See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357411999 Teachers’ utilization of instructional cues: types, targets and rate per minute in physical education setting Article · July 2021 DOI: 10.22271/yogic.2021.v6.i2c.1235 CITATION READS 1 116 4 authors, including: Samuel Kofi Donkor Regina Akuffo Darko University of Ghana University of Education, Winneba 12 PUBLICATIONS   28 CITATIONS    4 PUBLICATIONS   4 CITATIONS    SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Samuel Kofi Donkor on 01 January 2022. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Internation al Journal of Yogic, Human Movement and Sports Sciences 2021; 6(2): 135-140 ISSN: 2456-4419 Impact Factor: (RJIF): 5.18 Yoga 2021; 6(2): 135-140 Teachers’ utilization of instructional cues: types, © 2021 Yoga www.theyogicjournal.com targets and rate per minute in physical education Received: 19-07-2021 Accepted: 10-09-2021 setting Samuel Kofi Donkor Lecturer, Department of Physical Education and Sport Samuel Kofi Donkor, Gibson Kwaku Avornyo, Timothy Kwesi Koki and Studies, School of Education and Regina Akuffo Darko Leadership, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, Ghana DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/yogic.2021.v6.i2c.1235 Gibson Kwaku Avornyo Tutor, ICT Unit, Department of Abstract Mathematics and ICT Instructional cue (IC) plays an important role in directing student's attention toward the most critical E.P. College of Education, information about a movement task. Notably, an incorrect performance of a skill practiced for a long Amedzofe, Ghana period is difficult to correct later. For this reason, physical education (PE) teachers need to constantly develop and implement good strategies that enhance students’ acquisition of critical features of Timothy Kwesi Koki movement skills. Teachers must use a variety of ICs targeted fairly at individual students and whole Physical Education and Sports class. For effectiveness, different types of teachers’ ICs must be provided in an instructional setting. Unit, Department of Science However, little is known about the effectiveness of teachers’ ICs in practical PE setting. The purpose of Dambai College of Education, this pedagogical research in PE setting was to investigate targets, types and rate per minute of teachers’ Dambai, Ghana ICs in netball shooting skill. The study was situated in three selected colleges of education (CoE) where descriptive processes were used to conduct the investigation. Digital video was utilized to record Regina Akuffo Darko naturally occurring classroom events of pre-service teachers (n=77) and PE teachers (n=4). The video- Department of Health, Physical recorded lesson lasted 1 hour (60 minutes). Two independent recorders used event recording instrument Education, Recreation and to document classroom events relating to types and targets of teachers’ ICs. Inter-observer agreement Sports, Faculty of Education procedures revealed a good reliability of data collected for the study. Descriptive analyses were University of Education, Winneba, Ghana conducted using mainly percentages, frequencies and means. Major findings of the study showed that verbal, visual and kinesthetic ICs were the main types of Teachers’ ICs used during the instructional period. However, verbal ICs dominated the observed practical lesson. Findings also revealed that more verbal ICs were provided to the group than individual students. Non-verbal ICs which involved demonstrations and signals were mostly used to facilitate individual students’ acquisition of the shooting skill in netball. In each minute, students received teachers’ IC relating to the proper technique of performing assigned task. Keywords: Instructional cues (IC), Verbal instructional cue (VIC), Non-verbal instructional cues (NVIC), Instruction 1. Introduction Typically, PE teachers regularly deliver external source of information to facilitate students’ acquisition of skill during lesson delivery. As acknowledged by Raisbeck and Yamada (2019) [11] “external focus instructions specific to performance are beneficial for performance” (149) and that “the benefits of using an external focus instruction are robust” (p.150). However, Becker and Fairbrother (2019) [2] indicate that “external focus cues are not frequently adopted in applied sport setting” (p.651). Most often, teaching cues focus on motor skill development. However, teaching cues in PE setting may also target fitness, character development, or any other aspect of a lesson that a teacher considers appropriate. In most practical PE settings, the Corresponding Author: PE teacher assumes responsibilities of all best instructional practices in a way that facilitates Samuel Kofi Donkor learning. By so doing, the teacher provides relevant instructional information that relates to the Lecturer, Department of movement task being executed. The teacher offers suggestions to enable students perform well Physical Education and Sport and achieve maximum outcome of the instructional goal. Literature demonstrates that