University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPEARANCE MANAGEMENT: SHOPPING STYLES, DRESS STYLES AND PERSONALITY TRAITS OF FEMALE YOUNG ADULTS THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL HOME SCIENCE DEGREE BY DORA APPIADU (10417568) OCTOBER 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Dora Appiadu hereby declare that except for the references which have been duly cited, the work in this thesis, “APPEARANCE MANAGEMENT: SHOPPING STYLES, DRESS STYLES AND PERSONALITY TRAITS OF FEMALE YOUNG ADULTS” was done entirely by me in the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon. This work has never been presented either in whole or in part for any other degree in this University or elsewhere. …………………………………… DORA APPIADU (STUDENT) …………………………………… EFUA VANDYCK (PhD) (SUPERVISOR) ………………………………………. MERCY KUMA-KPOBEE (PhD) (SUPERVISOR) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT An understanding and application of consumer behaviour to fashion product development and marketing provides a competitive advantage that leads to the success of every fashion business. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the relationship among shopping styles, dress styles and personality traits of Ghanaian female young adults. A cross-sectional design with a quantitative approach was used to conduct the study. A multistage sampling technique was used to select 447 Ghanaian female resident undergraduate students, aged 18 to 25 years from three halls in the University of Ghana, Legon. A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data on respondents’ demographic characteristics, shopping styles, dress styles and personality traits. With the aid of IBM SPSS Version 20, the data were analysed using Principal Component Analysis and Pearson Product-Moment Correlation. The results showed that the personality traits of the female young adults predisposed them to multiple shopping and dress styles, and these traits were also reflected in how they scouted for stores, selected and purchased clothing for creating their personal appearance. Their conscientious nature, rather than their tendency to trust made them high-quality conscious consumers who mostly remained loyal to the brands that met their needs and expectations. Although, their agreeable nature and receptivity to a variety of interests, ideas and experiences predisposed them to adopt an ethnic-inspired look, less than half of the respondents mostly wore clothing that depicted their cultural and national heritage. The findings have implications for the fashion industry and policy makers. It is therefore recommended that producers of fashion merchandise should develop products of optimum standard in order to satisfy the needs of Ghanaian female young adults, as this could positively impact their businesses. The government of Ghana should also develop and implement policies, as well as intensify public sensitization on the ‘Wear Ghana Initiative’ in order to promote the sale of Ghana-made clothing, create jobs, and maintain the cultural identity of Ghana. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my beloved mother, to all women in Ghana, and to everyone who has devoted his or her time to clothe the underprivileged in society. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am forever grateful to the Almighty God for His endless mercies and grace towards me. This research work materialized because, I am able to do all things through Christ who strengthens me (Philippians 4:13). I wish to express my profound gratitude to my selfless supervisors, Dr. Efua Vandyck and Dr. Mercy Kuma-Kpobee for their encouragement, counsel and immense contributions towards this research work. A special thanks to Prof. Docea Fianu and Dr. Sheriffa Mahama for their advice, suggestions and guidance which greatly impacted this work. I am highly indebted to my family for their support and encouragement. Finally, I wish to thank everyone who helped in diverse ways towards the successful completion of this thesis. God richly bless us all. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENT PAGE DECLARATION……………………………………………………………………………...i ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………….ii DEDICATION………………………………….……………………………………………iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………….iv TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………..v LIST OF FIGURES...………………………………………………………………………....xi LIST OF TABLES..………………………………………………………………………....xii LIST OF ACRONYMS…………………………………………………………………….xiii CHAPTER ONE…………………..………………………………………………………...1 1.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………1 1.1 Background Information……………………………………………………………...1 1.2 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………..5 1.3 Aim of the Study………………………………………………………………………5 1.4 Objectives of the Study….…………………………………………………………….5 1.5 Hypotheses……………………………………………………………………………6 1.6 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………..6 1.7 Operational Definition of Terms……………….…..…..……...………………………7 CHAPTER TWO…………………..………………………………………………………..8 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………………..8 2.1 Concept of Appearance Management…………………………………………………8 2.2 Factors Influencing Appearance Management……...……..……...………………....10 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.1 Social Influence of Appearance Management…………...…………………….10 2.2.2 Psychological Influence of Appearance Management……………....…...……11 2.3 Importance of Appearance Management………..……………………...………..…..12 2.4 Shopping as an Act and Form of Appearance Management………………………….13 2.4.1 Shopping Styles………………………………………………………………………13 2.4.2 Consumer Characteristics Approach to Shopping Styles (Consumer Decision-Making Styles)...………………………..………………………………………….………...14 2.4.2.1 Perfectionism, High-Quality Consciousness……..…………………………15 2.4.2.2 Brand Consciousness………………………………………..………………15 2.4.2.3 Novelty-Fashion Consciousness.....................................................................15 2.4.2.4 Recreational, Hedonistic Shopping Consciousness………..………………..15 2.4.2.5 Price Consciousness………………………………………………………...16 2.4.2.6 Confusion from Overchoice......……………………………………………..16 2.4.2.7 Impulsive-Carelessness………………...…………………………………...16 2.4.2.8 Habitual, Brand Loyal Orientation…………………………….…………….16 2.4.3 Self-Congruity Theory/ Self-Image/Product Image Congruity Theory....…………...17 2.5 Dress as an Act and Form of Appearance Management……………………………...18 2.5.1 Dress Styles……………………………...…………………………………………..19 2.5.1.1 Classic Styles……………………………………………………………......22 2.5.1.2 Sporty Styles…………………………………………………………….......22 2.5.1.3 Trendy Styles………………………………………………………………. 22 2.5.1.4 Daring Styles………...……………………………………………………...22 2.5.1.5 Feminine Styles……………………………………………………………..23 2.5.1.6 Ethnic Styles………………………………………………………………...23 2.5.2 Symbolic Interaction Theory/ Symbolic Interactionism……………………………..23 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 Personality as a Psychological Influence and Reflection of Appearance Management……..……………………………………………………….………….25 2.6.1 Personality Traits…………………………..……..…………………………..…......25 2.6.2 Development of Trait Theories………………………………………………………26 2.6.2.1 Hippocrates (460-377 BC) and Galen (AD 130-200)……...………………..26 2.6.2.2 Gordon Allport (1879-1967)…………………... …………………………..27 2.6.2.3 Raymond B. Cattell (1905-1998)..………………………………………….28 2.6.2.4 Hans J. Eysenck (1916-1997)………………...……………………………..28 2.6.3 The Five-Factor Model of Personality (FFM)...….…………………………………..29 2.6.3.1 Neuroticism……...…………………………………………….……………30 2.6.3.2 Extraversion………………...………………………………..……………...30 2.6.3.3 Openness to Experience………………...……………………..………….....31 2.6.3.4 Agreeableness………………………..……………..……………………….31 2.6.3.5 Conscientiousness……………………...………………….………………..31 2.6.4 Support of the Five-Factor Model of Personality………………...…………………..32 2.6.5 Criticism of the Five-Factor Model of Personality…………………………………...33 2.7 Concept of Young Adulthood………………..………………………………………34 2.7.1 Theory of Psychosocial Development……………………………………………….35 2.7.2 Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development from the Late Teens through the Twenties……………...……………………………………………………………...36 2.7.3 Conception of Age Range for the Study………………………………………….......36 2.8 Personality and Appearance Management Related Research …...…………...……...37 2.8.1 Personality and Shopping……………………………………………………………37 2.8.2 Personality and Dress………………………………………………………………..41 2.9 Summary of Literature Review..…………………………………………….………..45 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.10 Conceptual Framework for the Study…….…………….....…...…………………...…46 CHAPTER THREE…………………….………………………………………………….49 3.0 METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………….49 3.1 Study Design…………………………………………………...……………………49 3.2 Study Area………..……………………………………………………………….…49 3.3 Target Population…………………………………………………………………….50 3.4 Sample Size………………....………………………………………………………..50 3.5 Sampling procedure………….……………………………………………………….50 3.6 Instrument for Data Collection……………………………………………………….54 3.6.1 Section A - Demographic Questions………………………..………………………...54 3.6.2 Section B – Personality Traits Measure……………………..……………..…………55 3.6.3 Section C - Shopping Styles Measure…………………………………..………….....55 3.6.4 Section D - Dress Styles Measure……………………………….………………… …56 3.7 Pre-Test…………………...……………………………………………………….….56 3.7.1 Changes Effected on Research Instrument…………………...……………………….57 3.8 Procedure for Data Collection…………………………………………….…………..57 3.9 Data Analysis and Presentation………………………………………….……………58 3.10 Ethical Considerations……..……..…………………………………………………..59 CHAPTER FOUR………………..………………………………………………………...60 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION…………………………..………………………….60 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents ……….…………………..……….60 4.1.1 Age Distribution of Respondents…………….………………………………………60 4.1.2 Marital Status of Respondents………………………………………………………..60 4.1.3 College of Affiliation of Respondents…...……………...……………………………61 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.4 Ethnicity of Respondents………………………………………………….………….62 4.1.5 Religious Background of Respondents…………………………………………….....62 4.2 Shopping Styles of Respondents………………………...……………………………63 4.2.1 Factor Analysis and Reliability of the Shopping Style Measure (CSI)……………….63 4.2.2 Classification and Distribution of Respondents’ Shopping Styles………….…..…….67 4.2.2.1 Perfectionism, High-Quality Consciousness…...................…………..…….68 4.2.2.2 Brand Consciousness…......................................................….………..…….69 4.2.2.3 Novelty-Fashion Consciousness…................…………….….………..…….70 4.2.2.4 Confusion from overchoice…………………….................….………..…….72 4.2.2.5 Impulsive Carelessness……………………..….................….………..…….73 4.2.2.6 Recreational, Hedonistic Shopping Consciousness…........….………..…….74 4.2.2.7 Indifference Shopping Orientation………….…................….………..…….75 4.2.2.8 Habitual Brand Loyal Orientation…………..…................…..………..…….76 4.3 Dress Styles of Respondents…………………………………………………….……78 4.3.1 Factor Analysis and Reliability of the Dress Style Measure (DSQ)…………………..78 4.3.2 Classification and Distribution of Respondents’ Dress Styles…………………...…...80 4.3.2.1 Trendy Style………………………………...…................…………..…….81 4.3.2.2 Ethnic Style…………….…………………...…................…………..…….83 4.3.2.3 Feminine Style……………………………...…................…………..…….84 4.3.2.4 Sporty Style…………….…………………...…................…………..…….85 4.3.2.5 Classic Style………………………………...…................…………..…….87 4.3.2.6 Daring Style………………………………...…................…………..…….88 4.4 Personality Traits of Respondents…...……………………………………………….89 4.4.1 Classification and Distribution of Respondents’ Personality Traits………………….89 4.5 Test of Hypotheses…..…………………..……......………………..………...............91 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5.1 Hypothesis One………………………………………….…………...……………....91 4.5.2 Hypothesis Two……………………………………………………………………...97 4.5.3 Summary of Test of Hypotheses……………………………...…………………….103 CHAPTER FIVE…………………………...……………………………………………..104 5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS…………………...104 5.1 Summary…………………………………………………………………………...104 5.2 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………105 5.3 Recommendations…………………………………………...……………………..106 REFERENCES…………………….………………………………………………………108 APPENDICES………………….…………………………...……………………………..123 Appendix A: Ethical Approval for the Study……………………………………………….123 Appendix B: Protocol Consent Form for Study Participants………………………………124 Appendix C: Questionnaire………………………………………………………………...127 Appendix D: Normality of Data……………………………..……….…………...………..134 Appendix E: Correlation Matrix of all Study Variables………….…..………...…………...135 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework of the study.……………..…………...……………….47 Figure 3.1 Sampling procedure for the study………………………………………….….51 Figure 4.1 College of Affiliation of Respondents..……………………………..………...61 Figure 4.2 Ethnicity of respondents…………………………………...........………….…62 Figure 4.3 Respondents’ mean score for perfectionism…………………......……………68 Figure 4.4 Respondents’ mean score for brand consciousness……………...……………69 Figure 4.5 Respondents’ mean score for novelty-fashion consciousness…...……………71 Figure 4.6 Respondents’ mean score for confusion from overchoice…….....……………72 Figure 4.7 Respondents’ mean score for impulsive carelessness…………....……………73 Figure 4.8 Respondents’ mean score for recreational hedonistic shopping………………74 Figure 4.9 Respondents’ mean score for indifference shopping orientation...……………75 Figure 4.10 Respondents’ mean score for habitual, brand loyal orientation…………….…77 Figure 4.11 Respondents’ mean score for trendy style.……………...………………….…81 Figure 4.12 Respondents’ mean score for ethnic style.……………...………………….…83 Figure 4.13 Respondents’ mean score for feminine style ……………...……………….…85 Figure 4.14 Respondents’ mean score for sporty style.……………...………………….…86 Figure 4.15 Respondents’ mean score for classic style……………...………………….…87 Figure 4.16 Respondents’ mean score for daring style.……………...………………….…88 Figure 4.17 Summary of observed relationships among study variables…...….…..……..103 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE Table 4.1 Age distribution of respondents………………………...……………………......60 Table 4.2 Religious background of respondents……………………..……………………..62 Table4.3 Rotated component matrix of factor analysis and reliability of the CSI……..................……...………………………………………………...……63 Table4.4 Rotated component matrix of factor analysis and reliability of the DSQ…………………......................................................................…..………...78 Table4.5 Percentage distribution and mean score of respondents’ personality traits………………………....………………………………….…..……………89 Table 4.6 Correlation matrix of personality traits and shopping styles..………..…………..92 Table 4.7 Correlation matrix of personality traits and dress styles…...…………..................97 Table 4.8 Skewness and kurtosis values of study variables…...…….………...…...……...134 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ACRONYMS CSI Consumer Styles Inventory DSQ Dress Styles Questionnaire ECBAS Ethics Committee for Basic and Applied Sciences FFM Five-Factor Model of Personality IBM International Business Machines IPIP International Personality Item Pool KMO Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy PCA Principal Component Analysis SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Information The consumer is the central focus of fashion marketing (Burns, Mullet & Bryant, 2011). An understanding and application of consumers’ appearance management decisions and actions to fashion product development and marketing, is the ultimate competitive tool that leads to the success of every fashion business. Kaiser (1997) stated that appearance management encompasses all thought processes and activities leading to the purchase and use of clothing items as well as processes of body modification such as makeup and hairstyling techniques. Lee & Johnson (2009) also mentioned that appearance management behaviours range from the routine such as apparel selection to the extreme such as surgical procedures. Appearance management therefore is a highly observable behaviour (Johnson, Francis & Burns, 2007) as all humans engage in some form of appearance management everyday (Kaiser, 1997). However, the level of involvement and concerns related to appearance management differ among individuals (Kaiser, 1997) and cultures (Johnson et al., 2007). These individual differences are due to the tendency of humans to be distinctive individuals as well as conforming members of their society (Solomon & Rabolt, 2004). Individuality and conformity are predispositions that form the basis of all fashion behaviours (Eicher & Sumberg, 1995). Management of one’s appearance is an important aspect of daily living of consumers as it serves several purposes. It is a means of adorning the body (Johnson, Yoo, Kim & Lennon, 2008). It acts as a communication tool to reflect personality, mood and emotion (Moody, Kinderman & Sinha, 2010), reflect self-concept (Entwistle, 2000), as well as express identity (Feinberg, 1992). Furthermore, first impression is formed based on the appearance of an individual (Johnson, Schofield & Yurchisin, 2002), which in turn affects an observer’s behaviour towards the individual (Kim & Lennon, 2005). 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The significance of appearance management cannot be overemphasized. It is not surprising that as far back as 1601, Polonius stated in William Shakespeare’s play entitled “Hamlet”, “for the apparel oft proclaims the man” and in 1927, Merle Johnson cited the undocumented old adage by Mark Twain, “clothes maketh the man”. Additionally, Greek philosopher, Aristotle (384-322 BC) stated, “personal beauty is a greater recommendation than any letter of reference”. These statements support the fact that one’s appearance with regard to what one wears is a silent language, carrying a symbolic meaning that counts in judging one’s character and background, among others. The most important concept for success in the fashion industry is that the company needs to know its target market, and provide the right merchandise desired by its customers at the right place and time (Burns et al., 2011). As a result, fashion marketers conduct research to explore the social and psychological factors that influence consumer lifestyle (Keiser & Garner, 2012). The social factors that influence appearance management have been found to include cultural expectations (Rudd & Lennon, 2000), identity (Newholm & Hopkinson, 2009), and agents of socialization such as the family (Ogle & Damhorst, 2003), friends (Lee & Johnson, 2009), school (Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2009), and the mass media (Adomaitis & Johnson, 2008). The psychological factors include body image (Rudd & Lennon, 2000), self-concept (Kaiser, 1997), mood, emotion (Moody et al., 2010) and personality (Goldsmith, 2002). The social and psychological influence of appearance management have been widely researched, with the exception of personality which have been less-explored. According to Johnson et al. (2007), the study of personality in appearance management has received inadequate attention in the scholarly literature. A current review of literature also shows that it is still a less-researched topic. The majority of the reviewed studies were conducted in the Western and Eastern cultures which may be inapplicable to other cultures, especially those of different race. The researcher has not come across studies conducted in the Ghanaian context. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Additionally, appearance management practices vary and thus, there are several appearance management variables (Rumsey & Harcourt, 2005). As a result, previous studies have examined personality in relation to diverse appearance management variables. These variables include but not limited to appearance orientation (Davis, Dionne & Shuster, 2001), appearance emphasis (Johnson et al., 2007), and fashion consumption (Roy, Sethuraman & Saran, 2016). Considering the limited attention of the topic in the scholarly literature, inadequate cross- cultural studies and existence of numerous variables, a lot still needs to be explored before conclusive results can be drawn on the link between personality and appearance management. Furthermore, to boost the fashion industry’s relentless effort of achieving consumer satisfaction and accomplishing business goals, it is inadequate to only explore the appearance management practices of consumers. It is also necessary to investigate how personality, an inherent factor of humans influences the way people manage their appearance. This could help fashion businesses to thoroughly understand consumers. Subsequently, this may enable the fashion industry identify the needs of their target market and thus, develop products and services that suit the needs and expectations of the targeted consumers. In addition, it would guide market segmentation (Mulyanegara & Tsarenko, 2009) and marketing strategies of companies (Roy et al., 2016), and consequently generate profit which in turn may lead to the success of the fashion industry. Moreover, consumers count on producers for appearance products that would reflect their personality, in order for society to accord them the attention and admiration they deserve. Therefore, there is the need for fashion marketers and researchers to investigate the role of personality in consumers’ appearance management practices. Hence, the study addressed this need by drawing upon the Five Factor Model of Personality (Eysenck, 1963; Costa & McCrae, 1976) and Kaiser’s (1997) concept of appearance management. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to Kaiser (1997), shopping and dress are acts and forms of appearance management. Consumers shop and dress in several distinctive ways known as shopping styles (Bakewell & Mitchell, 2003) and dress styles (Johnson & Francis, 2006) respectively. Personality describes the organized, interrelated aspects of affects, cognition and behaviours that give pattern and direction to a person’s life (Pervin, 1996). Since shopping and dress are highly visible behaviours (Johnson et al., 2007) that involve thought processes, feelings and actions, it is posited that the driving force of shopping and dress styles among consumers may be due to the relatively enduring tendencies known as personality traits. There is empirical evidence that different cultures produced contradictory results regarding the relationship between personality and concepts of shopping and dress. Studies by Šulková (2013) and Roy et al. (2016) reported significant associations between personality traits and certain shopping styles. On the contrary, Mulyanegara & Tsarenko (2009) found that personality traits had no significant relationship with shopping behaviour. Johnson & Francis (2006) reported a strong relationship between personality traits and dress styles. Whereas, Moody et al. (2010) found low to moderate relationships between personality traits and dress styles. Despite these contradictory findings, the situation in Ghana may be different as the shopping and dress styles of Ghanaians relatively differ from that of foreign cultures. In Ghana, although there are quite a large number of fashion businesses, the study of psychographics, specifically consumer personality in appearance management has not received much attention. It seemed prudent to research into topics related to personality and more importantly appearance management on contextual basis, as ways of doing things significantly vary from culture to culture. It was therefore imperative to conduct this study in the Ghana setting as it would enable the Ghanaian fashion industry to make informed decisions in every stage of production and marketing of fashion merchandise. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Statement of the Problem Appearance management involves all the thought processes and activities related to an individual’s look. Managing appearance is important because it serves as a tool for grooming the self, expressing identity and creating first impressions, which may influence how observers react towards an individual. Consumers of fashion are therefore concerned about how they manage their appearance and expect fashion product developers to provide the right merchandise that would help in their appearance management. Inadequate knowledge of the influence of personality, the driving force of one’s thoughts, feelings and actions, on appearance management decisions and acts may be a setback to the success of the fashion industry in Ghana. Moreover, the study of consumer personality in appearance management in the Ghanaian context has not received much attention. In view of this, it was important to investigate the role of personality in appearance management. This study therefore, explored how female young adults in Ghana shop and dress based on their personality traits. 1.3 Aim of the Study The aim of the study was to examine the relationship among shopping styles, dress styles and personality traits of female young adults. 1.4 Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study were to: 1. Identify the shopping styles of female young adults. 2. Identify the dress styles of female young adults. 3. Assess the personality traits of female young adults. 4. Evaluate the relationship among shopping styles, dress styles and personality traits of female young adults. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Hypotheses The hypotheses of the study were: HO1: There is no significant relationship between personality traits and shopping styles of female young adults. HO2: There is no significant relationship between personality traits and dress styles of female young adults. 1.6 Significance of the Study The findings of this study may: 1. Broaden the knowledge and understanding of shopping styles, dress styles and personality traits of female young adults, and bring to light the extent to which personality traits are expressed in the shopping and dress styles of these of consumers. 2. Add to the body of literature on appearance management and personality. It can be also used for consumer education and research. 3. Benefit female young adults by serving as a guide for making apparel decisions, in order to create an appearance that communicates one’s true and desired personality. 4. Serve as a psychographic tool for the fashion industry that can be used for market segmentation, designing marketing strategies and product development, in order to create apparel lines that meet the needs and expectations of female young adults. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.7 Operational Definition of Terms Appearance management- Entails the decisions and actions concerning the purchase and use of clothing to maintain one’s appearance. Shopping style- The mental orientation characterizing a consumer’s approach to making choices during the purchase of clothing. Dress style- The unique sense in which an individual creates personal appearance through the use of clothing. Personality traits- Characteristics that are relatively consistent and representative of an individual’s thoughts, feelings and actions. Neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness (Five-Factor Model of Personality) are the personality traits considered in this study. Young adult consumer- The end-user of clothing, from the age of 18 to 25 years. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter presents a review of relevant literature that covers the concepts and theoretical perspectives on appearance management, shopping, dress, personality and young adulthood. It also entails related research on personality, shopping and dress, and presents a conceptual framework developed for the study based on the reviewed literature. 