological wellbeing scale were subjected to PCA using SPSS. The data was examined to check is appropriateness for factor analysis before the factor analysis was conducted. The Kaiser-Meyer Oklin test of adequacy of sample size was .605 which exceeds the recommended level of .5 suggested by Kaiser (1974). The Bartlett’s test of 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 2 sphericity was significant [χ = 1844.382, p<.001] indicating the factorability of the correlation matrix. The component analysis showed the presence of fourteen (14) components with eigenvalues more than 1, accounting for 16.691%, 12.061%, 6.038%, 5.419%, 4.814%, 4.145%, 3.748%, 3.538%, 3.338%, 2.946%, 2.748%, 2.689%, 2.446%, and 2.417% variance respectively. Together they accounted for a cumulative variance of 73.038%. An evaluation of the scree th plot showed that the components levelled off after the 7 factor. The present study therefore maintained the seven factors. However component 7 did not have any of the items loading significantly on it yet component 8 did. The results are enumerated in table below. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Table 4: Factor loadings based on Principal Component Analysis of the 42 items on the Psychological wellbeing scale (N=92) Items Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 1. I am not afraid to voice my opinions, even when they are in opposition to the opinions of most -.445 people. 2. In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live. .511 3. I am not interested in activities that will expand my horizons. -.469 4. Most people see me as loving and affectionate. .622 5. I live life one day at a time and don't really think about the future. .497 6. When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out. .558 7. My decisions are not usually influenced by what everyone else is doing. .448 8. The demands of everyday life often get me down. .346 .468 9. I think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how you think about yourself and .473 the world. 10. Maintaining close relationships has been difficult and frustrating for me. .431 11. I have a sense of direction and purpose in life. .648 12. In general, I feel confident and positive about myself. .597 13. I tend to worry about what other people think of me. .414 14. I do not fit very well with the people and the community around me. .436 15. When I think about it, I haven't really improved much as a person over the years. .459 16. I often feel lonely because I have few close friends with whom to share my concerns. .500 17. My daily activities often seem trivial and unimportant to me. -.368 18. I feel like many of the people I know have gotten more out life than I have. .583 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Table 4 continued: Factor loadings based on Principal Component Analysis of the 42 items on the Psychological wellbeing scale (N=92) Items Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 19. I tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions. .428 20. I am quite good at managing the many responsibilities of my daily life. .503 21. I have the sense that I have developed a lot as a person over time. .632 22. I enjoy personal and mutual conversations with family members or friends. .458 23. I don't have a good sense of what it is I'm trying to accomplish in life. .549 24. I like most aspects of my personality. .600 25. I have confidence in my opinions, even if they are contrary to the general consensus. .386 26. I often feel overwhelmed by my responsibilities .430 27. I do not enjoy being in new situations that require me to change my old familiar ways of doing .622 things 28. People would describe me as a giving person, willing to share my time with others. .612 29. I enjoy making plans for the future and working to make them a reality. .720 30. In many ways, I feel disappointed about my achievements in life. .425 31. It's difficult for me to voice my own opinions on controversial matters .462 32. I have difficulty arranging my life in a way that is satisfying to me. .632 33. For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growth .501 34. I have not experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others .383 35. Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them .508 36. My attitude about myself is probably not as positive as most people feel about themselves 37. I judge myself by what I think is important, not by the values of what others think is .587 important. 38. I have been able to build a home and a lifestyle for myself that is much to my liking. .576 39. I gave up trying to make big improvements or changes in my life a long time ago. .442 40. I know that I can trust my friends, and they know they can trust me. .546 41. I sometimes feel as if I've done all there is to do in life. .520 42. When I compare myself to friends and acquaintances, it makes me feel good about who I am. .469 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Brief Cope scale The 28 items on the Brief Cope scale were subjected to PCA using SPSS. The data was examined to check is appropriateness for factor analysis before the factor analysis was conducted. The Kaiser-Meyer Oklin test of adequacy of sample size was .677 which exceeds the recommended level of .5 suggested by Kaiser (1974). The Bartlett’s test of sphericity was 2 significant [χ = 1057.567, p<.001] indicating the factorability of the correlation matrix. The component analysis showed the presence of eight (8) components with eigenvalues more than 1, accounting for 23.598%, 10.007%, 6.784%, 6.126%, 5.743%, 5.400%, 4.410%, and 3.963% variance respectively. Together they accounted for a cumulative variance of 66.031%. An evaluation of the scree plot showed that the components levelled off after the th 6 factor. The present study therefore maintained the six factors. The results are enumerated in table below. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Table 5 : Factor loadings based on Principal Component Analysis of the 28 items on the Brief Cope scale (N=92) Items Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. I've been turning to work or other activities to take my mind off things. -.471 2. I've been concentrating my efforts on doing something about the situation I'm in. .649 3. I've been saying to myself "this isn't real". .534 4. I've been using alcohol or other drugs to make myself feel better .570 5. I've been getting emotional support from others .511 6. I've been giving up trying to deal with it .726 7. I've been taking action to try to make the situation better. .662 8. I've been refusing to believe that it has happened .434 9. I've been saying things to let my unpleasant feelings escape .515 10. I’ve been getting help and advice from other people. .581 11. I've been using alcohol or other drugs to help me get through it. .389 12. I've been trying to see it in a different light, to make it seem more positive .512 13. I’ve been criticizing myself. .486 14. I've been trying to come up with a strategy about what to do .708 15. I've been getting comfort and understanding from someone. .596 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Table 5 continued: Factor loadings based on Principal Component Analysis of the 28 items on the Brief Cope scale (N=92) Items Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 16. I've been giving up the attempt to cope .656 17. I've been looking for something good in what is happening. .523 18. I've been making jokes about it. .507 19. I've been doing something to think about it less, such as going to movies, watching TV, reading, .492 daydreaming, sleeping, or shopping. 20. I've been accepting the reality of the fact that it has happened. .595 21. I've been expressing my negative feelings. -.435 22. I've been trying to find comfort in my religion or spiritual beliefs .623 23. I’ve been trying to get advice or help from other people about what to do. .686 24. I've been learning to live with it. .644 25. I've been thinking hard about what steps to take. .573 26. I’ve been blaming myself for things that happened. .532 27. I've been praying or meditating. .561 28. I've been making fun of the situation .575 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support The 12 items on the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support were subjected to PCA using SPSS. The data was examined to check is appropriateness for factor analysis before the factor analysis was conducted. The Kaiser-Meyer Oklin test of adequacy of sample size was .809 which exceeds the recommended level of .5 suggested by Kaiser 2 (1974). The Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant [χ = 682.424, p<.001] indicating the factorability of the correlation matrix. The component analysis showed the presence of three (3) components with eigenvalues more than 1, explaining 46.284%, 15.401%, and 9.594%, variance respectively. Together they accounted for a cumulative variance of 71.279%. The results are enumerated in table below. Table 6: Factor loadings based on Principal Component Analysis of the 28 items on the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (N=92) Items Component 1 2 3 1. There is a special person who is around when I am in need. .648 -.475 2. There is a special person with whom I can share joys and sorrows. .725 -.512 3. My family really tries to help me .693 4. I get the emotional help & support I need from my family. .791 5. I have a special person who is a real source of comfort to me. .739 -.471 6. My friends really try to help me. .610 .476 7. I can count on my friends when things go wrong. .657 .531 8. I can talk about my problems with my family. .756 9. I have friends with whom I can share my joys and sorrows. .610 10. There is a special person in my life who cares about my feelings. .674 11. My family is willing to help me make decisions. .751 -.433 12. I can talk about my problems with my friends. .691 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith scale The 10 items on the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith scale were subjected to PCA using SPSS. The data was examined to check is appropriateness for factor analysis before the factor analysis was conducted. The Kaiser-Meyer Oklin test of adequacy of sample size was .883 which exceeds the recommended level of .5 suggested by Kaiser (1974). The Bartlett’s 2 test of sphericity was significant [χ = 504.376, p<.001] indicating the factorability of the correlation matrix. The component analysis showed the presence of one (1) component with eigenvalue more than 1, accounting for 55.414% variance. The results are enumerated in table 7 below. Table 7:Factor loadings based on Principal Component Analysis of the 10 items on the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith scale(N=92) Items Component 1 1. My religious faith is extremely important to me. .788 2. I pray daily. .594 3. I look to my faith as a source of inspiration. .694 4. I look to my faith as providing meaning and purpose in my life. .781 5. I consider myself active in my faith( church, ,mosque, temple etc) .712 6. My faith is an important part of who I am as a person. .812 7. My relationship with God is extremely important to me. .727 8. I enjoy being around others who share my faith. .715 9. I look to my faith as a source of comfort. .852 10. My faith impacts many of my decisions. .738 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing TABLE 8: Pearson-Product Moment Correlations between the study variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1.PWB - 2.GENDER -.156 - 3.AGE .070 .207* - 4.RA -.054 .163 .049 - 5.INCOME .154 .004 .438** -.091 - 6.EL .126 -.176* .079 -.127 .254** - 7.YWE .083 .201* .687** -.005 .397** .086 - 8.MS -.090 .105 .480** .156 .135 .039 .291** - 9.NOC -.028 .103 .664** -.062 .309** .173* .609** .270** - 10.PSS .270** .049 .094 -.070 .123 -.140 .082 -.030 .136 - 11.SIG.OTHER .175* .075 .089 -.130 .130 -.231* .020 .034 .133 .809** - 12. FAMILY .203* .069 .022 -.020 .068 -.056 .057 -.098 .075 .867** .580** - 13.FRIENDS .288** -.030 .122 -.017 .101 -.048 .130 -.010 .123 .762** .364** .529** - 14.BC .191* -.015 -.038 .068 .062 -.117 -.144 -.022 -.121 .070 .141 -.003 .026 - 15.EF .151 .045 -.036 .094 .052 -.095 -.135 -.040 -.084 .031 .083 -.007 -.003 .967** - 16.PF .211* -.108 .000 -.045 .085 -.064 -.095 .015 -.136 .120 .218* .010 .058 .843** .698** - 17. RF .087 -.023 .200* -.124 .183* -.044 .229* .091 .086 .113 .074 .101 .102 .098 .120 .043 - *= significance at .05 level of significance, **= significance at .01 level of significance, PWB= Psychological well-being, RA= Religious affiliation, EL= Educational level, NOC= Number of children, PSS= Perceived social support, BC= Brief cope, EF=emotion focused coping, PF=problem focused coping, RF= Religious faith. