ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE KASSENA-NANKANA IRRIGATION SCHEME VIS A VIS MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION OF TOMATOES PRODUCED FROM IRRIGATED FARMS IN THE KASSENA- NANKANA EAST MUNICIPALITY BY ABADI KWESI ABASS ABDULAI 10395597 THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE DEGREE JULY, 2014 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I testify that this research work was carried out entirely by me in the Environmental Science Programme, Faculty of Science, University of Ghana. This thesis has never been presented, either in parts or in whole, for the award of a degree in this university or any other institution. All cited work and assistance have been fully acknowledged. ……………………………………… ………………………… Abadi Kwesi Abass Abdulai Date (Candidate) ………………………………. ....…………………………. PROF. Dorothy Yeboah-Manu Date (Principal supervisor) …………………………… …………………………. DR. Dzidzo Yirenya –Tawiah Date (Co-supervisor) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to the Lord God, who it is, that has enabled me to accomplish this task. I dedicate it also to my family most especially to my late father Mr. Abdulai Nyorka University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I thank the Almighty God for his abundant gift of good health and travelling mercies. I also sincerely thank my supervisors Professor Dorothy Yeboah-Manu and Doctor Dzidzo Yirenya -Tawiah for their immeasurable assistance and good guidance and who out of their very busy schedules, still found time to give me the maximum attention I needed in the study. To them I say God richly bless you. I am also grateful to all other lecturers of the Institute for Environment and sanitation studies, university of Ghana for their support during the study. I extend my thanks to my mother Yagade Abadi and my brothers Kabiru, Mumuni and Majeed Abdulai and my sister Salimatu Abdulai for their moral and financial support to me during the study. To my course mates, I say thank you for your moral, psychological and physical support in the course of the research. I extend my thanks to Mr. Ansah Emmanuel at the Ecological laboratory, University of Ghana for his support to me in the study. I am also highly indebted to Mr. Christian- Bonsu, Grace Kpeli and Aboagye Samuel of Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research and their co-workers for their immense support during my laboratory work. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ABSTRACT This aim of the study was to conduct an environmental assessment of three irrigation systems in the Kassena-Nankanna East Municipality and determine microbiological quality of tomato crops grown on farms irrigated from study schemes and water used for irrigation. A structured questionnaire and direct observation was used to gather background information from a total of 120 farmers from the study area in order to identify environmental conditions that may be contributing to the contamination of the irrigation water source and tomatoes. A total of 192 samples (96 samples each of water and tomatoes) from the three study sites were collected. Standard methods (Hach Company) were used for the determination of physico-chemical parameters of water samples. The bacteria load/burden (heterotrophic bacteria and coliform count) were determined by the pour plate method whiles identification of specific pathogens was done using biochemical assay. The study showed that organic fertilizer (poultry manure and cow dung) and pesticides are used by farmers for the cultivation of tomatoes in the study area. High illiteracy rate, lack of training in irrigation, open defecation among the inhabitants, free range system of animal husbandry and poor agronomic practices in the study area were factors for contamination of the irrigation water and tomatoes in the study area. The measured values of pH for canal water samples ranged from 6.70 - 7.9, while that of the Dam and river water samples ranged from 6.50 - 7.0 and 6.5 - 7.3 respectively. Temperature of the water samples ranges from 26.50C – 290C for canal, 26.70C - 27.90C and 27.130C - 27.7 0C for river water. The mean nitrate levels in the dam water sources were highest with a mean value of (23.35mg/l) and a ranged from 21mg/l - 24.9mg/l. The mean value of nitrate levels in the river water source was 11.77 mg/l with a range of 9.4mg/l-14.3mg/l. Canal water had the least mean nitrate level of 1.62mg/l and a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v range of 1.10mg/l - 2.8mg/l. The mean fecal coliform count in water samples from Yigwania (River) was highest (1.28 x 107cfu/100ml) followed by water samples from Doba (dam) 6.14 x 106cfu/100ml whilst samples from canal were having the least mean faecal coliform levels (3.3 x 105cfu/100ml). The mean faecal coliform count (cfu/100ml) in irrigation water sampled from the study area was higher than the world health organization (WHO, 2006) recommended level (1 x 103 cfu/100 ml) for unrestricted irrigation of crops. The highest mean fecal coliform count in external tomatoes parts was in samples from Yigwania (4.48 x 105cfu/g) followed by samples from Doba (3.535 x 105cfu/g). Samples from Bonia (canal irrigation) had the least mean fecal coliform count (2.91 x 103cfu/g). Tomatoes samples from the study area were faecally contaminated with mean faecal coliform levels exceeding the international commission on microbiological specifications for foods (ICSMF, 1974) recommended level of 103 fecal coliform per gram fresh weight. The dominant bacterial species isolated from the water and tomato samples were Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, Xantomnas maltophilia, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Contaminated irrigation water and insanitary practices in and around irrigation schemes in the Kassena-Nankana East is a major source of microbial contamination of tomatoes with pathogenic bacteria. Public health authorities and other regulatory agencies should intensify their efforts in educating farmers on proper agronomic and sanitation practices as well as monitoring the conditions of sanitation and hygiene round these farms. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Content Page DECLARATION ............................................................................................................. i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... xi LIST OF PLATES ........................................................................................................ xii LIST OF ABREVIATIONS ...................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................. 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................... 4 1.3 Aim ......................................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Justification ............................................................................................................. 6 1.5 Research questions ................................................................................................. 7 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................ 9 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................... 9 2.1 Irrigation schemes and health in Sub-Saharan Africa ............................................ 9 2.2 Irrigation in Ghana ................................................................................................ 11 2.3 Food production and the role of irrigation ............................................................ 11 2.4 Environmental consideration of irrigation schemes ............................................. 12 2.5 Environmental assessment of irrigation schemes ................................................. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 2.6 Aspects of environmental assessment consideration ............................................ 19 2.6.1 Irrigation water pollution indicators .............................................................. 19 2.6.2 Bacteria indicator contaminants in irrigation water ....................................... 23 2.7 Sustainability of agricultural production under irrigation .................................... 25 2.8 Tomatoes as an important irrigated crop in Ghana ............................................... 26 2.8.1 Nutritional and health benefits of tomatoes ................................................... 26 2.8.2 Irrigation and tomato production in Ghana ....................................................... 27 2.8.3 Sources of microbial contamination of tomatoes .............................................. 28 2.8.4 Contamination risk of tomato ........................................................................ 30 2.8.5 Tomatoes in food borne outbreak .................................................................. 33 CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................... 34 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ......................................................................... 34 3.1 Description of the study area ................................................................................ 34 3.2 Study design ......................................................................................................... 39 3.2.1 Environmental assessment ............................................................................. 39 3.2.2 Data collection for bacteriological and physicochemical analysis ............... 42 3.3 Physico-chemical analysis .................................................................................... 46 3.4 Bacteriological Analysis ....................................................................................... 49 3.4.1 Enumeration of bacteria load in irrigation water ........................................... 49 3.4.2 Enumeration of bacteria load on tomatoes ..................................................... 50 3.5.1 Bacteriological media inoculation and incubation ......................................... 52 3.5.2 Gram staining ................................................................................................. 52 3.5.3 Biochemical identification assay ................................................................... 53 3.6 Data handling and analysis ................................................................................... 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................ 57 4.0 RESULTS ............................................................................................................. 57 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of respondents ....................................................... 57 4.2 Environmental Assessment ................................................................................... 60 4.2.1 Source of Water and Mode of Irrigation ........................................................ 60 4.2.2 Fertilizer and Pesticides Use .......................................................................... 61 4.2.3 Animal Intrusion on Farm .............................................................................. 63 4.2.4 Environmental Sanitation and Health Situation ............................................. 64 4.2.5 Physicochemical and Bacteriological Characteristics of Irrigation Water Samples ................................................................................................................... 65 4.2.6 Bacteriological Quality of Irrigation Water and Tomatoes Samples ............. 72 4.2.6.2 Bacteriological Quality of Tomatoes Samples from the Study Area ............. 74 4.2.6.3 Bacterial Species Isolated from the Irrigation Water and Tomatoes Samples 79 CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................... 84 5.0 DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 84 5.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ...................................................... 84 5.2 Environmental assessment .................................................................................... 85 The main sources of water for irrigation are dams, hand dug wells, rivers and canals. ........................................................................................................................................ 85 5.3 Physico-chemical characteristic of irrigation water samples................................ 90 5.4 Bacteriological quality of irrigation water and tomatoes produce ....................... 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................. 96 CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................... 96 6.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 96 6.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................ 98 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 100 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................ 113 Appendix A: Sample of questionnaire ......................................................................... 113 Appendix B: Multiple comparisons of the physic-chemical characteristics of the irrigation water. Post hoc ....................................................................... 119 Appendix C: Multiple comparison of bacteriological quality of irrigation water and tomatoes produce in the study area ........................................................ 122 Appendix D: Descriptive statistics of the physic-chemical characterics of the irrigation water in the study area ........................................................................... 127 Appendix E: One way ANOVA of the physico-chemical characteristics of irrigation water in the study area ........................................................................... 130 Appendix F: Descriptive statistics of the bacteriological quality of irrigation water and tomatoes produce in the study area ........................................................ 132 Appendix G: One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the bacteriological quality of irrigation water and tomatoes produce in the study area ....................... 137 Appendix H: A picture of tomatoes samples in a ziplock bag ..................................... 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF TABLES Table 1Main environmental problems resulting from irrigation schemes and appropriate mitigation measures ......................................................................................... 13 Table 2 Some water-related diseases and their importance ........................................... 16 Table 3Environmental management measures for vector control in irrigation schemes 17 TABLE 4 Demographic characteristics of respondents . Error! Bookmark not defined. TABLE 5 Type of pesticides and fertilizers used by farmers for vegetables cultivation in the study area ............................................................................................. 63 TABLE 6 Physico-chemical characteristics of irrigation water samples from the study area ................................................................................................................. 68 TABLE 7 Pearson Product-moment correlation coefficient between the studied physic- chemical parameters in canal water samples ................................................. 70 TABLE 8 Pearson Product-moment correlation coefficient between the studied physico-chemical parameters in dam water samples ..................................... 71 TABLE 9 Pearson Product-moment correlation coefficient between the studied physico-chemical parameters in river water samples .................................... 72 TABLE 10 Mean bacteria load of irrigation water samples and respective irrigation schemes. ......................................................................................................... 74 TABLE 11 Mean faecal coliform counts (cfu/100ml) of irrigation water from the various irrigation schemes and the world health organization (WHO) standard for unrestricted irrigation ................................................................ 74 TABLE 12 Mean bacteria load of the external and internal partsof tomatoes samples . 78 TABLE 13 Faecal coliform counts (cfu/100ml) in tomatoes samples from the various irrigation schemes and the international commission on microbiological specifications for foods (ICSMF, 1974) standard. ......................................... 