2.1 Concept of Appearance Management Appearance management “encompasses all the attention, decisions and acts related to one’s personal appearance, that is the process of thinking about and actually carrying out activities pertaining to the way one looks” (Kaiser, 1997, p. 5). It describes the process individuals engage in when they purchase and use products and services to maintain their appearance (Kwon & Kwon, 2013). Aune & Aune (1994) simply described appearance management as the grooming behaviour of humans. Johnson, Kim, Lee & Kim (2014) pointed out that appearance management involves a range of activities that is used to control the presentation of the body, which an individual makes to himself or herself and to others in the society. A collection of activities including apparel, accessory and cosmetic selection as well as grooming procedures and modification of body size and form are a reflection of appearance management behaviours (Rudd, 1996). Individuals may engage in extreme, harmful or risky appearance management behaviours. According to Rudd & Lennon (2000), risky appearance management is subjective and judgmental however, if the act threatens one’s health after an extended period of practice, then it is risky. Risky appearance management behaviours include surgical procedures (such as liposuction, rhinoplasty) and nonsurgical procedures (such as botox, excessive dieting and exercise, tanning, skin bleaching) (Johnson et al., 2014). 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As far back as 1968, in a book entitled “Second Skin: An Interdisciplinary Study of Clothing” Horn stated that almost from the moment of birth onwards, the human body is always covered with some form of clothing, an article for managing appearance. Appearance management can be said to begin at infancy when the appearance of a baby is managed by his or her parents or guardians. Although the decisions and acts regarding the infant’s appearance is undertaken by parents or guardians, the results are evident on the infant. Additionally, clothing may be used to reflect, express, or enhance the self (Rathnayake, 2011). This occurs consciously or unconsciously and it helps the individual achieve some consistency between the physical self and the meanings portrayed by the dress, both of which communicate impressions of the self to others in the social environment (Johnson et al., 2002). Individuals use a combination of self-perception, social feedback and social comparison, when appropriate, to guide appearance management behaviours (Kaiser, 1997). Thus, throughout an individual’s lifetime, management of one’s appearance continue to evolve and be modified as one interacts with the social world. As an individual grows and changes, one’s experiences affect how one manages his or her appearance. For instance, what one liked to wear when he or she was a child, may not be what he or she likes as an adult, because one’s clothing choices would continue to change to reflect one’s personality. The concept of appearance management is broad and thus, for the purpose of this study, appearance management entails the decisions and actions concerning the purchase and use of clothing to maintain one’s appearance. Hence, the study focused on shopping and dress as a means of managing appearance. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 Factors Influencing Appearance Management There exists social and psychological factors that influence appearance management behaviours of individuals. These are termed socio-psychological or psychosocial factors. They are founded from social psychology of appearance/dress/clothing. The social psychology of appearance focuses on how an individual’s dress-related perceptions, feelings, attitudes, behaviours and beliefs are shaped by one’s self and others (Johnson, Lennon & Rudd, 2014). Kaiser (1997) also stated that it is concerned with the numerous means by which people modify the body as well as the social and psychological factors that lead to, and result from, the appearance management process. 2.2.1 Social Influence of Appearance Management The social development of individuals pertains to the active construction of rules of social behaviour such as appearance management behaviour, through interactions with numerous agents of socialization (Hunter, 1984). It has been observed that the family, media, peers and other community members provide information about how an individual ought to look, and as a result, people learn the appearance norms of their society from childhood to adulthood (Johnson, Kang & Kim, 2014). Research has shown that family members, particularly parents use several means to manage the appearance of their children (Ogle & Damhorst, 2003). A study by Lee & Johnson (2009) revealed that family’s feedback and conversations with friends on appearance behaviours were found to be linked to risky appearance management behaviours. Opare-Asamoah (2014) investigated the buying behaviour of Ghanaian young women, and found that family and friends were major factors that influenced the purchase and use of fashionable clothing. The mass media use various means to convey messages about the appropriateness of certain appearances (Chowdhary, 2011). In a study by Adomaitis & Johnson (2008), young adult 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh women’s appearance were found to be influenced by the media. Gillen & Lefkowitz (2009) also found that young adults considered their school to be an important place for acquiring knowledge about appearance expectations. Cultural ideal is another social factor that influences appearance management. Cultural expectation strongly affects how individuals feel about their bodies and the extent to which they manage their appearance (Rudd & Lennon, 2000). People manage their appearance as a way of approximating the cultural ideal (Rudd & Lennon, 1994). These ideals can be internalized and can serve as a reference for evaluating oneself (Richins, 1991). 2.2.2 Psychological Influence of Appearance Management Although society influences how individuals manage their appearance, psychological factors such as body image (Rudd & Lennon, 2000), self-concept (Kaiser, 1997), identity (Feinberg, 1992), mood, emotions (Moody et al., 2010) and personality (Davis et al., 2001) also play a role in appearance management. A qualitative study by Rudd & Lennon (2000), which sought to examine appearance management behaviours and body image of college women revealed that clothing was used as a strategy to enhance and camouflage some parts of the body. Watt & Ricciardelli (2012) also found that clothing was an essential aspect of man’s body image, and men conceptualized clothing as an extended component of their body image. This implies that body image influences the clothing choice of individuals. Moody et al. (2010) and Venkatesh et al. (2012) reported that clothing preference, an aspect of appearance management was related to three personal factors namely mood, emotions and personality. Kaiser (1997) stated that an individual’s self-concept is a factor that guides appearance management behaviours. Additionally, one’s personal beliefs about appearance also affect the appearance management behaviours of people. Lee & Johnson (2009) reported that personal beliefs about appearance influences women’s self-objectification (being treated 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as a body valued primarily for its use to others). This may influence a woman’s self-worth and subsequently how she manages her appearance in society. 2.3 Importance of Appearance Management Appearance management is a significant aspect of our daily lives. Stone (1962) is of the view that “appearance is at least as important in establishment and maintenance of the self”. People manage their appearance for many purposes including grooming the body (Johnson et al., 2008), for boosting one’s confidence (Subhani, Hasan & Osman, 2011) and to feel more attractive (Amritharaj & Manikandan, 2017). The clothing or appearance of an individual is also an important part of the self as it acts as a primary factor in forming first impressions (Johnson et al., 2002). This may affect an observer’s perception and behaviour towards the wearer or individual being observed (Kim & Lennon, 2005). Therefore, management of one’s appearance is key in social setting as one’s clothing and overall appearance communicate to others about the self. Appearance management is also a means of improving self-esteem. According to Kwon (1994), clothing practices are very important means for defining, refining or enhancing an individual’s self-esteem, and an emotional and personal matter for individuals in society. A study by Francis (2011) also revealed that one’s clothing or appearance is a way of expressing oneself, and people also felt a sense of power depending on the clothes they wore. Furthermore, appearance management serves as a communication tool as it reflects and conveys the inner self such as personality, mood, emotions (Moody et al., 2010), self-concept (Entwistle, 2000), and expresses identity such as gender, cultural, religious, political, and occupational identity (Feinberg, 1992). 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is worth noting that most of the psychological influence of appearance management such as mood, emotions, personality, identity, and self-concept, are also important aspects of appearance management, as these factors are the messages communicated by an individual’s appearance. Thus, these factors serve as both psychological influence and reflection of appearance management. This validates Kaiser’s (1997) viewpoint of social psychology of appearance, which indicates that these factors are forces that lead to, and result from, the appearance management process. 2.4 Shopping as an Act and Form of Appearance Management The act of shopping is a vital aspect of a consumer’s life (Cardoso & Pinto, 2010). It is one of the means by which consumers acquire or purchase the products they need for managing their appearance. Kaiser (1997) indicated that appearance management involves all the thoughts processes and activities that leads to the purchase and use of clothing items and processes of body modification. Based on Kaiser’s (1997) assertion, shopping is therefore an act and form of appearance management. 2.4.1 Shopping Styles Consumers have different approaches to shopping. These are often described by different titles. For example, it is referred to as shopping styles (Park, Yu & Zhou, 2010), consumer decision-making styles (Hafstrom, Chae & Chung, 1992), consumption styles (Akturan, Tezcan & Vignolles, 2011), purchasing styles (Nayeem & Casidy, 2015) or shopping orientations (Loureiro & Breazeale, 2016). Consumer research has been based on three basic approaches to describe the styles of consumer behaviour, and these are the consumer typology approach, the psychographic or lifestyle approach and the consumer characteristics approach (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Although, all the approaches have been successful in exploring different types of shoppers who display consistent shopping orientations, it is the consumer characteristics approach that has been widely used since the 1980s. This is because it is the only approach that focuses on the cognitive and affective characteristics of consumers (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). Thus, making it the only approach that explicitly addresses the issue of how to measure consumers’ decision-making styles that leads to the different shopping orientations. Its emphasis on how consumers actually think and feel, has made it the most explanatory and reliable approach to consumer decision-making (Lysonski, Dursavula & Zotos 1996). Moreover, research by Sproles (1985) and Sproles & Kendall (1986) led to the development of the Consumer Styles Inventory (CSI), which is the first systematic attempt to develop a methodology for the measurement of consumer shopping orientations (Bakewell & Mitchell, 2003). 2.4.2 Consumer Characteristics Approach to Shopping Styles (Consumer Decision-Making Styles) Consumer decision-making style refers to the “mental orientation characterizing a consumer's approach to making choices” (Sproles & Kendall, 1986, p. 268). It is a basic consumer personality that is similar to the concept of personality in Psychology. This means that just as psychologists believe personality traits are stable factors that influence behaviours (Matthews & Deary, 1998), likewise, consumer decision-making styles are relatively enduring characteristics that influence several related behaviours. The consumer characteristic approach and the Consumer Styles Inventory (CSI) have been used to explore consumer shopping styles across different cultures such as United States of America (Sproles & Kendall, 1986), China (Wang, Siu & Hui, 2004), Turkey and France (Akturan et al., 2011), India (Tanksale, Neelam, & Venkatachalam, 2014), among others. Although the CSI was originally developed for applications in consumer research, family 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh financial counselling and consumer education (Sproles & Kendall, 1986), the measure has been applied in marketing studies, and is the most commonly-used in cross-cultural studies (Nayeem & Casidy, 2015). The CSI has also been applied in a wide range of product categories such as clothes (Wang et al., 2004), cosmetics, and jewellery (Bakewell & Mitchell, 2003). The consumer characteristics approach to shopping styles is applied in this study to identify and describe the shopping styles of female young adults, during the purchase of clothing. Eight consumer decision-making styles have been identified and conceptualized by Sproles & Kendall (1986). These are outlined from sub-sections 2.4.2.1 to 2.4.2.8. 2.4.2.1 Perfectionism, High-Quality Consciousness Perfectionism, high-quality consciousness describes a consumer’s orientation towards shopping carefully to select the best quality products (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). 2.4.2.2 Brand Consciousness Brand consciousness is characterised by a consumer’s search for expensive, well-known brands, and believing that the higher the price of a product the better its quality (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). 2.4.2.3 Novelty-Fashion Consciousness Novelty-fashion consciousness is characteristic of a consumer who seeks new things and keeps up-to-date with fashion styles (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). 2.4.2.4 Recreational and Hedonistic Shopping Consciousness Recreational and hedonistic shopping consciousness is characterised by a consumer’s orientation towards shopping for fun, and regarding shopping as a form of enjoyment (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.2.5 Price Consciousness Price consciousness is characteristic of a consumer who is concerned with getting the best value for his or her money, conscious of lower prices and looks out for sale prices (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). 2.4.2.6 Confusion from Overchoice Confusion from overchoice describes a consumer’s orientation towards having difficulty in making choices due to availability of many brands and stores, which results in a state of confusion (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). 2.4.2.7 Impulsive-Carelessness Impulsive-carelessness is characteristic of a consumer who does not plan his or her shopping and is unconcerned about how much one spends (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). 2.4.2.8 Habitual, Brand Loyal Orientation. Habitual, brand loyal orientation is characteristic of a consumer who has formed the habit of shopping from favourite brands and stores (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). Although the CSI has been used extensively, there has not been a consensus on the cross- cultural generalizability of the eight-factor model propounded by Sproles and Kendall (1986). This is because previous studies found contradictory results. Some researchers reported that less than eight shopping styles applied to their research subjects. Nayeem & Cassidy (2015) found that seven shopping styles were applicable to Australian consumers. In a cross-cultural study conducted by Akturan et al. (2011), five and six shopping styles were found among Turkish and French young adults respectively. Mehta & Dixit (2016) also found nine shopping styles among German undergraduate and postgraduate students. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Other researchers found that some of the eight shopping styles did not apply to their respondents. Lysonski et al.’s (1996) multi-country investigation revealed that price consciousness was not applicable to American, New Zealand, Greek and Indian undergraduate college students. Mehta & Dixit’s (2016) research also showed that Indian consumers were not novelty-fashion conscious. Akturan & et al.’s (2011) cross-cultural study revealed that price consciousness, habitual brand loyalty and impulsive carelessness were inapplicable to Turkish students whereas, price consciousness and habitual brand loyalty were inapplicable to French students. Other studies discovered that different shopping styles existed among their study sample. For instance, Bakewell & Mitchell (2003) found shopping and fashion uninterested consumers, trend setting loyals, recreational discount seekers, and recreational quality seekers among female undergraduate students in the UK. Hafstrom et al.’s (1992) study revealed time consciousness among young South Koreans and Tanksale et al. (2014) found shopping avoidance among young Indian consumers. 2.4.3 Self-Congruity Theory/ Self-Image/Product-Image Congruity Theory The self-congruity theory was “initiated by Gardner & Levy (1955) and Levy (1959), whose primary focus was on the image projected by several brands or products” (Sirgy, 1982, p. 291). Sirgy (1982) mentioned that consumers prefer products with images that match their self-concept. The self-congruity theory states that people apply ideas about the self to their purchasing behaviour. The proposition of this theory is that individuals are motivated to purchase products with images that match how they perceive themselves (actual self-image), how they desire to be (ideal self-image), or how they would like to be seen by others (social self-image), and avoid products with images that do not match any of their self-images (Sirgy, 1982). Cowart, Fox & 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Wilson (2008) indicated that consumers experience high self-congruity when their self-image matches the image or personality of a brand. This theory can be applied to appearance management because ideas about oneself impact apparel selection and purchase (Johnson et al., 2014). Products gain associated images through branding and marketing, and as such some consumers may prefer to buy products with images that define or portray who they are, what they stand for or how they want society to acknowledge them. For instance, in the management of appearance, consumers who want to be recognized for using high quality products, may purchase and wear clothing known to be of high quality. In 1967, Tucker reported that consumers’ personality can be defined by the product they use (Abdallat, 2012). In this current study, the self-congruity theory is used to explain the impact of consumer personality (an aspect of the self) on the purchasing behaviour of female young adults, during the shopping of clothing. 2.5 Dress as an Act and Form of Appearance Management Dress is a frequently used term that encompasses acts and forms of appearance management, and it is defined as an act of altering or adding to appearance (Kaiser, 1997). It is also defined as “an assemblage of modifications of the body and/or supplements to the body” (Roach- Higgins & Eicher, 1992, p. 1). Modifications of the body involve any temporary or permanent changing or redesigning of the colour, texture, or shape of body whiles body supplements are items that are used to cover or attach to the body or some part of the body (Roach & Musa, 1980). Body modifications include dieting, exercising, cosmetic use, piercing, cosmetic surgery, tattooing among others; while body supplements include accessories, clothing, hearing aids, glasses and many others (Johnson et al., 2014). Rudd & Lennon (2000) also stated that dress is an intentional behaviour that involves the act of choosing how and with what processes or items to create personal appearance. Johnson et 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh al. (2008) described dress as any purposeful manipulation of the body, and it entails the use of cosmetics, clothes, accessories, hair styling techniques, and other additions done for various purposes such as grooming the body. For the purpose of this study, dress is defined as the use of clothing to create one’s personal appearance. 2.5.1 Dress Styles Consumers have the tendency to dress in comfortable and attractive clothing, and the psychology of clothing purchase is centered on the desire to own garments perceived to be stylish and flattering (Liu & Kennon, 2005). Style is described as a unique sense of flair (Chaney & Goulding, 2016) or a particular way in which something is done. Individuality, one of the basis of all fashion behaviours (Eicher & Sumberg, 1995) has led to the creation of several unique sense of flair in dress, even among people living in the same society. Generally, consumers’ need for uniqueness is mostly expressed by wearing clothing that helps to create a unique identity and social image (Tepper & Hoyle, 1996). People have different taste and preference for different products and services for managing appearance. Research has shown that consumers dress in several distinctive ways known as dress styles (Johnson & Francis, 2006). Dress styles have been termed differently by several researchers. These include clothing types (Johnson & Foster, 1990), garment styles (Bell, 1991), apparel types (Shin & Dickerson, 1999), clothing styles (Winham & Hampl, 2008), clothing preferences (Moody et al., 2010) and “fashion personalities” by renowned fashion magazines such as Harper Bazaar (Keogan, 2013, p.19). According to Shin & Dickerson (1999), there is no clear categorization system for dress styles that is widely recognized and used. Johnson & Foster (1990) stated that professionals in the fashion industry and academia use different classifications of dress styles based on their own 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh purposes and interests. The situation remains the same two decades on. This may be due to cultural differences in clothing behaviour. Therefore, the dress styles explored in the present study were those identified in literature that were presumed to be descriptive of the Ghanaian style of dress. Johnson & Foster (1990) classified apparel into various categories such as classic, sporty, feminine and masculine. Bell (1991) investigated the impact of male garment styles on American adult perceptions of personal traits of men, and daring, casual, conservative and formal garment styles were used as experimental stimuli in the study. Shin & Dickerson (1999) also investigated whether the use of reference sources differed across two apparel categories among Korean men. The researchers found that Korean men use non-personal references (in-store displays, television and newspapers) more often than personal references (wives, girlfriends) in their decisions concerning the purchase of casual and formal wear. Nutthawutthisit (2003) examined the categories of garment preferred by female students who were Asian nationals and Asian Americans. The dress styles considered in the study were casual, dressy casual, sporty casual, professional attire and others. In the study of Johnson & Francis (2006), eleven dress style tribes were explored. These resulted from a preliminary study, in which American college students were tasked to describe and assign names to the appearance of both male and female style tribe members. The dress styles explored were athletic, hippie, hip-hop, gothic, cowboy/cowgirl, casual, preppy, punk, skater, surfer and trendy styles. Goswami (2007) also examined the types of clothes purchased by urban Indian college students. The researcher found that naturally, male and female students purchased different types of clothes. Males generally wore either formal or casual clothes depending on the occasion. On the other hand, the females wore either western or ethnic wear depending on 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh their figure type, the college they attend, the course they pursue, and their place of residence. Keogan (2013) explored the relationship between clothing preference categories and self- concept trait for both males and females in Ireland. The researcher found six dress styles among the females, and these were bombshell, bohemians, mavericks, eclectics, minimalist, and classicists. Whereas five dress styles namely, powerhouse, professional, rocker, workman, and sportsman were found among the males. The reviewed literature showed that some of the dress styles explored are inapplicable to the Ghanaian context, as they differ from the Ghanaian style of dress. These include, cowboy/cowgirl, gothic, hip-hop, preppy, punk, skater, surfer styles. Research has proven that the perceptions, beliefs and attitudes of consumers in developed and developing countries are significantly different (Rathnayake, 2011). These consumer characteristics and cultural differences in part, account for the differences in dress styles. Moreover, the description of masculine, cowboy, hip-hop and surfer dress styles were male-specific styles which makes them inapplicable to the current study. However, the description of twenty (20) dress styles from literature (classic, feminine, athletic, casual, hippie, trendy, daring, conservative, formal, professional, ethnic, western, sporty, trendy, bombshell, bohemians, mavericks, eclectics, minimalist, and classicists) were posited to describe the Ghanaian style of dress. There were similarities in most of the dress style descriptions (that is two or more dress style terms were describing the same style of dress). Examples of such terms include athletic and sporty; classic, classicists and conservative; daring and eclectics. For the purpose of this study, similar descriptions from different researchers were merged to obtain a particular style of dress. As a result, only six dress styles were derived for this study. These are outlined in sub-sections 2.5.1.1 to 2.5.1.6. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5.1.1 Classic Styles Classic styles are fashions that do not change. Consumers who love classic styles are referred to as classicists or minimalists, and such individuals prefer basic, simple staple pieces or clothes (Keogan, 2013). Classic clothing can be worn year after year due to their timeless quality. However, classicists incorporate trendy items into their look in a subtle way (Bell, 1991). Classic style is also termed as conservative style (Johnson & Foster 1990). 2.5.1.2 Sporty Styles Sporty styles are fashions that are often masculine, generally loosely fitted, and may be embellished with sports logos. Sporty style individuals mostly wore jeans with sweatshirts or t-shirts, slippers, running shoes, flip-flops, as well as carry sports bags, wear few cosmetics with minimally groomed hair (Johnson & Francis, 2006). Other terms for sporty style are sporty casual (Nutthawutthisit, 2003), casual style (Johnson & Foster, 1990) and athletic style (Johnson & Francis, 2006). Shin & Dickerson (1999) termed sportswear or casual wear as ‘every day’ wear because it is useful for several informal situations such as leisure activities. 