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing In order to establish the correlations among the study variables, the Pearson Product Moment correlation analysis was run. From table 4 above, it was observed that age, income, educational level and years of working experience were positively correlated to Psychological well-being. It was also observed that perceived social support with its sub dimensions of significant other, family and friends as well as the use of coping strategies including the use of problem focused coping strategies and emotion focused coping strategies as well as religious faith were positively correlated to psychological well-being. Of these variables perceived social support, support from significant others, family and friends were significantly correlated to psychological well-being. A combination of all coping strategies as well as the use of problem focused coping strategies was also significantly related to psychological well-being. Gender, religious affiliation, marital status and number of children were negatively correlated to psychological well-being. 4.4 Testing the Hypotheses Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 were analyzed using simple multiple regression analyses. This was done to ascertain the predictive power of the independent variables (religiosity, perceived social support and coping) on psychological wellbeing. The three variables were entered together and the results obtained indicate that the overall model was significant and accounted for 10.4% variance in psychological wellbeing. Social support was observed to be the best predictor of psychological wellbeing among teachers of children with intellectual disability. (β=.254, t=2.493, p<.05). The results are enumerated in table 9 below. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Table 9: Summary of multiple regression for religiosity, perceived social support and coping B Std. Error β t p (Constant) 138.928 21.639 6.420 .000 Religiosity .207 .512 .041 .404 .687 Perceived social support 4.960 1.990 .254 2.493 .015* Coping .297 .178 .169 1.668 .099 2 R =.104, **p<.01, *p<.05 Hypothesis one: Religiosity will significantly predict psychological well-being among teachers of children with ID. As shown on Table 4, religiosity was positively related to psychological wellbeing (r = .087). The regression coefficients presented in Table 9 above indicate that psychological wellbeing contributed to an insignificant variance in explaining the variations in psychological wellbeing (β = .041, p > .05). The results therefore do not support hypothesis 1 that ‘religiosity will significantly predict psychological well-being among teachers of children with ID’. Hypothesis two: Coping will significantly predict psychological well-being As indicated on Table 4, the relationship between coping and psychological wellbeing was positive and significant [r = .191, p < .05). The regression coefficients presented in Table 9 above indicates that coping did not significantly predict psychological wellbeing (β = .169, p > .05). The second hypothesis which stated that coping will significantly predict psychological well-being was not supported. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Hypothesis three: Social support will significantly predict psychological well-being Assessing Table 4, social support was positively related to psychological wellbeing (r = .270, p< .01). From Table 9 above, the regression coefficients indicates that social support contributed to a significant variance in explaining psychological wellbeing (β = .254, p < .05). The third hypothesis which stated that social support will significantly predict psychological well-being was supported. Hypothesis four: Males will have a higher psychological well-being than females. This hypothesis was tested using the independent t-test analysis. TABLE 10: Summary of Independent t-test on Gender and Psychological well-being Mean df t Male 192.63 90 1.494 Female 185.80 p=.07 The independent t- test was used because there were two independent groups sampled from the same population and the researcher wanted to find out if there were any differences among these groups. The results from table 10 above show that there was no significant difference in scores for males (M= 192.63, SD= 25.50) and females (M=185.80, SD= 18.14), t (92) =1.462, p=.07(one tailed). The magnitude of the differences in the means (mean difference=6.83, eta squared= .023). Thus hypothesis four was not supported. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Hypothesis five: Married teachers of children with ID will have a significantly higher level of psychological wellbeing than unmarried teachers of children with ID. This hypothesis was also tested using the independent t-test analysis. Table 11: Summary of Independent t test on marital status and psychological wellbeing Marital N Mean df t p Status Unmarried 56 183.85 90 -3.072 .003 Married 36 197.56 Assessing the results on Table 11 above, the influence of marital status on psychological wellbeing was significant (t (90) = -3.072, p < .05). This means the mean scores (M=197.56) of married teachers of children with ID differed significantly from the mean score (M=183.85) of unmarried teachers of children with ID. The fifth hypothesis which stated that Married teachers of children with ID will have a significantly higher level of psychological wellbeing than unmarried teachers of children with ID was supported. 4.5 Additional findings Further analyses were done to ascertain which of the sub dimensions of perceived social support enhanced the psychological well-being of respondents the most. A simple multiple regression analysis was done and from the results obtained in table 12 below it was observed that the overall model was significant and accounted for 8.9% variance in psychological well- being. However only social support from friends was a significant predictor of psychological well-being among teachers of intellectually disabled children. (β=0.246, t=2.043, p<.05). 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Table 12: Summary of multiple regression for sub-dimensions of perceived social support B Std. Error Β t Sig (Constant) 162.087 10.215 15.867 .000 Sig. other .994 1.910 .065 .521 .604 Family .544 2.167 .035 .251 .802 Friends 4.138 2.026 .246 2.043 .044* 2 R =.089 **p<.01, *p<.05 Though collectively the coping strategies as measured by the brief cope were not significant, further analyses were done to ascertain if any individual coping strategy contributed to the psychological wellbeing of teachers of children with ID. A multiple regression analysis was run and it was observed that the overall model was significant and accounted for 27.8% variance in predicting psychological wellbeing. However positive reframing was the only significant predictor of psychological wellbeing among teachers of children with ID (β=0.256, t=2.059, p<.05). Results are enumerated in table 13 below. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Table 13: Summary of multiple regression for sub-dimensions of coping B Std. Error β t Sig (Constant) 169.017 13.225 12.780 .000 Self-distraction -.833 1.637 -.062 -.509 .612 Active coping .059 1.645 .005 .036 .972 Denial -1.626 1.509 -.130 -1.078 .284 Substance abuse -1.732 3.136 -.063 -.552 .582 Emotional support 2.201 1.739 .180 1.266 .209 Instrumental support -.527 1.750 -.045 -.301 .764 Behavioral disengagement -.531 1.640 -.041 -.324 .747 Venting -1.041 1.667 -.081 -.625 .534 Positive reframing 2.855 1.386 .256 2.059 .043* Planning -.162 1.924 -.014 -.084 .933 Humour .046 1.456 .004 .032 .975 Acceptance .830 1.848 .066 .449 .655 Religion 2.836 1.571 .231 1.806 .075 Self-blame -.938 1.838 -.073 -.510 .611 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 4.6 Observed model Figure 2 Religiosity ns β=0.41 SOCIAL SUPPORT PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING β= 0.254* nsβ=0.169 Coping Figure 2: Observed Model From Figure 2 above, it was observed that out of the three variables (Religiosity, Social Support, Coping), only social support significantly predicted psychological wellbeing. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION 5.1 Introduction This chapter reviews and interprets the findings of the present study which specifically sought to examine the impact of religiosity, coping and social support on the psychological well-being of teachers who teach children with intellectual disability. The findings are discussed bearing in mind other related empirical studies and theories pertaining to intellectual disability. The implications of the findings and the recommendations for future studies are discussed. Also, the benefits or implications for the wellbeing of teachers as well as the benefits for government agencies, policy makers and owners and heads of institutions that cater for people with intellectual disability are also discussed. The limitations of the study as well as conclusions drawn based on the findings of the study are highlighted. Research has affirmed the stressful nature of catering for children. A child with an intellectual disability increases this stress and has a toll on the psychological wellbeing of the individuals taking care of the child. Parents and siblings of intellectually disabled children, as well as the intellectually disabled child himself/herself, have been the focus of research for a long time. However, teachers who take care of them and spend an appreciable amount of time with them have been scarcely studied. In areas where research has been done on these teachers, the focus has been on whether they will be open to the idea of inclusive education or not and what they envisage the challenges for inclusive education will be. However, the psychological wellbeing of the teachers and how this may impact the children they teach has not been brought into the limelight. 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Teachers can be seen to be formal caregivers. Previous literature on the study of parents and siblings of intellectually disabled persons as well as the intellectually disabled individuals have found that factors such as religiosity, coping and perceived social support play a huge role in determining the psychological wellbeing of either the parents, siblings, or intellectually disabled individuals. It is for this reason that these factors were studied as possible predictors of psychological wellbeing among teachers of intellectually disabled children. Teachers who teach in special schools that cater for intellectually disabled children in the Accra Metropolis of Ghana were the focus of this study and formed the population for this study. 5.2 Religiosity and Psychological Wellbeing The present study found that religiosity was not a significant predictor of psychological wellbeing among teachers of intellectually disabled children. This did not support the first hypothesis which stated that religiosity will significantly predict psychological well-being among teachers of children with ID. This finding suggests that for teachers of intellectually disabled children being more religious or less religious has no effect on their psychological wellbeing or their level of religiosity is not related to their psychological wellbeing. This finding supports the findings of Addai et al. (2014) that religiosity was not a significant predictor of psychological wellbeing. The present finding also corroborates the study conducted by Dodoo (2014) which examined the relationship between religiosity and psychological wellbeing. The results of the study indicated that religiosity was not a significant predictor of psychological wellbeing. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing A similar study by Payne, Bergin, Bielema and Jenkins (1991) also indicated a non- significant relationship between religiosity and psychological wellbeing. According to Saroglou (2003), religiosity does not necessarily predict psychological wellbeing but rather an individual's commitment to his object of worship has an influence on one's psychological wellbeing. An individual can be religious without necessarily being committed to religion. In that sense, religiosity will not predict psychological wellbeing. Since religiosity was not measured in terms of commitment to one's object of worship, it may be a contributing factor to why no significant relationship was found between religiosity and psychological wellbeing. The finding, however, contradicts a study conducted by Atefoe (2013) and Ekas et al. (2009) which found that religiosity was a significant predictor of psychological wellbeing. The differences in findings between the present study and that of Atefoe (2013) and Ekas et al. (2009) can be due to the fact that Atefoe (2013) and Ekas et al. (2009) measured not only religiosity but took into account other dimensions of religiosity such as frequency of prayer, religious attendance and display of belief thus a distinction was created between being religious and attending or partaking in religious activities. However, the present study did not take into account those distinctions in the measurement of religiosity and this may have had an influence on the ability of religiosity to influence wellbeing. Also these researchers took into account the concept of commitment which is also essential in predicting wellbeing. In the present study, though a positive relationship was found between religiosity and psychological wellbeing the amount of variance accounted by religiosity on psychological wellbeing was not significant. A possible explanation for the difference in findings in the current study and what was established by previous literature (e.g. Addai et al., 2014; Atefoe, 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 2013; Dodoo, 2014) could be the individual's basic representation or concept of religiosity. Religiosity, as measured in the present study, refers to the individuals' belief in the presence of a higher being and the role of faith in their (individuals) time of distress. This is accompanied by religious attendance and personal experiences of one’s conviction of a supreme being. The current study therefore assessed religiosity in a composite nature. However, Ano et al. (2005) explained that there are positive and negative forms of religious coping. The positive forms of religious coping are positively related to psychological adjustment to stress whiles the negative forms of religious coping are negatively related to psychological adjustment to stress. Ekas et al.’s (2009) study revealed that though religious beliefs and spirituality were associated with less negative outcomes and greater positive maternal psychological wellbeing, religious activities were associated with more negative and less positive outcomes. The negative forms of religious coping (Ano et al., 2005) could include certain religious activities (Ekas et al., 2009). It can therefore be argued that participants in this present study conceptualization of religiosity may differ significantly from the dimensions of the religiosity (Santa Clara Religiosity Scale) scale used in measuring the concept in this present study, and that may have accounted for it not being significantly related to one’s psychological wellbeing as established by previous literature. The Santa Clara Religiosity Scale defines religiosity in the light of one’s religious belief and faith in a higher being, one’s religious attendance and one personal experiences but Pokimica et al. (2012) explain that religiosity in itself does not predict one's wellbeing rather religious importance pertaining to religiosity does predict one's wellbeing. Thus without a psychological commitment or attaching importance to religious activities and the practice of religion, the things practised and beliefs associated become more of a routine action than have a meaningful impact. If this occurs, the 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing benefits and impact religiosity is to have on psychological wellbeing will not be felt. The participants in the current study may also have an extrinsic orientation to religion than an intrinsic one. With an extrinsic orientation participants in this current study may conceptualise religiosity as a responsibility they have to fulfil. They may attend their place of worship, pray frequently and give alms but will not associate these activities as a part of being who they are but rather as an obligation they have to fulfil in order to be accepted among their religious group (Pargament, 2002). When religiosity is viewed from an extrinsic point it does not enhance the psychological wellbeing of the individual this is because the individual does not conceptualise what he/she does to who he/she is. The individual therefore does not derive the benefits such as hope, joy and peace which may positively influence the individual’s wellbeing. 5.3 Coping and Psychological Wellbeing The study also investigated the relationship between coping and psychological wellbeing and further went on to determine if coping would account for a significant amount of variance in psychological wellbeing. Findings revealed that though there was a positive and significant relationship between one’s coping strategy and psychological wellbeing, coping was not a significant predictor of psychological wellbeing. However, when the individual sub- dimensions of coping were analysed it was found that positive reframing enhanced the psychological wellbeing of teachers of children with ID. This is consistent with previous studies which found that among caregivers (parents) of children with autism spectrum, coping did not have a significant relationship with their wellbeing (Abbeduto et al., 2004; Owiredua, 2016; Smith et al., 2008). The present finding agrees with the study by Abbeduto et al., (2004) on the impact of coping on psychological 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing wellbeing which indicated a non-significant prediction of coping on psychological wellbeing. Owiredua (2015), also found out that among patients with chronic conditions like diabetes, coping was not related to their wellbeing. Smith et al. (2008) found out that coping was not related to psychological wellbeing. The present finding again supports the study by Higgins et al. (2005) which also found that coping was not an independent predictor of one’s wellbeing. The present finding contradicts the research conducted by Durowaa (2016) which found that among patients with other forms of conditions like burns coping was positively and significantly related to their quality of life or psychological wellbeing. It also disagrees with the study by Benson (2010) which indicated that stress had no significant impact on well- being. The inconsistency in the finding of the present study and that of Benson (2010) may be associated with the fact that Benson’s study adopted a meta-analytical approach and thus publications pertaining to his objectives were reviewed. The results obtained from Benson's study may have been biased based on the methodology. The disparity in the findings of this study and previous literature can be explained using Lazarus et al. (1996) transactional model of stress and coping and Gray (2002) study. Lazarus et al. (1996) and Gray (2002) stipulate that when faced with any stressful event, the individual’s perception of the event is a key determinant of the coping strategy that will be adopted. An alteration in the individual’s perception of the stressful event will lead to an alteration in the coping strategy adopted. Lazarus et al. (1996) transactional model of stress and coping further elaborates this by explaining that, whenever individuals are faced with a stressful event, they cognitively appraise the situation and their available resources that will aid in dealing with the situation. The model seems to suggest that there are multifaceted 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing modes of dealing with a situation and individuals select preferred ones based on their available resources. Thus if the teachers do not see their environment as a threat or harm but rather as a challenge, the likelihood of employing coping mechanisms may reduce. Smith et al. (2008) put it best when they explain that coping is continuous and dynamic and thus is constantly under review. As such changes in the coping strategy arise depending on the level of stress one finds himself in. It is therefore possible that the participants in this current study perception of event, which is taking care of an intellectually disabled child, differs. Though they (teachers) represent another category of caregivers in the child’s immediate environment aside other significant caregivers (family) the time spent with the child is limited. Thus it is safe to assume that they have limited time with the child and therefore they may not suffer the full impact of catering for an intellectually disabled child as the informal caregivers would. This perception or appraisal serves as a safe means of escape from the current suffering or stressful situation which further proves that cognitive reframing, as a coping mechanism, is important in one’s experience of high levels of wellbeing. This form of appraisal could also account for the reason why positive reframing as a coping strategy was seen to be a significant predictor of psychological wellbeing though collectively the different coping strategies had no effect. Thus the teachers may modify their perception or appraisal of the situation and instead of seeing it as stressful may see the situation as an opportunity to impart knowledge and make a difference in the lives of these children who the society may otherwise have given up on. Raina et al. (2004) buttress the above explanation by stipulating that the impact of stress that formal caregivers experience is in a much-lessened amount to that which informal caregivers face. This is because formal caregiving is chosen or planned while informal caregiving is usually unexpected; as such she stipulates that the option to quit for formal caregivers when things seem to get too tough may account for why coping did not account for psychological wellbeing in teachers of children with ID. The teachers may 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing appraise that they can always leave if they feel that things are unbearable and in such an instance coping strategies may not be utilized. Another reason why coping was not a significant predictor in this sample may be attributed to the fact that research has shown that coping interventions are most effective and affect wellbeing when the situation for which the individual employs coping mechanisms are related to close interpersonal roles such as child rearing or marriage and least effect when dealing with problems associated to one's occupation (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978). 