78 TABLE 14 Bacteria species isolated from irrigation water samples from the different irrigation schemes. ......................................................................................... 81 TABLE15 Bacteria species isolated from the external parts of tomatoes samples from the different irrigation schemes ..................................................................... 82 TABLE 16 Bacteria species isolated from the internal parts of tomatoes samples from the different irrigation schemes ..................................................................... 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1A Map of Ghana showing Upper East Region, B) map of Kassena Nankana East Municipality ........................................................................................... 36 Figure 2 Map of Kassena-Nankana East municipality showing study communites ..... 37 Figure 3 Map showing the sampling points within the study area in the Kassena- Nankanna East Municipality .......................................................................... 38 Figure 4 Percentage of respondents that use different mode of irrigation in tomato production ...................................................................................................... 61 Figure 5 Percentage of respondents that prevent wild animals from entering their farms64 Figure 6 The main health complains given by respondents .......................................... 65 Figure 7 Percentage of tomatoes samples showing external and internal faecal contamination at the various irrigation schemes within the Kassena- Nankana East Municipality ........................................................................................... 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii LIST OF PLATES Plate 1 Picture of cattle grazing closed to irrigated farms in the study area. ................. 40 Plate 2 Picture of a pumping machine used for withdrawing water from Doba dam for irrigation of vegetables .................................................................................... 41 Plate 3 picture of pesticide container left closed to Doba dam in the study are ............. 42 Plate 4 A picture of Bonia canal used by farmers for irrigation of vegetables .............. 43 Plate 5 A picture of Doba dam used by farmers for irrigation of vegetables ................. 44 Plate 6 A picture of Yigwania river used by farmers for irrigation of vegetables ......... 45 Plate 7 Picture of faecal coliform growing on E.coli coliform selective media ............ 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii LIST OF ABREVIATIONS API - Analytical Profile Index BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand CDC- Centre for Disease Control CFU - Colony Forming Unit DO- Dissolved oxygen EPA- Environmental Protection Agency FDA -Food and Drugs Authority EC- Electrical conductivity FDA - Food and Drugs Administration FAO - Food and Agricultural Organization GIDA- Ghana Irrigation Development Authority GSS- Ghana Statistical Service ICSMF - International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Food ICOUR- Irrigation Company of Upper Region IWMI - International Water Management Institute K.N.E.M- Kassena-Nankana East Municipality PCA- Plate count agar NPK- Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium TDS- Total dissolved solid TSS- Total suspended solid TWN- Third World Network UNICEF- United Nations International Children Fund UNESCO- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UK- United Kingdom US-EPA - United States Environmental Protection Agency WHO - World Health Organization University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Irrigation plays an essential role in agricultural productivity by providing favourable conditions particularly for dry season farming through the artificial supply of water to crops. It has the capability to control water supply to crops and provides drainage facilities for the disposal of excess water, which is impossible with rain-fed agriculture (Mutsvangwa et al., 2006; Snyder, 2005). Increased crop cultivation in recent years has resulted in increased diversion of freshwater, with 70% of water now being used for irrigation in the world and reaching as high as 87% in in some parts of Africa (FAO, 2005). About 17% of the world’s cropland is irrigated to produce one third of the world’s food supply (FAO, 2011). Moreover, about 90 % of vegetables consumed in the cities are grown within and this provides a major source of income for many urban households (Drechsel et al., 2006). In Ghana, irrigated agriculture has become common in peri-urban communities and about 66% of fresh water is drawn for irrigation (WHO, 2005). In Northern Ghana, climate change has led to significant reduction of rainfall with an annual average of 859.9mm (Rahaman et al., 2002). The total mean value of rainfall for 2001 rainy season was 859.9 mm which was much lower compared to the 1033 mm mean value for 1961 - 1990 (Friesen, 2002; Rahman et al., 2002). Farmers in the North therefore depend heavily on rivers, streams, dams, canals and wells to supplement University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 inadequate rainfall in order to provide enough water to agricultural crops (Rahman et al., 2002). Although irrigated agriculture is beneficial in its contribution to food production and livelihood improvement in the world, many studies have associated irrigated food crops to food borne diseases outbreaks due to the use of contaminated water for irrigation (Amoah, 2008; Hamilton et al., 2006; Abdul-Ghaniyu et al., 2002 ). Various studies conducted over the last decade in Ghana on water used for irrigating farms revealed the presence of various bacteria and chemical pollutant (Monney et al., 2013; Obuobie et al., 2006; Amoah et al. 2005; EPA, 2002). Ghana’s environmental protection agency (EPA) which is one of the water resources regulatory body in the country carried out water quality analysis on surface water between 1999 and 2001 and reported that the quality of most of surface water bodies had been compromised by various forms of bio-pysico-chemical pollutants such as pathogenic bacteria, nitrates, phosphates and sulphates (EPA, 2002). Amoah et al., (2006) also found irrigation water from urban farming sites in Accra and Kumasi to be contaminated with faecal coliform up to107/cfu/ ml. Various agricultural practices have been associated with irrigation water contamination. Practices such as the use of animal waste for manure, pesticide application and open defecation contaminate food crops directly or indirectly through the contamination of irrigation water. Such practices have also been recognized as the leading cause of pre- harvest and post-harvest contamination of food produce (Duffy et al., 2005). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 There is evidence that irrigation of food crops with contaminated water accounts for at least 4% of the food borne disease burden in low-income countries and more than 90% of food borne illness is caused by biological pathogens (Blumenthal et al., 2000; Jones, 2010; McDermott & Delia, 2011). Notable among these pathogens in contaminated food are; Shigella spp, Salmonella spp, Enterotoxigenic and Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Campylobacter spp, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum, viruses and parasites such as Giardia lamblia, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and Cryptosporidium parvum (Fan et al., 2009; linch et al., 2009; WHO, 2008) Diarrhoea diseases are among the top infectious diseases and globally kill 2.1 million people annually, most of whom are children (1.4 million) in developing countries (WHO, 2011). Thirty three (33) to ninety percent (90) of these diarrheoa cases are attributed to food contamination (McDermott & Delia, 2011; WHO, 2001). The high prevalence of diarrhoea diseases in many developing countries shows that there are major food hygiene and water safety problems (WHO, 2011). In Ghana, diarrhoea is the leading most common health problem that accounts for 84 000 deaths annually, with 25 per cent being children under 5 years (UNICEF, 2006; WHO, 2011). Tomatoes are the world`s second largest vegetable crop, with more than 70 million tons grown each year (FAO, 2008). In Ghana, tomato is probably the most important vegetable grown. This is because many of Ghana’s ecological zones are suitable for its cultivation ( Kolavalli et al., 2011). The land area for its production was seen to have increased from 28,400ha in 1996 to 37,000ha in 2000 (GIPC, 2001). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Consumption of tomatoes has increased because of its use in many Ghanaian dishes (Beuchat, 2002; Kolavalli et al., 2011). However it is one common vegetable that has been implicated in a number of food borne disease outbreaks (Valadez et al., 2012). According to Valadez et al (2012), pathogenic bacteria that have been found in or on tomatoes and cause foodborne diseases to humans include; Salmonella enterica, Listeria monocytogenes, Baccilus cereaus, E.coli, Campylobacter spp and Shigella spp. 1.2 Statement of the Problem The rainfall pattern in the Northern part of Ghana results in shortage of water for cultivation of vegetables and other food crops in most part of the year. Most farmers cannot depend on rain fed agriculture and therefore resort to alternative surface water sources such as dams, canals, rivers and wells for irrigation of their vegetables (Rahman et al., 2002). Underground water is generally of good microbial quality than surface water (Steele and Odumeru, 2004). However, the practice of open defecation among the inhabitants, runoff from croplands, use of organic manure from humans and livestock and leachate from refuse and recreational activities has led to poor physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics of underground water in the Kassena-Nankanna East Municipality (Oyelude et al., 2013) where this study was conducted. It is therefore evident that if underground water in the municipality is polluted, then surface water is of significant concern for investigation since it is more susceptible to pollution than underground water. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 The unhygienic and insanitary condition has led to an outbreak of cholera leading to the death of two people with more than 17 admitted at the war memorial hospital in the Municipality. This outbreak was linked to consumption of contaminated food and water (KNDA, 2012). It is also known that many farmers in the municipality use surface water for irrigating their farms. The issue of contaminated food crops have become a public concern with increasing environmental awareness and electronic media activity in Ghana. While many studies report on unacceptable levels of microbial and chemical contaminants in food crops and water used in irrigating crops, not many environmental assessment studies to identify the sources of irrigation water contamination have been conducted. It is also well known, that the Northern Region supplies a substantial amount of tomatoes produced in Ghana. This study was therefore carried out to assess the bacteriological quality of tomatoes and irrigation water as well as the environmental conditions that may influence these contaminations 1.3 Aim The aim of this study was to conduct an environmental assessment of three irrigation systems in the Kassena-Nankanna East Municipality and determine microbiological quality of tomato crops grown on farms irrigated from study schemes and water used for irrigation The specific objectives are to; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1. Identify environmental factors that may affect irrigation water quality and cultivated tomatoes from irrigation schemes in the Kassena-Nankana East Municipality. 2. determine the physicochemical characteristics of the irrigation water from different irrigation schemes (canal, river and dam) in the Kassena- Nankana East Municipality. 3. determine the bacteriological quality of water from different irrigation schemes 4. assess the bacteriological quality of tomatoes (external and internal tissues) grown on farms irrigated in study area 1.4 Justification Consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables is integral to healthy diets that supply essential vitamins, minerals and fibre. Worldwide, the consumer is encouraged to include five to nine daily servings of fresh fruits and vegetables in their diet (Matthew, 2006). Kassena-Nankanna East Municipality in the Upper East Region of Ghana is a major vegetable growing area not only for the Municipality but for the whole country. Unfortunately, water sources used in irrigation of vegetables receive a lot of runoff of agrochemicals from farms, organic manure from humans and livestock and leachate from refuse and recreational activities (Ataogye, 2012). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 Increase in population has led to a significant level of encroachment along the periphery of irrigation of water bodies within the Municipality. This has resulted in an increase in farming, animal rearing and domestic sewage disposal within the vicinity (KNDA, 2006). There is therefore the fear that water sources used for crop irrigation could contribute to contamination of vegetables that are produced from irrigated farms. For instance, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended level of faecal coliform in irrigation water for unrestricted irrigation of crops likely to be eaten raw is 1 x 103cfu /100 ml (WHO, 2006b). Earlier research carried within the municipality found that, the microbial levels in irrigation water and cultivated roselle leaves produced from the irrigated farms were higher than that of WHO and International Commission on Microbiological Safety of Foods (ICMSF) standards (Ataogye, 2012). Meanwhile, the consumption of vegetables is being promoted as a preventive measure for many health conditions such as cancer; cardiovascular and other related health problems which are increasingly becoming important public health concern in developing countries (Bhowmik et al., 2012; WHO, 2003b). This study therefore addresses the gap in literature by delving into environmental factors that promote irrigation water and food crop contamination in the study area. 1.5 Research questions 1. What are the prevailing environmental conditions that predispose irrigation water and tomatoes to contamination? 2. What is the physicochemical characteristic of the irrigation water from irrigation schemes in the Kassena-Nankanna East Municipality? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 3. What is the level of bacterial contamination of water from irrigation schemes (canal, dam and river) in the Kassena-Nankanna municipality? 4. What is the level of contamination of tomatoes produced from irrigation schemes (canal, dam and river) in the Kassena-Nankanna East Municipality? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Irrigation schemes and health in Sub-Saharan Africa Historically, irrigation development in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) started around the mid-1960s with governments playing a central role after receiving significant donor support from the World Bank (Inocencio et al., 2005). However, only four percent (4%) representing 6 million hectares of the region’s total cultivated land is irrigated. In Asia and Latin America, irrigated lands constitute 37 percent and 14 percent of arable lands respectively (You et al, 2010). Approximately 90% of irrigation schemes are developed from surface water in SSA with groundwater exploitation still less used in most countries in the region (FAO, 2005). Majority of these irrigation schemes are small scale with limited impact on food production when compared to large-scale irrigation developments which tend to be more beneficial (You, 2008). Climate change also impacts negatively on food production in the region (Agbola, 2011). It affects all aspects of human activities, bringing about droughts, floods, forest fires and heat or cold waves (Zoellick, 2009). Its impact on agriculture is significant (UNFCCC, 2007). While irrigation is being promoted to boost food production, it comes with some challenges. For instance, the use of contaminated water has been implicated in food borne outbreaks. The WHO has identified pathogens (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, cysts and helminthes eggs), organic and inorganic toxic substances as the cause of many health problems in the world (WHO, 2006a). These pathogens can be easily transmitted especially if contaminated crops are not properly sanitized and are eaten University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 fresh (Blumenthal et al., 2000). Pathogen contamination of food crops can be from several sources such as wash water, infected irrigation system operator and use of organic fertilizers (Han et al., 2000). Irrigation practices that expose the edible portion of plants to direct contact with contaminated water may increase microbial load on the food crops (Bourquin & Thiagarajan, 2009). The contamination of the environment and exposure of the public to pathogens and inorganic pollutants in food could lead to high health risk. Foodborne illness outbreaks traced to a variety of different foods can be found worldwide (Todd, 1998). According to WHO (2002) illness due to contaminated food is the most widespread health problem in the world. Research conducted by Mead et al. (1999) reported that the number of cases of foodborne illness vary yearly. In order to protect consumers and the general public, the WHO made a call on its member states to recognize food safety as an essential public health function, with respect to point of production, processing and distribution (WHO, 2002). The World Health Organization suggested that food safety issues must be addressed along the entire food chain by using strategies that rely on appropriate scientific information at both national and international level (WHO, 2003a). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 2.2 Irrigation in Ghana The development of formal irrigation schemes in Ghana is recent compared to other countries in the region. The first of such schemes was initiated in 1960 (Smith, 1978). Even though, the records traced irrigation in the country to about a century ago, intensive use of irrigation is a more recent phenomenon resulting from population growth and increase demand for food. The Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) has 22 irrigation schemes covering about 14,700 ha of land. Sixty percent (60%) of these schemes are cultivated and put under irrigation whilst the remaining 40% is not being cultivated (GIDA/JICA, 2004). Ghana is endowed with sufficient water resources that have the potential to be used for irrigation. Unfortunately, productivity of existing irrigation schemes, particularly those that were publicly developed, are generally low (GIDA/JICA, 2004). The Kassena-Nankana East Municipality has one of the largest formal irrigation schemes in Ghana. The scheme consists of a 5 km long dam created on an artificial lake with a surface area of 1860 ha. It had a water storage capacity of 93 million m³ of water of which 37 million m³ could be used for irrigation (Asare, 2002; Salifu, 1998). 2.3 Food production and the role of irrigation The world population is predicted to grow from 6.9 billion in 2010 to 8.3 billion in 2030 and to 9.1 billion in 2050 (UNDESA, 2009a). With expected increase in population, food demand is likely to increase by 50% by the year 2030 (Bruinsma, 2009). About 800 million people in developing countries today are suffering from malnutrition and 199 million children under the age of five are facing acute or chronic University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 food deficiencies (WHO, 2011). Currently, as many as 70 nations fall into the class of low-income food-deficit countries (FAO, 2011). Increased agricultural productivity has become an important system for a nation to move out of poverty (Faurès et al., 2007). Irrigation farming helps to increase agricultural productivity and hence alleviates hunger, preserves life and increase the material wealth of a country (Shah, 2008). In Northern Ghana for instance, where there is erratic rainfall distribution pattern, irrigation farming has been considered more useful to rain-fed agriculture (Dinye and Ayitio, 2013) The yield per acre of irrigated land far outweighs that obtained through rain-fed agriculture on the same size of land (Shah, 2008). In 2005, the yield per hectare of rice cultivated on irrigated land on the Tono and Vea irrigation schemes in the Upper East of Ghana was reported to be more than four times that produced using rain-fed agriculture (Yilma et al., 2005). According to Ali and Pernia (2003) rural household income is 77 per cent higher with irrigated agriculture than those who resort to rain fed agriculture. 2.4 Environmental consideration of irrigation schemes Throughout the entire globe there is strong pressure on agriculture to produce more food. These are as a result of rapid population growth and increasing levels of urbanization (Merker, 2004). Even though irrigation has increased food security in the world and raised millions out of poverty, poor management of irrigation schemes has University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 caused one-third of irrigated lands in the world to reduce productivity due to water logging and high salinity levels (Ahmad et al., 2008; Faurès et al., 2007). Poor management of irrigation schemes has the potential for causing serious environmental problems (Table 1). Notable among these problems are increased erosion, pollution of surface water and groundwater from agricultural pesticides, deterioration of water quality, increased nutrient levels in the irrigation and drainage water resulting in algal blooms, proliferation of aquatic weeds and eutrophication in irrigation canals and downstream waterways (FAO, 2011) Table 1: Main environmental problems resulting from irrigation schemes and appropriate mitigation measures Environmental problem Mitigation measures Salinization Provide drainage systems. Alkalization Maintain channels to prevent seepage Waterlogging Provide water for leaching as a specific operation. Soil acidification Maintain both the irrigation and drainage systems Increased incidence of water related diseases Educate about causes of disease Reduction in irrigation water quality Control industrial development Source: FAO, 2011 Water may carry causative agents (pathogens) of communicable diseases of man or provide the right environment for the breeding and propagation of their vectors. Irrigation and drainage projects create a number of ecological conditions for disease vectors to emerge in areas where they did not occur before, or to a rapid increase of their original densities (WHO, 1996). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 Most of the reported impacts of irrigation development on health consist of water related diseases (Table 2). Generally, four groups of diseases are distinguished based on their way of transmission (Cairncross and Feachem, 1993; WHO, 1988). I. water-related insect-borne parasitic diseases: diseases transmitted by insects that depend on water for their propagation such as river blindness, filariasis and malaria II. water-washed diseases: diseases due to the lack of proper sanitation and hygiene such as louse-borne infections and infectious eye and skin diseases. III. water-based diseases: infections transmitted through an aquatic invertebrate organism with an intermediate host living in water, such as guinea worm and schistosomiasis IV. water-borne or faecal- orally transmitted diseases: infections spread through contaminated drinking water, such as cholera, typhoid and diarrhea related diseases. Water-based and water-related diseases transmitted through vectors or intermediate hosts sometimes increase with irrigation development. Canals, dams and drains may create ideal breeding sites for anopheles mosquitoes or for snails, bringing both the vectors and the disease closer to people. Many field studies have described the influence of irrigation on the spread of these water-based and water-related diseases (Hunter et al., 1993; Steele et al., 1997; Harmancioğlu et al., 2001). Various studies have associated schistosomiasis with water-contact activities like recreational (swimming) or specific agricultural activities, washing of clothes and cooking utensils, fishing and with the proximity of homes or communities to sites harbouring cercariae shedding Bulinus and Biomphalaria snail species (El-Ayyat et al., 2003; Matthys et al., 2007) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 Water borne diseases are transmitted through water contaminated by human, animal, chemical waste eg. Cholera and typhoid fever. Poor hygiene and lack of sanitation facilities in and around irrigation schemes could lead to the contamination of irrigation water. Outbreak of faecal-orally transmitted diseases has been linked to infected farmers. Water-washed diseases are also caused by lack of proper sanitation and hygiene around irrigation schemes eg. Trachoma (WHO, 1988). More than 80 million people are infected with water related diseases every year (Table 2) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 Table 2 :Some water-related diseases and their importance Disease group Disease Estimated in- Estimated morbidity estimated mortality infection rate (1000/year) (1000/year) (1000/year) Water-borne diseases Diarrhea not available 1,0000001 50001 Typhoid 1,000 500 25 Fever Water-wash diseases Ascariasis 80,000000 1,000 20 Ancylostomiasis 700000 1,500 50-60 Water-based diseases Schistosomiasis 200,0000 ? 500- 1,000 Water-related vector borne diseases Malaria 240'000 100'000 not available Onchocerciasis 17800 340 20-50 Lymphatic filariasis 90'200 2'000-3'000 low Based on WHO, 1988 Environmental factors should be considered at the planning, construction and operation stages of irrigation schemes so as to eliminate or reduce health and environmental effects resulting from these projects. This can be achieved through physical transformation of land, water and vegetation, aimed at preventing, eliminating or reducing the habitats of vectors without causing undue adverse effects on the quality of the human environment (WHO, 1996) (Table 3). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 Table 2: Environmental management measures for vector control in irrigation schemes COMPONENT MEASURE Lay-out of irrigation Scheme design scheme to allow for field drainage and to eliminate stagnant water siting human settlements away from irrigated fields to reduce human-vector contact constructing latrines in the fields, layed out in a grid pattern, to provide farm workers with sanitary facilities while at work Settlement design Provision of water supply and sanitation (piped water supplies, washing and communal laundry facilities, safe children’s swimming pools, latrines screening of houses and better house design domestic animal pens at strategic sites to avert mosquito vectors away from humans (insecticide-impregnated) mosquito nets, particularly for use by high-risk groups Reservoir design and operation avoid construction of night water storage reservoirs which may serve as vector breeding and disease transmission sites periodic drawdown to achieve water level fluctuation vegetation clearance to reduce vector breeding fishing facilities that prevent unnecessary water contact University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Table 3 continued Irrigation canal design and operation straight canals to eliminate standing pools suitable for vector breeding canal lining of major or designated water contact points to inhibit vector breeding other design measures to increase water velocity, aimed at a reduction of vector breeding sluicing and flushing of snails vegetation clearance against snail or mosquito breeding mechanical screening of water intakes against the transport, via water, of snails pathways and bridges across canals and drains, particularly in and around villages, to avoid unnecessary water contact self-draining hydraulic structures to achieve water level fluctuation early (or late) working hours for canal maintenance crews to avoid schistosomiasis infection at peak transmission periods Cropping system and other agricultural practices use of upland crops, at least once per cropping cycle, to prevent the establishment of vector species that need permanent water bodies for survival avoid double - or triple cropping to limit the vector breeding to the rainy season use of varieties with a short growing season to reduce the period that standing water is available Synchronization of cropping cycle in large areas of smallholder irrigated rice production, to ensure interruption of the availability of breeding sites 2.5 Environmental assessment of irrigation schemes Environmental assessment means an evaluation of the entire irrigation scheme, taking into consideration factors including agricultural water, soil amendments, harvesting, domestic animal and wildlife intrusion, adjacent land use, employee health and hygiene, packing house/equipment, cleaning and sanitation to assess any safety risks that may affect the potential for the crops to be contaminated (FDA, 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 These assessment therefore looks at a wider approach to identifying potential sources of contamination of irrigation water, taken into considerations factors both on the farms themselves where the produce originated, as well as in surrounding watersheds. Such an approach can help to identify not only possible sources of contamination, but also the conditions in the environment that facilitated or created that contamination. These conditions are termed environmental antecedents here, and are the circumstances that allow contributing factors that can affect health, such as contaminated irrigation water, to occur (Gelting et al., 2005). Environmental assessments (EA) may be conducted prior to planting, during production, and immediately prior to harvest in order to prevent outbreaks and contamination events before they occur (FDA, 2013). 2.6 Aspects of environmental assessment consideration 2.6.1 Irrigation water pollution indicators There are several physico-chemical parameters that indicates pollution in water and these may include; total suspended solids, nitrates, nitrite, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, turbidity and electrical conductivity.These comes from ploughed fields, construction and logging sites, urban areas, and eroded stream banks when it rains. These sediments are carried into rivers, lakes coastal waters, and wetlands. This results in impairment of respiration of fishes, reduction in plant productivity and reduction in water depth. Aquatic organisms and their habitats are affected and also aesthetic property of the water is reduced (WHO, 1993). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Nitrates are present in water particularly in places where agriculture fertilization is high. Other important pathways of entry of nitrogen into bodies of water are municipal and industrial wastewater, septic tanks, feedlot discharges from car exhausts. Earlier works carried out to assess the quality of underground water in the study area recorded high concentration of nitrate ions (12.40mg/l) in some selected wells above the recommended standard of 10mg/l for drinking water. They attributed this high concentration of nitrates to the use of inorganic fertilizer and manure in agricultural activities, and indiscriminate disposal of human and animal excreta (Oyelude et al., 2013). Nitrogen and phosphorus in water used for irrigation of crops do not usually cause problems for humans. However, high concentrations of nitrate nitrogen (NO 3 - -N) can cause problems for human health in drinking waters as NO 3 - is converted to NO 2 - in the digestive tract and this combines with haemoglobin in the blood, reducing O 2 carrying capacity which can lead to brain damage. Nitrate is not normally accumulated in high enough concentrations in food crops, considering their daily intake to be a problem for human health (Broadbent and Reisenauer 1985). Leaf crops typically accumulate the highest levels of NO 3 - (Bergman, 1992) if it is available in the soil. However, consumers do not often eat sufficient amounts for problems to occur. High NO 3 - concentrations in plants are much more likely to be a problem for grazing ruminants than humans (Harris and Rhodes, 1969). The presence of large amounts of soluble organic matter conotes the amount of nitrates and nitrites in water which can result in the microorganisms persisting for longer amounts of time. As heterotrophic organisms, coliform bacteria rely on organic matter University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 as a nutrient source. Soluble organic matter in water provides a rich nutrient source for the bacteria to make use of (Fan et al., 2009; Sylvia et al., 2005). Dissolved oxygen (DO) content is one of the most important factors that determine the health of surface waters. The oxygen content in water samples depends on a number of physical, chemical, biological and microbiological processes. Oxygen is the single most important gas for most aquatic organisms; free oxygen (O2) or is needed for respiration. DO levels below 1 ppm will not support fish; levels of 5 to 6 ppm are usually required for most of the fish population. The average value of DO levels (6.5mg/l) indicates the average quality of surface water (APHA, 1985). Dissolved oxygen concentrations in unpolluted water normally range between 8 and 10mg/L and concentrations below 5 mg/L adversely affect aquatic life (Arimoro et al., 2008; DFID, 1999; Rao, 2005). Biological oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen in the water that is required by the aerobic organisms. The biodegradation of organic materials exerts oxygen tension in the water and increases the biochemical oxygen demand (Abida & Harikrishna 2008) . Unpolluted, natural waters will have a BOD of 5 mg/l or less. BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in surface water. The negative effect of high BOD is the same as those for low dissolved oxygen: aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die. Sources of BOD include leaves and woody debris; dead plants and animals; animal manure; effluents from pulp and paper mills, wastewater treatment plants, feedlots, and food-processing plants; failing septic systems; and urban storm water runoff (USEPA , 1997). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Turbidity in water is caused by suspended and colloidal matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, and plankton and other microscopic organisms. These particles suspended in water absorb or reflect light and cause the water to appear “cloudy. This problem is more common in the water from surface supplies. The major problem with turbidity is aesthetic, but in some cases suspended matter can carry pathogens with it. Large amounts of organic matter can also produce stains on sinks, fixtures, and laundry (Pescod, 1992). Conductivity is a measure of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an electric current. This ability depends on the presence of ions; on their total concentration, mobility, and valence; and on the temperature of measurement. Increasing levels of conductivity and cations are the products of decomposition and mineralization of organic materials (Abida, 2008). Sunitha et al., (2005) identified that the electrical conductivity finds higher level correlation significance with many of water quality parameters, like TDS, total alkalinity, sulphates, total hardness and magnesium. Kalyanaraman (2005) identified that the water quality of ground and surface water can be predicted with sufficient accuracy just by the measurement of EC alone. This provides a means for easier and faster monitoring of water quality in a location. PH is a measure of the acidity or basic (alkaline) nature of a solution. Is an important parameter that determines the suitability of water for various purposes, including toxicity to animals and plants. A pH range of 6.0 to 9.0 helps provide protection for the life of freshwater fish and bottom dwelling invertebrates. Low pH increases the release of metals, some toxic, from soils and sediments. That is, the pH value of the water may influence levels at which certain chemical substances University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 become toxic. The normal pH range for irrigation water is from 6.5 to 8.4; pH values outside this range are a good warning that the water is abnormal in quality. Normally, pH is a routine measurement in irrigation water quality assessment (Pescod, 1992). Temperature of water especially in polluted water can have serious effects on dissolved oxygen (DO) and biological oxygen demand (BOD). The decrease and increase in surface water temperature usually depends on the season, geographic location, sampling time and temperature of effluents entering the stream (Ahipathy, 2006). Pathogens survive for longer periods of time at lower temperatures. Studies of surface water contaminated with manure containing E. coli 0157:H7 showed that the pathogen survived for 92 days at ambient temperature (Fan et al., 2009). 2.6.2 Bacteria indicator contaminants in irrigation water The faecal indicator organisms that are used to monitor water quality in irrigation water study are Enterobacteriaceae which include the total coliforms, faecal coliforms and E. coli (Fan et al., 2009). Total coliforms are Gram negative, oxidase negative and catalase positive organisms that have the ability to ferment lactose at 35ºC with the formation of acid and gas as its end products. These organisms are rod-shaped and do not possess the ability to form endospores (Schraft &Watterworth, 2005). They are a subset of Enterobacteriaceae, and include bacteria from the genus Escherichia, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Salmonella SPP (Fan et al., 2009). The use of total coliforms as an indicator of contamination is unreliable because they are capable of growing both in the environment and in water systems (Paulsen et al., 2007). Their presence in water may not necessary indicate faecal pollution. However, a water University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 source that contains large concentrations of organic matter is likely to habour large numbers of total coliforms (Fan et al., 2009). Faecal coliforms are considered a sub-group of the total coliforms. Many of them are mesophiles and capable of growing and producing acid from lactose at 44.5°C. These are generally considered to be the thermotolerant. Faecal coliforms are adapted to survive within the intestine of a warm-blooded organism. Notable indicators are; E. coli, Klebsiella spp, Enterobacter spp, Citrobacter spp, Hafnia spp, Pantoea spp, Raoultella spp and Serratia spp (Leclerc et al., 2001). The presence of faecal coliforms in water is an indication of faecal pollution. This has resulted in the development of more specific tests to detect which coliforms are present. E. coli is considered to be the most reliable indicator for faecal contamination of irrigation water because they are part of the normal flora of the intestinal system of warm blooded animals and cannot grow in water without the presence of faecal material (Tallon et al., 2005; Alonso et al., 1999; Francis et al., 1999). Not all strains are harmful but the pathogenic strain, E. coli O157:H7 have been identified and reported in several related food borne diseases outbreaks. Pathogenic E. coli is the most common cause of infantile diarrhea in many countries, specifically in the developing world. According to Francis et al (1999), if E. coli 0157:H7 strain is ingested, it can result in significant health effects including haemorrhagic colitis, gastroenteritis kidney failure, thrombocytopenic purpura and haemolytic uremic syndrome (Gil and Selma, 2006). It is important to monitor faecal matter in rivers and other surface water bodies especially those that are used for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 drinking and irrigation purposes because there is very little control over animal faeces entering the these water bodies (Francis et al., 1999). Escherichia coli are known to be able to withstand very highly acidic environments and can survive at pH ranges as low as 3.3 - 4.2 (Maciorowski et al., 2007). The world health organization (WHO) has set specific guidelines for a variety of uses of water including water used for irrigation purposes. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has also set up guidelines for the quality of irrigation water. They both recommend that water used for the irrigation of fresh agricultural produce especially those that are to be eaten raw such as fruits and vegetables should have a faecal coliform load not exceeding 1000 cfu per 100 ml (WHO, 2006b). The World Health Organization recommends that E. coli in irrigation water should not be more than 1000 organisms per 100 ml (WHO, 2006b ; WHO, 1989). However, the permissible load of E. coli on raw fruits and vegetables is zero per g product. It will be of a significant concern for further investigation in order to identify specific pathogens in vegetables because the presence of E.coli indicates the presence and the likelihood of other disease causing pathogens. 2.7 Sustainability of agricultural production under irrigation Due to ecological and environmental reasons sustainable management of surface water is crucial in order to provide continuous and reliable operation so that the demand for safe water for irrigation can be met. This demands efficient allocation of water resources, embracing water conservation strategies, as well as protecting the environment (Nouri et al., 2008; 2009; Ch ang, 2005; Loucks et al., 2000). According to Zarghaami (2006) effiecient water management needs comprehensive consideration University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 of all areas such as technical, social, environmental, institutional, political and financial. Water resources management is essential in order to sustain agricultural production under irrigation in the presence of changing climate (Ashraf et al., 2007; Khalkheili and Zomani, 2009). Interaction of both human and physical aspects of irrigation is very important in supporting its sustainability (Chang, 2005). Monitoring environmental impacts of irrigation schemes plays an important role to ensuring its sustainability (Schoups et al., 2006) 2.8 Tomatoes as an important irrigated crop in Ghana 2.8.1 Nutritional and health benefits of tomatoes Tomato (Lycopersiconesculentum) is a member of the Solanaceae family which also includes other well-known species, such as potato, tobacco, peppers and eggplant (Olson et al., 2004). The edible part represents about 94% of the total weight of the fruit (De Lannoy, 2001). A 100g tomato contains 93.8g water, 1.2g protein, 4.8g carbohydrate, 7mg calcium, 0.6mg iron, 0.5mg carotene, 0.06mg thiamine, 0.04mg riboflavin, 0.6mg niacin and 23mg vitamin C (De Lannoy, 2001). Tomatoes are also very rich in all three important vitamins A, B and C (Norman, 1992) while most vegetables are deficient in one or more. It is a rich source of many important nutrients and contains as much vitamin C as many citrus fruits, with a normal sized tomato providing up to 20% of the of vitamin A, 40% of the of vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin E, trace elements, flavonoids, phytosterols, and several water-soluble vitamins. The fruit has high magnesium, potassium and phosphorus content, good source of lycopene, foliates and a reasonable amounts of potassium, dietary fiber, calcium, with as few as 35 calories (USDA, 2010; Collins, 2007; Sargent 1998). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 In addition to the diverse nutrients that tomatoes contain, it also plays an important role in the prevention of many common health problems (Collins, 2007). A medium sized tomato can make people healthier and decrease the risk of conditions such as cancer, osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. People who eat tomatoes regularly have a reduced risk of contracting cancer diseases such as lung, prostate, stomach, cervical, breast, oral, colorectal, esophageal, pancreatic, and many other types of cancer. Tomato is also good for liver health, good energy drink and for rejuvenating the health of patients on dialysis, prevent hardening of the arteries and reduce high blood pressure, a powerful antioxidant, prevents oxidation effectively, rapid skin cell replacement, healing sunburn because of its unique vitamin C, good sports drink to restore yourself from fatigue and sleepiness (Bhowmik et al., 2012; Wener, 2000). Considering the nutritional health benefit that are derived from consumption of these vegetable, it is therefore important to ensure that this vegetable is produced under safe environmental conditions to prevent their contamination with pathogens that could lead to serious health effects rather than which could overplay the reason for its consumption. 2.8.2 Irrigation and tomato production in Ghana Tomato has a good adaptation to a wide range of climatic conditions, and so is found throughout tropical Africa (De Lannoy, 2001). According to FAO (2005), tomato is the most important vegetable grown in Ghana and a wide range of areas are suitable for its production. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 Production of the crop in Ghana is done by small-scale farmers who grow it basically for its fresh use. However, with the introduction of irrigation projects, large scale monoculture has become wide spread, especially in the Northern and Upper Regions, and around southern Volta region. Tomato production is also vibrant in Akumadan and the Wenchi Districts. The varieties cultivated in Ghana have evolved from varieties introduced by the Portuguese. The fruits are of irregular shape and multisided. These cultivars are Poma, Pectomec, Roma, Royal and Mongal(Third world network (TWN), 2007). Tomato cultivation has been a significant economic activity in the Upper East region, especially in Navrongo. Tomatoes have long been the most important crop in the Upper East region and it is seen to be more profitable than rice, maize, groundnuts, yam, pepper and dairy. Close to 90% of the two million people living in the area cultivates them (Third world network (TWN), 2007). 2.8.3 Sources of microbial contamination of tomatoes Microbiological contamination refers to the presence of one or several bacteria, yeasts, mould, fungi, protozoa or their toxins and by-products, on vegetables that can affect the health of consumers (Levitt, 2000). Tomatoes and other vegetables can become contaminated whilst growing in the field or during harvest, handling, processing, distribution and use (Beuchat, 1998). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 Microbial contamination depends on different factors of which include the soil characteristics that could serve as the reservoir of foodborne pathogens such as Bacillus cereus (Jorgensen and Lund 1985) or water used for irrigation. Wild birds are probably the second most common source of natural contamination to surface waters used for irrigation purposes. Pathogenic bacteria may contaminate vegetables as a result of birds feeding on garbage, sewage, fish, or lands that have been grazed by cattle’s or have had applications of fresh manure. This may contribute to the disseminating of microbiological organisms such as Campylobacter spp, Salmonella spp, Vibrio cholerae, Listeria spp and E. coli O157:H7 (Lary et al., 1997). Several studies have come out with findings that animals can cause contamination of irrigation water and vegetables through their faeces. They suggested that farmers should stop animals from entering their farms in order to reduce the risk of contamination (Amoah et al., 2005; Davis and Kendall, 2005; Johnston et al., 2006). In the production of seeds intended for sprout production, the practice of animal grazing to initiate flowering of alfalfa may result in the introduction of enteric bacteria. Similar consequences may result from allowing wild animal’s access to seed fields. Non-composted or improperly composted manure can contaminate fruits and vegetables through uses such as a fertilizer or soil amendment, or in irrigation water (Buck et al., 2003). Poultry manure, which represents 75% of the organic fertilizer used, generally contains faecal coliforms (1.30 x 106/g) and enterococci (3.4 x 106/g) (Westcot, 1997). This even occurs in areas where pipe-borne water was used for irrigation which indicate that the contamination was from the poultry manure. Research conducted by Amoah et al., (2005) of some selected vegetables with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 irrigation water revealed that most of the vegetables analysed were contaminated with faecal matter. Drechsel et al. (2000) reported that fresh poultry litter samples sometimes used without sufficient drying for vegetable production in Kumasi had high fecal coliform counts. Other studies have also attributed microbial contamination of irrigation water and food crops to the use of cow dung as a fertilizer (Lau and Ingham, 2001; Zschocket al., 2000). Irrigation method also has an effect on the microbial load on tomatoes. Amoah et al. (2005) showed that on farms where overhead irrigation techniques are used, larger leaf surface areas are exposed to the contamination from irrigation water and possibly from soil particles splashing unto the plant. According to Sadovski et al (1978), spray irrigation could increase the risk of contamination because it exposes large portion of the edible part of vegetables to irrigation water causing the attachment of microorganism. This practice enhances direct contact of irrigation water with the edible parts of the tomatoes. Therefore, to minimize the risk of infection associated with raw fruits and vegetables, potential sources of contamination from the environment should be identified and specific measures and interventions to prevent and/or minimize the risk of contamination should be considered and correctly implemented. 