2.5.1.3 Trendy Styles Trendy styles are the latest, popular and most up-to-date fashions. Individuals who dress in a trendy manner wear clothing from current fashion trend, fashion brands and clothing seen in fashion stores and magazines (Johnson & Francis, 2006). Trendy individuals are fashion trend trackers and usually the first to spot a new fashion statement (Marchbanks, 2015). 2.5.1.4 Daring Styles Daring styles are bold fashions that stand out due to unusual details, bright colours or the rare materials they are made of (Bell, 1991). Consumers who love daring styles are referred to as eclectics or mavericks, and these individuals seek out unique colours and trimmings as well 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as love clothes that draws people’s attention (Keogan, 2013). Daring style is also termed dramatic style (Marchbanks, 2015). 2.5.1.5 Feminine Styles Feminine styles are fashions with soft, delicate and feminine details (Johnson & Foster, 1990). Feminine style individuals love wearing clothes with frills, fullness and embellishments. They like easy-flowing fabrics. Consumers who prefer this style are referred to as bombshells, and these individuals like clothes that show off their feminine figure, and avoid masculine tailored garments (Keogan, 2013). Other terms for feminine style are romantic style or delicate style (Marchbanks, 2015). 2.5.1.6 Ethnic Styles Ethnic styles are cultural-based fashions (Goswami, 2007). Ethnic style consumers wear clothing that are made of local fabrics and designs. Consumers who love ethnic styles are referred to as bohemians, and these individuals like ethnic-inspired look and create ensemble with vintage and retro patterns (Keogan, 2013). In Ghana, ethnic wear such as garments made from local wax prints can be used as formal wear for formal occasions such as work. 2.5.2 Symbolic Interaction Theory / Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic interaction theory is “a micro-level theoretical framework and perspective in Sociology that addresses how society is created and maintained through repeated interactions among individuals” (Carter & Fuller, 2015, p. 1). Aksan, Kisac, Aydin & Demirbuken (2009) stated that the foundation of this theory is meanings, and that facts are based on and directed by symbols. Although, symbolic interactionists differ in their points of view, they all agree that human interaction is the source of data. “The works of theorists Cooley (1902), Parks 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (1915), Dewey (1930), Mead (1934), and Blumer (1969) led to the development of symbolic interactionism” (Aksan et al., 2009, p. 902). The symbolic interaction theory comprises three basic propositions (Blumer, 1969). The first proposition is that individuals act towards objects based on the meanings the objects have for them. Applying this proposition to appearance management means that people act toward other people based on the meanings their dress and overall appearance hold for them (Kaiser, 1997). Clothing and appearance in general, is symbolic. And as such, individuals make use of them to communicate a variety of messages such as gender, religious, cultural, political, and occupational identity as well as emotions, personality, mood, and self-concept. People may also form their first or lasting impression of people based on the meanings their appearances communicates to them, and this may affect how they react or behave towards the individual. The second proposition is that meanings emerge from interactions among individuals in the society. This points out that meanings are not inherent in objects, but are learned and shared among individuals (Johnson et al., 2014). Meanings associated with dress symbols are derived from social interactions. The third proposition is that meanings are continually recreated or changed through interaction among people. This premise implies that the wearer of a clothing article actively determines the meaning of the article together with the observer of that article (Johnson et al., 2014). Meanings are modified during social interaction when meanings are well interpreted. People create their own realities, partly by managing their appearance through the use of symbols (Kaiser, 1997). Humans have the tendency to be different and create the desired style of their own through the management of their appearance. Clothing and body modifications are the symbols (objects and processes that carry specific meanings) which are employed in the appearance management, to construct one’s desired appearance and to communicate 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh information to others in society. In the present study, symbolic interactionism is used to explain the dress cues or messages (personality traits) communicated to others, through the dress symbols (clothing) used by female young adults. 2.6 Personality as a Psychological Influence and Reflection of Appearance Management One of the most fascinating aspects of life is the diversity observed in people. People differ in their typical ways of feeling, thinking and behaving. It is these differences in psychological characteristics such as personality that seem so important in defining who an individual is (Ashton, 2018). Personality is described as the complex organisation of cognition, affects, and behaviours that gives pattern and direction to a person’s life (Pervin, 1996). Personality influences an individual’s behaviour (Matthew & Deary, 1998) and decision making (Keiser & Garner, 2012). Since appearance management is a highly observable behaviour (Johnson et al., 2007) that involves decision-making, personality is therefore a psychological factor the influences appearance management. Moreover, appearance management has been found to act as a communication tool that reflects and conveys the inner self such as personality (Entwistle, 2000). Thus, personality is a reflection or an expression of appearance management. In other words, personality is an appearance or clothing cue as it is one of the messages communicated by an individual’s appearance. 2.6.1 Personality Traits There are diverse units of analysis used by personality psychologists and these include traits, dispositions, instincts, current concerns, folk concepts, interests, motives, strivings, needs, sentiments, values amongst others. (Johnson, 1997). Notwithstanding, traits have been the foundation for several personality theories over the years (Johnson et al., 2007). Matthews & Deary (1998) stated that the concept of personality traits may be as old as human language. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Traits refer to stable patterns of feelings, thoughts and actions that distinguish one individual from the other, and is expressed in some conceptually related ways, across a variety of situations (Ashton, 2018). Traits can be said to be descriptors or labels given to enduring aspects of an individual’s personality. Johnson (1997) indicated that traits are the units of analysis for describing and explaining the personality of humans. Cervone & Pervin (2008) also added that traits can be used to predict everyday behaviour. Therefore, traits serve three scientific functions, which is the description, explanation and prediction of cognition, affects and behaviour. 2.6.2 Development of Trait Theories Trait theorists, also considered as “psychoarchitects” of personality theory are interested in discovering the structure of personality, by identifying the major personality traits (building blocks) and how these traits fit together to create a personality structure (McMartin, 1995). The beginnings of trait concepts can be traced from 4th century BC, when Aristotle found that dispositions like cowardice, modesty and vanity were the core bases of morality (Matthews & Deary, 1998). Aristotle’s student, Theophrastus also had his book describing 30 “characters” being likened to “traits” by a translator (Rusten, 1993). Early trait conceptions, everyday words and conversations set the grounds for trait theories. 2.6.2.1 Hippocrates (460-377 BC) and Galen (AD 130-200) Greek physicians, Hippocrates and Galen were amongst the earliest originators of present-day trait theories. Hippocrates’ theory of humours postulates that, the four humours or bodily fluids (phlegm, blood, black bile and yellow bile) were responsible for physical diseases (Ryckman, 2000). However, it was in the works of Galen that the four humours became the bases of temperaments, as he noted that when the humours are well-balanced, it resulted in an 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh optimal temperament and vice versa (Matthews & Deary, 1998). Phlegmatic individuals were described as having excess phlegm which made them calm and sluggish (Steiner, 2008). Sanguine temperament is as result of excess blood, and such individuals are passionate and cheerful (Childs, 2009). Melancholic individuals were characterized by having excess black bile, and resulted in feeling of depression and anxiety (Engler, 1999). Nonetheless, there exist a blend of these temperaments (Matthews & Deary, 1998). Choleric temperament was as a result of excess yellow bile, and were associated with irritability and hot-temper (Ryckman, 2000). 2.6.2.2 Gordon Allport (1879-1967) Gordon Allport was the first to attempt the development of a comprehensive framework to describe personality using traits, which is known as the Trait Theory of Gordon Allport. Allport classified traits into three categories namely, cardinal, central and secondary traits. Cardinal traits express dispositions that are so pervasive and outstanding in a person’s life, in that almost every act is traceable to its influence (Cervone & Pervin, 2008). For example, when one thinks of Florence Nightingale or Mother Theresa, one thinks of a person driven by human compassion. Allport believed that cardinal traits are rare. Central traits express characteristics that control an individual’s behaviour in many situations (Hergenhahn, 1994). These traits are those mentioned by people when they are asked to describe others or write a letter of recommendation. These include honesty, kindness, assertiveness, laziness amongst other. Secondary traits are the least generalized and noticeable characteristics that exert little control over a person’s behaviour (Ryckman, 2000). Those traits are exhibited in certain situations and known to people who are close to the individual. Examples include a person’s preference for certain types of food and clothing. 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6.2.2 Raymond B. Cattell (1905-1998) Raymond B. Cattell built on Allport’s work by using statistical technique called factor analysis to determine the structure of personality. Cattell propounded the Factor-Analytic Trait Theory or Cattell’s Structure-Based Systems Theory, which provides two conceptual distinctions among the large number of personality traits. Cattell distinguished surface traits, which are overt dispositions from source traits, which are internal psychological structures that are the stable underlying cause of behaviour (Matthews & Deary, 1998). Thus, one or more source traits cluster to form a surface traits that influences behaviour. Cattell used Allport’s 4500 trait terms in English language, collected ratings of the terms and factor-analysed them to derive sixteen (16) factors (source traits), which he postulated as the core structure of personality (John & Srivastava, 1999). He further grouped the source traits into three categories namely, ability, dynamic and temperament traits. Cervone & Pervin (2008) defined ability traits as the skills that allow humans to function well such as intelligence; temperament traits involve the stylistic quality and emotional aspect of an individual’s behaviour such as being slow or quick and being calm or emotional; dynamic traits involve the striving and motivational life of individuals. 2.6.2.4 Hans J. Eysenck (1916-1997) Hans J. Eysenck also built on Cattell’s work to develop the Three-Factor Theory of Hans J. Eysenck or Eysenck’s Biological Typology. He utilized a secondary factor analysis to identify a simple set of traits that were not correlated, and indicated that these traits were at the highest level of the hierarchy of traits and referred to them as supertraits (Matthews, Deary & Whiteman, 2003). Eysenck identified three supertraits: neuroticism, introversion-extraversion and psychotism. These supertraits had low and high ends with majority of the population falling in the middle (Cervone & Pervin, 2008). Eysenck & Eysenck (1991) indicated that a 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh high neuroticism scorer was anxious, worrisome and moody, a high scorer on introversion- extraversion scale is assertive, carefree, sociable and seeks excitement, and a high scorer on psychotism is aggressive, creative, empathetic and impulsive. 2.6.3 The Five-Factor Model of Personality (FFM) Trait theories have evolved over time. John & Srivastava (1999) stated that after several years of research, the field of personality psychology is “approaching consensus on a general taxonomy of personality traits, the ‘Big Five’ personality dimensions” (p.2), which is also known as the Five-Factor Model of Personality (FFM). McCrae & John (1992), indicated that the FFM is a trait theory that has been widely used by personality psychologists and other researchers in other disciplines. The FFM is a model that was developed based on empirical data-driven research by several independent researchers (Atkinson et al., 2000). It comprises five factors namely, neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness. According to John & Srivastava (1999), the factors were derived from the psycho-lexical approach, which is the analysis of natural language terms used by people for describing themselves. It was created using factor analysis to determine the key traits in human personality. Neuroticism and extraversion were identified by Eysenck (1963), and the studies of Costa & McCrae’s (1976) led to the introduction of openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. The five broad factors are defined by narrow traits known as facets (Costa, McCrae & Dye, 1991). The factors are regarded as basic orientations that are made up of facets (specific traits), and change as a result of biological maturation but not through learning (Maddi, 1996). The factors and their specific facets are characteristics that are representative of individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behaviours. This implies that the factors are representative of how people manage their appearance, since appearance management entails thought processes, 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh feelings and actions. McCrae & John (1992) stated that the FFM is a model that implicitly adopts the basic propositions of trait theory. Thus, it can be used to describe and explain the cognition, affects and actions of humans. It is applied in this study to identify, describe and explain how personality traits correspond to the shopping styles and dress styles of female young adults. 2.6.3.1 Neuroticism Neuroticism is the extent to which an individual is vulnerable to distress, and experiences negative emotions such as anxiety, fear, moodiness, worry, irritability, envy, sadness, anger, guilt, depression and mood swings (Cobb-Clark & Schurer, 2012). The facets of neuroticism are depression, anxiety, hostility, angry, impulsiveness, vulnerability and self-consciousness. Individuals who are high in neuroticism are emotionally unstable (Eysenck, 1992). Characteristics of a person scoring high include being emotional, worrisome, nervous, insecure, inadequate, hypochondriacal and self-pitying, whereas a low scorer is relaxed, secure, unemotional, calm and self-satisfied (Costa & McCrae, 1992c). 2.6.3.2 Extraversion Extraversion refers to the quantity and intensity of interactions an individual has with his or her social environment, and it is described as the tendency to seek contacts with people with confidence, enthusiasm, spirit and energy, as well as to positively live out experiences (Rolland, 2002). It is the tendency to seek and engage with the company of others (Eysenck, 1992). The facets of extraversion are excitement-seeking, activity, assertiveness, positive emotions, gregariousness and warmth. A high scorer is referred to as an extravert or extrovert, and he or she is sociable, fun loving, talkative, optimistic, person-oriented, affectionate and active, whereas a low scorer or an introvert is sober, task-oriented, reserved, aloof, unexuberant, quiet, and retiring (Costa & McCrae, 1992c). 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6.3.3 Openness to Experience Openness to experience is the receptivity to a variety of new ideas, values, interests and experiences (Costa & McCrae, 1985). The facets of openness to experience are values, ideas, actions, feelings, aesthetics and fantasy. An individual who scores high is curious, original, untraditional, imaginative, creative, and has broad interests, whereas a low scorer has narrow interests, is inartistic, conventional, unanalytical and down-to-earth (Costa & McCrae, 1992c). 2.6.3.4 Agreeableness Agreeableness is the extent to which people are trusting, generous and concerned about others (Costa & McCrae, 1985). Agreeableness, like extraversion is mainly a factor of interpersonal behaviour. While extraversion is concerned with the quantity and intensity of interaction, agreeableness is concerned with the quality of interaction on a spectrum ranging from antagonism to compassion (Costa, McCrae & Dye, 1991). The facets of agreeableness are modesty, tender-mindedness, straightforwardness, compliance, trust and altruism. A high scorer is trusting, softhearted, helpful, good- natured, forgiving, straightforward and gullible, whereas a low scorer is ruthless, uncooperative, vengeful, irritable, rude, manipulative and suspicious (Costa & McCrae, 1992c). 2.6.3.5 Conscientiousness Conscientiousness relates to the degree to which an individual is responsible, organized, persistent and achievement-oriented (Costa & McCrae, 1985). Rolland (2002) stated that conscientiousness concerns control of impulses, persistency of behaviour and orientation, and consists of dynamic elements (such as task-orientation, success-orientation, anticipation) as well as inhibition and control elements (such as thoroughness, perseverance, respect of standards and procedures) of behaviours. The facets of conscientiousness are order, 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh competence, achievement, dutifulness, self-discipline and striving. An individual who scores high on conscientiousness is organized, self-disciplined, reliable, hardworking, punctual, persevering, scrupulous, neat and ambitious, whereas, a low scorer is aimless, careless, unreliable, hedonistic, lazy, negligent, and weak-willed (Costa & McCrae, 1992c). The level of neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness have been studied among female students in the University of Ghana. In a study by Oddam (2015), which sought to examine the personality traits and dietary habits of undergraduate students in University of Ghana, revealed that most of the female students were low in neuroticism, extraversion and openness to experience. Whereas, more than half of the female students were high on agreeableness and conscientiousness. Despite these findings, the level of personality factors of the subjects of this study (University of Ghana female young adults) may be different, as the inherent characteristics of individuals differ irrespective of their environment or culture. 2.6.4 Support of the Five-Factor Model of Personality Personality psychology has been largely influenced by the “Big Five” over the years (Rolland, 2002). McCrae & John (1992) argued that although the FFM is not a personality theory, it implicitly adopts the basic propositions of trait theory. According to McCrae & Costa (1999), a trait theory assumes that people can be characterized in terms of stable patterns of feelings, thoughts and actions, traits show some degree of consistency across situations and can be measured quantitatively. The FFM has been found to satisfy all these assumptions. Maddi (1996) also stated that the FFM is a fulfillment model because it assumes that a single basic force lies within a person and drives the individual throughout life. It is a widely accepted model that has been used extensively in a variety of contexts (Digman, 1990) for its role in explaining several diverse life outcomes (Paunonen, 2003). McCrae & Costa (2004) indicated 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that all five factors have been found to possess considerable reliability and validity in a number of different contexts. Furthermore, the FFM is now regarded as a reference model among the hierarchical personality models, due to the extensive research that has contributed to the establishment of its validity (Eysenck, 1992; Cattell, 1996). According to Costa & McCrae (1992a), the dimensions of a personality structure must be universal, that is it must apply to all sexes, age groups, cultures and races. McCrae & John (1992) noted that the FFM has evidence of a universal five-factor personality structure. It has been found to be a conclusive and comprehensive model and applies uniformly to all adult ages (Costa & McCrae, 1995), college students (Goldberg, 1990) and also teachers’ ratings of children (Digman, 1990). De Raad, Perugini, Hrébicková & Szarota (1998) also stated that the model applies to different languages and cultures in the assessment of personality traits. 2.6.5 Criticism of the Five-Factor Model of Personality Despite the support, validity evidence and widespread use of the FFM, it has received criticism. The FFM, like any other trait theory does not consider how individual differences develop, but uses terms in natural language that describe people to determine the structure of personality. Block (1995) stated that the formulation of the five factors was “atheoretical”, because no identifiable theories, models or hypotheses guided the emergence of the FFM. Block (1995) had earlier questioned whether the lexical approach was scientific, and claimed that the factor analysis used for the FFM was unwarranted. Even though Costa & McCrae (1995) indicated that the FFM applies uniformly to all stages of adulthood, the findings of Mroczek, Ozer, Spiro, & Kaiser’s (1998) study showed that the structures between old adults and young adults were significantly different. McAdams (2006) described the FFM as “psychology of the stranger”, because it excludes other aspects of personality traits such as those that are very private or context-specific, and 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh only considers traits that are easily observed in a stranger. In addition, the model does not consider other personality dimensions such as honesty, thriftiness, conservativeness, sense of humour, masculinity/femininity, religiosity, snobbishness/egotism, risk-taking/thrill-seeking sexiness/seductiveness, and manipulativeness/Machiavellianism (Lumen, n.d.). Hence, the model does not cover all human personality traits. Despite the criticism, the FFM continues to be one of the most widely used and respected trait theories. 2.7 Concept of Young Adulthood It is difficult to define young adulthood by age because it is normally based on social tasks that a young adult ought to achieve in order to progress to the next developmental stage (Šulková, 2013). According to Ambron & Brodzinsky (1981), young people have the optimal physical characteristics, their sensory and neural functions are at their peak and have achieved their full brain weight. The process of becoming an adult is a complex process, and marked by certain social milestones like taking decisive steps to achieve emotional, financial and residential autonomy, as well as taking on additional adult roles such as being a worker, spouse, parent and citizen (Jekielek & Brown, 2005). However, the transition to adulthood is very gradual and varied in contemporary times as compared to the past, as young individuals take longer period to achieve psychological and economic independence (State Adolescent Health Resource Center, n.d.). Generally, young adults have been found to be concerned with their appearance (Bell, 1991; Johnson et al., 2007). And with young adult Ghanaians, this stage of life presents some level of independence with regards to appearance management. Thus, these group of consumers almost always personally shop for their appearance products and services, and make decisions concerning their way of dressing. Young consumers adopt a unique sense of fashion in order to distinguish themselves from other people in the society (Cham, Yan-Ng, Lim, & Cheng, 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2018). Bao & Shao (2002) indicated that at some point in the lives of young consumers, they have a high tendency to crave for uniqueness and thus, the need for uniqueness is universally considered a personality of young consumers. 2.7.1 Theory of Psychosocial Development Erikson’s (1950, 1959), theory of psychosocial development suggests that an individual develops through series of eight stages that define the human life cycle. The stages occur and relate to a series of crises that an individual is faced with, as one develops from infancy to childhood and through adolescence to adulthood. Erikson asserted that psychosocial development is critical to the formation of personality. Young adulthood falls in psychosocial stage six (i.e. intimacy vs isolation). This stage represents the period when individuals begin to work and explore personal relationships with others, especially the opposite sex. Erikson believed that it is essential for young adults to form intimate and loving relationships with others. The theory asserts that success in relationships would lead to secure, committed and strong relationships, whereas failure would result in depression, isolation and loneliness. Grounded on Erikson’s (1950) postulations, different researchers and authors assumed that young adulthood cover approximately ages 20-24 (Hergenhahn, 1994), 18-24 (Engler, 1999) or 20-30 (Šulková, 2013) based on the context within which they found themselves. Applying the theory to this study, it can be said that in developing close, committed relationships with other people, especially intimate relationships with the opposite sex, management of appearance is key for most young adults. Hence, it seems that decisions and acts related to shopping and dress is likely to peak at this stage of life. Thus, research on the influence of personality on the appearance management decisions and activities of the young adults, may produce knowledge that would positively affect product development and delivery of services. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7.2 Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development from the Late Teens through the Twenties There are young adults who are not fully independent and have not completely transited into adult roles in the family or the labour force (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2014). The delay in attaining complete independence by young adults in today’s industrialized world, has led to the introduction of another concept, “emerging adulthood”. Emerging adulthood is a developmental stage proposed by Arnett (2000), who indicated that emerging adulthood is neither young adulthood nor adolescence but rather, a transitional period that leads to adulthood. It is the period spanning from the late teens to the twenties, and focuses on ages 18-25 years. Arnett (2000) argued that majority of people from ages 18 years to 25 years are still in the process of forming their identity, living with their parents, obtaining education or training for a career, and are not yet in a committed relationship or married as it expected of an adult. Therefore, they are not yet full adults. Arnett (2000) however, noted that emerging adults reach adulthood at different points in time. For instance, there are 19 year old individuals who have transited to adulthood in all respect, and 29 year old persons who have not. Nonetheless, most individuals transit from emerging adulthood to young adulthood during the late twenties and peaks at age 30. 