5.4 Social Support and Psychological Wellbeing The results of the study revealed that there was a positive relationship between social support and psychological wellbeing among teachers of intellectually disabled children. The amount of variance accounted by social support on psychological wellbeing was also significant. This supported the third hypothesis which stated that social support will significantly predict psychological well-being among teachers of children with ID. The implication of this finding is that having higher social support is good for one’s psychological wellbeing. This corroborates the assertion by Smith, Greenberg and Seltzer (2012) that social support has the ability to predict changes in wellbeing above and beyond the impact of child behaviour problems among mothers of children with ASD. This present finding supports the study by VanderZee, Buunk, and Sanderman (1997) on the relationship between social support from friends and psychological well-being. Findings from the research revealed that social support from friends was positively associated with psychological wellbeing. The present finding also confirms Bromley, Hare, Davidson and Emerson’s (2014) finding of how social support influences the subjective wellbeing of individuals. Similarly, the finding agrees with the study by Ekas, Lickenbrock and Whitman 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing (2010) which found that sources of social support pertaining to partner, family and friends increased the optimism levels of mothers with children who have ASD and this directly increased their psychological wellbeing. In this study, it was found that support from friends enhanced one’s psychological wellbeing. This could be due to the fact that comparatively there are a few people who are engaged in the profession of teaching children with ID in Ghana, thus teachers in this profession may tend to form a bond with each other which helps them to cope with the stressors of taking care of these children. This finding is consistent with results found in a study by White and Hastings (2004). They found that informal sources of support such as those from friends enhanced the wellbeing of mothers who took care of children with intellectual disability. Thus the ability to share ideas with people who tend to understand the nature and gravity of the job may enhance the psychological wellbeing of teachers of children with ID than spouses or family who may not be able to fully conceptualize the demands of the job. The present finding has also gained support in the Ghanaian setting. In Ghana, studies on social support indicate that social support accounts for significant variance in psychological wellbeing among mothers who have suffered from postpartum depression especially during the period in which the depressive symptoms are most high (Afun, 2016) thus high social support resulted in high psychological wellbeing. Similar studies by Asante (2012) and Hobenu (2015) found that social support enhanced an individual’s wellbeing by reducing anxiety, depression and stress. The positive relationship between social support and perceived psychological wellbeing can also be proffered using the well-being theory (Watson, Clark & Tellegen, 1988). The well- being theory makes three assumptions. First, well-being is subjective and comes from within 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing the individual. Second, well-being does not merely refer to an absence of negative factors but includes the presence of positive affect. Lastly, the presence of others and support individuals receive enhance their wellbeing and self-worth. It is for this reason that Mutkins, Brown and Thorsteinsson (2011) indicated that the presence of others serves as a support which boosts the wellbeing of individuals. Moreover, Afum (2016) indicated that good social support is a protective factor that improves the wellbeing of individuals. Thus in the current study, it can be assumed that having a good social network which may provide a listening ear or offer suggestions concerning how to handle a child with ID who may be having challenges grasping concepts being taught improves the psychological wellbeing of teachers. Social support from parents and other students may also lessen the teacher's burden and promote wellbeing. For example, a teacher can ask other students to help her keep an eye on a student who may find it difficult to sit still. The other students therefore serve as a check since the teacher may not constantly have his/her attention on that student. Based on this result it can be assumed that for teachers of children with ID handling the pressures alone or not having any support may be detrimental to their wellbeing. 5.5 Gender Differences in Psychological Wellbeing The fourth hypothesis stated that male teachers will have a higher psychological well-being than female teachers. Findings from the study revealed no significant difference between male and female teachers on psychological wellbeing. Thus the fourth hypothesis was not supported indicating that male and female teachers have similar levels of psychological wellbeing. The present finding agrees with the study by Williams (2003) which assessed the wellbeing of males and females. The study assessed the general wellbeing including their physical, social and psychological wellbeing. The results of the study indicated no significant 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing difference in the level of wellbeing (physical, social and psychological wellbeing) between male nurses and female. The present findings support several others such as that of Creed and Watson (2003), Weiss (2002), Jung-Hwa, Hong, Seltzer & Greenberg (2008) and Williams (2003) which also found no gender differences in psychological wellbeing. This study, however, contradicts the findings of Pinquart and Sorensen (2000) which found that that women reported significantly lower subjective wellbeing and less positive self- concept than men. The use of meta-analytical design by Pinquart and Sorensen (2000) instead of cross-section adopted in the present study might have contributed to the contradiction in findings since meta-analysis is associated with publication bias. A possible explanation one can proffer with respect to the lack of a significant difference between males and females on scores of psychological wellbeing is because of the level of education and the diverse nature of the working conditions of the teachers. Education helps build individual’s level of self-image and wellbeing. Moreover, caring for individuals with disability is very stressful which affect both males and females equally. This stressful nature of the job has a greater propensity of shaping the self-concept and wellbeing of both male and female teachers. As explained by Ryu and Bartfeld (2012) all things being equal, males and females do not differ in their self-worth and wellbeing unless one of the opposite sexes is influenced by risk factors such as poverty, lower level of education, lack of social support, broken homes etc. In situations where both males and females are in similar situations, no sex difference is found in their level of wellbeing. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing 5.6 Marital Status and Psychological Wellbeing The last hypothesis that teachers of children with ID who are married will have a significantly higher level of psychological wellbeing than unmarried teachers of children with ID was supported. This means that marriage serves as a booster to an individual's level of psychological wellbeing. The finding is consistent with the study by Creed and Watson (2003) which was aimed at describing the level of wellbeing among individuals. The results indicated higher level of psychological wellbeing among married individuals than unmarried individuals. The findings of this study on marital status are consistent with previous researches which found that being married had a positive influence on psychological wellbeing. Some researchers found that this influence is dependent on the individuals satisfaction or happiness in the relationship while others found that even when marital satisfaction was controlled for being married still had a high significance on psychological wellbeing (Diener, Gohm, Suh & Oishi, 2000; Dush & Amato, 2005; Holt-lunstad, Birmingham & Jones, 2008; Kim & McKenry,2002). The finding, however, disagrees with the results of the study conducted by Coombs (1991) which found that marital status does not influence the psychological wellbeing of individuals but rather the support that individual’s get from their partners has an effect on their psychological wellbeing. The significantly higher level of psychological wellbeing among married teachers of children with ID compared to their unmarried counterparts is because marriage serves as support that alleviates distress. The support generated from marriage can help individuals cope with stress which can increase the psychological wellbeing of people. This is because marriage provides 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing a sense of protection which has been seen to enhance psychological wellbeing (Kim & McKenry, 2002). Thus for this current study married couples may feel a sense of protection and comfort from their partners which reduces their stress levels and thus that may have an influence on their psychological wellbeing. 5.7 Limitations of the Study As with any study, there are some shortcomings that limit the interpretation of the present findings. Though the present study took all possible steps to provide the findings in a holistic way, the findings of this study should be interpreted in light of its limitations. First, the study relied only on self-report data from teachers of intellectually disabled children in the Accra Metropolis. While participants reported their levels of perceived social support, religiosity and psychological wellbeing, they may not necessarily enact them. The use of self- report measures has been challenged on the basis of their limited ability to tap into psychological wellbeing and their vulnerability to defensive reporting. In addition, the self- report methodological choice may be flawed because participants had different experiences with privacy issues that could not be reported with these methods of collecting data. Secondly, this empirical study confines itself to a correlation survey method, which leaves room for speculation with regard to causality among the variables. Moreover, the researcher used purposive sampling technique instead of random sampling. By that, not all the teachers of intellectually disabled children in the Accra Metropolis had an equal chance of participating in the study. The purposive sampling, however, became appropriate because there was no up-dated and current sample frame from which respondents could be randomly selected. 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Finally, the samples were taken from one organizational sector that allowed the researchers to gather data via survey questionnaires. These limitations may decrease the ability to generalize the results to other organizational settings. 5.8 Implications of the findings In spite of the limitations, the findings of this study have important implications for clinicians, stakeholders and government policies. The knowledge gained from this study and other previous researches emphasize the importance of social support as a predictor of psychological wellbeing (Mutkins, Brown & Thorsteinsson, 2011; Smith, Greenberg & Seltzer, 2012). It is imperative that strong, reliable social network groups are formed since lower levels of perceived social support purports to low levels of psychological wellbeing. Thus heads of institutions can form small social groups or introduce a buddy system whereby each individual(teacher) has someone they can turn to when they have a problem or someone to share the highs and lows of the job. Having someone who is in the same field will provide effective exchange of ideas and the understanding of potential stressors may be easier. Clinicians can also benefit from the findings of this study. Since social support is not an individual affair but includes support from other individuals in clinical practice teachers of children with ID who are experiencing challenges because of their job may benefit from group therapy. This may make them feel that there are not alone and there are others on whom they can lean on for support. Government agencies in charge of education such as the Ghana Education Service can put in place measures such as having an association for teachers of children with ID to address any issues that these teachers may face. Periodic seminars and workshops can also be organized to help teachers in this field to share ideas and find more effective ways to impart knowledge 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing to the children this measure will contribute to the sustenance and enhancement of the inclusive education policy. 