teachers Studies, School of Education and typically provide suggestions on students’ work as the most meaningful way that can influence Leadership, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, Ghana learning outcome (Hattie and Timperley, 2007) [5]. ~ 135 ~ International Journal of Yogic, Human Movement and Sports Sciences http://www.theyogicjournal.com 1.1 Types of ICs 2. Teachers’ target of ICs, and In practical PE setting, the instructional effectiveness of a 3. Rate per minute of teachers’ ICs in 60 minutes practical teacher depends largely on how the teacher uses ICs. A cue lesson period. consists of a word, phrase, or sentence that describes critical elements involved in performing a task successfully. Pangrazi 2. Methods and Beighle (2019) [9] see a teaching cue as a word or a phrase 2.1 Participants that calls attention to the key points of skill technique. A Participants were pre-service teachers (males=28, growing body of research (e.g. Alpizar, et al. 2020; females=53) drawn from first year group and regular PE Hurzlmeler, et. al., 2021; Mayer, 2014; Raisbeck & Yamada, teachers (n=4). All subjects for the study were drawn from 2019; Schneider et al., 2018) [1, 8, 11, 13] suggests that ICs three educational institutions. Participants were assigned enhance skill acquisition by improving students’ attention, different roles. As part of inclusion criteria, pre-service comprehension and retention. Not only should learners be teachers used for the study were those that had not previously provided with practice exercises, they should be given ICs to participated in competitive netball activities (novice shooters help them perform better in an instructional environment. in netball). This was particularly important in determining the influence of teachers’ IC on shooting skill using two 1.1.1 Verbal Cues instructional schedules (with teachers’ IC & without teachers’ The largest quantity of information in every instructional IC). Table 1 specifies the composition of subjects involved in environment is communicated verbally. As a result, verbal the study. ICs are most widely used in PE setting. In addition, verbal information is not easily misunderstood if the expression is Table 2: Study Participants clear to the students. Pufaa (2006) argues that learners should Group Group Group Percent. be helped to establish an image of the task or skill through Gender Total A B C (%) verbal instructions provided by the teacher. However, the Male 4 2 22 28 35 teacher may over-use instructions when faced with the task of Female 0 30 23 53 65 describing a complex movement. Pufaa contends that “The Total 4 32 45 81 100 teacher should therefore use verbal cues to help students remember points for skill performance” (p.16) and that a teacher “may overwhelm learners and in an effort to cope Groups of Study Participants with the avalanche of information about what to do and when Indicates the number of PE teachers whose mandate to do it, may disregard much of the information” (p.33). In an Group A: was to use ICs in teaching shooting skill to pre- instructional setting where language barrier exists, verbal cues service teachers. are rendered less valuable. This situation presents a challenge Indicates the number of pre-service teachers used in to the teacher to use non-verbal means to help students Group B: the 30 minutes lesson for each of the two observed classes. acquire critical elements of the skill being taught. Indicates the number of pre-service teachers used in the two schedules of teaching (with IC and without 1.1.2 Non-Verbal Cues (visual and kinesthetic cues) Group C: IC) a shooting task to determine the effects of IC on The two main non-verbal ICs are the visual and kinesthetic shooting. ICs. Pufaa (2006) explains that “Kinesthesis deals with motion or movement that is connected with the ability to 2.2 Procedures sense body position through the sensory organs located in the Data were collected in natural practical PE setting where muscles, tendons and joints”. Pufaa explains further that students and two PE teachers engaged in teaching a practical kinesthetic involves “the sensation of position or the control lesson involving netball shooting skill. All student of motor performance” (p.47). Visual and kinesthetic cues are participants were drawn from homogeneous group who were helpful to all learners of a new skill. In addition, visual and at the beginning phase of learning to shoot in netball. Prior to kinesthetic cues are especially appropriate when verbal cues data collection, there was brief orientation for research have limited value. Klein et al. (2019) [7] reported that “visual assistants and the PE teachers involved in the study. The cues can be beneficial in coordination tasks, even for students lesson was video recorded in natural instructional setting. with high domain knowledge” (p.1). Highlighting the Two independent recorders observed the video-recorded potential benefit of teacher’s visual cues to students with low lesson and documented types and targets of teachers’ ICs. skill level, it is noted that “For learners with low prior Data were analysed objectively, establishing inter-observer knowledge, visual cues offer additional support, providing reliability between the two recorders. Frequencies, means, lacking information and guiding learners through complex percentages, and rate per minute of events were generated tasks” (Hurzlmeler, et al., 2021, p.9). Sometimes, it is helpful from the inter-observer recordings. In cases of disagreement to utilize visual demonstrations or ‘physical manipulation’ to during event recording, literature establishes that “The two (or convey movement ideas. As demonstrated above, visual and more) observers can then discuss discrepancies and resolve kinesthetic cues are also used widely in instructional setting them” (Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000, p.335) [14]. This involving practical lessons. information provided support for the two independent For variety, different types of teachers’ ICs should be observers to resolve disagreements in an objective and provided in an instructional setting. These teaching cues must unbiased manner. be targeted fairly at groups and individual students. However, little is known about the effectiveness of how teachers’ ICs 3. Analyses are administered in practical instructional setting in PE. For Data analyses were based on inter-observer evaluation of this study, our main purpose was to investigate: events relating to types and targets of teachers’ ICs which 1. Types of Teachers’ ICs in a practical netball shooting were video-recorded during the practical lesson. Inter- skill, observer agreement was used to test the reliability of data for ~ 136 ~ International Journal of Yogic, Human Movement and Sports Sciences http://www.theyogicjournal.com making research decisions. The process yielded ≥80% observer recorded 18 events while the second observer agreement between the two independent recorders which recorded 19 events. A mean score of 18.5 events was obtained indicated a good reliability of data in each category of from the two observations which yielded 95% data reliability. instructional event investigated. This is in line with literature Moreover, observer one documented 35 frequency count of which reports that “A reliability of 80 percent is usually events for verbal IC targeted at the entire group while 32 considered necessary for research purposes” (Siedentop, & events were recorded by the second observer. Mean data for Tannehill, 2000, p.338) [14]. Types and target of teacher’s ICs these two observers was 33.5 events and data for this category were converted to rate per minute. This was done was 91% reliable. Non-verbal IC provided by the teachers to conveniently because any instructional behavior of the teacher the group yielded 23 frequency count of events for observer or student that produces a frequency count of events can be one and 23 for observer two. Mean score for non-verbal IC to converted into rate per minute. the group recorded 23 events with 100% inter-observer agreement for this category. In all, observer one recorded 95 4. Results events while observer two recorded 90 events with the two 4.1 Target of Teachers’ IC observations yielding a mean score of 92.5 events. Data The frequency count of verbal ICs received by individual reliability was 95% for the total recorded events for all students was 19 events for observer one and 16 events for categories. Table 2 presents the results on teachers’ target of observer two. The two observers recorded a mean score of IC in the practical PE setting involving shooting skill in 17.5 events and data for this category was 84% reliable. For netball. non-verbal ICs targeted at individual students, the first Table 2: Teachers’ Target of ICs Observation Inter-Observer Agreement Target Type Observer1 Observer2 Mean Score Equation Percent. (%) Verbal IC 19 16 17.5 84 Individual Non-Verbal IC 18 19 18.5 95 Verbal IC 35 32 33.5 91 Group Non-Verbal IC 23 23 23 100 Total 95 90 92.5 95 4.2 Rate per minute of Teachers’ Target of IC categories of IC as 0.29, 0.31, 0.56 and 0.38 for verbal IC According to the data, inter-observer frequencies of teachers’ (individual), non-verbal IC (individual), verbal IC (group), ICs were 17.5, 18.5, 33.5, and 23 events for verbal IC targeted and non-verbal IC (group) respectively. Overall, teachers’ ICs at individual, non-verbal IC targeted at individual, verbal IC were provided at the rate of 1.54 per minute. Table 3 presents targeted at the group, and non-verbal IC targeted at the group the results on the rate per minute of teachers’ ICs. respectively. Analysis of data reveals rate per minute of all Table 3: Rate per minute of teachers’ Target of ICs [Length of Observation = 1 hour (60 minutes)] Target Type of IC Inter-Observer Score Equation Rate Per Minute Verbal IC 17.5 0.29 Individual Non-Verbal IC 18.5 0.31 Verbal IC 33.5 0.56 Group Non-Verbal IC 23.0 0.38 Total 92.5 1.54 4.3 Order of Magnitude by which Teachers’ ICs were at the group (23 events) and subsequently