2.7.3 Conception of Age Range for the Study Although young adulthood is usually defined by social factors rather than age of physical maturation, age range is specified for the purpose of this study, based on theoretical and constitutional perspective. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development suggests that young adulthood is a stage whereby intimacy is likely to occur, and researchers have supposedly include people from age 18 to 30. In Ghana, an adult is any person who is 18 years or above, 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a stage in which one is considered as responsible, self-sufficient and independent under the law (Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, 1992). Since majority of the target population for the study are not yet fully independent and self-sufficient, the researcher concurs with Arnett’s (2000) age range (18-25 years) for emerging adulthood for this study. Therefore, the age range for young adulthood in this study is from 18 years to 25 years. Hence, a young adult with regard to this study is described as the end-user of clothing from the age of 18 to 25 years. 2.8 Personality and Appearance Management Related Research Research on personality and appearance management activities (shopping and dress) is generally limited. The researcher has not come across studies conducted in the Ghanaian context. All the reviewed studies employed subjects in the Western and Eastern cultures and thus, may not be reflective of the Ghanaian culture. Additionally, in the case of personality and dress research, several of the reviewed ones (Aiken, 1963; Taylor & Compton, 1968; Rosenfeld & Plax, 1977; Paek, 1986; Kwon, 1987) are not recent, and therefore may not reflect relationship in contemporary times. Notwithstanding, previous studies always provide a foundation for current studies, in order to substantiate existing knowledge. 2.8.1 Personality and Shopping There are studies that have sought to investigate the relationship between certain dimensions of personality and some shopping concepts, but had contradictory results. Generally, research on personality and shopping include those that focused on brand consciousness and preferences (Shank & Langmeyer, 1994; Mulyanegara & Tsarenko, 2009; Giovannini, Xu & Thomas, 2015), shopping typology (Breazeale & Lueg, 2011; Wong, Osman, Said & Paim, 2014), fashion shopping proneness (Roy, et al., 2016) and fashion consumption (McIntyre & Miller, 1992; Saran, Roy & Sethuraman, 2016). There has however, been few studies on the “Big Five” and shopping styles (Šulková, 2013). 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh McIntyre & Miller (1992) examined the role of social utility in fashion behaviour of American consumers, as well as the influence of personality traits on the behavioural responses to social influence on fashion. Social utility refers to the benefits of a product or service that meet a consumer’s interpersonal needs such as conformity, individuality relative to others. Social utility was found to be a primary determinant of fashion behaviour, and selected personality traits were also found to moderate behavioural responses to social influence on fashion. Shank & Langmeyer (1994) investigated the relationship between product personality and consumer personality using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, amongst Americans. They found that consumer personality had a weak relationship with product personality or brand image. The findings suggested that consumer personality had a low predictive relationship with the fashion and marketing behaviours of consumers. Mulyanegara & Tsarenko (2009) investigated and compared the strength of personality traits and values in predicting fashion brand preferences of Australian consumers, and found that there is no significant relationship between the “Big Five” and consumers’ brand preferences. Thereby, implying that personality traits are not good predictors of shopping behaviour. This finding contradicts the assumption that consumers use fashion brands as a means of expressing their personality. Breazeale & Lueg (2011) developed a psychographic shopping typology of American teens’ shopping preferences, based on their level of extraversion, interpersonal communication and self-esteem. They derived three types of shoppers, and these are confident techies, social butterflies, and self-contained shoppers. According to Breazeale & Lueg (2011), confident techies were teens that scored highest on the self-esteem and interpersonal communication scales, and spent a lot of time and money at the mall and during internet shopping. Social butterflies were teens that scored highest on extraversion and interpersonal communication 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh scales, they were found to spend the greatest amount of money and time at the mall but spent less money and time on internet shopping. Self-contained shoppers were teens that scored lowest on both extraversion and self-esteem scales, and were found to spend less time and money at the mall and during internet shopping. Šulková (2013) explored the relationship between the FFM and shopping styles of young adult Slovaks, using Sproles & Kendall’s (1986) concept of consumer decision-making styles. Šulková used factor analysis and found that six out of the eight shopping styles were applicable to young adults in Slovakia. These six styles were reworded based on the item loadings for each styles. Results indicated neuroticism positively correlated with hedonistic fashion- conscious and carelessly confused shopping styles; extraversion positively correlated with hedonistic fashion-conscious and impulsively carefree shopping styles. Additionally, openness to experience was positively associated with hedonistic fashion-conscious shopping style but negatively correlated with brand-conscious shopping style; agreeableness negatively correlated with careful quality-conscious and impulsively carefree shopping styles; conscientiousness positively correlated with careful quality-conscious and brand- consciousness shopping style but negatively correlated with carelessly confused and impulsively carefree shopping styles. Wong et al. (2014) conducted a similar study to Breazeale & Lueg’s (2011) study. They developed a model by integrating the dimensions of the FFM, in order to understand Malaysian shoppers’ personality traits in consumption. They derived three types of shoppers namely, self-confined, apathetic shoppers, moderate, pragmatic shoppers and confident, enthusiastic shoppers. According to Wong et al. (2014), self-confined, apathetic shoppers were found to be high in neuroticism and low in the other four factors of the FFM. These shoppers tend to be modest and constantly worried. They have no intrinsic interest in shopping, 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and only shop when the need arises. Moderate, pragmatic shoppers were found to be moderate on all personality factors except agreeableness. These shoppers are said to be very practical and have reasonable considerations when shopping. Confident, enthusiastic shoppers were found to be high on all personality factors except agreeableness and neuroticism. This type of shoppers consider themselves as being highly engaged in shopping activities. Giovannini et al. (2015) conducted a study on American consumers’ luxury fashion consumption, and examined the influence of self-related personality traits on brand consciousness. The researchers found that high public self-consciousness significantly influenced consumers’ brand consciousness. A significant relationship was also found between high self-esteem and brand consciousness of consumers. The findings imply that consumers’ consciousness of self-esteem and public self-image made them highly brand conscious. This consequently influenced their luxury consumption motivations and brand loyalty. Saran et al. (2016) conducted a study on personality and fashion consumption amongst Indian consumers. They integrated personality with fashion involvement and fashion-oriented emotions. The findings revealed that personality significantly impacted positive emotions, but did not significantly impact fashion involvement. Consumers who were assertive, ambitious, risk-averse, sociable, talkative, responsible and dependable exerted positive emotions in fashion shopping. However, their findings revealed that personality had an indirect influence on fashion involvement, and this was mediated by positive emotions. Additionally, consumers engaged in fashion shopping based on their internal states (emotional level) of personality. Roy et al. (2016) investigated the influence of consumer personality and demographics on fashion shopping proneness (FSP) amongst Indian consumers. FSP refers to the positive affective and cognitive state of mind that enables a consumer to be involved in fashion 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh shopping, which results in positive feelings that lead to favourable shopping behaviour. They found that personality traits and demographics explained 46% and 9% of the variance in FSP respectively. Lower neuroticism (emotional stability), agreeableness, openness to experience and extraversion were found to be positively associated with FSP while conscientiousness is negatively related to FSP. Their findings further confirmed the earlier argument that female and young consumers are more fashion prone than male and old consumers. 2.8.2 Personality and Dress Although some researchers are of the view that personality influences dress, others believe that dress expresses personality. Both assumptions have been proven by research, as some studies have indicated that some personality traits are associated with certain aspects of dress. According to Bell (1991), Lurie (1992), and Moody et al. (2010), different personality traits are expressed within any styling of clothes or outfit worn daily. Kwon (1987) reported that an individual’s personality affects daily clothing selection and behaviour. Kwon’s (1987) findings are also consistent with previous studies (Aiken, 1963; Rosenfeld & Plax, 1977), and more recently Johnson & Francis (2006). Literature on dress styles and the “Big Five” is very limited, and most of the studies that used other dress concepts and traits theories are outdated. A few of these studies would be discussed in this section. Aiken (1963) investigated the relationship between a variety of personality traits and five clothing dimensions amongst undergraduate women in USA. Aiken (1963) found a positive correlation between: (i) comfort in dress and traits such as being thorough, sociable and having self-control, (ii) economy in dress and traits such as efficiency, responsibility and alertness, (iii) interest in dress and traits such as insecurity, conscientiousness and stereotyped-thinking, (iv) conformity in dress and traits such as submissiveness, restraint and social conformity and (v) decoration in dress and traits such as sociability, non-intellectualism and conformity. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Taylor & Compton (1968) used Aiken’s measure to examine the relationship between three personality characteristics (task-orientation, interaction-orientation and self-orientation) and Aiken’s five clothing dimensions, among college women in a public University in the USA. They found insignificant relationships among the variables. For instance, conformity in dress was found to be related to a person’s desire to be liked and accepted, instead of being socially conforming. They also found that women who were highly concerned with conformity in dress were interested in maintaining harmonious relationships with others but, were uninterested in aesthetics. Thus, indicating that aesthetic people were individualistic and self-sufficient. Rosenfeld & Plax (1977) also modified Aiken’s instrument to make it suitable for both American males and females, and to reflect mid-1970s clothing behaviour. They derived four clothing dimensions namely clothing consciousness, practicality, exhibitionism and designer. The findings of Rosenfeld & Plax (1977) showed that the relationship between personality and clothing was different for males and females. Males who scored high on clothing consciousness were found to be conformists, guarded, believed people can be manipulated and did not value beauty; on exhibitionism were confident, moody, aggressive and unsympathetic; on practicality were less motivated to make friends, rebellious, inhibited and not leadership-oriented; on designer tended to be warm, cooperative, impulsive, conforming and irritable. Additionally, females who scored high on clothing consciousness were inhibited, conforming and loyal; on exhibitionism tended to be radical, had high ethical-moral self- concepts and were detached in relationships; on practicality were clever, guarded, enthusiastic and not leadership-oriented; on designer were said to be confused, irrational and ebullient. Paek (1986) explored the effect of garment styles on perceptions of personal traits as well as the relationship between personal traits and clothing interest among Americans. The findings showed that strangers clothed in dressy style reflected cues of dependency on others and social 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unease, those dressed in daring style were perceived as individualistic and attractive, and those dressed in casual and conservative styles were regarded as reliable, understanding and self- controlled. Furthermore, whereas several personal traits of daring style were found to have a positive correlation with clothing interest, popular and attractive traits of casual and conservative styles were negatively correlated with clothing interest. Kwon (1987) investigated the interrelationships among motivating factors (personality dimensions, mood, clothing orientations, practicality, social activity, weather, and physical self) that influenced daily clothing selection of female university students in USA. The personality dimensions considered were self-regard, spontaneity, feeling reactivity and self- actualization. Results showed that spontaneity was significant for weather and social activities in daily clothing selection, but not significant for physical self, mood or practicality. The other personality dimensions did not influence daily clothing selection. Bell (1991) examined the effect of male apparel styles on adult perceptions of personal traits of American men, and found that personality traits are accorded to different apparel styles. Bell’s findings showed that a male stranger dressed in a conservative style was perceived to be attractive, intelligent but not popular; in a casual style was regarded as unattractive, unpopular and not intelligent; in a daring style was seen as unattractive, not intelligent but very popular; in a formal style was considered attractive, intelligent and popular. In an experimental study conducted by Morris, Gorham, Cohen & Huffman (1996), the effect of instructors’ attire on students perception of college instructors in the USA, was examined using a live lecture. The attire tested were casual, casual professional (CP) and formal professional (FP). The results indicated that instructors dressed in casual attires were considered more extroverted than those in FP and CP attires. Instructors dressed in casual and CP attires were regarded as more sociable than those in FP attires. Instructors dressed in casual 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh attires were perceived to be more interesting than those in CP and FP attires. Instructors dressed in FP attires were perceived to be more competent than those dressed in CP and casual attires. Davis et al. (2001) examined the psychological and physical correlates of appearance orientation. Their findings revealed that Canadian University women who scored high on narcissism and neuroticism were appearance-focused, and those who scored low on perfectionism were not appearance-focused. Goldsmith (2002) explored several personality traits of frequent clothing buyers (undergraduate students) in USA, and found that personality characteristics were strongly correlated with heavy use of clothing than demographic characteristics such as age, education and income. Heavy users described themselves as opinion leaders, involved, knowledgeable and innovative. They also viewed new fashions as an expression of personal and social identity than light users. In the study of Johnson & Francis (2006), it was revealed that undergraduate students in the USA did not subscribe to one style of dress, because they managed their appearance differently for various occasions like work, school and social activities. The findings indicated that individuals who described their dress style as casual, hippie, punk, skater or gothic were found to be low on conscientiousness and extraversion, but high on openness to experience. Individuals who agreed that their style of dress was trendy, hippie, punk or skater were found to be high on extraversion and openness to experience, but low on agreeableness. However, athletic, casual, hip-hop or cowboy styles were found to be negatively correlated with high openness to experience, extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness, as well as low neuroticism. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Moody, Kinderman, Sinha &You (2009) conducted a mixed research study to ascertain among other variables, the relationship between personality and clothing preferences among female undergraduates in the United Kingdom. Subjects were made to analyse their own clothing and wearing experience for a period of 10 days. Results indicated that individuals match and sometimes compensate their personality with their choice of clothing. New clothes were found to reflect and enhanced high agreeableness and conscientiousness and vice versa. However, there were no significant relationships between clothing preferences and extraversion. Moody et al. (2010) also investigated the relationship between clothing and personality among female undergraduate students in the United Kingdom. Their findings showed that low agreeableness related to casual style, high agreeableness was related to evening or daring style, and formal style correlated with low neuroticism. However, clothing preferences were found to be unrelated to extraversion, openness to experience and conscientiousness. 2.9 Summary of Literature Review Appearance management involves the planning, organization, implementation and evaluation processes pertaining to one’s appearance or look, achieved through the purchase and use of clothing and body modifications. It is a significant aspect of daily living, and is influenced by several social and psychological factors. Shopping and dress are reflections of appearance management behaviours. Personality, a psychological factor of interest to this study refers to the total organization of thoughts, feelings and actions that differentiates people. The stable aspects of an individual’s personality are labelled as traits, which are the unit of analysis for the description, explanation and prediction of human personality. Researchers in the past have studied personality and appearance management using diverse personality theories, shopping concepts and dress concepts. These studies have produced 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh diverse significant but contradictory results regarding personality’s association with several concept of shopping and dress. Few studies have focused on using the FFM in relation to shopping styles (Sulkova, 2013) and dress styles (Moody et al., 2010). However, these researchers used different shopping typologies and dress style categorization based on cultural grounds. Although, it has been established that the five factors of personality traits are applicable to all cultures, the case of shopping styles and dress styles have not yielded a consensus. This is due to cultural differences in the shopping and clothing behaviours of people. This implies that it is prudent for personality and appearance management studies to be conducted on cultural basis, in order to obtain cultural-specific results. Nevertheless, while previous studies have addressed the role of personality in shopping and dress in different contexts, no effort has been dedicated to exploring the topic within the Ghanaian context. Furthermore, inadequate cross-cultural studies, the use of numerous personality theories, shopping typologies and dress categories coupled with several differing results, have made it difficult to draw concrete connection between personality traits, shopping styles and dress styles in general. Thus, rendering the literature inconclusive and universally inapplicable. The current study contributes to this research gap by investigating the relationships among personality traits, shopping styles and dress styles in a section of the Ghanaian populace. 2.10 Conceptual Framework for the Study A conceptual framework (Figure 2.1) was developed based on the literature reviewed, to guide the study. The conceptual framework draws upon: (i) Kaiser’s (1997) concept of appearance management which suggests that shopping and dress are acts and forms of appearance management. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (ii) Sproles & Kendall’s (1986) consumer characteristics approach to shopping styles which focuses on the cognitive and affective characteristics of consumers, to measure consumers’ decision-making styles during shopping. (iii) Dress styles identified in literature that were posited to be descriptive of the Ghanaian style of dress. These include classic, sporty, feminine (Johnson & Foster, 1990), daring (Bell, 1991), trendy (Johnson & Francis, 2006), and ethnic (Goswami, 2007) styles. (iv) The trait theory, Five Factor Model of Personality (Eysenck, 1963; Costa & McCrae, 1976) which postulates that neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness which make up an individual’s personality are related to an individual's thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Personality Traits Appearance Management Industrial and Consumer (P) (AM) Applications of P & AM Shopping Styles Perfectionism Recreational hedonism Brand consciousness Market segmentation Price consciousness Impulsive carelessness Five-Factor Model of Confusion from overchoice Product development Personality Habitual brand loyalty Neuroticism Novelty-fashion consciousness Extraversion Marketing strategies Openness to experience Agreeableness Dress Styles Consumer research Conscientiousness Classic style Trendy style Daring style Consumer education Feminine style Sporty style Ethnic style Source: Author’s construct (2019) Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework of the study 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Literature has shown that personality influences human cognition, affects and behaviour, thereby leading to differences in individuals. Since, shopping and dress involves thoughts, feelings and actions, it is posited that personality traits (P) may be related to shopping and dress styles (acts and forms of appearance management, AM) of female young adults. The shopping styles and dress styles of consumers are psychographic information that could be used by the fashion industry to guide their market segmentation, product development and marketing strategies, as well as impact consumer research and consumer education. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE 3.0 METHODOLOGY This chapter presents information on the study design, study area, target population, sample size, sampling procedure, instrument for data collection, pretest, procedure for data collection, data analysis and presentation, as well as ethical considerations. 3.1 Study Design A cross-sectional design with a quantitative approach was used for this study. According to De Vaus (2001), this design involves the collection of data at one point in time and causal relationships are established by utilizing statistical controls. 3.2 Study Area The study was conducted at the University of Ghana, Legon in the Greater Accra Region. The University of Ghana is the oldest and largest of all the public Universities in Ghana. The Legon campus of the University lies about 13km north-east of Accra, the capital of Ghana, at an altitude of between 90m-100m (University of Ghana Regulations for Junior Members, 2015). It houses the central administration of the university. The University of Ghana Facts and Figures (2017) indicates that the total student population as at July 2017 was 38,658 (representing a male and female percentages of 55% and 45% respectively), of which 14,661 were female undergraduate students pursuing diverse programmes. The Legon campus comprises 16 halls of residence namely, Legon, Akuafo, Commonwealth, Volta, Mensah Sarbah, Jubilee, Dr. Hilla Limann, Prof. Alexander Kwapong, Elizabeth Sey, Jean Nelson Aka, African Union, United Nations, Bani, James Yankah, Valco Trust, and the International Students’ Hostel. Students enrolled in the University are from different ethnic and diverse socio-economic backgrounds, and the majority of the undergraduates are young 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh adults. The cosmopolitan nature and developmental stage (young adulthood) of most of the students in the University made it suitable for the study. Furthermore, the University was chosen due to the relatively ease of access to research subjects. 3.3 Target Population The target population comprised all Ghanaian female undergraduate resident students, from the ages of 18 to 25 years, at the University of Ghana, Legon. 3.4 Sample Size A sample of 447 female students was selected for the study. This sample was determined by N the use of Yamane’s formula for a known population n = cited by Israel (2003); 1 + N (e)2 where ‘n’ and ‘N’ are the sample and population sizes respectively. The letter ‘e’ is the level of precision. In the present study, the total number of female undergraduate students, ‘N’ was 14,661 (University of Ghana Facts and Figures, 2017) and ‘e’ is 0.05. Therefore, the sample 14,661 size, n = = 389.38 = 389. 1 + 14,661 (0.05)2 The calculated sample size of 389 was increased by 15% as indicated by Israel (2003), in order to obtain a sample size not less than 389 after data collection and data cleaning. Hence, 15% of 389 which is 58, was added to 389 to obtain a final sample size of 447. 