5.9 Recommendations The effects of social support, coping and religion on psychological wellbeing were explored in this study. Although the researcher took all possible steps to make this study moderately comprehensive, it is far from exhaustive. Based on this, the findings of this research could be considered incomplete because of the possibility for other influential variables that can moderate and mediate the outcome of the study. Further research should continue to examine other personal and contextual factors. To extend the findings of this study, several areas for further research are recommended below: Firstly, the different components of psychological wellbeing should be assessed. This was not assessed because the scale used assessed it as a single construct. Secondly, additional research will benefit from a more comprehensive approach, in which multiple personal characteristics such as educational level, age and economic status are assessed simultaneously. In this regard, more research on the moderating and mediating effects of demographic characteristics on the influence of social support, coping and religiosity on psychological wellbeing is recommended in the future. In assessing these areas, the methodological limitations encountered in the present study need to be addressed. Future researches with these same variables and also exploring the areas recommended should employ random sampling technique to increase the probability that each participant has equal chance of taking part in the study. Moreover, the use of either qualitative research approaches or both qualitative and quantitative approaches, for a better understanding of the interaction effects of all the variables in the study are deemed important. 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Lastly, a longitudinal design can also be adopted over the cross-sectional design, for a better understanding of the long-term effect of social support, coping and religiosity on psychological wellbeing in this study. 5.10 Conclusion The cross-sectional survey was employed to assess how coping, social support and religiosity influences psychological wellbeing of teachers of intellectually disabled children. Investigating a sample of 92 teachers of children with ID in the Accra Metropolis, a number of hypotheses were tested. This study has identified that contrary to previous research on caregivers of children with intellectual disability which identified coping and religiosity as significant predictors of psychological wellbeing, for teachers of intellectually disabled children perceived social support is the most significant predictor of psychological wellbeing. Of the demographic variables investigated only marital status had an effect on one’s psychological wellbeing. The findings of this study therefore point to the fact that social support is an important factor to consider when implementing intervention programs for teachers of children with ID who may be experiencing challenges in the workplace. Further research should also be conducted on teachers who teach in the mainstream school to ascertain if the factors that affect the psychological wellbeing teachers of children with ID transcends to teachers who teach in the mainstream schools. This may have important implications for enhancing the educational system. It is imperative to note however that teachers' perception of their job, professional burnout and how this may influence their psychological wellbeing was not controlled for in this study and researchers should seek to explore that area as well to give a more holistic view. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing REFERENCES Abbeduto, L., Seltzer, M. M., Shattuck, P., Krauss, M. W., Orsmond, G., & Murphy, M. M. (2004). Psychological Well-Being and Coping in Mothers of Youths With Autism, Down Syndrome, orFragile X Syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 109(3), 237-254. Abbott, R., Ploubidis, G., Huppert, F., Kuh, D., & Croudace, T. (2010). An Evaluation of the Precision of Measurement of Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scales in a Population Sample. Social indicators research, 97(3), 357-373. Addai, I., Opoku-Agyeman, C., & Amanfu, S. K. (2014). Exploring Predictors of Subjective Well-Being in Ghana: A Micro-Level Study. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(4), 869-890. Afun, L. (2016). Postpartum Depression, Help-Seeking Behavior and Psychological Well- Being: Examining the Relationship among Mothers. University of Ghana. Agbenyega, J. (2007). Examining Teachers' Concerns and Attitudes to Inclusive Education in Ghana. International Journal of whole schooling, 3(1), 41-56. Agbenyega, J. S. (2003). The power of labeling discourse in the construction of disability in Ghana. Paper presented at the A paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in Education Conference, Newcastle, Association of Active Educational Researchers (AARE). Agbenyega, J., Deppeler, J., & Harvey, D. (2005). Developing an instrument to measure teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive education for students with disabilities. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 5, 1-10. Albrecht, T. L., & Adelman, M. B. (1987). Communicating social support: Sage Publications, Inc. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Allington-Smith, P. (2006). Mental health of children with learning disabilities. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 12(2), 130-138. American Psychiatric Association. (2004). Intellectual Disability Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR (4th, text revision ed.). Arlington: Washington, D.C. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. Washington: American Psychiatric Association, 2000. Anang, H. B. A. (2014). Culture–Specific Coping and Quality of Life among Ghanaians Living with Chronic Illness: Mental Illness and Chronic Kidney Disease. University of Ghana. Anderson, D. W. (2004). Human rights and persons with disabilities in developing nations of Africa. Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Lilly Fellows Program National Research Conference Christianity and Human Rights. Samford University Birmingham. Ano, G. G., & Vasconcelles, E. B. (2005). Religious Coping and psychological adjustment to stress:A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 461-480. Antonucci, T. C., & Akiyama, H. (1987). An examination of sex differences in social support among older men and women. Sex Roles, 17(11), 737-749. Anum, P. (2011). Living with a disabled child: Experiences of families with disabled children in the Dangme West District (Ghana). Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Asante, K. O. (2012). Social support and the psychological wellbeing of people living with HIV/AIDS in Ghana. African journal of psychiatry, 15(5), 340-345. Atefoe, E. A. (2013). Mental Health Among Women in Accra: The Effects of Religiosity, Social Support and Social Negativity. University of Ghana. 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Auluck, S. (2007). Life is strange. Journal of Religion, Disability & Health, 11(2), 23-28. Avoke, M. (2002). Models of Disability in the Labelling and Attitudinal Discourse in Ghana. Disability and Society, 17(7), 769-777. Baker, J. P., & Berenbaum, H. (2007). Emotional approach and problem-focused coping: A comparison of potentially adaptive strategies. Cognition and Emotion, 21(1), 95-118. Barrett, D. B., Kurian, G. T., & Johnson, T. M. (2001). World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Survey of Churches and Religions in the Modern World (1 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Bartfeld, J., Ahn, H.-M., & Ryu, J. H. (2012). Economic Well-Being of Divorced Mothers with Varying Child Placement Arrangements in Wisconsin: Contributions of Child Support and Other Income Sources. Bazzano, A., Wolfe, C., Zylowska, L., Wang, S., Schuster, E., Barrett, C., & Lehrer, D. (2015). Mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR) for parents and caregivers of individuals with developmental disabilities: a community-based approach. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(2), 298-308. Benn, R., Akiva, T., Arel, S., & Roeser, R. W. (2012). Mindfulness training effects for parents and educators of children with special needs. Developmental psychology, 48(5), 1476. Benson, P. R. (2010). Coping, distress, and well-being in mothers of children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4(2), 217-228. Benson, P. R., & Karlof, K. L. (2009). Anger, Stress Proliferation, and Depressed Mood Among Parents of Children with ASD: A Longitudinal Replication. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(2), 350-362. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Biggs, E. E., & Carter, E. W. (2016). Quality of Life for Transition-Age Youth with Autism or Intellectual Disability. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(1), 190-204. Bonnah Nkansah, G., & Unwin, T. (2010). The contribution of ICTs to the delivery of special educational needs in Ghana: practices and potential. Information Technology for Development, 16(3), 191-211. Bonsu, K. (2014). Psychological health and coping strategies among caregivers of burns patients. Psychology. University of Ghana. Bromley, J., Hare, D. J., Davison, K., & Emerson, E. (2004). Mothers supporting children with autistic spectrum disorders. Autism, 8(4), 409-423. Browder, D. M., Wakeman, S. Y., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., & Algozzinexya, B. (2006). Research on reading instruction for individuals with significant cognitive disabilities. Exceptional children, 72(4), 392-408. Buntinx, W. H. E., & Schalock, R. L. (2010). Models of Disability, Quality of Life, and Individualized Supports: Implications for Professional Practice in Intellectual Disability. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 7(4), 283-294. Cheng, S.-T., & Chan, A. C. (2006). Social support and self-rated health revisited:: Is there a gender difference in later life? Social Science & Medicine, 63(1), 118-122. Christopher, J. C. (1999). Situating psychological well‐being: Exploring the cultural roots of its theory and research. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77(2), 141-152. Cohen, F. (1991). "Measurement of coping”. In Stress and coping: an anrhology. New York: Columbia University press. Cohen, S., & McKay, G. (1984). Social support, stress and the buffering hypothesis: A theoretical analysis. Handbook of psychology and health, 4, 253-267. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Cohen, S., Underwood, L. G., & Gottlieb, B. H. (2000). Social support measurement and intervention: A guide for health and social scientists: Oxford University Press. Coombs, R. H. (1991). Marital status and personal well-being: A literature review. Family Relations, 97-102. Coulthard, P., & Fitzgerald, M. (1999). In God we trust? Organised religion and personal beliefs as resources and coping strategies, and their implications for health in parents with a child on the autistic spectrum. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 2(1), 19-33. Coyne, P., Pisha, B., Dalton, B., Zeph, L. A., & Smith, N. C. (2012). Literacy by design: A universal design for learning approach for students with significant intellectual disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 33(3), 162-172. Cramm, J. M., & Nieboer, A. P. (2011). Psychological well-being of caregivers of children with intellectualdisabilities: using parental stress as a mediating factor. Journal of intellectual disabilities, 15(2), 101-113. Creed, P. A., & Watson, T. (2003). Age, gender, psychological wellbeing and the impact of losing the latent and manifest benefits of employment in unemployed people. Australian Journal of Psychology, 55(2), 95-103. Dekker, M. C., Koot, H. M., Ende, J. v. d., & Verhulst, F. C. (2002). Emotional and behavioral problems in children and adolescents with and without intellectual disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(8), 1087-1098. Dew-Hughes, D., & Blandford, S. (1999). The social development of children with severe learning difficulties: A case study of an inclusive education initiative between two primary schools in Oxfordshire, UK. Down Syndrome Research and Practice, 6(1), 1- 18. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Dezutter, J., Soenens, B., & Hutsebaut, D. (2006). Religiosity and mental health: A further exploration of the relative importance of religious behaviors vs. religious attitudes. Personality and individual differences, 40(4), 807-818. Dias, C., Cruz, J. F., & Fonseca, A. M. (2012). The relationship between multidimensional competitive anxiety, cognitive threat appraisal, and coping strategies: A multi-sport study. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10(1), 52-65. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological bulletin, 95(3), 542-575. Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American psychologist, 55(1), 34. Diener, E., Diener, M., & Diener, C. (2009). Factors Predicting the Subjective Well-Being of Nations. In E. Diener (Ed.), Culture and Well-Being: The Collected Works of Ed Diener (pp. 43-70). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. Diener, E., Gohm, C. L., Suh, E., & Oishi, S. (2000). Similarity of the Relations between Marital Status and Subjective Well-Being Across Cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(4), 419-436. Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual review of psychology, 54(1), 403- 425. Diener, E., Suh, E., Lucas, R., & Smith, H. ( 1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. . Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276-302. Dierendonck, D., Díaz, D., Rodríguez-Carvajal, R., Blanco, A., & Moreno-Jiménez, B. (2008). Ryff’s Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being, A Spanish Exploration. Social indicators research, 87(3), 473-479. Dodoo, N. (2014). The Relationship between Childhood Abuse, Religiosity and Life Satisfaction. University of Ghana. 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Dorahy, M. J., Lewis, C. A., Schumaker, J. F., Akuamoah-Boateng, R., Duze, M., & Sibiya, T. E. (1998). A cross-cultural analysis of religion and life satisfaction. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 1(1), 37-43. Durowaa, R. (2016). Pain Beliefs, Coping and Quality of Life among Burns’ Patients at the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital in Accra, Ghana_2016. University of Ghana. Dush, C. M. K., & Amato, P. R. (2005). Consequences of relationship status and quality for subjective well-being. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22(5), 607-627. Eisenhower, A. S., Baker, B. L., & Blacher, J. (2005). Preschool children with intellectual disability: syndrome specificity, behaviour problems, and maternal well-being. Journal of Intellectual disabilit research, 49(9), 657-671. Ekas, N. V., Lickenbrock, D. M., & Whitman, T. L. (2010). Optimism, Social Support, and Well-Being in Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(10), 1274-1284. Ekas, N. V., Whitman, T. L., & Shivers, C. (2009). Religiosity, Spirituality, and Socioemotional Functioning in Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(5), 706-719. Ellis, A. (1980). Psychotherapy and atheistic values: A response to A. E. Bergin’s psychotherapy and religious values. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychotherapy, 48,635-639. Engelbrecht, P., Nel, M., Nel, N., & Tlale, D. (2015). Enacting understanding of inclusion in complex contexts: classroom practices of South African teachers. South African Journal of Education, 35(3). Engelbrecht, P., Swart, E., & Eloff, I. (2001). Stress and coping skills of teachers with a learner with Down’s syndrome in inclusive classrooms. South African Journal of Education, 21(4). 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Eni-Olorunda, T. (2016). Exclusion of children with intellectual disabilities from regular classroom: Nigerian perspective. African Journal for the Psychological study of Social Issues, 17(3). Ensel, W. M., & Lin, N. (1991). The life stress paradigm and psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 321-341. Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics with SPSS. London: Sage. Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 219-239. Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2004). Coping: Pitfalls and promise. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 55, 745-774. Fordjour, D. (2015). Health Belief, Social Support, and Psychological Wellbeing as Predictors of Treatment Compliance: A Study among Caregivers of Sickle Cell and Acutely Ill Children. University Of Ghana. Foreman, P. (2009). Education of students with an intellectual disability.Research & Practice. Charlote NC, USA: Information age publishing Inc. Garguilo, R. M., & Metacalf, D. (2013). Teaching in Today's Inclusive Classrooms. A universal design for learning approach (3rd ed.). USA: Cenage Learning. Gray, D. E. (2002). Ten years on: a longitudinal study of families of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 27(3), 215-222. Green, M., & Elliott, M. (2010). Religion, health, and psychological well-being. Journal of religion and health, 49(2), 149-163. Griffith, J., Steptoe, A., & Cropley, M. (1999). An investigation ofcoping strategies associated with job stress in teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69(4), 517-531. 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Gutman, L. M., & Feinstein, L. (2008). Determinants of Aspirations. London: Center for the wider benefits of learning,Institute of Education. Ha, J.-H., Hong, J., Seltzer, M. M., & Greenberg, J. S. (2008). Age and gender differences in the well-being of midlife and aging parents with children with mental health or developmental problems: Report of a national study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49(3), 301-316. Hackney, C. H., & Sanders, G. S. (2003). Religiosity and Mental Health: A meta analysis of recent studies. Journal for the scientific study of Religion, 42, 43-55. Harris, J. C. (2006). Intellectual disability: Understanding its development, causes, classification, evaluation and treatment. New York: Oxford University Press. Hastings, R. P., Kovshoff, H., Brown, T., Ward, N. J., Espinosa, F. D., & Remington, B. (2005). Coping strategies in mothers and fathers of preschool and school-age children with autism. Autism, 9(4), 377-391. Headey, B., & Wearing, A. (1992). Understanding Happiness: A Theory of Subjective Well- being. Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire. Hebron, J., & Humphrey, N. (2014). Mental health difficulties among young people on the autistic spectrum in mainstream secondary schools: A comparative study. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 14(1), 22-32. Higgins, D. J., Bailey, S. R., & Pearce, J. C. (2005). Factors associated with functioning style and coping strategies of families with a child with an autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 9(2), 125-137. Hobenu, K. A. (2015). Surviving Cervical Cancer: Experiences of Women in the Accra Metropolis. University of Ghana. Holt-Lunstad, J., Birmingham, W., & Jones, B. Q. (2008). Is There Something Unique about Marriage? The Relative Impact of Marital Status, Relationship Quality, and Network 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Social Support on Ambulatory Blood Pressure and Mental Health. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 35(2), 239-244. Hurlbert, J. S., & Acock, A. C. (1990). The effects of marital status on the form and composition of social networks. Social Science Quarterly, 71(1), 163. Inclusion Ghana (2011). On the level of stigmatization, discrimination and exclusion of persons with intellectual Disability and their families in Ghana. Retrieved on January 12 2017, from http://www.inclusion-ghana.org Ingstad, B., & Whyte, S. R. (1995). Disability and culture: Univ of California Press. Ishii-Kuntz, M., & Seccombe, K. (1989). The impact of children upon social support networks throughout the life course. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 777-790. Jantarapat, C., Suttharangsee W., & Petpichechian, W. (2014). Factors related to psychological well-being of teachers residing in a situation of unrest in Southern Thailand. Songklanagarind Journal of Nursing 34. Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of educational research, 79(1), 491-525. Jerusalem, M., & Schwarzer, R. (2014). Self-efficacy: Thought control of action. Routledge, USA: Taylor & Francis. Joshi, S., Kumari, S., & Jain, M. (2008). Religious belief and its relation to psychological well-being. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 34(2), 345-354. Kahneman, D., & Deaton, A. (2010). High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 107(38), 16489-16493. 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Kashdan, T. B., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. A. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing between hedonics and eudaimonia. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(4), 219-233. Kelso, T., French, D., & Fernandez, M. (2005). Stress and coping in primary caregivers of children with a disability: a qualitative study using the Lazarus and Folkman Process Model of Coping. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5(1), 3-10. Kim, H. K., & McKenry, P. C. (2002). The Relationship Between Marriage and Psychological Well-being. Journal of Family Issues, 23(8), 885-911. Kraut, R. ( 2017). Aristotle's Ethics. Summer Edition. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Kristin, F. (2015). The Effect of Religiosity on Parenting a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Texas Christian University, Texas. Krohne, H. (2002). Stress and Coping theories: Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz Germany. Kulkarni, P., & Patwardhan, V. (2015). Stressful Life Events and Irrational Beliefs as Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing among Early Adolescent Girls in Pune, India. Gender and behaviour, 13(1). Lazarus, R. (1999). A new synthesis. Stress and emotion. New York. Springer Publishing Company. Lazarus, R. S. (1993). Coping theory and research: Past, present, and future. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 234-247. Lazarus, R. S. (2000). How emotions influence performance in competitive sports. The sport psychologist, 14(3), 229-252. Lazarus, R. S. (2006). Emotions and interpersonal relationships: Toward a person‐centered conceptualization of emotions and coping. Journal of personality, 74(1), 9-46. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. ( 1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer. Lefley, H. P. (1997). Synthesizing the family caregiving studies: Implications for service planning, social policy, and further research. Family Relations, 46(4), 443-450. Lin, N., Ensel, W. M., Simeone, R. S., & Kuo, W. (1979). Social support, stressful life events, and illness: A model and an empirical test. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 108-119. Mabekoje, O. S. (2003). Psychological well-being among Nigerian Teachers: A Discriminant Function Analysis. Journal of Research in Counselling Psychology, 9(1), 48-57. Maltby, J., & Day, L. (2000). Depressive symptoms and religious orientation: examining the relationship between religiosity and depression within the context of other correlates of depression. Personality and individual differences, 25, 517-522. Marilize, W. (2009). Stress, coping behaviour and the psychological well-being of a group of South African teachers: The SABPA Study., Potchefstroom, Potchefstroom. Maulik, P. K., Mascarenhas, M. N., Mathers, C. D., Dua, T., & Saxena, S. (2011). Prevalence of intellectual disability: a meta-analysis of population-based studies. Research in developmental disabilities, 32(2), 419-436. Mausbach, B. T., Roepke, S. K., Chattillion, E. A., Harmell, A. L., Moore, R., Romero- Moreno, R., . . . Grant, I. (2012). Multiple mediators of the relations between caregiving stress and depressive symptoms. Aging Ment Health, 16(1), 27-38. McDowell, T. L., & Serovich, J. (2007). The effect of perceived and actual social support on the mental health of HIV-positive persons. AIDS care, 19(10), 1223-1229. Medina, C., & Luna, G. (1999). Teacher as caregiver: making meaning with students with emotional/behavioral disabilities. Teacher Development, 3(3), 449-465. Michalos, A. C. (1985). Multiple discrepancies theory (MDT). Social indicators research, 16, 347-413. 