2.8.4 Contamination risk of tomato Tomato fruits have a thin epidermis which makes them easily compromised by mechanical pressure, which can result in punctures, cracks, abrasions, and insect wounds that render the fruit susceptible to pre harvest and postharvest microbial University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 invasion. The stem scar tissue is also capable of absorbing water and any microorganisms that may be present (Bartz and Showalter, 1981). The majority of bacteria found on the surface of plants is usually Gram-negative and belong either to the Pseudomonas group or to the Enterobacteriaceae (Lund, 1992). However, the number of these bacteria on vegetables usually varies depending on seasonal and climatic variation and may range from 104 to 108 per gram. The inner tissues of tomatoes are usually regarded as sterile (Lund, 1992). However, bacteria can be present in low numbers as a result of the uptake of water through certain irrigation or washing procedures. The survival or growth of contaminating microorganisms is affected by intrinsic, extrinsic and processing factors. Factors of importance are nutrient composition, pH, presence of scales and fibres, redox potential, temperature and gaseous atmosphere. Mechanical shredding, cutting and slicing of the produce open the plant surfaces to microbial attack. In some developing counties, farming activities are found almost everywhere: behind houses, along roadsides, on roofs, along and between railway lines, in parks, along rivers, under power lines, and in high, medium and low density areas. At least 20 million West Africans currently live in urban households with some kind of urban agriculture (Drechsel et al., 2006). Any microbial contamination present is likely to reflect the environment through which the product is obtained. Consumption of contaminated vegetables could pave the way for ingestion of considerable number of human pathogenic bacteria. This eventually could result in establishment and manifestation of diseases on humans (Taura and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 Habibu, 2009; Francis et al., 1999;). Identifying the environmental conditions that may influence the proliferation and subsequent growth of microorganisms would help prevent them from becoming contaminated and this would protect the health of the consumer. The tomato plant can also be contaminated with pathogens due to internalization of pathogens both through the root system and flesh or stem scars (Burnett et al., 2000). Previous research showed that pathogens can enter lettuce plants through its roots and end up in the edible leaves. Also, pathogens such as E. coli may enter may enter and infect plant tissues through Small gaps in growing roots (Solomon et al, 2002; Warriner et al., 2003). In a study by Guo et al (2001), the possibility of internalization of Salmonella spp in tomato fruits developed from inoculated flowers and stems was observed. Salmonella spp was detected in stem scar tissue and pulp of tomatoes from inoculated plants. It was also detected on tomatoes from plants receiving stem inoculation before or after flower set, and on or in tomatoes that developed from inoculated flowers. The highest percentage of Salmonella spp was found on the surface of the tomato and around stem scar tissue (Guo et al. 2001). Eliminating pathogens from the external parts of tomatoes may not still make it safe for consumption since pathogens can become internalized at various developmental stages of the plant. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 2.8.5 Tomatoes in food borne outbreak Foodborne illness outbreaks, traced to a variety of different foods, can be found worldwide (Todd, 1998). A research conducted by Mead et al., ( 1999) has shown that the number of reported cases of foodborne illness vary from year to year and have estimated that for every 1 case reported up to 350 are unreported. Food-borne illnesses on tomatoes are of particular concern to scientists because the amount of tomato consumption is increasing. From 1996 to 2008, eighty-two foodborne illness outbreaks were associated with the consumption of fresh tomatoes produce. Of these produce related outbreaks 14 representing 17.1% were linked to tomatoes. Fresh –cut tomatoes were associated with 5 of the 14 tomatoes outbreaks (FDA, 2008). One of the contributing factors to the increase in food borne disease associated with tomatoes is that it is frequently eaten without being cooked, so there is no heating to eliminate pathogens before consumption (Matthews, 2006). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Description of the study area The research was conducted in the Kassena-Nankana East Municipality(Figure 1a). The Municipality is about 40 km away from Bolgatanga, the regional capital of Upper East Region of Ghana(Figure 1b). It is located between latitude 10°30' and 11º 00' North and 1°00' and 1º 30' West longitude of the Sahelian Savannah. The municipality covers a land area of 1,674 square kilometers with a population of about 149,680 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). The annual average rainfall is 850mm which occurs between July and September, with the rest of the year being relatively dry (Donkoh et al., 2008). The average annual temperature range is between 200C and 400C. Rearing of livestock, domestic animals, and the growing of vegetables such as tomatoes, cabbage and carrots are the main activities (Donkoh et al., 2008,). Three vegetable growing communities which uses different water sources (canals, dams and rivers) for irrigation were purposively selected for the study. These were Bonia, Doba and Yigwania(Figure 2). Farmers in these communities use buckets, watering cans and pumping machines to draw the water for irrigation of the crops. Those who use watering cans and buckets splashed the water on the whole plants whiles the others use pumping machines with a long tube to splash the water on the soil around the plant. Bonia is located within the Kassena-Nankana East Municipalty. The irrigated land area here is about 7 hectares with about 50 vegetable farmers. Water for irrigation is from canals from the Tono irrigation scheme. Farmers in this community grow vegetables such as tomatoes, cabbage and carrot. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 Doba is located along the main Navrongo-Bolgatanga road with a total land area of about 4 hectares cultivated by over 45 vegetable farmers. Most of the farmers use water from the Doba dam for irrigation.. The vegetables that are grown by the farmers are tomatoes, okra, pepper, garden eggs and leafy vegetables. Yigwania, located within the municipality with a total land area of about 5 hectares cultivated by over 38 vegetable farmers. Vegetables that are grown by farmers are mainly tomatoes, lettuce, cabbage, carrots, garden eggs, spring onions and other leafy vegetable (NHRC, 2002) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 Fig 1a Fig 1b Figure 1 : A) Map of Ghana showing Upper East Region, B) map of Kassena - Nankana East Municipality University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 Figure 2 : Map of Kassena-Nankana East municipality showing study communites University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 Figure 3 :Map showing the sampling points within the study area in the Kassena- Nankanna East Municipality University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 3.2 Study design 3.2.1 Environmental assessment Environmental assessment was done by using structured questionnaire and observation. Questionnaires were administered to farmers to gather information which included demographic characteristics of farmers, source of irrigation water, method of irrigation and cropping system, harvesting, animal intrusion, adjacent land use activities, employee health & hygiene, packing house/equipment and cleaning and sanitation. The questionnaire was administered through face to face interview of farmers. Informed consent was sought from participant before they were interviewed. Farmers were randomly selected to respond to questionnaire. Sample size of respondents to questionnaire was determined using the conventional statistical model, Where; n=sample size; N=sample frame; and ɑ=margin of error, was used to derive the sample size for the administration of questionnaire. Thus the selected number of respondents to questionnaire was determined on a 5% margin of error and total population of farmers at Bonia, Doba and Yigwana (which were 55, 48 and 40 farmers respectively). In all, 120 farmers out of a total of 143 farmers were selected using simple random sampling and interviewed. This consisted of 45 farmers from Bonia, 40 farmers from Doba and 35 farmers from Yigwania. The number of farmers selected were based on the total number of farmers in the study area. Observational study was conducted by visiting the study areas at regular intervals (thrice a month) from September to December, 2013 to observe the farming practices such as method of irrigation, fertilizer application and pesticide application and the general environmental situation(Plate 1, 2 and 3). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 Plate 1: Picture of cattle grazing closed to irrigated farms in the study area. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 Plate 2 : Picture of a pumping machine used for withdrawing water from Doba dam for irrigation of vegetables University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 Plate 3: Picture of pesticide container left closed to Doba dam in the study area 3.2.2 Data collection for bacteriological and physicochemical analysis Water and tomatoes samples were taken from all the three study sites on a monthly basis starting from January to April, 2014 using simple random sampling. Sampling of irrigation water and tomatoes was carried out in the morning between 8 to 9:00am at the time when farmers irrigate their tomato farms. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 3.2.2.1 Sampling of irrigation water Two hundred milliliters sterile bottles were used to collect water from ten different points at the dam site, and at 20 m intervals along the river and the canal(Plate 4, 5 and 6). The bottle was dipped into the water without opening until about 30cm below the water surface. The bottle was then opened and filled; the cap was then replaced under the water .The samples were stored in ice chest at 40C and then transported to the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical research and ecological laboratory of University of Ghana for the bacteriological and physico-chemical analysis respectively. Plate 3 : A picture of Bonia canal used by farmers for irrigation of vegetables University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 Plate 4: A picture of Doba dam used by farmers for irrigation of vegetables University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 Plate 5 : A picture of Yigwania river used by farmers for irrigation of vegetables 3.2.2.2 Sampling of tomatoes Once a month, 32 tomatoes samples (each containing four whole tomatoes) were randomly collected using sterile scissors. These were put into separate sterile zip-lock bags and transported on ice chest to the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research where they were analyzed immediately or stored at 40C until analysis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 3.3 Physico-chemical analysis All laboratory analyses for physicochemical parameters of sampled water were done at the Ecological Laboratory of the Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies. All protocols and procedures were strictly followed. Parameters analyzed included temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Nitrogen-nitrate, phosphate ions, nitrogen- nitrite, alkalinity, total suspended solids, sodium ions, potassium ions and BOD. All the Laboratory measurements were done under an established standard method (APHA, 2001; WHO, 1994). Suspended Solids The level of suspended solids was assessed using spectrophotometer. The Spectrophotometer cell was calibrated to zero reading using 25ml of demineralized water (blank). The water sample was then poured into a 1 litre beaker and 25ml aliquots immediately poured into a sample cell. The prepared water sample was swirled to remove any bubbles to uniformly suspend any residue. Next the sample was placed into the cell holder of the calibrated spectrophotometer set at 810 nm and the reading taken in mg/L suspended solids. Turbidity The turbidity of the samples was determined using a Portable Turbidimeter meter (Model 2100P). A sample cell was filled with 15 ml of the water sample and the cell was capped. The cell was wiped with a soft, line-free cloth to remove water spots and fingerprints. A thin film of silicone oil was applied and wiped with the soft cloth to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 obtain an even film over the entire surface. This was placed in the cell holder and the reading taken in Nephelometric turbidity units (Hach Company, 2001). Nitrate (NO3- -N) Analysis. The nitrate level in each sample was measured using Nitrate powder Pillows in a direct reading HACH spectrophotometer (Model DR. 2000). A sample cell was filled with 10ml of only the sample (blank). The blank sample was placed in the spectrophotometer for calibration. Ten (10) ml of the sample was measured into sample cell of the spectrophotometer. One Nitraver 5 Nitrate Reagent powder pillows was added to the sample. The mixture was then shaken vigorously for 1 minute. Five minutes was allowed for the solution to react. An orange colour of the mixture indicates the presence of nitrate. After five minutes, the prepared sample was then placed into the cell holder of the calibrated spectrophotometer to determine the Nitrate- nitrogen concentration at 500 nm in mg/l (Hach Company, 2001). Nitrogen Nitrite (NO2-) Analysis The nitrite level in each sample was measured using nitrite reagent powder pillows in a direct reading HACH spectrophotometer (Model DR.2000). A sample cell was filled with 10ml of only the sample (blank). The blank sample was placed in the spectrophotometer for calibration (zeroing). Ten (10) ml of the sample was measured into sample cell of the spectrophotometer. One Nitraver 3 Nitrate Reagent powder pillows was added to the sample. The mixture was then shaken vigorously to dissolve the powder. A 20-minute was allowed for the solution to react. A pink colour of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 mixture indicates the presence of nitrite. After the 20-minutes, the prepared sample was placed into the cell holder to determine the nitrite concentration at 507nm in mg/l (Hach Company, 2001). Phosphate Phosphorus (PO43-) A sample cell (the blank) was filled with 10ml of the sample and placed into the cell holder to calibrate it. Ten milliliters of the water sample (prepared sample) was placed in the sample cell. Phosphover 3 phosphate powder pillow was added to the sample content and swirled immediately to mix. A two minute reaction period was allowed and a blue coloration of the mixture indicates the presence of phosphate. After reaction period, the prepared sample was placed into the cell holder and the level of phosphate- phosphorus was determined at 890nm. The spectrophotometer displayed the results in mg/l PO43- (HACH, 2001). Dissolved Oxygen The Azide modification of the Winkler method was used for the determination of dissolved oxygen test. Two milliliters of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid (H2S04) was added to the samples which had already been fixed on the field with 2ml each of Winkler 1 (Manganous chloride) and Winkler 2 (alkaline- Iodide- azide reagents. Hundred militres of the sample was titrated with 0.025 M sodium thiosulphate (Na2S203) to a pale straw colour. Two milliliters of starch solution was added as indicator and titrated till first disappearance of blue colour (APHA, 2001). The calculation is as below; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 For titration of a 100ml sample, mg/l 02 = vol. of M/80 thiosulphate used × 101.6 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) The BOD test involved filling a hermetically sealed BOD bottle with the sample of water and incubating it at the specified temperature for five days. The Dissolved oxygen was measured initially and after incubation, the BOD was found by the difference between the initial and the final DO. The dilution water was prepared by 1 ml each of phosphate buffer, Magnesium sulphate, calcium chloride and iron (III) chloride solution per litre of water (APHA, 2001). Mathematically the BOD was computed as below; BOD5 mg/l = D1– D2. D1 and D2 were the dissolved oxygen content before and after incubation respectively. 