3.5 Sampling procedure A multistage sampling technique was used to select the participants for the study. A multistage sampling technique is a type of sampling in which the sample is drawn in many stages, and it entails the use of a combination of sampling methods in a variety of ways to address sampling needs in a more efficient and effective manner (Draeger, 2017). In this study, a multistage 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sampling technique consisting of cluster, systematic and simple random sampling methods, were used to select the sample. The multistage sampling technique was chosen for this study because, it is useful for a study population that is widely spread across a large geographic area, and it is impractical to list and sample from all its units. Figure 3.1 shows the sampling procedure for the study. Division of Halls by Geographic Boundary Cluster random sampling 1 Representative Hall per Cluster Systematic random sampling 2 Selected Room 3 Simple random sampling Study Participant Figure 3.1 Sampling Procedure for the Study Prior to the sampling process, three (3) out of the 16 halls of residence namely, Commonwealth Hall, Valco Trust Hostel, and International Students Hostel were excluded from the sampling frame since these halls accommodated only male, postgraduate and international students respectively. In the first stage of the sampling process, cluster random sampling method was utilized. The remaining 13 halls of residence that accommodated Ghanaian female undergraduates, were divided into 3 clusters along geographic boundaries recognized by the University. These were southern, central and northern clusters. The southern cluster consisted of all the eligible halls located at the southern part of campus, and comprised Jubilee, Jean Nelson, Elizabeth Sey, Alexander Kwapong and Hilla Limann halls. The central 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cluster consisted of all the eligible halls located at the central part of campus, and comprised Legon, Volta, Akuafo, and Mensah Sarbah halls. The northern cluster also consisted of all the eligible halls at the northern part of campus, and comprised African Union, United Nations, Bani, and James Yankah halls. One hall was randomly selected from each cluster by means of the lottery method (drawing from a bowl). The names of the halls in each cluster, were written on identical pieces of paper and placed in a bowl. One paper was blindly drawn from the bowl to represent the cluster. Alexander Kwapong, Volta, and African Union halls were the selected halls representing the southern, central and northern clusters respectively. The sample size for each of the three selected halls was then determined to ensure a representative sample size per hall for the study. The sample size of 447 was divided proportionately among the three halls using the formula below: % Ratio of hall Sample size per hall = × Total Sample Size 100% The University of Ghana Basic Statistics Report (2011) indicated that the percentage ratio of female undergraduates in Volta Hall, Alexander Kwapong Hall and African Union Hall is 24.3% : 29.3% : 46.4% respectively. Hence, the sample sizes of these three selected halls were calculated as: 24.3% Volta Hall = × 447 = 108.62 = 109 100% 29.3% Alexander Kwapong Hall = × 447 = 130.97 = 131 100% 46.4% African Union Hall = × 447 = 207.41 = 207 100% Thus, 447 Ghanaian female resident undergraduates comprising 131 from Alexander Kwapong Hall, 109 from Volta Hall and 207 from African Union Hall of the University of Ghana, Legon were obtained for the study. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In the second stage of the sampling process, the systematic random sampling method was used to select the rooms in each of the selected hall. A systematic sampling involves selecting units at a fixed interval (Lynn, 2004). The flow sampling method was used since the number of rooms in each hall was unknown. Lynn (2004) stated that when the population unit is unknown, the sampling interval (kth) is chosen on practical grounds. Wakar & Poznyak (2018) indicated that in the case of a flow sample where a sampling frame is unavailable, a sampling interval should be established based on the desired proportion of the population to be sampled. Wakar & Poznyak (2018) added that systematic sampling can also be combined with other sampling schemes, including sampling with probability proportional to size. Hence, the sampling interval for the current study was calculated as: Total Sample Size Sampling interval (kth) = Sample size per hall 447 Volta Hall 4.10 4 (every 4th = = = room) 109 447 Alexander Kwapong Hall = = 3.41 = 3 (every 3 rd room) 131 447 African Union Hall = = 2.16 = 2 (every 2 nd room) 207 In all the three halls, every first room of a block was selected as the starting point, then every kth room was selected thereafter, till the required number of rooms were obtained in each hall. In Volta, Alexander Kwapong and African Union halls, every 4th, 3rd and 2nd rooms were selected respectively. In the third stage of the sampling process, the simple random sampling method was used to select one participant from each selected room by means of the lottery method (drawing from a bowl). Thus, the names of the students who were willing to participate in the study, were 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh written on identical pieces of paper and placed in a bowl. One name of a student was blindly drawn from the bowl to participate in the study. In situations where only one student was available in a selected room at the time of the data collection, such a student was included in the study after she gave her consent. Additionally, the sampling with replacement method was employed in circumstances where (i) the occupants of a selected room were males, (ii) all the female occupants of a selected room declined to participate in the study and (iii) occupants of a selected room were unavailable at the time of distributing copies of the questionnaire. Therefore, in such situations, another room (next room) was selected. This was done to ensure that the required sample size was attained. 3.6 Instrument for Data Collection A self-administered questionnaire with closed and open-ended questions (Appendix C) was used to collect the data. A self-administered questionnaire is a research instrument that is designed specifically to be completed by a respondent without the involvement of the researcher (Wolf, 2008). The instrument was made up of four sections: Section A (demographic questions), Section B (personality traits measure), Section C (shopping styles measure) and Section D (dress styles measure). The four sections have been discussed below. 3.6.1 Section A - Demographic Questions The demographic section of the research instrument consisted of 5 items that were used to collect data on respondents’ age, programme of study, marital status, ethnicity and religious background. It was necessary to collect the demographic information in order to describe the characteristics of the research subjects. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.6.2 Section B – Personality Traits Measure The personality traits of the respondents were assessed using the M5-50 (McCord, 2002). The M5-50 is a specific ordering and presentation of the 50-item subset of the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) by Goldberg (1999). These 50 items are selected items that construct proxies for the broad domain scores of Costa & McCrae’s (1992c) NEO Personality Inventory Revised. It is designed to measure the five broad domains of the FFM (neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness). Responses are scored on a 5-point scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The M5-50 has been found to have construct validity, and Cronbach’s alpha for the five subscales ranged from 0.76 to 0.86 (Socha, Cooper & McCord, 2010; Cooper, Knotts, McCord & Johnson, 2012). In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from 0.701 to 0.734, that is openness to experience (α=0.701), agreeableness (α=0.703), extraversion (α=0.720), conscientiousness (α=0.722) and neuroticism (α=0.734). Since, the measures yielded α= 0.7 and above, it means that the measures were reliable and had an acceptable level of internal consistency; the items which made up each scale measured the same underlying attribute (Pallant, 2011). The M5-50 was modified before pre-test, by rephrasing 10 items to make their meanings very clear and easily understood by the respondents. For example, “I am often down in the dumps” and “I am life of the party” were reworded as “I am often unhappy” and “I am the most entertaining person at a party” respectively. 3.6.3 Section C – Shopping Styles Measure The shopping styles of the respondents were assessed using the Consumer Styles Inventory (CSI) (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). The CSI is a 40-item measure with 5-point scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The CSI has been found to have construct and content validity and it also shows good reliability. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients range 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from 0.48 to 0.82 (Sproles & Kendall, 1986; Akturan et al., 2011). In the present study, the Cronbach alpha’s coefficients for the CSI subscales range from 0.52 to 0.81, that is indifference shopping (α=0.52), habitual brand loyal (α=0.57), impulsive carelessness (α=0.67), recreational hedonism (α=0.76), confusion from overchoice (α=0.81), novelty- fashion consciousness (α=0.80), brand consciousness (α=0.84), and perfectionism (α=0.81). Although, indifference shopping, habitual brand loyal and impulsive carelessness scales recorded α < 0.7, their internal consistency is considered satisfactory since the limit used by Sproles & Kendall (1986) was α=0.40, and their respective mean inter-item correlation values of 0.2, 0.2 and 0.3 falls within the ideal range of 0.2 to 0.4 (Briggs & Cheek, 1986 as cited in Pallant, 2011, p.6). 3.6.4 Section D – Dress Styles Measure The respondents’ dress styles were assessed using the Dress Style Questionnaire (DSQ). The DSQ is a new measure that was developed using the description of six dress styles identified in literature, which were posited to be characteristic of the Ghanaian style of dress. It is a 36- item measure with 5-point scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). It consists of six subscales, each designed to measure classic, trendy, daring, feminine, sporty and ethnic dress styles. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the constructs range from 0.70 to 0.90, that is classic (α=0.70), daring (α=0.70), feminine (α=0.76), sporty (α=0.78), ethnic (α=0.82) and trendy (α=0.90). 3.7 Pre-Test An introductory letter was obtained from the Head of the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Ghana and sent to the Head of the Department of Fashion Design and Textiles, Accra Technical University. Upon approval, the research instrument was pretested using forty (40) female students. According to Julious (2005), a sample size of 10% - 20% of 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the sample size intended for the main study is adequate for a pre-test. Therefore, a sample size of 40 was within the acceptable range, as 10% - 20% of 389 (required sample size) is 39 - 78. Accra Technical University was chosen because, the students had similar characteristics as the target sample (i.e. the two Universities are public institutions of higher education, and most of the students in these two institutions were young adults who came from diverse ethnic and socio-economic background). The pre-test was conducted to ensure that the instructions and questions in the research instrument were clear and well understood by the respondents before it was finally administered in the main study. It also helped to evaluate the data collection procedure and to determine the average time (20 minutes) required to complete the instrument. 3.7.1 Changes Effected on Research Instrument After the pre-test, a few items on the DSQ were rephrased. This was because most of the respondents indicated that some of the words were too technical for them. For example “I usually incorporate ‘what’s in vogue’ into my wardrobe” was changed to “I usually incorporate trendy items into my wardrobe. Again, “My look has ‘tomboy’ element in it” was replaced with “I love caps, sneakers, backpacks or sports bags” to constitute a ‘tomboy’ look. 3.8 Procedure for Data Collection An introductory letter was obtained from the Head of the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences and sent to the Senior Tutors of the three halls of residence (Alexander Kwapong, Volta and African Union halls), all in the University of Ghana to seek approval to conduct the study. Upon approval, the study was carried out. The researcher explained general information about the study to potential participants. This information included the purpose of the study, benefits and possible risks associated with participating in the study, confidentiality, compensation, and withdrawal from the study. The 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh researcher then gave the prospective participants the opportunity to ask questions regarding these information, after which their concerns were duly addressed. The students who consented to take part in the study were made to endorse a protocol consent form (Appendix B), after which the questionnaire was given to them. The instructions and some items on the research instrument were read and explained to the participants to ensure that they understood and responded appropriately. The respondents were given 3 days to complete the questionnaire. There was three call-backs to retrieve all the completed copies of the questionnaires from respondents. The data was collected over a total period of 2 months. 3.9 Data Analysis and Presentation Prior to data analysis, the retrieved copies of the questionnaire were collated by organizing and scrutinizing for uncompleted questionnaires specifically, those with a high number of missing responses (six or more missing responses) for exclusion in the analysis. Although, 447 copies of the questionnaire were distributed, 422 copies were retrieved and out of this, 17 copies were excluded from the analysis. Thus, 405 copies were used for the analysis. Data were hand-coded and analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 20. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity were used to test the suitability of the sample for factor analysis. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation was used for factor analysis of the CSI and DSQ data. This was done to identify the shopping and dress styles of the respondents, assess the applicability of the measures to the Ghanaian sample (i.e. eliminating items that were inappropriate for further analysis), and to evaluate the construct validity of the scales. Eigenvalues > 1.0 and item loading ≥ 0.4 were considered to be significant. The reliability (internal consistency) of the instrument was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (α) and the mean inter-item correlation values (for scales with items < 10 that yielded α < 0.70). 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Respondents’ shopping styles, dress styles and personality traits were categorised into low and high scores using a weighted mean range of (1.00 – 3.00) and (3.01 – 5.00) respectively. Bivariate correlational analysis (Pearson moment-product correlation coefficient, r) was used to test the hypotheses by analysing the relationship among shopping styles, dress styles and personality traits. Preliminary analysis showed that assumptions of normality (Appendix D), linearity and homoscedasticity were not violated. The strength of the correlations were classified as low |.10 – .29|, moderate |.30 – .49| and high |.50 – 1.0| (Cohen, 1988, as cited in Pallant, 2011, p.134). The data were described using means, frequency and percentage distributions, and the results were presented using tables and charts where applicable. 3.10 Ethical Considerations Ethics are context-specific and defines what is morally appropriate and the laid down procedure for investigating certain issues that maybe sensitive to the population under study (Neuman, 2000). The use of human subjects in research requires high ethical standards and as such, ethics were keenly taken into consideration in this study. Ethical clearance was sought from the Ethics Committee for Basic and Applied Sciences (ECBAS) of the University of Ghana, before the study was carried out. After a thorough review by the committee, corrections were made to the protocol, and approval was given to the researcher to conduct the study. The approval letter with certified protocol number ECBAS 007/18-19 has been attached (Appendix A). 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This chapter outlines the results of the study and the discussion of findings. It is presented under the following sub-headings: demographic characteristics of the respondents, shopping styles of respondents, dress styles of respondents, personality traits of respondents and the test of hypotheses. 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents 4.1.1 Age Distribution of Respondents The age distribution of the respondents are presented in Table 4.1. Table 4.1 Age distribution of respondents Age Frequency (N) Percentage (%) 18-19 192 47.4 20-21 152 37.5 22-23 38 9.4 24-25 23 5.7 Total 405 100.0 The age of the respondents ranged from 18 to 25 years. About half of the respondents (47.4%) were teenagers (18 and 19 years). The mean age of the respondents was approximately 20 years. (Mean=19.91, SD=1.68). 4.1.2 Marital Status of Respondents The majority of the respondents were spinsters (99.5%) whereas 0.5% were married. The findings support one of Arnett’s (2000) propositions of the theory of emerging adulthood which suggests that the majority of individuals from ages 18 years to 25 years are not yet married. They were still in the process of forming their identity and obtaining education or 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh training for a career. However, about 61% of the unmarried were in a relationship, and 1% reported that their relationship was complicated. As far back as 1959, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development also reported that psychosocial stage six (intimacy vs. isolation) covers the period when young adults are exploring intimate and loving relationships with others. A little above one-third of the respondents (38%) reported that they were neither dating nor courting. 4.1.3 College of Affiliation of Respondents The respondents’ college of affiliation is shown in Figure 4.1. 70 62 60 50 40 30 20 20 10 8 10 0 College of College of Basic College of Health College of Humanities and Applied Sciences Education Sciences College of Affiliation Figure 4.1 Respondents’ College of Affiliation Many of the respondents (62%) studied programmes in the College of Humanities. This finding confirms the University of Ghana Basic Statistics (2017) which reported that the majority of undergraduate students offered programmes in the humanities. Few of the respondents (8%) studied programmes in the College of Education. 61 Percentage (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.4 Ethnicity of Respondents The ethnic groups of respondents are presented in Figure 4.2. Figure 4.2 Ethnic groups of respondents A little over half of the respondents were Akans (55%). This is consistent with the 2010 Ghana population and housing census report which indicated that the predominant ethnic group in Ghana was the Akans (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012). The minority group was the Guans (2%). 4.1.5 Religious Background of Respondents Table 4.2 presents the religious background of respondents. Table 4.2 Religious background of respondents Religion Frequency (N) Percentage (%) Christianity 384 94.8 Islam 19 4.7 African Traditional Belief 1 0.2 Buddhism 1 0.2 Total 405 ≈ 100.0 Four religious groups were identified. These were Christianity, Islam, African Traditional Belief and Buddhism. The majority of the respondents were Christians (94.8%) and the minority groups were Traditionalists and Buddhists which constituted 0.4%. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2 Shopping Styles of Respondents 4.2.1 Factor Analysis and Reliability of the Shopping Style Measure (CSI) Preliminary test supported the factorability of the CSI data. The results showed that the Kaiser- Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy, KMO = 0.83 and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity, p = 0.00, was significant. These values were satisfactory, as it is required that KMO ≥ 0.6 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity, p ≤ 0.05 (Pallant, 2011). An observation of the correlation matrix also showed the presence of several coefficients ≥ 0.3 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Table 4.3 presents the rotated component matrix of factor analysis and the reliability of the CSI. Table 4.3 Rotated component matrix of factor analysis and reliability of the CSI Factors Items Loadings Variance Cronbach’s Mean Inter-Item Explained Alpha (α) Correlation Factor 1 CSI 2 .839 18.9% 0.81 Perfectionism High-Quality C S I 3 . 7 9 4 Consciousness CSI 1 .781 CSI 4 .748 CSI 6 .541 *CSI 5 .473 Factor 2 CSI 12 .762 9.6% 0.84 Brand Consciousness CSI 10 .747 CSI 11 .715 CSI 13 .687 CSI 9 .675 CSI 14 .669 Factor 3 CSI 16 .733 6.7% 0.80 Novelty- Fashion CSI 15 .717 Consciousness CSI 18 .701 CSI 17 .641 CSI 19 .519 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.3 Continued Factor 4 CSI 36 .793 5.7% 0.81 Confusion from CSI 35 .792 Overchoice CSI 34 .764 CSI 33 .741 Factor 5 *CSI 32 .747 4.9% 0.67 0.3 Impulsive Carelessness C S I 2 9 .736 CSI 30 .713 *CSI 31 .515 Factor 6 *CSI 20 .792 4.7% 0.76 Recreational, * Hedonistic CSI 22 .763 Shopping CSI 21 .734 Consciousness Factor 7 CSI 7 .619 4.0% 0.52 0.2 Indifference Shopping CSI 26 .561 Orientation CSI 28 .537 CSI 24 .509 CSI 8 .485 Factor 8 CSI 38 .799 3.3% 0.57 0.2 Habitual, Brand Loyal C S I 3 9 . 734 CSI 37 .566 *CSI 40 .454 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis Rotation Method: Varimax Item description: Appendix C *Reverse scored The factor analysis resulted in 37-item eight-factor solution as the best fit model for the Ghanaian sample. The factors accounted for 57.8% of the total variance, which is higher than 46.0% and 57.6% obtained in previous studies by Sproles & Kendall (1986) and Tanksale et al. (2014) respectively. Construct validity was quite evident as most of the items significantly 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh loaded on their respective constructs. Specifically, seven of the constructs had their respective items loading onto them. The eight shopping style factors identified among the respondents were: (i) Perfectionism, high-quality consciousness (Factor 1): It retained 6 out of 8 items from the perfectionism, high-quality consciousness scale of the original CSI. Thus, it measures the tendency to carefully seek for the very best or high-standard products. It was found to be the most important shopping style due to the largest variance (18.9%) explained by this factor. The findings imply that the respondents mostly considered quality as their topmost priority, when shopping for appearance management products. (ii) Brand consciousness (Factor 2): It explained 9.6% of the total variance, and consists of all six items from the brand consciousness scale of the original CSI. Therefore, it measures the characteristic of buying well-known, best-selling, most advertised and expensive products. (iii) Novelty-fashion consciousness (Factor 3): It accounted for 6.7% of the total variance, and comprises all five items from the novelty-fashion consciousness scale of the original CSI. Hence, it measures the characteristic of seeking new fashionable brands or products. (iv) Confusion from overchoice (Factor 4): It explained 5.7% of the total variance, and it is represented by all four items from the confusion from overchoice scale of the original CSI. Thus, it measures the tendency of being confused and finding it difficult to choose a product, due to the availability of so much information. (v) Impulsive carelessness (Factor 5): explained 4.9% of the total variance, and retained 4 out of 5 items from the impulsive carelessness scale of the original CSI. Hence, it measures a consumer’s orientation to making unplanned and careless purchases. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (vi) Recreational hedonistic shopping consciousness (Factor 6): It accounted for 4.7% of the total variance, and retained 3 out of 5 items from the recreational hedonistic shopping consciousness scale of the original CSI. Thus, it measures the tendency of spending much time during shopping, because shopping is considered as one of the enjoyable activity of one’s life. (vii) Indifference shopping orientation (Factor 7): It explained 4.0% of the total variance, and consists of 5 items that were re-assigned from 4 factors of the original CSI. These include 2 items from perfectionism and 1 item each from price consciousness, impulsive carelessness and recreational shopping. The researcher named the new factor “indifference shopping orientation” considering the nature of the items in this factor. It measures a slight interest in shopping. High scorers are more likely to place little value on shopping, they do not plan their shopping carefully, spend less time in shopping, prefer lower priced products, and are unconcerned about high-quality products. (viii) Habitual brand loyal orientation (Factor 8): It consists of all four items from the habitual brand loyal orientation scale of the original CSI. Therefore, it measures a consumer’s characteristic of sticking to brands or products one likes, which leads to repeated purchases. It was found to be the least significant shopping style found among the respondents due to the smallest variance (3.3%) explained by the factor. Although, the results supported the eight-factor model proposed by Sproles & Kendall (1986), only seven out of the eight factors from the original CSI were confirmed by the factor analysis. These were perfectionism, brand consciousness, novelty-fashion consciousness, confusion from overchoice, recreational hedonistic shopping, impulsive carelessness and habitual brand loyal orientation. This implies that these seven shopping styles were applicable to the Ghanaian female student sample. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Additionally, the price consciousness factor proposed by Sproles & Kendall (1986) was not identified among the respondents. This suggests that the respondents were mostly not conscious of prices when shopping for products for managing their appearance. This is consistent with the findings of Lysonski et al. (1996), whose multi-country investigation revealed that price consciousness was not applicable to American, New Zealand, Greek and Indian undergraduate students. Nevertheless, one new factor, ‘indifference shopping orientation’ was identified among the respondents. This implies that there were respondents among the Ghanaian female young adults who were unconcerned about how they shopped for appearance management products, and thus made their shopping trips very fast. This shopping style is similar to the ‘time consciousness’ found among young South Koreans (Hafstrom et al., 1992) as this shopping style also measure a slight interest and less time spent in shopping. Lastly, the findings correspond with previous studies conducted in the UK (Bakewell & Mitchell, 2003), Australia (Nayeem & Casidy, 2015), and India (Mehta & Dixit, 2016). Since, all these studies support the finding that all the eight shopping styles propounded by Sproles & Kendall (1986) based on American consumers, are not applicable to all cultures. This further validates the finding that the beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes of consumers in developing and developed countries are significantly different (Rathnayake, 2011). 4.2.2 Classification and Distribution of Respondents’ Shopping Styles The percentage distribution, mean score of the determinants of each shopping style, as well as the overall mean for each shopping style among the respondents are presented in subsection 4.2.2.1 to 4.2.2.8. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.2.1 Perfectionism, High-Quality Consciousness The majority of the respondents (93.6%) scored high on perfectionism, suggesting that they tried to get the perfect choice when buying products for managing their appearance. Very few (6.4%) reported low perfectionism, indicating that they were less likely to choose high quality products. The respondents’ mean score for perfectionism is shown in Figure 4.3. 