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Moore, G. (1990). Structural determinants of men's and women's personal networks. American sociological review, 726-735. Mutkins, E., Brown, R. F., & Thorsteinsson, E. B. (2011). Stress, depression, workplace and social supports and burnout in intellectual disability support staff. Journal of intellectual disability research, 55(5), 500-510. Nartey, S. (2013). Perception of stigma on the psychological well-being of siblings of children with intellectual disability. (Mphil), University of Ghana, Accra. Newport: Office for National Statistics. Nolan, M., Grant, G., & Keady, J. (1996). Understanding family care: a multidimensional model of caring and coping: Open University. Norris, F. H., & Kaniasty, K. (1996). Received and perceived social support in times of stress: A test of the social support deterioration deterrence model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(3), 498. Oleckno, W. A., & Blacconiere, M. J. (1991). Relationship of religiosity to wellness and other health-related behaviours and outcomes. Psychology reports, 68, 819-826. Oliver_Commey, J. (2001). The Disabled Child in Ghana: Whose Fault and Who cares? Accra: Ghana University Press. Olsson, M. B., & Hwang, C. P. (2008). Socioeconomic and psychological variables as risk and protective factors for parental well-being in families of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of intellectual disability research, 52(12), 1102-1113. Owiredua, C. (2015). Living With Diabetes: A Study of Illness Representation, Spiritual Coping, Psychological Distress and Medication Adherence: University Of Ghana. Ozbay, F., Johnson, D. C., Dimoulas, E., Morgan III, C., Charney, D., & Southwick, S. (2007). Social support and resilience to stress: from neurobiology to clinical practice. Psychiatry (Edgmont), 4(5), 35. 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Pande, N., & Tewari, S. (2011). Understanding Coping with Distress due to Physical Disability. Psychology and Developing Societies, 23(2), 177-209. Pargament, K. I. (1997). The Psychology of Religion and Coping: Theory, research and practice. New York: Guilford Press. Pargament, K. I. (2002). The bitter and the sweet: An evaluation of the costs and benefits of religiousness. Psychological inquiry, 13(3), 168-181. Pargament, K. I., Smith, B. W., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. (1998). Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal for the scientific study of Religions, 37, 710-724. Parks, S. M., & D.Novielli, K. (2000). A practical guide to caring for caregivers. Am Fam physician, 62(12), 2613-2620. Payne, G. V., & Isaacs, L. D. (2002). Human Development: a lifespan approach (5th Edition ed.). United States of America: McGraw Hill Companies Inc. . Payne, I. R., Bergin, A. E., Bielema, K. A., & Jenkins, P. H. (1991). Review of religion and mental health: Prevention and the enhancement of psychosocial functioning. Prevention in Human Services, 9, 11-40. Pearlin, L. I., & Schooler, C. (1978). The Structure of Coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19(1), 2-21. Pelchat, D., Lefebvre, H., & Perreault, M. (2003). Differences and similarities between mothers’ and fathers’ experiences of parenting a child with a disability. Journal of child health care, 7(4), 231-247. Peltier, G. L. (1997). The effect of inclusion on non-disabled children: A review of the research. Contemporary Education, 68(4), 235. 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Pinquart, M., & Sorensen, S. (2000). Influences of socioeconomic status, social network and competence on subjective wellbeing in later life: A meta analysis. Psychology and Aging, 15, 187-224. Pinquart, M., & Sörensen, S. (2006). Gender differences in caregiver stressors, social resources, and health: An updated meta-analysis. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61(1), P33-P45. Pisula, E. (2007). A comparative study of stress profiles in mothers of children with autism and those of children with Down's syndrome. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 20(3), 274-278. Pokimica, J., Addai, I., & Takyi, B. K. (2012). Religion and Subjective Well-Being in Ghana. Social indicators research, 106(1), 61-79. Poston, D. J., & Turnbull, A. P. (2004). Role of Spirituality and Religion in Family Quality of Life for Families of Children with Disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 39(2), 95-108. Pozo, P., Sarriá, E., & Brioso, A. (2014). Family quality of life and psychological well‐being in parents of children with autism spectrum disorders: a double ABCX model. Journal of intellectual disability research, 58(5), 442-458. Pugliesi, K., & Shook, S. L. (1998). Gender, ethnicity, and network characteristics: variation in social support resources1. Sex Roles, 38(3), 215-238. Raina, P., O'Donnell, M., Schwellnus, H., Rosenbaum, P., King, G., Brehaut, J., . . . Wood, E. (2004). Caregiving process and caregiver burden: conceptual models to guide research and practice. BMC Pediatrics, 4, 1. Ryff, C. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069- 1081. 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Ryff, C. D. (2014). Psychological well-being revisited: Advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. Psychotherapy and psychosomatics, 83(1), 10-28. Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. H. (2013). Know thyself and become what you are: A eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being The exploration of happiness (pp. 97-116): Springer Samadi, S. A., & McConkey, R. (2014). The impact on Iranian mothers and fathers who have children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Intellectual Disability, 58(3), 243-254. Santavirta, N., Solovieva, S., & Theorell, T. The association of job strain and exhaustion in a cohort of Finnish teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(1), 213- 228. Sarason, B. R., Sarason, I. G., & Pierce, G. R. (1990). Social support: An interactional view: John Wiley & Sons. Saroglou, V., Delpierre, V., & Dernelle, R. (2004). Values and religiosity: A meta-analysis of studies using Schwartz’s model. Personality and individual differences, 37(4), 721- 734. Schafer, R. B., Schafer, E., Bultena, G., & Hoiberg, E. (1993). Coping with a health threat: a study of food safety. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23(5), 386-394. Schalock, R. L., Luckasson, R. A., & Shogren, K. A. (2007). The Renaming of mental retardation: Understanding the change to the term Intellectual Disability. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 45(2), 116-124. Schnittker, J. (2001). When is faith enough? The effects of religious involvement on depression. Journal for the scientific study of Religion, 40(3), 393-411. Schulz, R., & Sherwood, P. R. (2008). Physical and mental health effects of family caregiving. Journal of Social Work Education, 44(3), 105-113. 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Slikker, J. (2009). Attitudes towards Persons with Disability in Ghana of Persons with Disability in Ghana. Retrieved February 17, 2017, from Ghana Federation of the Disabled www.gfdgh.org Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., & Seltzer, M. M. (2012). Social Support and Well-being at Mid-Life Among Mothers of Adolescents and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(9), 1818-1826. Smith, L. E., Seltzer, M. M., Tager-Flusberg, H., Greenberg, J. S., & Carter, A. S. (2007). A Comparative Analysis of Well-Being and Coping among Mothers of Toddlers and Mothers of Adolescents with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(5), 876. Snyder, C. R. (1999). Coping: The psychology of what works: Clarendon Press. Statham, J., & Chase, E. (2010). Childhood Wellbeing: A brief overview Childhood Wellbeing Research Center. UK. Stoeber, J., & Rennert, D. (2008). Perfectionism in school teachers: relations with stress appraisals, coping styles, and burnout. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 21, 37-53. Stone, A. A., Schwartz, J. E., Broderick, J. E., & Deaton, A. (2010). A snapshot of the age distribution of psychological well-being in the United States. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 107(22), 9985-9990. Suls, J., David, J. P., & Harvey, J. H. (1996). Personality and Coping: Three Generations of Research. Journal of personality, 64(4), 711-735. Tarakeshwar, N., & Pargament, K. I. (2001). Religious Coping in Families of Children with Autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16(4), 247-260. Taylor, S. E. (2011). Social support: A review. The handbook of health psychology, 189, 214. Thomas, J. (2009). Working paper: Current measures and the challenges of measuring children’s wellbeing. 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Tiegerman-Farber, E., & Radziewicz, C. (1998). Collaborative decision making: The pathway to inclusion: Merrill. Turner, H. A. (1994). Gender and social support: Taking the bad with the good? Sex Roles, 30(7), 521-541. Turner, N., Barking, J., & Zacharatoss, A. (2002). Positive psychology at work C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 715-728). Turner, R. J., & Noh, S. (1983). Class and Psychological Vulnerability Among Women: The Significance of Social Support and Personal Control. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(1), 2-15. VanderZee, K. I., Buunk, B. P., & Sanderman, R. (1997). Social support, locus of control, and psychological well‐being. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27(20), 1842- 1859. Ward, M. A. (2010). The relationship between Religiosity and Religious Coping to Stress Reactivity and Psychological Wellbeing. (Dissertation), Georgia State University. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063. Weiss, M. J. (2002). Hardiness and social support as predictors of stress in mothers of typical children, children with autism, and children with mental retardation. Autism, 6(1), 115-130. Williams, K. (2003). Has the Future of Marriage Arrived? A Contemporary Examination of Gender, Marriage, and Psychological Well-Being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(4), 470-487. 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Winefield, H. R., Winefield, A. H., & Tiggemann, M. (1992). Social support and psychological well-being in young adults: The Multi-Dimensional Support Scale. Journal of personality assessment, 58(1), 198-210. Wohlgemuth, E., & Betz, N. E. (1991). Gender as a moderator of the relationships of stress and social support to physical health in college students. Journal of counseling psychology, 38(3), 367. Wolraich, M. L. (2003). General management techniques. In M. Wolraich (Ed.), Disorders of Deelopment and learning (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 81-104). USA: PMPH. Wood, S. E., Wood, E. R. G., Boyd, D. R., Bracey-Lorenzo, K., & Lambright, L. L. (2005). Mastering the world of psychology: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. Yirenkyi, K. (2001). Changing patterns of mainline and charismatic religiosity in Ghana. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion.10(10), 171-189. Benson, P. R. (2010). Coping, distress, and well-being in mothers of children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4(2), 217-228. 