3.4 Bacteriological Analysis 3.4.1 Enumeration of bacteria load in irrigation water The bacteria load/burden (heterotrophic bacteria and coliform count) in the irrigation water were determined by the pour plate method. One milliliters (ml) of a thoroughly mixed water sample was transferred into a sterile bottle containing 9ml of Phosphate buffered saline(PBS) to make a 10-1 dilution. Serial dilutions from 10-2 to 10-7 were made by transferring 1ml volume of 10-1 dilution into a test tube containing sterile 9ml PBS to make the 10-2 dilution and until a 10-7 dilution was obtained. With the aid of a pipette, hundred microliters of each dilution was transferred into respective labeled petri-dish. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 Total heterotrophic bacterial count and total coliform count were determined by culturing each dilution in the labeled petri dishes with plate count agar (PCA) and E. coli coliform selective (ECS) media respectively. The ECS media for enumeration of total coliform and faecal coliform was incubated at 370C and 440C for 24 to 48 hours respectively whiles that of heterotrophic bacteria count was incubated at 37oC for 18 - 24 hours. Bacterial counts were made using a colony counting chamber (Gallen Kamp, UK). Plates showing counts between 30 - 300 colonies were selected and their total colony forming unit per gramme (cfu /g) calculated by multiplying the count by the dilution factor (plate 7). Plate 6: Picture of faecal coliform growing on E.coli coliform selective media 3.4.2 Enumeration of bacteria load on tomatoes The bacteriological quality of the samples was determined by the pour plate method. Bacteriological examination was carried out on both internal and external parts of the tomato. For the examination of the external tomato parts, about ten grammes (10g) of whole tomatoes sample were weighed and transferred into a small stomacher bag. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 Ninety ml of Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) was added and after thoroughly washing, the resultant PBS solution was transferred into a sterile bottle to make a 10-1 dilution. Serial dilutions from 10-2 to 10-7 was made by transferring 1ml volume of 10-1 dilution into a test tube containing sterile 9ml PBS to make the 10-2 dilution until a 10-7 dilution is obtained. For examination of the internal tomato parts, whole tomato samples were opened aseptically after sanitizing with chlorine (100ppm) and 1 g of the inner tissues were weighed and transferred into sterile bottles containing 9ml PBS solution. The mixture was macerated and 1ml used to prepare tenfold serial dilution to obtain a range of 101 to 107. With the aid of a pipette, hundred microliters of each dilution was transferred into respective labeled petri-dish. Heterotrophic bacterial, total coliform and faecal coliform counts were determined by culturing with PCA and E. coli coliform selective media respectively. The culture media for enumeration of total coliform and faecal coliform were incubated at 370C and 440C for 24 to 48 hours respectively whiles that of heterotrophic bacteria count was incubated at 37oC for 18-24 hours. Bacterial counts were made using a colony counting chamber (Gallen Kamp, UK). Plates showing counts between 30 - 300 colonies were selected and their total colony forming unit per gramme (cfu/g) calculated by multiplying the count by the dilution factor. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 52 3.5 Identification of bacteria pathogens in irrigation water and tomato samples 3.5.1 Bacteriological media inoculation and incubation Four milliliters of each of the 10-1 dilution of the tomatoes and irrigation water samples were transferred into centrifuge tubes and centrifuged at 3,800 rpm for 15 minutes. The supernatant were discarded and pellets streaked on Blood Agar and also inoculated into 10ml selenite broth for the selective enrichment of Salmonella and Shigella spp and incubated at 37oC for 18 - 24 hours. 3.5.2 Gram staining Procedure; A sterile loop was used to transfer a portion of the colony on a cultured plate and emulsified using a drop of distilled water on a clean microscopic slide, and smeared evenly. This was fixed by passing three times on a gentle flame. The smear was flooded for one minute with crystal violet stain. The crystal violet stain was washed thoroughly in a gentle jet of water (tap water). After that, the smear was flooded for one minute with lugolˊs iodine solution. This was also washed under running tap water and the excess water blotted. Stained smears were decolorized by adding drops of 95% acetone over the slide until streaks of colour stopped coming from the smear. The slide was then washed immediately in water and the excess water drained off from the slide. This was followed by the addition of safranin, to counterstain, for 10 - 30 seconds. This was again washed under slow running tap water, blotted with filter paper, dried and examined by microscope using the oil immersion objective. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53 3.5.3 Biochemical identification assay Gram positive bacteria Catalase test This assay tests the presence of the catalase enzyme which catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to free oxygen gas and water. 2H2O→ H20 + O2 It is used to differentiate between Staphylococci spp and Streptococci spp. Procedure: an 18-24hr old colony was purified by sub culturing the isolates. A small amount of the colony was carefully collected without the agar to prevent false positive reaction and placed on a clean glass slide. Using a Pasteur pipette, a drop of 3% hydrogen peroxide was put onto the colony. immediate effervescence (evolution of gas bubbles or white foam) indicated positive reacton. Staphylase test Further identification of the catalase positive staphylococci was done using the staphyase kit prolix TM latex agglutination system (pro-Lab Diagnostics) to differentiate between Staphylococcus aureus and other staphylococci species. S. aureus produces coagulase and cell wall protein called protein A that binds with the carrier portion of the IgG molecule. If S. aureus is present, the coagulase reacts with the fibrinogen and the IgG reacts with the protein A to cause clumping. Pocedure: A loop full of catalase positive cocci was emulsified into the latex agglutination test reagent. Coagulation was a positive reaction for Staphylococcus aureus University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 54 Identification of Gram negative bacteria Oxidase test The oxidase test is a biochemical reaction that assays for the presence of cytochrome oxidase, an enzyme sometimes called indophenol oxidase. In the presence of an organism that contains the cytochrome oxidase enzyme, the reduced colorless reagent becomes oxidized to a dark blue. Procedure: A piece of filter paper was soaked in freshly prepared oxidase reagent (N, N, N’, N’ - tetramethyl - p - phenylenediamine dihydrochloride in distilled water). Fresh and discrete bacterial colonies culture on solid medium for between 18 - 24hrs were then scraped with a sterile inoculating loop and rubbed onto the filter paper. The filter paper was examined after 10 seconds for blue colour which signifies positive oxidase reaction. Sulphide, indole production and motility assay (SIM) SIM assay is used to differentiate enteric bacilli on the basis of sulfide production, indole formation and motility. Procedure: A short inoculating wire with a straight nichrome needle was used to inoculate the SIM medium by stabbing and incubated for 18hrs. Blackening of the tube indicate sulphide production; formation of a deep pink colour over the medium indicate an indole positive reaction and cloudiness throughout the medium, or a brush-like growth around the line of inoculation indicate the test organism is motile. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 55 Confirming bacterial species using analytical profile index (API 20 E biomerieux) test kit Proceedure: Using a sterile cotton swab, a single well isolated colony was removed from an isolation plate and carefully emulsified in about 5 ml of sterile distilled water to achieve a homogenous bacterial suspension. Using the same pipette, both the tube and the cupule in the API test kit were filled with bacterial suspension. For the other tests only the tubes (and not the cupule) were filled. Anaerobic conditions were created in the tests arginine dihydrolase (ADH), lysine decarboxylase (LDC), ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), hydrogen sulphide production (H2S) and urease (URE) by overlaying the bacterial suspension with mineral oil. The incubation box was then closed and incubated at 37oC for 18 – 24 hours. DATA ANALYSIS 3.6 Data handling and analysis The results were analyzed by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using SPSS Statistix 9 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago. IL, USA). All data were double-keyed and cross tabulated to ensure the accuracy of the entries made. The responses in the questionnaires were coded and subsequently analyzed using statistical test. Descriptive statistics such as geometric mean, frequencies, prevalent rates and ranges was used for the study variables. ANOVA was used to compare faecal coliform levels on tomatoes from different farms. Total bacterial counts were computed and compared to World Health Organization and the International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Food standards to determine whether the obtained levels were within acceptable limits. Levels were interpreted as no contamination, within acceptable limits and above acceptable limits. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 56 Levels of contamination and isolated organisms were classified as having no risk, low risk and high risk. The t-test (one sample) was used to test significance of difference between mean faecal coliform levels on tomatoes and in irrigation water from the different sites. Significant difference of the physicochemical parameters of the water from the various irrigation schemes was also computed. Significant levels were based on a p value less than 0.05. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 57 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 RESULTS 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of respondents A total of 120 farmers responded to questionnaire (Appendix A). The analysis showed that different age groups of people are directly involved in tomatoes and other vegetable cultivation in the study area (table 4). Most of the 120 respondents were within the ages of 20 and 40 years represented by 35 farmers (77.8%) from Bonia, 31 farmers (77.5) from Doba and 22(62.9%) from Yigwania. Only 8 (17.7%), 9 (22.5%) and 9 (28.6%) farmers in Bonia, Doba and Yigwania respectively were above 40 years of age (Table 4.1). Of the 120 farmers, 42 (93.3%) farmers from Bonia, 38(95%) from Doba and 34(97.1%) farmers from Yigwania were males. Only 3 (6.7%), 2 (5%) and 6 (5%) respondents from Bonia, Doba and Yigwania respectively were females. Majority of the farmers in the three areas were Christians. Thirty one (68.9%), 36 (90%) and 32 (91%) of the farmers interviewed at Bonia, Doba and Yigwania respectively were Christians. However, Moslems represented12 (26.7%) of farmers in Bonia, 1 (2.5%) in Doba and 1 (2.9%) in Yigwania. Thirty three (73.3%), 33 (82.5) and 32 (91.4) of the farmers interviewed in Bonia, Doba and Yigwania respectively have not had more than six years of formal education. Farmers with secondary and tertiary education represented 12 (26.7%) of the farmers in Bonia, 7 (17.5%) of the farmers in Doba and 3 (8.6%) of the farmers in Yigwania (Table 4.1). The study also found only 20 (44.4%) respondents in Bonia, 7 (17.5%) respondents in Doba and 9 (25.8%) respondents in Yigwania have had formal training in irrigation and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 58 15(28.9%) respondents in Bonia, 26 (65%) in Doba and 29 (82.9%) in Yigwania have been cultivating tomatoes for more than ten years (Table 4) .Thirty three percent of the farmers in Bonia have been in vegetable cultivation business for more than 10 years while whiles Doba and Yigwania registered 65% and 86% respectively. Vegetable farming seems to be a common occupation among the inhabitants in the three areas. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 59 TABLE 4 : Demographic characteristics of respondents. Parameter Frequency of responses Bonia Doba Yigwania (N=45) (N=40) (N=30) (n, %) (n, %) (n, %) Age(years) < 20 2(4.5) 0 3(8.5) 20-30 20(44.5) 21(52.5) 15(42.9) 31-40 15(33.3) 10(25) 7(20) > 40 8(17.7) 9(22.5) 10(28.6) Sex Male 42(93.3) 38(95) 34(97.1) Female 3(6.7) 2(5) 1(2.9) Literacy status No formal education 19(42.2) 20(50) 26(74.3) Primary 14(31.1) 13(32.5) 6(17.1) Secondary 10(22.2) 5(12.5) 3(8.6) Tertiary 2(4.5) 2(5) 0 Religion Christian 31(68.9) 36(90) 32(91.4) Moslem 12(26.7) 1(2.5) 1(2.9) Formal training in irrigation Offered agriculture at senior high school 3(6.7) 1(2.5) 1(2.9) Through agricultural extension officers 22(48.9) 5(12.5) 8(22.9) Through agricultural training institute 2(4.4) 1(2.5) 0 No formal training 18(40) 33(82.5) 26(74.2) Years spent in irrigated vegetable farming 1-10 30(66.7) 14(35) 6(17.1) 11-20 9(20) 22(55) 17(48.6) >20 6(8.9) 4(10) 12(34.3) No statistically significant relationship between years spent in irrigation and the level of water and tomatoes contamination was detected by using a one-way analysis of variance University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 60 ( ANOVA: P > 0.05). There was however significant difference between level of education and contamination level of irrigation water and tomatoes (ANOVA: P<0.05). Respondents with higher education level were more likely to avoid contamination of irrigation water and tomatoes crops ( ANOVA: P<0.05). There was also significant difference (ANOVA: P<0.05) in formal irrigation training and level of contamination of irrigation water and tomatoes crops. Farmers who had formal training in irrigation were more likely to avoid contamination of irrigation water and food crops. 