5 4.45 4.52 4.15 4.22 3.83 3.96 4 3 2 1 0 One's Gave much Made an Tried to buy Tried to get Getting good standards and thought or effort to the overall the perfect quality was expectations care to one's choose the best quality choice when important to for products purchases very best product purchasing the consumer were high products products Determinants of perfectionism Overall mean score (Mo)= 4.19 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.66 Figure 4.3 Respondents’ mean score for perfectionism The respondents scored high on all the determining factors of perfectionism, high-quality consciousness (M≥ 3.01). The overall average score was very high perfectionism (Mo= 4.19, SD = 0.66), implying that generally the respondents had interest in high quality products. This finding is consistent with the study of Opare-Asamoah (2014) which indicated that young women in Ghanaian tertiary institutions considered quality when buying clothes. The students reported that quality was important to them when choosing their clothing even if the article was expensive, since they believed such clothing would last long. Mehta & Dixit (2016) 68 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conducted a cross-cultural study among developed and developing countries using German and Indian students respectively, and found perfectionism/ high-quality consciousness as one key decision-making style among these group of students. Thus, suggesting that quality was an important factor considered by young people in both developed and developing countries. 4.2.2.2 Brand Consciousness A little over half of the respondents (59.5%) reported being low brand conscious. This implies that they did not consider high price of products as a reflection of better quality, and were less likely to buy luxurious brands. However, 40.5% of the respondents reported being high brand conscious, suggesting that their choices were usually expensive, best-selling, and well-known brands. The respondents’ mean score for brand consciousness is shown in Figure 4.4. 4 3.31 3.18 2.92 3 2.71 2.82 2.47 2 1 0 The more Bought the The consumer Nice Purchased the Bought the expensive most believed that department/ well-known best-selling brands were advertised high price of specialty national products usually one's brands products stores offered brands choice equals better the consumer quality the best products Determinants of brand consciousness Overall mean score (Mo)= 2.90 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.87 Figure 4.4 Respondents’ mean score for brand consciousness 69 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In general, the respondents were less brand conscious (Mo= 2.90, SD= 0.87), which means that they were less likely to buy expensive celebrated brands for managing their appearance. The finding corresponds with the study of Opare-Asamoah (2014) which reported that most young women in Ghanaian tertiary institutions considered price when purchasing fashionable clothing. They mostly avoided expensive clothing and tried to compromise with less expensive clothing. Unlike the developed countries such the USA, whereby students work part-time, they are able to afford expensive brands. Giovannini et al. (2015) found that young adult Americans were brand conscious and were consumers of luxurious brands such as Coach, Ralph Lauren, Chanel, and Louis Vuitton. The respondents who were brand conscious (40.5%) reported that nice department or specialty stores offered them the best products. These stores are franchise-owned or belong to well- known international brands. This is consistent with the finding of Rathnayake (2011) which indicated that fashion consciousness of young consumers in developing countries is mostly related to consciousness of Western fashions. Wang et al. (2004) also found that fashion conscious Chinese preferred imported brands of clothing. 4.2.2.3 Novelty-Fashion Consciousness About two-third of the respondents (64.7%) scored high on novelty-fashion consciousness, which implies that new, attractive, stylish and fashionable products were mostly purchased by these consumers. On the contrary, a little above one-third of the respondents (35.3%) reported being low novelty-fashion conscious, suggesting that they were less likely to keep their wardrobe with the newest trendy fashions. Figure 4.5 presents the respondents’ mean score for novelty-fashion consciousness. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 4.14 4 3.46 3.48 3.05 3 2.7 2 1 0 Kept wardrobe Bought Fashionable Scouted different Buying up-to-date with one/more outfits attractive styling shops to buy something new changing of the very was very variety of brands and exciting was fashions newest style important to the fun for the consumer consumer Determinants of novelty-fashion consciousness Overall mean score (Mo)= 3.37 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.84 Figure 4.5 Respondents’ mean score for novelty-fashion consciousness The overall mean score was high novelty-fashion consciousness (Mo=3.37, SD=0.84), suggesting that generally the respondents were fashion conscious and were interested in purchasing new and stylish outfits. Similarly, Park et al. (2010) found fashion consciousness shopping style among University students in China. Rathnayake’s (2011) study also revealed that female young consumers in Sri Lanka were fashion conscious. Roy et al. (2016) reported that female consumers in India especially the young ones were prone to fashion. Thus, they were involved in fashion shopping to select trendy clothing for managing their appearance. The highest determining factor of novelty-fashion consciousness among respondents was buying something new and exciting, which gave respondents so much joy (M= 4.14). Subhani et al.’s (2011) study of Pakistani, revealed that wearing new clothes positively changed an individual’s mood. New clothes paired with accessories and those that were stylish influenced one’s mood by 98% and 90% respectively. Individuals also felt happy and confident when wearing new clothes. Thus, it can be asserted that the respondents were conscious of buying and wearing new, stylish and fashionable apparel because it positively influenced their mood, made them happy and boosted their confidence. 71 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.2.4 Confusion from Overchoice A little over half of the respondents (59.0%) reported being highly confused due to overload of brand or product information, thereby making it difficult for them to make a choice. On the other hand, 41.0% of the respondents scored low on confusion from overchoice, suggesting that they were less likely to feel confused, but were able to make a choice amidst all the information they obtained from different products. Figure 4.6 presents the respondents’ mean score for confusion from overchoice. 4 3.45 3.513.39 3.09 3 2 1 All the information There were many Sometimes it was The more the on different products brands to choose hard for the consumer learnt confused the from that made the consumer to choose about products, the consumer consumer often feel which stores to shop harder it seemed to confused choose the best Determinants of confusion from overchoice Overall mean score (Mo)= 3.36 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.88 Figure 4.6 Respondents’ mean score for confusion from overchoice The respondents scored high on all the determining factors of confusion from overchoice (M≥ 3.01). The overall average score was high confusion from overchoice (Mo= 3.36, SD= 0.88). This meant that generally the respondents were more likely to be confused, and also found it hard to choose products for managing their appearance. Similarly, Nayeem & Casidy (2015) found confusion/over-choice shopping style among Australian consumers, and stated that the abundance of promotional information as well as variety of competing brands in the market contributed to the confusion during shopping. Wang et al. (2004) also reported 72 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that Chinese consumers were confused by overchoice shoppers with regard to domestic and imported brand of clothing. 4.2.2.5 Impulsive Carelessness A little above two-third of the respondents (68.9%) scored low on impulsive carelessness implying that they were more likely to carefully watch how they spend, and make thoughtful purchases. Whereas, 31.1% of the respondents reported being impulsively careless, suggesting that they did not take their time to shop carefully and thus, made careless purchases. The respondents’ mean score for impulsive carelessness is shown in Figure 4.7. 4 3.12 3.24 3 2.32 2.36 2 1 0 Did not carefully Did not take time to The consumer was Often made careless watch how one spent shop carefully for the impulsive when purchases I later wish best buys purchasing I had not Determinants of impulsive carelessness Overall mean score (Mo)= 2.76 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.83 Figure 4.7 Respondents’ mean score for impulsive carelessness The overall mean score was low impulsive carelessness (Mo= 2.76, SD= 0.83), implying that generally the respondents were thoughtful and careful shoppers when buying products for appearance management. The highest determining factor of impulsive carelessness among the respondents was making careless purchases which the respondents regretted afterwards (M= 3.24). This suggests that although the respondents were generally careful shoppers who planned their shopping, there were times when they engaged in impulse buying. Similarly, 73 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sulkova’s (2013) findings indicated that young adult Slovaks were impulsively carefree consumers, who were unconcerned about how much money they spent on clothing, and sensed some remorse after shopping. 4.2.2.6 Recreational, Hedonistic Shopping Consciousness Almost three-fourth of the respondents (74.1%) reported being highly recreational and hedonistic when shopping. This means that shopping was mostly a pleasant and enjoyable activity for these consumers and thus, they mostly shopped for the fun of it. They were also more likely to spend much time when shopping. However, a little above one-fourth of the respondents (25.9%) scored low on recreational hedonistic shopping consciousness. This suggests that these consumers were more likely to consider shopping as unexciting and a waste of time, and would only shop when the need arises. The respondents’ mean score for recreational hedonic shopping consciousness is shown in Figure 4.8. 4 3.67 3.68 3.78 3 2 1 0 Shopping the stores did not Going shopping was one of Shopping was a pleasant waste the consumer's time the enjoyable activities in activity to the consumer the consumer's life Determinants of recreational hedonistic shopping consciousness Overall mean score (Mo)= 3.71 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.89 Figure 4.8 Respondents’ mean score for recreational hedonistic shopping consciousness The respondents scored high on all the determining factors of recreational hedonistic shopping consciousness (M≥ 3.01). Generally, the respondents were highly recreational hedonistic shoppers (Mo=3.71, SD= 0.89), implying that they mostly found shopping to be fun and 74 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh pleasurable. This finding is consistent with Akturan et al.’s (2011) report which stated that most of the female young adults in France and Turkey were recreation seekers who have hedonistic motives towards shopping. The study of Wong et al. (2014) also revealed that Malaysian adult consumers were confident and enthusiastic shoppers who considered themselves as being highly engaged in shopping activities. Saran et al. (2016) also found that Indian consumers were hedonic consumers who engaged in fashion shopping to experience sensory gratification and to satisfy their sense of curiosity. 4.2.2.7 Indifference Shopping Orientation Slightly more than half of the respondents (55.1%) scored low on indifference shopping orientation. This suggests that they were more likely to plan their shopping and spend much time in shopping, in order to choose high-priced and high-quality products. Conversely, 44.9% of the respondents reported being high on indifference shopping orientation. This implies that they mostly did not plan their shopping. They shopped quickly, were unconcerned about high quality products and chose lower priced goods. Figure 4.9 presents the respondents’ mean score for indifference shopping orientation. 4 3.77 3.06 3.15 3 2.62 2.68 2 1 0 A product didn't Bought the first The consumer The lower priced Did not plan have to be best product that made his/her products were one's shopping to satisfy the seemed good shopping trips usually one's carefully consumer enough fast choice Determinants of indifference shopping orientation Overall mean score (Mo)= 3.06 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.67 Figure 4.9 Respondents’ mean score for indifference shopping orientation 75 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In general, the respondents were indifferent shoppers (Mo= 3.06, SD= 0.67) which indicates that they generally placed little value on shopping. They had slight interest in shopping and perhaps, these indifferent young shoppers only shopped out of necessity. It could be that these students were conscious of time since they needed ample time to study and to complete their assignments. Hence, they mostly made their shopping trips fast (M=3.06). Tanksale et al. (2014) also reported that shopping avoidance shoppers existed among young Indians. These shoppers disliked shopping and therefore, shopped quickly. Nevertheless, the overall mean score was marginal, and therefore, it can be asserted that the respondents were sometimes concerned about their shopping or occasionally unconcerned about their shopping activity. Similarly, Bakewell & Mitchell (2003) found that some female young consumers in the UK were uninterested in fashion and shopping. They did not find shopping pleasurable and were associated with traits of time-energy conserving and price- value consciousness. Although the respondents have been found to be generally perfectionist and careful shoppers, the highest determining factor of indifference shopping orientation among the respondents was that they did not plan their shopping carefully (M= 3.77). This implies that they either planned their shopping but did not plan very well, or they did not actually plan their shopping. 4.2.2.8 Habitual Brand Loyal Orientation A little above half of the respondents (57.5%) reported being high on habitual brand loyal orientation. This means that they mostly stick to products that seems good for managing their appearance. In contrast, 42.5% of the respondents scored low on habitual brand loyal orientation, suggesting that they do not have favorite brands they buy all the time. Figure 4.10 presents the respondents’ mean score for habitual brand loyal orientation. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 3.41 3.52 3.03 3.17 3 2 1 0 Did not change Went to the same Had favourite brands Stuck to products or brands regularly stores each time one that one bought brands he/she liked shopped repeatedly Determinants of habitual brand loyal orientation Overall mean score (Mo)= 3.28 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.70 Figure 4.10 Respondents’ mean score for habitual brand loyal orientation The respondents scored high on all the determining factors of habitual brand loyal orientation (M≥ 3.01). Averagely, the respondents were highly habitual brand loyal (Mo= 3.28, SD= 0.70) which is an indication that they were less likely to change products they buy regularly. Perhaps, due to their preference for quality products which met their needs and expectation, they felt reluctant to change such products. Sulkova (2013) also reported that young adult Slovaks were habitual brand loyal consumers as their choice of products or brands was stable and unlikely to change over time. Sulkova (2013) added that the act of finding variety by searching for clothes in different stores did not fit these consumers. Lysonski et al.’s (1996) multi-country investigation also revealed habitual brand loyal orientation among American, New Zealand, Greek and Indian undergraduate students. Based on the results found among groups from the American, Oceanian, European and Asian continents respectively, and presently Africa, it can be inferred that students were more likely to stick to a product/brand or even shop from the same store when the products and services offered by these brands or stores satisfy their needs and expectations. 77 Mean score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Dress Styles of Respondents 4.3.1 Factor Analysis and Reliability of Dress Style Measure (DSQ) Preliminary tests supported the factorability of the DSQ data. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy (KMO) = 0.84 and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity p = 0.00 was statistically significant, because these values fell within the requirement of KMO ≥ 0.6 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity, p ≤ 0.05 (Pallant, 2011). Moreover, an observation of the correlation matrix showed the presence of several coefficients ≥ 0.3. (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Table 4.4 presents the rotated component matrix of factor analysis and reliability of the DSQ. Table 4.4 Rotated component matrix of factor analysis and reliability of the DSQ Factors Items Loadings Variance Cronbach’s Explained Alpha (α) Factor 1 DSQ 10 .818 19.5% 0.90 Trendy DSQ 9 .778 DSQ 8 .764 DSQ 12 .710 DSQ 7 .701 DSQ 11 .694 DSQ 13 .674 DSQ 14 .628 DSQ 16 .607 Factor 2 DSQ 33 .763 10.9% 0.82 Ethnic DSQ 34 .759 DSQ 36 .743 DSQ 35 .725 DSQ 31 .621 DSQ 32 .558 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.4 Continued Factor 3 DSQ 21 .747 9.5% 0.76 Feminine DSQ 22 .700 DSQ 23 .687 DSQ 20 .625 DSQ 19 .552 DSQ 24 .453 Factor 4 DSQ 27 .792 6.4% 0.78 Sporty DSQ 28 .761 DSQ 25 .683 DSQ 25 .675 DSQ 26 .605 Factor 5 DSQ 4 .730 4.6% 0.70 Classic DSQ 3 .670 DSQ 6 .645 DSQ 5 .591 DSQ 2 .546 DSQ 1 .439 Factor 6 DSQ 17 .711 3.8% 0.70 Daring DSQ 18 .696 **DSQ 15 .523 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis Rotation Method: Varimax Item description: Appendix C **Factorial complexity=2 (loads on factors 1 and 6) The factor analysis resulted in 35-item six-factor solution as the best fit model for the Ghanaian sample. The six factors accounted for 54.7% of the total variance. The six factors confirmed the dress styles proposed. Thus, making the DSQ applicable to the study sample. The six dress style factors identified among the respondents were: 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (i) Trendy style (Factor1): It consists of ten items. The items measure trendy style, an individual’s style of dress that is fashionable, popular, latest and most up-to-date. It was found to be the most significant dress style due to the largest variance (19.5%) explained by the factor. This suggests that being in style and fashionable was very important to the respondents. (ii) Ethnic style (Factor 2): It consists of six items and explained 10.9% of the total variance. The items measure ethnic style, an individual’s mode of dress that has elements of cultural heritage or national identity. (iii) Feminine (Factor 3): It comprises six items and explained 9.5% of the total variance. The items measures feminine style, an individual’s style of dress that has a soft, delicate and feminine look. (iv) Sporty (Factor 4): It is represented by five items and accounted for 6.4% of the total variance. The items measures sporty style, an individual’s style of dress that is casual or athletically inclined. (v) Classic (Factor 5): It comprises six items and explained 4.6% of the total variance. The items measure classic style, a person’s style of dress that has a simple and understated look. (vi) Daring (Factor 6): It consists of three items. The items measure daring style, an individual’s fashion sense that is bold, unusual, and stands out from the general. It was found to be the least significant dress style due to the smallest variance (3.8%) explained by the factor. This suggests that daring style was the least dress style adopted by the respondents. 4.3.2 Classification and Distribution of Respondents’ Dress Styles The percentage distribution, mean score of the determinants of each dress style, and the overall mean for each dress style among the respondents are presented in subsection 4.3.2.1 to 4.3.2.6. 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.2.1 Trendy Style A little above half of the respondents (52.6%) scored high on trendy style, suggesting that they were passionate about fashion and were more likely to use the latest, most up-to-date clothing for managing their appearance. Whereas, 47.4% of the respondents scored low on trendy style, indicating that they were less likely to wear new and fashionable clothing. The respondents’ mean score for trendy style is shown in Figure 4.11. Usually tried new fashion items or hairstyles 3.64 Liked to be unique and original with ones clothing 3.62 One was passionate about fashion 3.55 Mostly included trendy items into ones wardrobe 3.25 Dressed in the latest, most up to date fashion 3.14 Wore stylish, sophisticated and high-end clothing 3.11 Wore bold textured and coloured designed clothes 3.09 Made bold fashion statement 2.94 Wore popular clothing colours, prints and styles 2.79 Fashion trend tracker & mostly spotted new fashion 2.51 0 1 2 3 4 Mean Score Overall mean score (Mo)= 3.17 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.81 Figure 4.11 Respondents’ mean score for trendy style 81 Determinants of trendy style University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The highest determinant of respondents’ trendy style of dress was that the respondents tried new fashion items or hairstyles (M=3.64). Subhani et al. (2011) indicated that new stylish clothes with accessories enhanced one’s confidence, mood and happiness. Haas, Toppe & Henz (2005) also stated that styling of hair seems like an inherent desire of humans to accentuate their beauty. Perhaps, these factors motivated the respondents to try new fashion items and hairstyles. Generally, the respondents were found to be trendy in their style of dress (Mo= 3.17, SD= 0.81), implying that being fashionable was mostly important to the respondents and usually wore stylish and latest clothing and hairstyles. This finding corresponds with the study of Opare-Asamoah (2014) which indicated that most young women in Ghanaian tertiary institutions liked to buy and wear fashionable clothing. It is reported that young consumers have the tendency to dress in attractive clothing, and desire to own garments perceived to be stylish and flattering (Liu & Kennon, 2005). Johnson & Francis (2006) also investigated the dress style tribes of male and female undergraduates in America, and found trendy style among the females. It can be observed in Appendix E that the strongest correlation among all the study variables existed between novelty-fashion conscious shopping style and trendy style of dress (r= .67, p< .01). This suggests that the respondents who were mostly conscious of purchasing new, stylish and fashionable clothing described their dress style as trendy. Based on this, it can be asserted that most of the novelty-fashion conscious shoppers (64.7%) found among the respondents were those who described their dress style as trendy (52.6%). This finding implies that 12.1% of the novelty-fashion conscious respondents bought trendy clothing but did not mostly wear them. Perhaps, they wore them occasionally for special events. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.2.2 Ethnic Style A little above half of the respondents (56.3%) scored low on ethnic style. This means that they were less likely to wear clothes and accessories that depicted their cultural or national heritage. However, 43.7% of the respondents reported that their dress style was ethnic, suggesting that they were more likely to wear clothes and accessories made of local designs and fabrics. The respondents’ mean score for ethnic style is shown in Figure 4.12. 4 3.69 3 2.86 2.95 2.97 2.67 2.69 2 1 0 Made ethnic- Usually wore Dressed Matched Mostly wore Often wore based fashion ethnic and exotically if cultural and clothes clothes made statement vintage inspired by a exotic items embellished of local accessories particular to make a with cultural/ designs and culture fashion national fabrics statement symbols Determinants of ethnic style Overall mean score (Mo)= 2.97 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.76 Figure 4.12 Respondents’ mean score for ethnic style The highest determining factor of respondents’ ethnic style of dress is the wearing of clothes made of local designs and fabrics (M=3.69). This supports Dogoe’s (2013) report that there is a rise in the use of African fabrics in Ghana, which was significantly influenced by the National Friday Wear Programme introduced in 2004 by the government. Before the 21st century, Ghanaians mostly dressed in ethnic wear during special occasions such as marriage 83 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ceremonies and festivals. However, in contemporary times Ghanaians wear clothes made of African fabrics for all occasions. The overall mean score of 2.97 (SD= 0.76) implies that the respondents were less likely to make ethnic-based fashion statement. This can be attributed to the high price of acquiring a customized garment made from the local wax print, as compared to a ready-to-wear new garment or second-hand clothing sold on the market. Thus, they were less likely to wear traditional clothing although they liked clothes made of local designs and fabrics. Additionally, the mean score was marginal, suggesting that generally the respondents did not avoid ethnic style but wore them occasionally. Perhaps, they wore traditional attires on Fridays for lectures or special occasions. Similarly, Goswami (2007) found that female Indian students wore either ethnic or western wear to school depending on their figure type, the college they attended, the course they pursued, and their place of residence. It can be inferred that female students wore ethnic clothing for various reasons. 4.3.2.3 Feminine Style Most of the respondents (84.9%) reported that their style of dress was feminine, indicating that they mostly wore clothes that had a soft, delicate and feminine details, and avoided masculine tailored garments. Conversely, few of the respondents (15.1%) scored low on feminine style, suggesting that they were less likely to wear clothing made of fancy fabrics and designed with embellishments such as ribbons, beads among others. Figure 4.13 presents the respondents’ mean score for feminine style. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 3.92 3.96 4.01 4 3.41 3.483.3 3 2 1 0 Usually wore Wore clothes Often wore One's hairstyle Usually wore One's look was clothes with made with clothes with was usually clothes made usually soft and embellishments floral, polka flare, gathers or wavy, curly or with soft, easy- feminine (lace, ribbons, dots or fancy pleats natural hair flowing fabrics beads, brooch) fabrics styles Series 1 Determinants of feminine style Overall mean score (Mo)= 3.68 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.68 Figure 4.13 Respondents’ mean score for feminine style The respondents scored high on all the determining factors of feminine dress style (M≥ 3.01). Generally, the respondents were feminine in their style of dress (Mo= 3.68, SD= 0.68), implying that they mostly chose a soft and delicate look when managing their appearance. This finding is not surprising as females are usually expected to be inclined to feminine dress style, which should perhaps be their basic dress style. 