followed by targeted at Students individual IC (17.5 events) and individual non-verbal IC (18.5 It was observed that verbal ICs were most frequently targeted events). Figure 1 presents the results on the order of at group with 33.5 events, followed by non-verbal IC targeted magnitude by which teachers’ ICs were targeted at students. ~ 137 ~ International Journal of Yogic, Human Movement and Sports Sciences http://www.theyogicjournal.com Fig 1: Frequency order by which various IC were targeted at students Keys GVIC: Group Verbal Instructional Cues – Verbal IC targeted at the whole group (33.5 events) GNVIC: Group Non-verbal Instructional Cues – Non-verbal IC targeted at the whole group (23 events) IVIC: Individual Non-verbal Instructional Cues – Verbal IC targeted at individual students (18.5 events) INVIC: Individual Verbal Instructional Cues – Non-verbal IC targeted at individual students (17.5 events) 4.4 Types of Teachers’ ICs one obtained frequency count of 5 events while observer two Data suggested two main identifiable teachers’ ICs (i.e. verbal obtained frequency count of 4 events with inter-observer IC and non-verbal IC). The non-verbal ICs were organized score of 4.5 and inter-observer data agreement of 98%. into visual and kinesthetic ICs. Evaluation of data relating to Kinesthetic type of IC recorded 36 and 37 events for observer verbal IC shows that there were 58 and 59 frequency count of one and two respectively. An inter-observer frequency of 36.5 events for observer one and two respectively. The mean score events was recorded for the kinesthetic type of IC. Table 4 for the two observers was 58.5 whilst inter-observer data shows data on the types of teachers’ IC in the observed reliability for this category was 98%. For visual IC, observer practical lesson. Table 4: Types of Teachers’ ICs in a Practical PE Setting Observation Inter-Observer Agreement Types Observer 1 Observer 2 Mean Score Equation Percent. (%) Verbal IC 58 59 58.5 98 Visual IC 5 4 4.5 80 Kinesthetic IC 36 37 36.5 97 Total 99 100 99.5 99 4.5 Rate per Minute of Types of Teachers’ ICs minute. Kinesthetic IC which was mostly demonstrations Analysis of data revealed inter-observer mean score of 99.5 recorded 36.5 events as the inter-observer score that happened events for all types of Teachers’ IC that occurred at the rate of at the rate of 0.6 per minute. Table 5 presents rate per minute 1.7 per minute in the 60 minutes length of the observed of all types of teachers’ IC in the practical setting involving lesson. Verbal IC achieved inter-observer score of 58.5 events netball shooting skill, while figure 2 presents the order of at the rate of 1.0 per minute. For visual IC, inter-observer magnitude by which the teachers’ IC occurred in a practical score of 4.5 events were recorded at the rate of 0.1 per instructional setting. ~ 138 ~ International Journal of Yogic, Human Movement and Sports Sciences http://www.theyogicjournal.com Table 5: Rate per Minute of the Types of Teachers’ ICs Type Inter-Observer Score Equation Rate Per Minute Verbal IC 58.5 1.0 Visual IC 4.5 0.1 Kinesthetic IC 36.5 0.6 Total 99.5 1.7 Keys VIC: Verbal Instructional Cues KIC: Kinesthetic Instructional Cues (e.g. demonstrations) VIC: Visual Instructional Cues (e.g. signals) Fig 2: Order of magnitude by which various ICs were provided in practical PE setting 5. Discussion In administering non-verbal IC especially those that belong to Findings revealed that verbal, visual and kinesthetic ICs were visual category, coaches or PE teachers are encouraged to the main types of teachers’ ICs used during the instructional give their learners visual guidance. Visual guidance, period. However, verbal IC dominated the entire practical according to Galligan et al. (2000) [3] “involves the transfer of lesson. It was also observed that more verbal ICs were information through the use of demonstrations, video images, provided to the group than individual students. Again, non- visual aids such as posters, modifications of the display, verbal ICs which mostly were demonstrations and signals manuals etc” (p.110). Galligan and his associates further state were provided to individual students more than the entire “… it is often difficult to explain complex elements of skill group or class. Findings based on the results suggested that at performance and it may be best to use verbal guidance to each minute, students received teachers’ IC relating to the support visual guidance” (pp. 110-111). proper technique of performing assigned skill. This should be Findings of the study revealed two main non-verbal ICs (i.e. deemed ideal in teaching and learning proper techniques of a visual IC and kinesthetic IC). Pufaa (2006) explains that skill to beginners. Studies suggest that skilled learners are “Kinesthesis deals with motion or movement that is connected able to disregard irrelevant information and concentrate on with the ability to sense body position through the sensory critical elements necessary for skill acquisition (Jarodzka et organs located in the muscles, tendons