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing APPENDIX 1 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing APPENDIX 2 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing APPENDIX 3 CONSENT FORM General Information about Research The aim of this study is to investigate if factors like coping, social support and religiosity can predict psychological well-being among teachers of intellectually challenged children. This study will seek to find out how the coping strategies you have employed affect your psychological well-being as well as if religious factors play a role in the improvement or detriment of your well-being. Also this study seeks to establish the role of social support you receive or otherwise on your psychological well-being. The results in this study will be used to plan intervention programs for teachers of intellectually disabled children where need be. Your participation will involve responding to a survey instrument which will last between 45- 70 minutes. Benefits/Risk of the study The study does not involve any known risks but will require your time and effort during your response to the survey instrument. You may not benefit directly from this study but your participation in this study will help us to better understand the effect the fore mentioned factors account for psychological well-being. This will help clinicians to design an intervention program or rehabilitation for teachers which may improve their working conditions as well as provide help to teachers who may be need some form of psychological help. Confidentiality The study is anonymous. Your name and other personal data will not be disclosed in this study. We ensure that the information you provide will not be in any way related to your identity. Apart from the principal student investigator, other groups that may have direct access to the research records include principal and co-supervisors, research assistants at the point of data collection, the Head of Psychology Department and or the Dean of the Graduate School of University of Ghana. All data collected will be used for academic purposes only and as such ethical principles of privacy and confidentiality will be ensured. Compensation You will not be paid any money for your participation. The survey shall not impose any additional costs on you. Withdrawal from Study Your participation is strictly voluntary and you reserve the right to pull out of the study at anytime without any penalty or obligations to provide justification for your decision. You 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing will not be adversely affected in anyway should you decline to participate or later stop participating. Contact for Additional Information Should you have any concerns for further clarifications, you can contact the researcher on +233 263120258 or mabritwum@st.ug.edu.gh. You can also write to the Department of Psychology, University of Ghana, Legon or contact the supervisors on the following Prof Charity Akotia- email: sakotia@hotmail.com Dr. Joseph Osafo- email: josaforo@gmail.com If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant in this study you may also contact the Administrator of the Ethics Committee for Humanities, ISSER, University of Ghana at ech@isser.edu.gh / ech@ug.edu.gh or 00233- 303-933-866. "I have read or have had someone read all of the above, asked questions, received answers regarding participation in this study, and am willing to give consent to participate in this study. I will not have waived any of my rights by signing this consent form. Name of Volunteer __________________________ _______________________ Signature or mark of volunteer Date: If volunteers cannot read the form themselves, a witness must sign here: I was present while the benefits, risks and procedures were read to the volunteer. All questions were answered and the volunteer has agreed to take part in the research. 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Name of witness _______________________ Signature of witness Date: I certify that the nature and purpose, the potential benefits, and possible risks associated with participating in this research have been explained to the above individual. ________________________________ Name of Person who Obtained Consent ______________________________ Signature of Person Who Obtained Consent 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing APPENDIX 4 Code number: PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING SURVEY This study is being conducted to find out the psychological well-being of those who cater for intellectually disabled children. Please fill out all sections as best you can. Your participation is greatly appreciated. Section I DEMOGRAPHICS Please tick the appropriate box and where needed please write the required response. 1. Gender: Male Female 2. Age: 3. Religious affiliation: Christian Muslim Traditionalist Other No religious affiliation 4. Income earned monthly: 5. Highest educational level: No formal education Primary school Secondary school First degree Masters PhD 6. Months/Years of working experience: 7. Marital Status: Single Married Separated Divorced Widowed Cohabiting 8. Number of children 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing Section II Please answer the following questions about religious faith using the scale below. Indicate the level of agreement (or disagreement) for each statement. 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = agree 4 = strongly agree 1 2 3 4 My religious faith is extremely important to me. I pray daily. I look to my faith as a source of inspiration. I look to my faith as providing meaning and purpose in my life. I consider myself active in my faith( church, ,mosque, temple etc) My faith is an important part of who I am as a person. My relationship with God is extremely important to me. I enjoy being around others who share my faith. I look to my faith as a source of comfort. My faith impacts many of my decisions. 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing SECTION III I am interested in how you feel about the following statements. Read each statement carefully. Indicate how you feel about each statement. “1” if you Very Strongly Disagree “2” if you Strongly Disagree “3” if you Mildly Disagree “4” if you are Neutral “5” if you Mildly Agree “6” if you Strongly Agree “7” if you Very Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 There is a special person who is around when I am in need. There is a special person with whom I can share joys and sorrows. My family really tries to help me I get the emotional help & support I need from my family. I have a special person who is a real source of comfort to me. My friends really try to help me. I can count on my friends when things go wrong. I can talk about my problems with my family. I have friends with whom I can share my joys and sorrows. There is a special person in my life who cares about my feelings. My family is willing to help me make decisions. I can talk about my problems with my friends. 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing SECTION IV These items deal with ways you've been coping with the stress in your life. Each item says something about a particular way of coping. I want to know to what extent you've been doing what the item says. Don't answer on the basis of whether it seems to be working or not—just whether or not you're doing it. Use these response choices: 1 = I haven't been doing this at all 2 = I've been doing this a little bit 3 = I've been doing this a medium amount 4 = I've been doing this a lot 1 2 3 4 I've been turning to work or other activities to take my mind off things. I've been concentrating my efforts on doing something about the situation I'm in. I've been saying to myself "this isn't real". I've been using alcohol or other drugs to make myself feel better I've been getting emotional support from others I've been giving up trying to deal with it I've been taking action to try to make the situation better. I've been refusing to believe that it has happened I've been saying things to let my unpleasant feelings escape I’ve been getting help and advice from other people. I've been using alcohol or other drugs to help me get through it. I've been trying to see it in a different light, to make it seem more positive I’ve been criticizing myself. I've been trying to come up with a strategy about what to do I've been getting comfort and understanding from someone. I've been giving up the attempt to cope I've been looking for something good in what is happening. I've been making jokes about it. 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing I've been doing something to think about it less, such as going to movies, watching TV, reading, daydreaming, sleeping, or shopping. I've been accepting the reality of the fact that it has happened. I've been expressing my negative feelings. I've been trying to find comfort in my religion or spiritual beliefs I’ve been trying to get advice or help from other people about what to do. I've been learning to live with it. I've been thinking hard about what steps to take. I’ve been blaming myself for things that happened. I've been praying or meditating. I've been making fun of the situation 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing SECTION V Please indicate your degree of agreement (using a score ranging from 1-6) to the following sentences. 1” if you Very Strongly Disagree “2” if you Strongly Disagree “3” if you Mildly Disagree “4” if you Mildly Agree “5” if you Strongly Agree “6” if you Very Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am not afraid to voice my opinions, even when they are in opposition to the opinions of most people. In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live. I am not interested in activities that will expand my horizons. Most people see me as loving and affectionate. I live life one day at a time and don't really think about the future. When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out. My decisions are not usually influenced by what everyone else is doing. The demands of everyday life often get me down. I think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how you think about yourself and the world. Maintaining close relationships has been difficult and frustrating for me. I have a sense of direction and purpose in life. In general, I feel confident and positive about myself. I tend to worry about what other people think of me. I do not fit very well with the people and the community around me. When I think about it, I haven't really improved much as a person over the years. I often feel lonely because I have few close friends with whom to share my concerns. My daily activities often seem trivial and unimportant to me. I feel like many of the people I know have gotten more out of life than I have. I tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions. I am quite good at managing the many responsibilities of my daily life. 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing I have the sense that I have developed a lot as a person over time. I enjoy personal and mutual conversations with family members or friends. I don't have a good sense of what it is I'm trying to accomplish in life. I like most aspects of my personality. I have confidence in my opinions, even if they are contrary to the general consensus. I often feel overwhelmed by my responsibilities I do not enjoy being in new situations that require me to change my old familiar ways of doing things People would describe me as a giving person, willing to share my time with others. I enjoy making plans for the future and working to make them a reality. In many ways, I feel disappointed about my achievements in life. It's difficult for me to voice my own opinions on controversial Matters I have difficulty arranging my life in a way that is satisfying to me. For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growth I have not experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of Them My attitude about myself is probably not as positive as most people feel about themselves I judge myself by what I think is important, not by the values of what others think is important I have been able to build a home and a lifestyle for myself that is much to my liking. I gave up trying to make big improvements or changes in my life a long time ago. I know that I can trust my friends, and they know they can trust me. I sometimes feel as if I've done all there is to do in life. When I compare myself to friends and acquaintances, it makes me feel good about who I am. You have come to the end of this survey. Thank you very much for your participation. 121