4.3.2.4 Sporty Style A little over half of the respondents (59.8%) reported that their style of dress was sporty, which suggests that they were more likely to wear casual clothing such as jeans, T-shirts, shorts, sneakers and caps. On the other hand, 40.2% of the respondents scored low on sporty style of dress, implying that they were less likely to choose athletically inclined clothes. Figure 4.14 presents the respondents’ mean score for sporty style. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 3.73 3.54 3.41 3 2.75 2.77 2 1 0 Usually wore Often wore Usually wore One's clothes Mostly wore sports or clothes caps, sneakers, usually had front jeans, T-shirts, athletically embellished with backpacks or pockets, back shorts and inclined clothes sports logos sports bags pockets or hoods trousers Determinants of sports style Overall mean score (Mo)= 3.24 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.85 Figure 4.14 Respondents’ mean score for sporty style The highest determining factor of respondents’ sporty style of dress was the wearing of jeans, T-shirts, shorts and trousers (M=3.73). Jeans, T-shirts, shorts and trousers with simple and minimal details are classic clothing. Therefore, it can be said that those who created a sporty look using these kind of clothing articles were also more likely to adopt a classic style. As shown in Appendix E, the positive correlation between sporty and classic styles (r= .15, p<0.01) further supports the researcher’s assertion that respondents who described their dress style as casual were more likely to adopt a simple and understated look. The finding is similar to the study of Johnson & Francis (2006) which reported that American undergraduate students who dressed in casual style mostly wore jeans with sweatshirts or t-shirts, slippers, running shoes and flip-flops, and their hair was minimally groomed. The overall mean score of 3.24 (SD= 0.85) implies that the respondents mostly dressed in a casual manner. This may be because the respondents mostly preferred a casual look for 86 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh lectures and social events such as parties and sport programmes. A comparative study by Nutthawutthisit (2003) also revealed that 25.9% of Asian nationals and 64.5% of Asian American female students adopted a sporty-casual dress style. 4.3.2.5 Classic Style Majority of the respondents (91.1%) reported that they were classic in terms of their style of dress. This implies that they mostly liked a simple look and their wardrobe consisted of at least 60% basic clothing in neutral colours. This finding contradicts the study of Keogan (2013) which indicated that minority of the Irish female respondents (45.9%) in her study agreed that their clothing preference was classic. Whereas, few of the respondents (8.9%) scored low on classic style, suggesting that they were less likely to choose timeless clothing. The respondents’ mean score for classic style is shown in Figure 4.15. 5 4.03 4.17 4.32 3.95 4 3.48 3.3 3 2 1 0 Timeless Wardrobe One's look Wore simple Usually wore Wore simple fashion that consisted of at was usually dresses, beautiful, yet clothes and did not least 60% simple and skirts, shirts, simple cuts accessories change were neutral basic understated T-shirts, blue clothes that were one's choice clothing jeans & shoes always in style Determinants of classic style Overall mean score (Mo)= 3.88 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.61 Figure 4.15 Respondents’ mean score for classic style 87 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The respondents scored high on all the determining factors of classic dress style (M≥ 3.01). In general, they were classic in their style of dress (Mo= 3.88, SD= 0.61) which implies that they were more likely to choose a timeless, simple and understated look. The highest determinant of respondents’ classic dress style was the wearing of simple clothes and accessories that were always in style (M= 4.32). This suggests that although, the respondents liked simple apparel, they preferred those that were stylish. Thus, supporting the findings that respondents were novelty-fashion conscious shoppers who loved to buy and wear trendy clothing. 4.3.2.6 Daring Style A little above three-fourth of the respondents (76.3%) scored low on daring style, which indicates that they were less likely to adopt a dress style that is unique and unusual. However, 23.7% of the respondents reported that their dress style was daring. This implies that they were more likely to wear intense makeup, unusual hairstyles or clothing made from bright fabrics and complex designs. Similarly, Keogan (2013) found that few of the female Irish respondents (22.3%) in her study agreed that their clothing preference was eclectic and dramatic. Figure 4.16 presents the respondents’ mean score for daring style. 4 3.09 3 2.48 2.22 2 1 0 Often wore dramatic One's accessories were rare Usually wore clothing with makeup and uncommon and made of unusual and bright colours, bold textures hairstyles flashy materials and complex designs Determinants of daring style Overall mean score (Mo)= 2.60 Standard deviation (SD)= 0.92 Figure 4.16 Respondents’ mean score for daring style 88 Mean Score University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Generally, the respondents were less daring in their style of dress (Mo= 2.60, SD= 0.92). The respondents in this study were less likely to adopt a bold, unusual, unique look that stands out from the general. This finding contradicts Cham et al.’s (2018) assertion that young consumers adopt a unique sense of fashion in order to distinguish themselves from other people in the society. Based on the highest determinant of respondents’ daring style of dress (M=3.09), it can be asserted that the respondents dressed in a daring manner occasionally, by wearing clothing with bright colours, bold textures and complex designs. Thus, confirming the report of Bao & Shao (2002) which indicated that at some point in the lives of young consumers, they have a high tendency to crave for uniqueness. 4.4 Personality Traits of Respondents 4.4.1 Classification and Distribution of Respondents’ Personality Traits Table 4.5 presents the percentage distribution and mean score of respondents’ personality traits. Table 4.5 Percentage distribution and mean score of respondents’ personality traits Category Personality Traits Mean SD Low High N % N % Neuroticism 352 86.9 53 13.1 2.41 0.60 Extraversion 161 39.8 244 60.2 3.24 0.62 Openness to experience 28 6.9 377 93.1 3.62 0.39 Agreeableness 33 8.1 372 91.9 3.70 0.46 Conscientiousness 71 17.5 334 82.5 3.57 0.54 SD= Standard deviation 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Most of the respondents (86.9%) scored low on neuroticism, suggesting that they were more likely to be relaxed, calm, secure, self-satisfied and unemotional. On the other hand, 13.1% of the respondents scored high on neuroticism, indicating that they were more likely to be nervous, emotional, insecure and worrisome. Averagely, the respondents were less neurotic (M= 2.41), implying that generally the respondents were more emotionally stable and less likely to experience negative emotions. About 60% of the respondents scored high on extraversion. The respondents were more likely to be sociable, active, fun-loving, talkative, optimistic and person-oriented. However, about 40% of the respondents reported being introverts, suggesting that they were more likely to be reserved, task-oriented, quiet and sober. The mean score of 3.24 implies that generally, the respondents were extraverts and would most likely seek and engage the company of others. The majority of the respondents (93.1%) scored high on openness to experience, indicating that they were more likely to have broad interests, and were mostly curious and creative. Conversely, few of the respondents (6.9%) scored low on openness to experience, suggesting that they were more likely to have narrow interests, and were mostly inartistic, conventional and down-to-earth. On average (M=3.62), the respondents were more likely to be receptive to new ideas, experiences, interests and values. About 92% of the respondents scored high on agreeableness, which suggests that they were mostly softhearted, trusting, helpful, forgiving and good-natured. Whereas, only 8% of the respondents reported that they were low on agreeableness. This indicates that they were more likely to be ruthless, rude, manipulative, suspicious and uncooperative. The average score of 3.70 implies that generally, the respondents were more likely to show concern for others. The majority of the respondents (82.5%) scored high on conscientiousness, implying that they were more likely to be organized, self-disciplined, hardworking, persevering and ambitious. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh On the contrary, few of the respondents (17.5%) scored low on conscientiousness, suggesting that they were mostly careless, aimless, hedonistic, lazy, negligent and unreliable. Averagely, the respondents were conscientious (M= 3.57). This means that generally, they were more likely to be responsible, persistent, organized and achievement-oriented. The findings of neuroticism, agreeableness and conscientiousness among the respondents were consistent with the study of Oddam (2015), which reported that many of the female undergraduate students of the University of Ghana were low on neuroticism, high on agreeableness and high on conscientiousness. However, the findings of extraversion and openness to experience among the respondents contradicted the findings of Oddam (2015), which indicated that many of the female undergraduate students of the University of Ghana were low on extraversion and low on openness to experience. The differences in findings despite the same study area may be because, both studies were conducted in different periods (2015 and 2019) and thus, the participants of the two studies were different. This confirms the researcher’s assertion that the levels of personality traits (FFM) differ among groups of people belonging to the same culture or environment, since the inherent characteristics of individuals differ. 4.5 Test of Hypotheses The results of all significant correlations are discussed under the following sub-headings: Hypothesis One and Hypothesis Two. 4.5.1 Hypothesis One HO1: There is no significant relationship between personality traits and shopping styles of female young adults. The correlations between personality traits and shopping styles are presented in Table 4.6. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.6 Correlation matrix of personality traits and shopping styles Personality Traits Shopping Styles Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness Perfectionism -.08 .11* .19** .13* .16** Brand consciousness .02 .20** .11* -.05 .01 Novelty-fashion -.10 .22** .16** -.02 .12* consciousness Confusion from .06 .06 .02 -.01 .01 overchoice Impulsive carelessness .29** -.06 -.12* -.18** -.33** Recreational hedonism -.07 .24** .22** .08 .19** Indifference shopping .08 -.06 -.05 -.08 -.15** Habitual brand loyalty -.003 .01 .09 .01 .10* *p < .05 and **p < .01 (2-tailed) An observation of Table 4.6 showed correlations with p-values less than the significant level, α=0.05. This implies that there were significant relationships among certain personality traits and specific shopping styles. Therefore, HO1 which states that there is no significant relationship between personality traits and shopping styles, was rejected. This means that the respondents’ personality traits tended to impact their shopping styles. Thus, how they thought, felt and behaved were reflected in how they scouted for stores, selected and purchased their clothing for managing their appearance. This finding is consistent with the self-congruity theory (Sirgy, 1982) which postulates that the self impacts purchasing behaviour. The significant correlations ranged from .10 to .33, suggesting that personality traits had a low to moderate predictive relationship with shopping styles. This finding is consistent with the study of Sulkova (2013) which indicated that the personality traits of young adult Slovaks have a weak to moderate significant relationship with their shopping style. It however, contradicted Mulyanegara & Tsarenko’s (2009) study of Australian undergraduate students, which indicated that personality is not a good predictor of shopping behaviour. 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Neuroticism and shopping styles Neuroticism was found to be positively associated with impulsive carelessness (r=.29, p< .01). The result suggests that respondents who were high in neuroticism (13.1%) were more likely to be impulsive when shopping, and mostly made unplanned and careless purchases. It can be said that although these consumers were emotionally unstable, they still shopped, which led to an impulsive and careless shopping behaviour. This finding supports the five-factor model of personality that postulates that impulsiveness is a characteristic of high neuroticism. The finding also implies that those who were emotionally stable and well-adjusted (86.9%) were less likely to engage in impulsive shopping. It can be inferred from this significant correlation that adjusted careful shoppers and maladjusted careless shoppers existed among the research subjects. These findings are consistent with the study of Saran et al. (2016) which indicated that Indian consumers involve themselves in fashion consumption when they reach certain emotional states. Neurotic careless shoppers found in this study are similar to the self-contained, apathetic shoppers found in Wong et al.’s (2014) study of Malaysian adult consumers. These Malaysian shoppers were high in neuroticism, tended to be modest and constantly worried with no intrinsic interest in shopping and only shopped when the need arises. Extraversion and shopping styles Extraversion was found to be positively associated with the following shopping styles: recreational (r=.24, p< .01), novelty-fashion (r=.22, p< .01), brand consciousness (r=.20, p< .01) and perfectionism (r=.11, p< .05). The results imply that respondents who were highly extroverted (60.2%) loved to shop for the fun of it. This supports the five-factor model of personality that posits that fun-loving and excitement-seeking are characteristics of extroverts. Additionally, these extroverts were more likely to seek new fashionable products and their choices were normally well-known and best-selling expensive brands. They were mostly 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh perfectionists who sought for high quality products. The finding is consistent with the study of Breazeale & Lueg’s (2011), which found social butterflies among American teens. These consumers scored highest on extraversion and interpersonal communication scales, as well as spent the greatest amount of time and money at the mall. Openness to experience and shopping styles Openness to experience was found to be associated with five shopping styles: A positive association with recreational (r=.22, p< .01), perfectionism (r=.19, p< .01), novelty-fashion (r=.16, p< .01) and brand consciousness (r=.11, p< .05), as well as a negative association with impulsive carelessness (r= -.12, p< .05). The results suggest that respondents who were receptive to a variety of new ideas and experiences (93.1%) mostly enjoyed shopping, and made special effort to choose the very best product that was new, fashionable and luxurious. This supports the five-factor model of personality that postulates that having broad interests is a characteristic of high openness to experience. The findings contradicts Sulkova’s (2013) study of young adult Slovaks which indicated that openness to experience was negatively correlated with brand consciousness. Additionally, these respondents with broad interests were less likely to make impulsive and careless purchases. Agreeableness and shopping styles Agreeableness was found to be positively associated with perfectionism (r=.13, p< .05) and negatively associated with impulsive carelessness (r= -.18, p< .001). The results suggest that respondents who were generally softhearted, trusting and showed concerned for others (91.9%) were more likely to buy high quality products and less likely to make unplanned and careless purchases. This corresponds with the finding of Sulkova (2013) which suggests that agreeableness is negatively associated with impulsive carefree shopping style but, contradicts the finding that agreeableness was negatively correlated with perfectionism. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Perhaps, because these respondents care for others, they mostly bought based on what others suggest because they care about them. It could also be that these consumers’ concern for others was extended to life activities such as shopping. Thus, they were most probably concerned about how they shopped for appearance management products, which made them plan their shopping, and carefully searched for high quality products. It is quite surprising that agreeableness did not have a relationship with habitual brand loyal orientation. This implies that the affable, congenial and trusting respondents did not make repeated purchases from stores and brands that met their needs and expectations. One would expect that since these agreeable individuals were trusting, they would have trusted a brand and mostly bought products from these same brands. It could be that since most of these students did not work, and thus had limited income, they probably bought second-hand clothing of which most have lost their labels. Therefore, it was difficult for them to identify the brand names of such clothing items and buy them repeatedly. Furthermore, it could be that since these respondents had broad interests, they sought different stores and products in order to obtain variety of clothing to manage their appearance. Conscientiousness and shopping styles Conscientiousness was found to be positively associated with recreational hedonism (r=.19, p< .01), perfectionism (r=.16, p< .01), novelty-fashion (r=.12, p< .05) and habitual brand loyalty (r=.10, p< .05). Whereas, conscientiousness was negatively associated with impulsive carelessness (r= -.33, p< .001) and indifference shopping (r= -.15, p< .001). The results imply that organized, careful, responsible and persistent respondents (82.5%) were more likely to choose a product that was new, fashionable, and of high quality. They mostly enjoyed shopping and repeatedly purchased products that met their expectations. Based on these findings it can be asserted that the respondents’ conscientious nature made them high-quality 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conscious and habitual brand loyal consumers, implying that these careful respondents repeatedly purchased high-quality products that met their needs and expectations. As shown in appendix E, the positive correlation between perfectionism and habitual brand loyal orientation (r= .18, p<0.01) further supports the findings that high-quality products makes the consumer loyal to such products. The findings contradict Roy et al.’s (2016) study of Indian consumers which indicates that conscientiousness was negatively correlated with fashion shopping proneness (the positive state of mind that enables a consumer to be involved in fashion shopping). The high conscientious respondents in this study had a positive behaviour towards shopping. According to Costa & McCrae (1992c), being hedonistic is a characteristic of low conscientiousness. In this study however, recreational hedonistic shopping consciousness was found to be positively correlated high conscientiousness. In addition, the results suggest that highly conscientious respondents were less likely to make impulsive purchases and be indifferent about shopping. This means that they were mostly concerned about shopping and made careful purchases. This finding supports the five-factor model of personality that postulates that being careful and thoughtful in most activities such as shopping, are characteristics of high conscientiousness. Personality traits and confusion from overchoice shopping style There were no significant correlations between the five factors of personality and confusion from overchoice shopping style. This finding implies that the personality traits of the respondents had no influence on their state of confusion during their shopping trips (specifically, the state of confusion due to the availability of a wide range of products and shops in the market, which made it difficult for them to make a choice). It could be that being 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh confused was related to other factors such as mood and emotions which are temporal psychological factors or perhaps, the availability of so much product information or lack of understanding of the available information influenced this shopping style. On the contrary, Sulkova’s (2013) study of young adult Slovaks showed that carelessly confused shopping style was significantly associated with neuroticism and conscientiousness. 4.5.2 Hypothesis Two HO2: There is no significant relationship between personality traits and dress styles of female young adults. The correlations between personality traits and dress styles are presented in Table 4.7. Table 4.7 Correlation matrix of personality traits and dress styles Personality Traits Dress Styles Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness Trendy -.11* .27** .18** -.03 .16** Ethnic .02 .03 .22** .11* .12* Feminine -.16** .09 .10* .21** .20** Sporty .07 .10* .11* .02 -.04 Classic .01 .02 .13** .17** .08 Daring .01 .12* .08 -.06 .05 *p < .05 and **p < .01 (2-tailed) An observation of Table 4.7 showed correlations with p-values less than the significant level, α=0.05. This implies that there were significant relationships among certain personality traits and specific dress styles. Therefore, HO2 which states that there is no significant relationship between personality traits and dress styles, was rejected. This means that the respondents’ personality traits tended to impact their dress styles. Thus, how they thought, felt and behaved 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were reflected in how they created their personal appearance with clothing. This finding is consistent with Lurie’s (1992) assertion that different personality traits are expressed within any styling of clothes or outfit worn on a daily basis. The significant correlations ranged from .10 to .27, which implies that personality traits had a low predictive relationship with dress styles. This corresponds with the study of Shank & Langmeyer (1994) which suggested that consumer personality had a low predictive relationship with fashion behaviour among American consumers. It contradicts Moody et al.’s (2010) study of female undergraduates in the UK which indicated that clothing preferences had no significant relationship with extraversion, openness to experience and conscientiousness. Neuroticism and dress styles Neuroticism was found to be negatively associated with feminine style (r= -.16, p< .01) and trendy style (r= -.11, p< .05). The findings imply that emotionally unstable respondents who experience negative emotions (13.1%) were less likely to wear clothing made of fancy fabrics or feminine tailored garments. They were also less likely to wear the latest, most up-to-date clothing, and may be mostly unconcerned about dressing fashionably. Generally, females should be inclined to feminine style of dress or motivated to dress in a feminine way. Perhaps, the distress and negative emotions being experienced by these female respondents may be the reason for their lack of interest in feminine and trendy style of dress. Furthermore, the results implies that emotionally stable respondents (86.9%) mostly dressed in a feminine way. The finding is in line with the study of Rosenfeld & Plax (1977) which indicated that female Americans scoring high on practicality in dress (which is feminine in this case) were guarded and secured. These respondents were also more likely to dress fashionably. Thus, supporting the finding of Roy et al. (2016) which indicated that young 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh female Indian consumers are fashion-prone, that is the positive affective and cognitive state of mind that enables a consumer to be involved in fashion. Extraversion and dress styles Extraversion was found to be positively associated with trendy style (r= .27, p< .01), daring style (r= .12, p< .05) and sporty style (r= .10, p< .05). The result implies that sociable, active and fun-loving respondents (60.2%) were more likely to wear fashionable clothing. This corresponds with the study of Johnson & Francis (2006) which reported that American female undergraduates who described their dress style as trendy were high on extraversion. It however, contradicted Taylor & Compton’s (1968) finding which indicated that American college women who were interested in maintaining harmonious relationships with others were uninterested in aesthetics in dress. The results also suggest these extraverts were more likely to wear clothing made from bright or unusual materials, and mostly preferred outfits that would make them unique. This finding is contrary to a similar study by Paek (1986) which indicated that a stranger dressed in daring style was perceived as more individualistic and attractive. Furthermore, the results imply that highly extroverted respondents were more likely to wear athletically-inclined clothing such as jeans, T-shirts, shorts, sneakers and caps. This finding corresponds with a similar study by Morris et al. (1996) which suggested that instructors dressed in casual attires were considered to be extroverted. But contradicts the study of Johnson & Francis (2006) which indicated that athletic styles of American undergraduates were negatively correlated with high extraversion. Extroverts are sociable, outgoing, fun-loving and active, and thus, were more likely to enjoy the act of shopping. It can be observed in Table 4.6 that extraversion was positively correlated with recreational hedonistic shopping consciousness (r= .24, p< .01) and novelty-fashion consciousness (r= .22, p< .01). It can be said that these extroverts took pleasure in shopping 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for casual, trendy and daring clothes for various occasions such lectures, weddings, sport activities, parties among others. Openness to experience and dress styles Openness to experience was found to be positively associated with ethnic style (r= .22, p< .01), trendy style (r= .18, p< .01), classic style (r= .13, p< .01), sporty style (r= .11, p< .05) and feminine style (r= .10, p< .05). The results suggest that the respondents who were receptive to a variety of experiences, interests and ideas (93.1%) were more likely to wear clothing made of local fabrics and designs, and mostly preferred to match cultural and exotic items to make a fashion statement. Although, their receptivity to a variety of interests, ideas and experiences predisposed them to adopt an ethnic-inspired look, less than half of the respondents (43.7%) preferred this dress style. These respondents were also more likely to dress fashionably. This finding is consistent with the study of Johnson & Francis (2006) which indicated that American undergraduates who described their dress style as trendy were high on openness to experience. The results also imply that these respondents who had broad interests mostly wore simple and timeless clothing. This finding is contrary to Paek’s (1986) study of Americans which suggested that several traits of conservative (classic) styles were negatively correlated with clothing interest. Furthermore, the results suggest that these respondents with broad interests were more likely to wear casual or masculine tailored clothing. This finding is consistent with the study of Morris et al. (1996) which suggested that American instructors dressed in casual attires were perceived to be interesting. It however contradicts Johnson & Francis’ (2006) study of undergraduate students which indicated that athletic styles were negatively correlated with high openness to experience. Lastly, the results imply that these respondents mostly chose a soft, feminine look when managing their appearance. 