and joints”. This al., 2010). Relatedly, it is also suggested that learners with means that “it involves the perception of movement, the prior knowledge benefit from instructional support offered by sensation of position or the control of motor performance” the teacher (Richter, 2016) [12]. (p.47). Visual and kinesthetic cues are helpful to all learners Results also suggested a low percentage of visual ICs during for the sake of variety and to visual and kinesthetic learners in lesson delivery. It could be observed that verbal ICs alone particular. In addition, visual and kinesthetic cues are were more than visual and kinesthetic type of ICs put especially appropriate when verbal cues have limited value. together. This situation is not unusual in PE practical setting. An obvious situation that renders verbal cues less valuable is Findings revealed a natural phenomenon where the use of any time a language barrier exists. Another situation in which visual IC is minimized whilst maximizing verbal and verbal cues are less valuable is in teaching movements with kinesthetic cues to help learners obtain the correct procedures complex directions. Klein et al. (2019) [7], “empirical evidence of performing a movement task in a practical PE setting. In has shown that external focus cues result in more smoothly their opinion, Becker and Fairbrother (2019) [2] suggest that coordinated movement” (p.19). Yet, literature reiterates that “coaches often use different cues in search of one that works the external focus instructions should be specific to the best with each individual …” (p.654). Generally, corrective subject matter of the instruction and that the primary goal of suggestions of the instructor are reported to have influence on the task should be to improve performance (Raisbeck & learning outcome (Hattie & Timperley, 2007) [5]. Yamada, 2019) [11]. It is suggested that “For learners with low ~ 139 ~ International Journal of Yogic, Human Movement and Sports Sciences http://www.theyogicjournal.com prior knowledge, visual cues offer additional support, 9. Pangrazi RP, Beighle A. Dynamic physical education for providing lacking information and guiding learners through elementary school children. Human Kinetics Publishers. complex tasks” (Hurzlmeler, et al., 2021, p.9). 2019. 10. Pufa HA. Motor learning in physical education and sport. 6. Conclusions Kobi’s Press Ltd. 2006. Naturally, verbal ICs occur more frequently than other types 11. Raisbeck LD, Yamada M. The effects of instructional of teachers’ IC in practical PE lessons. Using various types of cues on performance and mechanics during a gross motor ICs at the rate of 1.7 per minute in a 60 minute length of movement. Human movement science 2019;66:149-156. observed lesson should be deemed ideal for skill learning. 12. Richter J, Scheiter K, Eitel A. Signaling text-picture According to the findings, verbal ICs were most frequently relations in multimedia learning: A comprehensive meta- used, followed by kinesthetic IC and visual IC which by analysis. Educational Research Review. 2016;17:19-36. nature were demonstrations and signals. It is demonstrated 13. Schneider S, Beege M, Nebel S, Rey GD. A meta- beyond doubts that ICs provide relevant information that analysis of how signaling affects learning with facilitates the learning of a motor skill in PE practical setting. media. Educational Research Review. 2018;23:1-24. Teachers’ ICs provide a solution to a motor task problem to 14. Siedentop D, Tannehill D. Traditional Methods for save the learner’s time and energy in learning the skill being Assessing Teaching. Developing Teaching Skills in taught. Teachers’ IC is administrated in order to create a Physical Education, 2000, 324-328. facilitating environment where learning and instruction can take place conveniently. Skill learning demands effective teacher’s IC in a well-planned instructional environment that facilitates effective presentation and practice of subject matter. Learning shooting skill in netball primarily involves movement. For this reason, acquisition of knowledge of the rules and strategy pertaining to the critical skill points involved in performing the skill is necessary. 7. ORCID Samuel Kofi Donkor - ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0913- 609X 8. Conflict of Interest Statement With respect to this study, we declare that there is no potential conflict of interest in the publication of this article. 9. References 1. Alpizar D, Adesope OO, Wong RM. A meta-analysis of signaling principle in multimedia learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development. 2020;68(5):2095-2119. 2. Becker KA, Fairbrother JT. The use of multiple externally directed attentional focus cues facilitates motor learning. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 2019;14(5):651-657. 3. Galligan F, Maskery C, Spence J, Howe D, Barry T, Ruston A, Crawford D. Acquiring skill. Advanced PE for Edexcel. 2000;1:102-108. 4. Halszka J, Holmqvist K, Gruber H. 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