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The results showed that openness to experience correlated with all dress styles except daring style. The findings support the five-factor model of personality that postulates that being open to diverse ideas, interests and experiences (such as several dress styles) is a characteristic of high openness to experience. This may be because many of the respondents who had broad interests owned several clothing necessary for creating different look or dress style for diverse occasion. Additionally, the very weak or no correlation between openness to experience and daring style is very surprising, as one would expect that curious, original, creative and artistic individuals would probably love to create a unique and dramatic look, in order to stand out and draw others attention. Agreeableness and dress styles Agreeableness was found to be positively associated with feminine style (r= .21, p< .01), classic style (r= .17, p< .01) and ethnic style (r= .11, p< .05). The results suggest that respondents who were softhearted, trusting, helpful, good-natured and concerned about others (91.9%) were more likely to choose a soft, feminine, simple and understated look. They were also more likely to make an ethnic-based fashion statement. It could be that their agreeable nature made them patriotic. This implies that since the respondents had concern for others, they also had concern for their cultural and national clothing which made them adopt an ethnic-inspired look. Although, their agreeable nature predisposed them to adopt an ethnic-inspired look, less than half of the subjects (43.7%) preferred this dress style. The findings contradicts the study of Moody et al. (2010) which indicated that low agreeableness among female undergraduates in the UK was related to casual style, and high agreeableness was related to daring style. In this study, agreeableness had no significant correlation with casual/sporty style (r=.02) and daring style (r= -.06). The observed correlations were weak or virtually non-existent in both cases. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Conscientiousness and dress styles Conscientiousness was found to be positively associated with feminine style (r= .20, p< .01), trendy style (r= .16, p< .01) and ethnic style (r= .12, p< .05). The results show that respondents who were responsible, organized, persevering and achievement-oriented (82.5%) were more likely to dress in a feminine way, and mostly avoided masculine tailored garments. This finding is not surprising as it is usually expected that females should be inclined to feminine style of dress, which should perhaps be their basic dress style. The finding is consistent with the study of Rosenfeld & Plax (1977) which indicated that female Americans scoring high on practicality in dress (which is feminine in this case) were clever, confident and guarded. Additionally, the results suggest that these conscientious respondents were more likely to be passionate about fashion and therefore, they mostly wore new fashionable outfits. It can be observed in Table 4.6 that conscientiousness was also positively associated with novelty- fashion consciousness style of shopping (r=.12, p< .05). It can be said that these highly conscientious respondents were conscious of new and fashionable clothing, in an attempt to purchase trendy clothes for managing their appearance. This is consistent with the findings of Moody et al. (2009) which pointed out that new clothes reflected and enhanced high conscientiousness among female undergraduates in the UK. As far back as 1963, Aiken reported that American females’ interest in dress was positively correlated with being conscientious. Furthermore, the results imply that these highly conscientious respondents were more likely to wear clothing made of local fabrics and designs, and mostly preferred to match cultural and exotic items to make a fashion statement. 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5.3 Summary of Test of Hypotheses Figure 4.18 shows the summary of observed relationships among the study variables. Shopping Styles Perfectionism Brand consciousness Novelty-fashion consciousness Impulsive carelessness Personali ty Traits Recreational hedonism Indifference shopping Five-Factor Model of Habitual brand loyalty Personality Neuroticism Extraversion Appearance Management Openness to experience Agreeableness Conscientiousness Dress Styles Trendy style Ethnic style Feminine style Sporty style Classic style Daring style Figure 4.17 Summary of observed relationships among study variables The Five-Factor Model of Personality (FFM) correlated with seven shopping styles and six dress styles identified among the respondents. Given that personality traits were found to have significant correlations with shopping and dress styles, HO1 and HO2 were rejected. Therefore, personality traits were related to shopping and dress styles, suggesting that how the respondents scouted for stores, selected and purchased clothing for creating their personal appearance, mostly reflected their personality traits. The findings validate the Trait Theory, FFM which postulates that neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness which make up an individual’s personality traits are related to human cognition, affects and behaviour. 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter presents a brief summary of the study and conclusions drawn from the findings. It also outlines recommendations for future research, practice, and policy development. 5.1 SUMMARY A cross-sectional study design with a quantitative approach was used to examine the relationship among shopping styles, dress styles and personality traits of female young adults. A multistage sampling technique was used to select 447 Ghanaian female resident undergraduate students, aged 18 to 25 years from three halls in the University of Ghana, Legon. A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data on the respondents’ demographic characteristics, shopping styles, dress styles and personality traits. The data were analysed using IBM SPSS, Version 20. Principal component analysis was used to identify the respondents’ shopping and dress styles. Mean, frequency and percentages were used to describe the results obtained. Pearson product-moment correlation was used to analyse the relationship among shopping styles, dress styles and personality traits. The results were presented using tables and charts where necessary. The results of the study showed that the average age of the respondents was 20 years (SD= 1.68). Many of the respondents were teenagers (47.4%), Akans (55.1%), studying programmes in the College of Humanities (62%), Christians (94.8%), spinsters (95.5%) but in a relationship (61%). Eight shopping styles and six dress styles were identified among the respondents. Generally, the respondents were indifference shoppers (M=3.06), habitual brand loyal shoppers (M=3.28), confused by overchoice shoppers (M=3.36), novelty-fashion conscious shoppers (M=3.37), recreational hedonistic shoppers (M=3.71), and perfectionists, high-quality conscious shoppers (M=4.91). They scored low on impulsive carelessness 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (M=2.76) and brand consciousness (M=2.90) shopping styles. Many of the respondents described their dress style as trendy (52.6%), sporty (59.8%), feminine (84.9%), and classic (91.1%). Few of the respondents reported that they were more likely to dress in a daring (23.7%) and ethnic (43.7%) styles. Averagely, the respondents’ scores on personality traits were low neuroticism (M=2.41), high extraversion (M=3.24), high conscientiousness (M=3.57), high openness to experience (M=3.62), and high agreeableness (M=3.70). The respondents’ personality traits had a low to moderate significant relationship with their shopping styles (r= .10 to .33, p<0.01; p<0.05), and a low significant relationship with their dress styles (r= .10 to .27, <0.01; p<0.05). 5.2 CONCLUSION Based on the findings of the study, it is concluded that the personality traits of female young adults in the University of Ghana predisposed them to adopt multiple shopping and dress styles, as means of managing their appearance. Although, they were trusting and concerned for others, these traits did not predispose them to trust stores and brands. However, their conscientious nature made them high-quality conscious consumers who were mostly loyal to stores and brands that met their needs and expectations. The respondents’ affable nature and receptivity to a variety of interests, ideas and experiences predisposed them to adopt an ethic- inspired look, but less than half of the respondents preferred to wear clothing that depicted their cultural and national heritage. The application of the findings of personality traits and appearance management to fashion product development and marketing, could lead to consumer satisfaction, customer loyalty and ultimately, a successful fashion business. 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS In the light of the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made to impact future research, practice, policy development and implementation. The underlisted relevant stakeholders would be made aware of the findings through publications and presentations. 1. The findings of the study showed that the personality traits of the students predisposed them to multiple shopping and dress styles. It is recommended that producers of fashion goods should use the findings to segment their female young adult consumers, design marketing strategies that would appeal to these consumers, and incorporate them in their product development in order to create apparel lines that meet consumers’ clothing needs. 2. The findings revealed that the students’ conscientious nature made them perfectionists, and high-quality conscious consumers who mostly remained loyal to the brands that met their needs and expectations. It is therefore recommended that producers of fashion merchandise should develop products of optimum standard in order to satisfy the needs of these consumers, as this could result in repeated purchase by the consumers and positively impact their businesses. 3. The findings showed that the students’ personality traits were reflected in how they used clothing to create their personal appearance. It is therefore proposed that academic institutions and other organisations such as Home Science bodies and Girls Guide should educate young females on the significance of appropriate dressing, as their appearance is more likely to communicate their personality traits to others. 4. The findings also revealed that the students’ agreeable nature and their receptivity to a variety of ideas, interests and experiences predisposed them to adopt an ethnic-inspired look. However, less than half of the respondents mostly wore ethnic-based clothing. It is recommended that State Institutions such as the National Commission for Culture, the 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture, and the Ministry of Trade and Industry should develop and implement policies, as well as intensify public sensitization on the ‘Wear Ghana Initiative’ and the ‘National Everyday Wear Programme’, in order to promote the sale of Ghana-made clothing, which will in turn create jobs, and maintain the cultural identity of Ghana. 5. The study measured only the five broad domains of the five-factor model of personality. It is suggested that future research should investigate which of the facets of the personality factors accounted for the significant relationship with shopping and dress styles. 6. The study established correlation among study variables, and not causation. 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Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 18(4), 394-412. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFMM-03-2013-0029 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX A ETHICAL APPROVAL FOR THE STUDY 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B PROTOCOL CONSENT FORM FOR STUDY PARTICIPANTS UNIVERSITY OF GHANA Official Use only Protocol number COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES Ethics Committee for the College of Basic and Applied Sciences (ECBAS) PROTOCOL CONSENT FORM Section A- BACKGROUND INFORMATION Title of Study: Appearance Management: Shopping Styles, Dress Styles and Personality Traits of Female Young Adults Principal Investigator: Dora Appiadu Certified Protocol Number: ECBAS 007/18-19 Section B– CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH 1. General Information about Research Dear Participant, My name is Dora Appiadu, a Master of Philosophy student from the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon. I am conducting a study on appearance management, and the focus is on how young adult consumers shop and dress based on their personality. Therefore, I would like you to provide me with some information about yourself. Your participation in this study would involve completing a questionnaire that would take about 15-25 minutes. In SECTION A, some questions would require that you write some information about yourself, and the others would require that you tick the answer which is applicable to you. In SECTIONS B, C and D, you would be required to first read the INSTRUCTIONS which have been stated, then provide answers by ticking under the appropriate response by the statements. 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. Benefits/Risks of the study There are no identifiable risks to participants involved in this study. However, the benefit of participating in the study is that you would learn more about yourself: your personality traits as well as how you shop and dress. Your answers together with others’ would help generate findings that would help in understanding how young adult consumers shop and dress based on their personality. This information would serve as a valuable tool for fashion marketers, which would enable them to develop the right products that would satisfy the needs and expectations of young adult consumers in Ghana. 3. Confidentiality The information you provide would be kept with utmost confidentiality. This means that you will remain anonymous. Your identity and information would not be revealed to other parties, except that supervisors directly involved in this study may inspect the records for only academic purposes. To ensure this, your name would not be required. Thus, please DO NOT WRITE YOUR NAME ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE. 4. Compensation A participant of this study would be given a pen which would be used to fill the questionnaire and subsequently, be kept by the participant as a token of appreciation for participating in the study. 5. Withdrawal from Study Kindly note that your participation is voluntary and you may withdraw at any time without any penalty. You will not be affected if you decline to participate, or decide to take part and later stop participating. 6. Contact for Additional Information Please if you have any issues or questions about the research study, please do not hesitate to contact me or any of my supervisors. 1. Dora Appiadu (Student Investigator) Department of Family and Consumer Sciences University of Ghana P. O. Box LG 68 Legon-Accra Tel: +233243542217 Email: dappiadu001@st.ug.edu.gh 2. Dr. Efua Vandyck (Supervisor) Department of Family and Consumer Sciences University of Ghana P. O. Box LG 68 Legon-Accra Email: evandyck@ug.edu.gh 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. Dr. Mercy Kuma-Kpobee (Supervisor) Department of Family and Consumer Sciences University of Ghana P. O. Box LG 68 Legon-Accra Email: mkuma-kpobee@ug.edu.gh Section C- VOLUNTEER AGREEMENT "I have read or have had someone read all of the above, asked questions, received answers regarding participation in this study, and I am willing to give consent for me, my child/ward to participate in this study. I have not waived any of my rights by signing this consent form. Upon signing this consent form, I will receive a copy for my personal records." __________________________________ Name of Volunteer _________________________________ ____________________ Signature or mark of volunteer Date If volunteers cannot read the form themselves, a witness must sign here: I was present while the benefits, risks and procedures were read to the volunteer. All questions were answered and the volunteer has agreed to take part in the research. __________________________ Name of witness _______________________ ________________________ Signature of witness Date I certify that the nature and purpose, the potential benefits, and possible risks associated with participating in this research have been explained to the above individual. ______________________________________ Name of Person who obtained Consent __________________________________ ______________________ Signature of Person who obtained Consent Date 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX C QUESTIONNAIRE SECTION A - DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE Kindly share some demographic characteristics about yourself by responding to the following. Please tick [√] and provide answer (s) where appropriate 1. Age: …..…………………………………………………………………… 2. Department/ School/ College: .…..………………………………………………………………………………….. 3. Marital status: a. Single [ ] If single, are you in a relationship? (Yes / No/ It’s complicated) b. Married [ ] c. Separated [ ] d. Divorced [ ] e. Others (please specify)…………...………..……….. 4. Ethnicity: a. Akan [ ] b. Dagomba [ ] c. Ewe [ ] d. Ga-Adangbe [ ] e. Others (please specify)…………………………….…… 5. Religion: a. Christianity [ ] b. Islam [ ] c. Traditional [ ] d. Others (please specify)…………………………………... 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION B M5-50 PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE This is a personality questionnaire. There are no right or wrong answers to these questions. You simply tick under one of the following responses (strongly disagree, disagree, neither, agree or strongly agree) that describes you best.  Without spending too much time dwelling on any one item, just give the first reaction that comes to mind. However, you may change an answer if you wish.  Mark the response that best shows how you really feel or see yourself, not responses that you think might be desirable or ideal. Strongly Strongly M5-50 Personality Questionnaire Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Agree 1 I have a vivid imagination 2 I believe in the importance of art 3 I seldom feel sad 4 I often speak in an unpleasant way 5 I am not interested in abstract ideas 6 I find it difficult to get down to work 7 I panic easily I tend to vote for liberal political 8 candidates 9 I am not easily bothered by things 10 I make friends easily 11 I often feel sad 12 I get chores done right away 13 I suspect hidden motives in others 14 I rarely get irritated 15 I do not like art 16 I dislike myself 17 I remain out of sight of people 18 I do just enough work to get by 19 I am always prepared I tend to vote for conservative 20 political candidates 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Section B Continued Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Agree 21 I feel comfortable with myself 22 I avoid philosophical discussions 23 I waste my time I believe that others have good 24 intentions 25 I am very pleased with myself 26 I have little to say I feel comfortable around other 27 people 28 I am often unhappy 29 I do not enjoy going to art museums 30 I have frequent mood swings 31 I don't like to draw attention to myself 32 I insult people 33 I say good things about people 34 I get back at others 35 I carry out my plans I would describe my experiences as 36 somewhat dull I carry the conversation to a higher 37 level 38 I don't finish tasks completely I am skilled in handling social 39 situations 40 I respect others 41 I pay attention to details I am the most amusing and 42 interesting person at a party 43 I enjoy hearing new ideas 44 I accept people as they are 45 I don't talk a lot 46 I upset others 47 I make plans and stick to them 48 I know how to captivate people 49 I make people feel at ease 50 I avoid my duties 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION C CONSUMER STYLES INVENTORY (CSI) Instructions: These statements are meant to identify how you shop for appearance management products. Please indicate to what extent you agree that each statement describes you by ticking under the appropriate description 1 – Strongly disagree (SD) 2 – Disagree (D) 3 – Neither (N) 4 – Agree (A) 5 – Strongly agree (SA) SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 1 Getting very good quality is very important to me 2 When it comes to purchasing products, I try to get the very best or perfect choice 3 In general, I usually try to buy the best overall quality 4 I make special effort to choose the very best quality products 5 I really don’t give my purchases much thought or care 6 My standards and expectations for products I buy are very high 7 I shop quickly, buying the first product or brand I find that seems good enough 8 A product doesn’t have to be perfect, or the best, to satisfy me SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 9 The well-known national brands are best for me 10 The more expensive brands are usually my choices 11 The higher the price of a product, the better its quality 12 Nice department and specialty stores offer me the best products 13 I prefer buying the best-selling brands 14 The most advertised brands are usually very good choices SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 15 I usually have one or more outfits of the very newest style 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Section C Continued 16 I keep my wardrobe up-to-date with the changing fashions 17 Fashionable, attractive styling is very important to me 18 To get variety, I shop different shops and choose different brands 19 It’s fun to buy something new and exciting SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 20 Shopping is not a pleasant activity to me 21 Going shopping is one of the enjoyable activities in my life 22 Shopping the stores wastes my time 23 I enjoy shopping just for the fun of it 24 I make my shopping trips fast SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 25 I buy as much as possible at “sale” prices 26 The lower priced products are usually my choice 27 I look carefully to find the best value for the money SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 28 I should plan my shopping more carefully than I do 29 I am impulsive when purchasing 30 Often I make careless purchases I later wish I had not 31 I take the time to shop carefully for best buys 32 I carefully watch how I spend SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 33 There are so many brands to choose from that I often feel confused 34 Sometimes it’s hard to choose which stores to shop 35 The more I learn about products, the harder it seems to choose the best 36 All the information I get on different products confuses me SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 37 I have favorite brands that I buy over and over 38 Once I find a product or brand I like, I stick with it 39 I go to the same stores each time I shop 40 I change brands I buy regularly 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION D DRESS STYLES QUESTIONNAIRE (DSQ) Instructions: Please read the following statements and tick under the number which best describes your dress style or is similar to your style of dressing. 1 – Strongly disagree (SD) 2 – Disagree (D) 3 – Neither (N) 4 – Agree (A) 5 – Strongly agree (SA) SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 1 I prefer timeless fashion that do not change 2 I like beautiful, yet simple cuts clothes 3 I love clothes and accessories that are simple and always in style 4 My look is usually simple and understated 5 My wardrobe consists of at least 60% basic clothing in neutral colours (black, white, gray) 6 I am most comfortable in simple dresses, skirts, shirts, T- shirts, dark blue jeans and plain shoes SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 7 I am passionate about fashion 8 I like to try new fashion items or hairstyles 9 I usually incorporate trendy items into my wardrobe 10 I prefer the latest, most up-to-date fashion available 11 I mostly wear the most popular clothing colours, prints, and styles 12 I am a fashion trend tracker and usually among the first to spot a new fashion SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 13 I love to make bold fashion statement 14 I love to stand out, to be unique and original with my clothing 15 I love clothing with bright colours, bold textures and complex designs 16 I love clothing that is stylish, sophisticated and high-end 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Section D Continued 17 I love dramatic makeup and uncommon hairstyles 18 I usually prefer rare accessories made from unusual and flashy materials SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 19 My look is usually soft and feminine 20 I usually prefer soft, easy-flowing fabrics 21 I love clothes made with floral, polka dots or fancy fabrics 22 I love clothes with flare, gathers or pleats 23 I love clothes with embellishments such as laces, ribbons, buttons, beads, brooches, rosettes 24 I usually prefer wavy, curly or natural hair styles SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 25 I usually prefer sports or athletically inclined clothes 26 I am most comfortable in jeans, T-shirts, shorts and trousers 27 I love caps, sneakers, backpacks or sports bags 28 I like clothes with front pockets, back pockets and hoods 29 I usually prefer clothes embellished with sports logos 30 I prefer to wear few cosmetics such as light make up SD D N A SA 1 2 3 4 5 31 I love to make ethnic-based fashion statement 32 I love clothes made of local designs and fabrics 33 I usually prefer clothes embellished with cultural or national symbols 34 My accessories are often vintage and ethnic 35 I usually prefer to match cultural and exotic items to make a fashion statement 36 I prefer to dress exotically if I am inspired by a particular culture Thank you for participating in the study!!! 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX D - NORMALITY OF DATA The normality of the data was evaluated by assessing the skewness and kurtosis values of the study variables which is shown in Table 4.8. Tabachnick & Fidell (2007), stated that a variable is normally distributed when the skewness and kurtosis values falls within -2 and +2. It can be observed in Table 4.8 that the skewness and kurtosis values of the study variables lies within -2 and +2. Thus, the scores on all the study variables were normally distributed. Table 4.8 Skewness and kurtosis values of study variables Variables Skewness Kurtosis Age 1.165 1.134 Perfectionism, high-quality Consciousness -.954 1.427 Brand consciousness .153 -.385 Novelty-fashion consciousness -.284 -.117 Confusion from overchoice -.337 -.050 Impulsive carelessness .155 -.193 Recreational, hedonistic shopping -.445 -.380 Indifference Shopping Orientation .004 -.104 Habitual brand loyal Orientation .014 -.434 Trendy .216 -.222 Ethnic .074 -.110 Feminine -.517 .632 Sporty -.075 -.192 Classic -.578 1.211 Daring .340 -.204 Neuroticism .247 .202 Extraversion .089 -.007 Openness to experience -.047 .453 Agreeableness -.190 .040 Conscientiousness -.340 .212 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX E - CORRELATION MATRIX OF ALL STUDY VARIABLES *p < .05 **p < .01 (2-tailed) 135