4.2 Environmental Assessment 4.2.1 Source of Water and Mode of Irrigation The main sources of water for irrigation of vegetables in the study area are irrigation canals, dams, rivers/streams and hand dug wells. Regarding the mode of irrigation, 42 (35.0%) out of the 120 respondents, used rubber hose connected to a pumping machine to withdraw water from any of the identified sources. Of these, 12 (26.7%) of them were from Bonia, 21 (52.5%) from Doba and 9(25.7%) from Yigwania. The study revealed only a few respondents (16.7%) used watering cans for irrigation. Of these, only 1 (2.2%) respondent from Bonia, 8 (20%) respondents from Doba and 11 (31.4) respondents from Yigwania used watering cansfor irrigation (Figure 4). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61 Figure 4: Percentage of respondents that use different mode of irrigation in tomato production 4.2.2 Fertilizer and Pesticides Use The main types of fertilizers used by the farmers in the study area were inorganic fertilizers and organic fertilizers. Organic fertilizer use was found to be generally low compared to the use of inorganic fertilizers. The results showed that 1 (2.2%) of the respondents from Bonia, 2 (5%) from Doba and 5 (14.3%) from Yigwania use poultry manure as fertilizer whiles 8 (20%) and 7 (20%) of the respondents in Doba and Bonia respectively used cow dung (Table 5). There were signicant difference (ANOVA: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 62 P<0.05) between level of education and avoidance of the use of fresh manure. Respondents with higher education level were more likely to avoid applying fresh manure to growing crops (p = .038) Pesticide use in the study area was found to be common. The most frequently used pesticide is karate (60%) followed by roundup (24.2%) and furadan (18.3%) (Table 5). It was also observed that, farmers mixed the pesticides into a sprayer (knapsack) and used it to spray directly on the crops. Furthermore, farmers in the area used the water source for irrigation to mix the pesticide. Findings from the study also showed that only 5 (12%) respondents from Doba and 6 (17.1%) from Yigwania wear goggles, gloves, coat, boots, and nose mask when applying pesticides (Table 5). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 63 TABLE 5 : Type of pesticides and fertilizers used by farmers for vegetables cultivation in the study area Respondents Type of pesticide Bonia Doba Yigwania Brand name Active ingredient n(%) n(%) n(%) Cymethoate Cypermethrin 7(15.6) 0 2(5.7) Karate Lamda cyhalothrin 35(77.8) 29(72.5) 9(25.7) Dursban Chlorpyrifos 8(17.8) 7(17.5) 6(17.1) Furadan Carbofuran 9(20) 8(20) 5(14.3) Diathane Mancozeb 12(26.7) 3(7.5) 5(14.3) Kocide Copper-hydroxide 7(15.6) 0 1(2.9) Perfekthion Dimethoate 3(6.7) 0 0 Topsin Methylthiophanate. 0 0 2(5.7) Roundup Glyphosate 18(40) 5(12.5) 6(17.1) Thiodan Endolsufan 5(11.1) 2(5) 0 DDT Dichloro-Diphenyl- 3(6.7) 3(7.5) 2(5.7) Trichloro-Ethane Protective measure used for pesticides application Goggles+gloves+coat+ boots +nose mask 8(17.8) 5(12.5) 6(17.1) Goggles+ gloves+coat + boot 5(11.1) 2(5) 0 Gloves+coat+boot + nose mask 2(4.4) 0 0 Gloves+ boot + nose mask 5(11.1) 0 1(2.9) Goggles + nose mask 6(13.3) 2(5) 2(5.7) Boot + nose mask 3(6.7) 5(12.5) 3(8.6) Gloves and boot 8(17.8) 3(7.5) 4(11.4) None 8(17.8) 23(57.5) 19(54.3) Type of fertilizer Inorganic fertilizer 41(91.1) 12(30%) 9(25.7%) Inorganic fertilizer+poultry droppings 0 4(10%) 3(8.6%) Inorganic fertilizer+cow dung 0 5(12.5%) 6(17.1%) Poultry droppings 4(8.9%) 2(5%) 5(14.3) Poultry droppings +cow dung 0 5(12.5%) 2(5.7%) Cow dung 0 8(20%) 7(20%) 4.2.3 Animal Intrusion on Farm Field observation showed that cattle and other domestic animals are reared by the free range system in the study area. Of the 120 farmers, 25 (55.6) from Bonia, 23 (57.5) from Doba and 18 (51.42) from Yigwania did not prevent wild animals from entering to their farms (Figure 5). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 64 Figure 5: Percentage of respondents that did not prevent wild animals from entering their farms 4.2.4 Environmental Sanitation and Health Situation None of the irrigation scheme had a toilet facility; farmers therefore practice open defecation close to the water bodies and the farms. The three main health problems in the study area as indicated by the farmers were malaria, schistosomiasis and diarrhea (Figure 6) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 65 Figure 6 : The main health complains given by respondents 4.2.5 Physicochemical and Bacteriological Characteristics of Irrigation Water Samples Irrigation water samples were collected from canal, dam and river water bodies in the study area. Twelve irrigation water samples per month were collected from the canal water source at Bonia whiles 10 samples each was collected from dam and river water sources at Doba and Yigwania for three months from February to April 2014. Findings of the physicochemical analysis of the respective irrigation water are shown in Table 6. The measured values of pH for canal water samples ranged from 6.70 to 7.90, while that of the dam and river water samples ranged from 6.50 to 7.0 and 6.5 to 7.3 respectively. Even though the multiple comparison showed significant difference (ANOVA: P < 0.05) in mean values of pH levels between canal and dam as wells as dam and river, there was no significant difference between the canal and river water (ANOVA: P > 0.05) as shown in appendix B. However, the mean values of pH were University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 66 within the food and agricultural organization (FAO) recommended levels for water used for irrigating agricultural crops. The temperature level between the three water sources showed no significant difference (ANOVA: P > 0.05). Temperature of the water samples ranged from 26.50C to 290C for canal, 26.70C -27.90C for dam and 27.130C - 27.7 0C for river water (Table 6) Electrical conductivity (EC) of different water sources in the study area ranged from 98.0 µs/cm to 564µs/cm in canal water, 142µs/cm to 564 µs/cm in dam water and 312 µs/cm to 400 µs/cm in river water. There was significant difference (ANOVA: P < 0.05) in the mean values of the EC between the various water sources (Appendix B). However, the mean values of EC in the water sources were within the food and agricultural organization (FAO) recommended levels of water used for irrigating crops of EC ≤ 3000 µs/cm. The mean nitrate levels in the water samples differed significantly (ANOVA: P < 0.05). The dam had the highest mean value of 23.35mg/l and ranged from 21mg/l - 24.9mg/l. The mean value of nitrate levels in the river water source was 11.77 mg/l with a range of 9.4mg/l - 14.3mg/l. Canal water had the least mean nitrate level of 1.62mg/l and a range of 1.10mg/l-2.8mg/l (Table 6). Nitrite levels in the water sampled from the various sources also differed significantly (ANOVA: P < 0.05) (Appendix B). Nitrite levels in irrigation water ranged from 0.80mg/l - 2.01mg/l with a mean value of 1.05mg/l for canal; 9.40mg/l - 14.3mg/l with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 67 a mean value of 11.82mg/l for dam and 4.21mg/l-10mg/l with a mean a mean value of 7.56mg/l for river water (Table 6). The concentration of phosphate ions in the water sources differed significantly (ANOVA: p < 0.05). The concentration of phosphate ions in canal water samples ranged from 1.2mg/l - 1.8mg/l, whilst the concentration of phosphate ions in dam water samples varied from 20.1mg/l to 24.7mg/l and river water samples ranged from 1.4mg/l to 2.8mg/l. The dissolved oxygen content between the water sources was not significantly different. The dissolved oxygen content in water sources ranged from 0.8 to 7.5mg/l for canal, 1.4 to 6.9 mg/l for dam and 1.4 to 6.8mg/l for river water samples (Table 6). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 68 TABLE 6 : Physico-chemical characteristics of irrigation water samples from the study area Source Bonia(canal) Doba(dam) Yigwania(river) WHO standard Parameter Mean Std Dev Mean Std Dev Mean Std Dev Sig. Ph 6.94 0.25 6.76 0.14 6.92 0.22 0.001 6.5-8.5 EC/µs/cm 122.47 13.91 301.27 123.5 357.2 24.53 0 <3000 Turbidity/ mg/L 14.5 1.56 210.13 94.29 288.2 180.76 0 - Nitrate ions /mg/L 1.62 0.49 23.31 1.22 11.77 0.21 0 Nitrite ions/mg/L 1.05 0.24 11.82 1.19 7.56 1.83 0 5-20 Phosphate ions /mg/L 1.54 0.17 23.35 1.1 2.15 0.39 0 200 Dissolved oxygen/mg/L 5.3 2.34 5.05 2.13 4.65 2.17 0.498 5 BOD/mg/L 4.62 2.76 6.09 1.02 5.92 1.52 0.005 10 Temperature 27.02 0.46 27.1 0.34 26.99 0.36 0.55 - * BOD-Biological Oxygen Demand *EC-Electrical conductivity To investigate the association, of the Physico-chemical parameters of the irrigation water in the study area, Pearson’s Product moment correlation coefficient was used. During the study period, considerable numbers of significant positive correlation were observed in the various water sources. The significant positive correlation observed for the physicochemical parameters for canal water are: pH and BOD (Correlation test: P < 0.01), pH and Temperature (Correlation test: P < 0.01), EC and Turbidity (Correlation University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 69 test: P < 0.01), EC and DO (Correlation test: P < 0.01), Turbidity and EC (Correlation test: P < 0.05), turbidity and TDS (Correlation test: P < 0.01), Turbidity and DO (Correlation test: p < 0.01) (Table 7) The significant positive correlation observed for the physicochemical parameters for Dam water are: pH and EC (Correlation test: P<0.01), pH and Salinity (Correlation test: P < 0.01), pH and nitrate (Correlation test: P < 0.01 ), pH and Phosphate (Correlation test: P < 0.01), pH and DO (Correlation test: P < 0.01 ), EC and Nitrate ( P < 0.01 ), EC and Phosphate (P<0.01), EC and DO Correlation test: (P < 0.01), Turbidity and Potassium (Correlation test: p < 0.05), Turbidity and Temperature (Correlation test: P < 0.01), Nitrate and DO (Correlation test: P<0.01), Nitrate and BOD (Correlation test: P < 0.01), Nitrate and Temperature (Correlation test: p<0.01), Nitrite and Phosphate (p < 0.01), Nitrite and DO (Correlation test: P < 0.01) BOD and Temperature (Correlation test: P < 0.01) (Table 8). The significant positive correlation observed for the physicochemical parameters for River water are: pH and EC (Correlation test: P < 0.01), pH and turbidity (Correlation test: P < 0.01), pH and Nitrite (Correlation test: P < 0.01), pH and TDS (Correlation test: P < 0.01), EC and Turbidity (Correlation test: P < 0.01), EC and Nitrite (Correlation test: P < 0.01), EC and DO (Correlation test: P < 0.01), Turbidity and DO (Correlation test: P < 0.01), Nitrate and DO (Correlation test: P < 0.01), Nitrite and DO (Correlation test: P < 0.01), BOD and Temperature (Correlation test: P < 0.01) (Table 9) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 TABLE 7Pearson Product-moment correlation coefficient between the studied physic- chemical parameters in canal water samples PH EC Turb NO3- NO2- PO43- DO BOD Temp PH 1 -.464** -0.268 -0.036 -0.26 0.031 -.557** .562** .862** EC -.464** 1 .480** -0.018 0.166 0.007 .961** -.842** -.422* Turb -0.268 .480** 1 -0.22 0.211 -0.023 .513** -.331* -0.28 NO3- -0.036 -0.018 -0.22 1 -0.253 -.352* -0.078 -0.307 -0.152 NO2- -0.26 0.166 0.211 -0.253 1 -0.078 0.247 -0.095 -0.11 PO43- 0.031 0.007 -0.023 -.352* -0.078 1 0.008 0.057 0.104 DO -.557** .961** .513** -0.078 0.247 0.008 1 -.849** -.484** BOD .562** -.842** -.331* -0.307 -0.095 0.057 -.849** 1 .528** Temp. .862** -.422* -0.28 -0.152 -0.11 0.104 -.484** .528** 1 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). *EC-Electrical conductivity *Turb.-Turbidity *BOD-Biological oxygen demand *Temp.-Temperature University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 71 TABLE 8: Pearson Product-moment correlation coefficient between the studied physico-chemical parameters in dam water samples pH EC Turb NO3- NO2- PO43- DO BOD Temp pH 1 .673** -0.104 -.776** .659** .607** .749** -.784** -.606** EC .673** 1 -.369* -.836** .797** .530** .879** -.889** -.854** Turb -0.104 -.369* 1 0.235 -.379* 0.103 -.420* 0.356 .469** NO3- -.776** -.836** 0.235 1 -.855** -.637** -.930** .929** .859** NO2- .659** .797** -.379* -.855** 1 .479** .879** -.884** -.770** PO43- .607** .530** 0.103 -.637** .479** 1 .558** -.463** -.451* DO .749** .879** -.420* -.930** .879** .558** 1 -.953** -.919** BOD -.784** -.889** 0.356 .929** -.884** -.463** -.953** 1 .909** Temp -.606** -.854** .469** .859** -.770** -.451* -.919** .909** 1 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). *EC-Electrical conductivity *Turb.-Turbidity *BOD-Biological oxygen demand *Temp.-Temperature University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 72 TABLE 9 : Pearson Product-moment correlation coefficient between the studied physico-chemical parameters in river water samples pH EC Turb. NO3- NO2- PO43- DO BOD Temp. pH 1 .786** .774** -.380* .636** 0.133 .801** -.792** -.730** EC .786** 1 .885** -0.314 .683** 0.207 .920** -.763** -.760** Turb. .774** .885** 1 -.372* .565** 0.188 .979** -.799** -.785** NO3- -.380* -0.314 -.372* 1 -0.193 -0.15 -.363* 0.163 0.062 NO2- .636** .683** .565** -0.193 1 0.187 .651** -.537** -.562** PO43- 0.133 0.207 0.188 -0.15 0.187 1 0.182 -0.014 -0.232 DO .801** .920** .979** -.363* .651** 0.182 1 -.810** -.786** BOD -.792** -.763** -.799** 0.163 -.537** -0.014 -.810** 1 .671** Temp. -.730** -.760** -.785** 0.062 -.562** -0.232 -.786** .671** 1 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). *EC-Electrical conductivity *Turb.-Turbidity *BOD-Biological oxygen demand *Temp.-Temperature 4.2.6 Bacteriological Quality of Irrigation Water and Tomatoes Samples 4.2.6.1 Bacteriological quality of irrigation water Table 10 shows the heterotrophic bacteria, total coliform and faecal coliform counts in irrigation water sources from Bonia (canal), Doba (dam) and Yigwania (river). The mean heterotrophic bacteria count between the three water sources showed no significant difference (ANOVA: P > 0.05) as shown in appendix C. The mean University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 73 heterotrophic bacteria count of the water samples ranged from 3.0 x 104 cfu/100ml to 6.7 x 107cfu/100ml with an average count of 2.77 x 106cfu/100ml for canal, 3.20 x 105cfu/100ml to 8.0 x 109cfu/100ml with an average count of 5.0 x 108cfu/100ml for dam and 1.22 x 105cfu/100ml to 8.0 x 109cfu/100ml with a mean counts of 4.0 x 108cfu/100ml for river water (table 10). The multi comparison (LSD) showed significant difference (ANOVA: P < 0.05) in the mean total coliform counts between river water and canal water (ANOVA: P < 0.05), and dam water and river water sources (ANOVA: P < 0.05) (Appendix C). However, there was no significant difference in total coliform counts between canal samples and dam samples (ANOVA: P < 0.05) as shown in appendix C. Total coliform counts of the samples ranged from 3.20 x 105cfu/100ml to 6.50 x 107cfu/100ml for the canal samples with a mean count of 1.10 x 107cfu/100ml; 3.0 x 106cfu/100ml to 9.0 x 109cfu/100ml for the dam samples with a mean count of 4.27 x 108cfu/100ml and 1.90 x 107cfu/100ml to 1.39 x1010cfu/100ml for the river samples with a mean count of 1.44 x 109cfu/100ml. The mean faecal coliform counts of irrigation water samples from the river were significantly higher than samples from canal (ANOVA: P < 0.05) (Appendix C). There was no significant difference in faecal coliform counts between river and dam water samples. Faecal coliform count of the water samples ranged from 3.10 x 104cfu/100ml to 8.0 x 107cfu/100ml with a mean count of (1.28 x 107cfu/100ml) for river, 2.41 x 105cfu/100ml to 6.0 x 107cfu/100ml with a mean value of 6.14 x 106cfu/100ml for dam and 7.9 x 103cfu/100ml to9.20 x 105cfu/100ml with a mean value of 3.30 x 105cfu/100ml for canal (Table 10). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 74 The mean faecal coliform counts of the water sources were compared with the World health organization (WHO) recommended levels (1 x 103cfu/100ml) for unrestricted irrigation of crops likely to be eaten raw using one sample t-test. The results shows that the faecal coliform levels of each of the water sources were significantly higher than the world Health Organization (WHO, 2006b) standard for unrestricted irrigation since their P values were all less than 0.05 as shown in table 11. TABLE 10: Mean bacteria load of irrigation water samples and respective irrigation schemes. Area/ Source Bonia (Canal) Doba (Dam) Yigwania (River) Parameter N=36 N=30 N=30 Heterotrophic bacterial count(cfu/100ml) 2.70 x 106 4.0 x 108 5.0 x108 Total coliform(cfu/100ml) 1.10 x 107 4.27 x 108 1.44 x 109 Faecal coliform(cfu/100ml) 3.30 x 105 6.14x106 1.28 x 107 TABLE 11: Mean faecal coliform counts (cfu/100ml) of irrigation water from the various irrigation schemes and the world health organization (WHO) standard for unrestricted irrigation Source Mean Std dev. Diff. fromWHO standard p-value Canal 3.28 x 105 2.70 x 105 3.28 x 105 0 Dam 6.15 x 106 1.04 x 106 6.15 x 106 0.0015 River 1.28 x 107 2.35 x 107 1.28 x 107 0.0028 WHO standard 1 x 103 * Diff. from WHO means differences between the faecal coliform counts in the tomatoes samples from the various sources and ICMSF standard 4.2.6.2 Bacteriological Quality of Tomatoes Samples from the Study Area Table 12 shows the results of the bacteriological quality of tomatoes sampled from the different irrigation schemes in the Kassena–Nankanna East Municipality. There were University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 75 significant differences in heterotrophic bacteria, total and fecal coliform counts among the tomatoes samples from Bonia (canal), Doba (dam) and Yigwania (river) at P < 0.05. The mean heterotrophic bacteria count of the external parts of tomato samples from Yigwania were significantly different (ANOVA: P < 0.05) from samples from Bonia. There were significant differences(ANOVA: P<0.05) between heterotrophic bacteria counts of the external parts of tomatoes sampled from Doba and Yigwania (Appendix C). However, there was no significant difference (ANOVA: P>0.05) between the mean heterotrophic bacteria count of the external parts of tomatoes sampled from Bonia and Doba. The mean heterotrophic bacteria count of the external parts of tomatoes samples from Bonia was 1.56 x 106cfu/g with a range of 3.10 x 103cfu/g to 5.0 x 107cfu/g whiles samples from Doba ranged from 1.70 x 106cfu/g to 9.0 x107cfu/g with a mean count of 3.30 x 107cfu/g. The highest mean heterotrophic count of external parts of tomatoes (8.11 x 107cfu/g) was recorded from Yigwania samples (Table 12). The mean heterotrophic bacteria counts of the internal parts of tomato sampled from Yigwania was significantly different from the mean heterotrophic bacteria count of the internal parts of tomato samples from Bonia (ANOVA: P < 0.05). The mean heterotrophic bacteria counts of the internal parts of tomatoes sampled from Bonia ranged from 3.30x103cfu/g to 9.0 x 105cfu/g with a mean counts of 9.39 x 104cfu/g; 3.90 x 104cfu/g to1.22 x 107cfu/g for Doba with a mean count of 1.81 x 106cfu/g and 4.10 x 104cfu/g to 7.10 x 107cfu/g for Yigwania with a mean count of 2.52 x 106cfu/g(Table 4.9) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 76 No significant difference (ANOVA: P > 0.05) was observed in the mean total coliforms of the external parts tomatoes samples from the three areas. The mean total coliform count of the external parts of tomatoes sampled from Yigwania was 1.86 x 107cfu/g with a range of 1.28 x 105cfu/g to 4.0 x 108cfu/g. The mean total coliform counts of the external parts of tomato samples from Doba ranged from 3.40 x 105cfu/100ml to 4.8 x 107cfu/g with a mean value of 7.59 x 106cfu/g whilst samples from Bonia ranged from 3.0 x 103cfu/g to 5.60 x 106cfu/g with a mean value of 3.08 x 105cfu/g (Table 12) The mean total coliform count of the internal parts of tomato samples from Yigwania and Bonia were significantly different (ANOVA: P < 0.05) as shown in appendix C. The mean total coliform count of the internal parts of tomatoes sampled from Bonia ranged from 3x103cfu/g to 6.20 x 105cfu/g with a mean count of 1.11 x 105cfu/g; 3.4 x 104cfu/g to 6.40 x 106cfu/g for Doba with a mean count of 6.70 x 105cfu/g and 3.0 x 103cfu/g to 9.0 x 106cfu/g for samples from Yigwania with an average count of 9.0 x 106cfu/g (Table 12) Faecal coliform count of the external parts of tomato sampled from Yigwania were significantly different from the faecal coliform count of the external parts of tomato sampled from Bonia (ANOVA: P < 0.05). Similarly, fecal coliform count of the external parts of tomato sampled from Doba was significantly different from fecal coliform count of the external parts of tomatoes samples from Bonia (ANOVA: P < 0.05). The highest mean fecal coliform count of the external parts of tomatoes samples was in samples from Yigwania (4.48 x105cfu/g) followed by samples from Doba (3.535 x 105cfu/g). Samples from Bonia (canal irrigation) had the least mean fecal coliform count (2.91 x 103cfu/g) of the external parts of tomatoes (Table 12). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 77 Faecal coliform counts of the internal parts of tomato samples from Yigwania were significantly different (ANOVA: P < 0.05) from mean fecal coliform counts of the internal parts of tomatoes samples from Bonia whiles fecal coliform counts of the internal parts of tomato samples from Doba were significantly different from mean faecal count of the internal pars of tomatoes samples from Bonia (ANOVA: P < 0.05) (Appendix C). The mean fecal coliform counts of the internal parts of tomatoes sampled from Bonia, Doba and Yigwania were 1.85 x 102cfu/g, 1.69 x 103cfu/g and 2.66 x 103cfu/g respectively (Table 12) The mean faecal coliform counts of the external and internal parts of tomatoes samples were compared with the international commission on microbiological specifications for foods (ICSMF, 1974) recommended level of 103 fecal coliform per gram fresh weight using a one sample t- test. The results shows that the faecal coliform counts of the external parts of tomatoes sampled from the three different sites were significantly higher than the ICSMF standard since their p -values were less than 0.05 as shown in table 13. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 78 TABLE 12 Mean bacteria load of the external and internal partsof tomatoes samples Area Tomatoes part Parameter Heterotrophic bacteria count Total coliform Count Faecal coliform count (cfu/g (cfu/g) (cfu/g) Bonia External 1.56 x 106 3.078 x 105 2.91 x 103 Internal 9.39 x 104 1.11 x 105 1.85 x 102 Doba External 3.3 x 107 7.59 x 106 3.535 x 105 Internal 1.81 x 106 6.7 x 105 1.69 x 103 Yigwania External 8.1 x 107 1.86 x 107 4.48 x 105 Internal 6.2 x 106 1.08 x 106 2.66 x 103 TABLE 13 Faecal coliform counts (cfu/100ml) in tomatoes samples from the various irrigation schemes and the international commission on microbiological specifications for foods (ICSMF, 1974) standard. Faecal coliform count (cfu/g) on tomatoes samples compared with ICMSF standard Source Part Mean Std dev. Diff. from ICMSF standard p- value Bonia external 2.91x103 2.68x103 9.10x102 0.0001 internal 1.85x102 2.83x102 -8.15x102 1 Doba internal 3.54x105 3.48x105 3.55x105 0 external 1.69x103 2.65x103 6.9x102 0.083 Yigwania external 4.48x105 6.44x105 4.47 x105 0.0003 internal 2.66x103 2.78x103 1.66x103 0.0014 ICMSF standard 1x103 Diff. from ICMSF means differences between the faecal coliform counts in the tomatoes samples from the various sources and ICMSF standard. Twenty seven (60%), 30 (75%) and 27 (77.1%) tomatoes sampled from Bonia, Doba and Yigwania respectively were contaminated externally with faecal coliform. Also, 19 (42.2%), 24 (60%) and 22 (62.9%) of tomatoes samples from Bonia, Doba and Yigwania respectively had their internal parts contaminated with faecal coliform as shown in figure 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 79 Figure 7: Percentage of tomatoes samples showing external and internal faecal contamination at the various irrigation schemes within the Kassena- Nankana East Municipality 4.2.6.3 Bacterial Species Isolated from the Irrigation Water and Tomatoes Samples Different bacterial species were identified from different water sources sampled from Bonia, Doba and Yigwania. The dominant bacterial species were Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, Xantomnas maltophilia, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Thirteen (36.1%) of the Bonia samples, 14 (46.6%) from Doba and 12 (40%) from Yigwania were contaminated with E. coli whiles 4 (11.1%), 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 80 (20%) and 5 (15.7%) samples from Bonia, Doba and Yigwania respectively were contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus (Table 14). Similar bacteria species were also isolated from the external and internal parts of the tomatoes samples. Four (11%) of the samples from Bonia, 6 (20%) from Doba and 8 (26.7%) from Yigwania were externally contaminated with E. coli whiles 2 (2.8%), 4 (13.3) and 3 (10%) samples from Bonia, Doba and Yigwania respectively were externally contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus (Table 5.2). One (2.8%), 3 (10%) and 4 (13.3%) samples from Bonia , Doba and Yigwania respectively were internally contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus (Table 15). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 81 TABLE 14: Bacteria species isolated from irrigation water samples from the different irrigation schemes. water source Bacteria species Frequency Percentage Bonia (N=36) Escherichia coli 13 36.1 Staphylococcus aureus 4 11.1 Klebsiella species Staphylococcus spp Faecal enterococci 12 8 9 33.3 22.2 25 Doba (N=30) Staphylococcus spp 8 22.2 Faecal enterococci 14 38.9 Escherichia coli 14 46.6 Staphylococcus aureus 6 20 Klebsiella species 17 56.7 Staphylococcus spp 12 40 Faecal enterococci 13 43.3 Klebsiella pneumoniae 3 10 Enterobacter spp 8 26.7 Xantomonas maltophilia 3 10 Pseudomonas spp 8 26.7 Yigwania (N=30) Escherichia coli 12 40 Staphylococcus aureus 5 16.7 Klebsiella species 20 66.7 Staphylococcus spp 11 36.7 Fecal enterococci 16 53.3 Klebsiella pneumoniae 5 16.7 Enterobacter spp 8 26.7 Xantomonas maltophilia 4 13.3 Pseudomonas spp 10 33.3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 82 TABLE 15: Bacteria species isolated from the external parts of tomatoes samples from the different irrigation schemes Source of tomatoes sample Bacteria species Frequency Percentage Bonia (N=36) Escherichia coli 4 11 Staphylococcus aureus 2 2.8 Klebsiella species 8 22.2 Staphylococcus spp 3 8.3 Faecal enterococci 5 13.9 Doba (N=30) Escherichia coli 6 20 Staphylococcus aureus 4 13.3 Klebsiella species 14 46.7 Staphylococcus spp 7 23.3 Faecal enterococci 4 13.3 Klebsiella pneumoniae 2 6.7 Enterobacter spp 4 13.3 Xantomonas maltophilia 3 10 Pseudomonas spp 4 13.3 Yigwania (N=30) Escherichia coli 8 26.7 Staphylococcus aureus 3 10 Klebsiella species 7 23.3 Staphylococcus spp 9 30 Faecal enterococci 7 23.3 Klebsiella pneumoniae 2 6.7 Enterobacter spp 3 10 Xantomonas maltophilia 2 6.7 Pseudomonas spp 4 13.3 N is the number of samples taken from the irrigated farms University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 83 TABLE 16: Bacteria species isolated from the internal parts of tomatoes samples from the different irrigation schemes Source of tomatoes sample Bacteria species Frequency Percentagee Bonia (N=36) Escherichia coli 1 2.8 Staphylococcus spp 2 5.6 Doba (N=30) Escherichia coli 3 10 Staphylococcus spp 1 3.3 Klebsiella species 4 13.3 Yigwania (N=30) Escherichia coli 4 13.3 Staphylococcus spp 2 5.6 Klebsiella species 2 5.6 N is the number of samples taken from the irrigated farms University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 84 CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 DISCUSSION 5.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Gender plays an essential role in agricultural development in the Kassena-Nankana East Municipality. Agriculture is a male dominated occupation within the Municipality. According to tradition, males are the heads of the family and are responsible for providing food for the family. Women on the other hand are responsible for processing, preserving and marketing of farm produce. The descriptive statistics from this research revealed that 95% of those involved in tomatoes and other vegetables production were males whiles 5% were females. This is in line with Drechsel et al (2006) who reported that, in 16 out of 20 cities in West Africa, men are mostly involved in open-space urban vegetable farming while women dominated the vegetable retail sector. This assertion is however contrary to studies conducted in some in East Africa indicated that women form the majority of vegetable farmers (Sawio, 1994; Mvena et al., 1991; Rakodi, 1988). The contradictions might be the result of different traditions that exist among African countries. Age plays a vital role in determining the productivity of agriculture; both the youth and elderly are the front line of farming in Ghana and sub Saharan Africa. The findings established that those who were within the age group of 20-50 years dominated with a percentage of ( 96%) whiles those who were less than 20 years were few with a percentage of (4%). The observe low participation in irrigation amoung the teenagers could be that they were people who were attending school and could not combine the farming with education. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 85 The study showed that people of all literacy levels are involved in irrigated urban and peri urban vegetable production and thus confirming other reports that people of all educational backgrounds are involved in urban and peri-urban agriculture (Amoah et al., 2008 ). This practice is however dominated by illiterates and people with very low level of education. Descriptive analysis revealed that farmers who did not have any form of formal education and those who had only primary education were the majority (82.4%). This is typical in Africa where Agriculture is considered to be for those who are not educated. This could be a contribution factor to contamination of the tomatoes since most of these illiterates farmers may not be aware of some of the agricultural practices that can bring about safer production of vegetables without contamination. 5.2 Environmental assessment The main sources of water for irrigation are dams, hand dug wells, rivers and canals. Majority of tomatoes producers (54%) at Doba in the study area use rubber hose connected to a pumping machine for irrigation. This method could either be overhead or flood depending on the user. The rubber hose could be held up as the water flows making it an overhead or the hose could be laid down as the water flows making it flood irrigation. Forty three percent and 28 percent of farmers at Yigwania and Doba respectively use watering cans of 15liters to fetch and manually carry water from a river and dam water to the fields, followed by watering of crops through the spout or shower head of the can simulating an overhead irrigation method. The high levels of bacterial contamination are of major public health concern. Apart from the irrigation scheme at Bonia (canal) where gravity based irrigation is mostly practiced which minimizes direct contact of irrigation water with the tomatoes, farmers University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 86 at the other sites use buckets, watering cans and rubber hose to introduce (spray) the water directly on the crops. This practice enhances direct contact of irrigation water with the edible parts of the tomatoes. This explains why most of the tomatoes were found to be contaminated with the coliforms. This is in agreement with the statement made by Sadovski et al., (1978) that spray irrigation could be expected to increase the risk of contamination in comparison to drip irrigation or flooding because vegetables provide large contact surfaces for water and for the attachment of microorganism. . The descriptive statistics revealed that 82.7% of the farmers in the municipality use pesticides and this confirm work done by Dinham (1993) who estimated that 87% of farmers in Ghana use chemical pesticides to control pests and diseases on vegetables and fruits. Ntow et al. (2006) also gave the proportions of pesticides used particularly on vegetable farms as herbicides (44%), fungicides (23%) and insecticides (33%). These pesticides can bio concentrate in the tomatoes produce which can affect the health of consumers. Some of the pesticides are however banned while others are only for restricted use but farmers still used both of them for vegetable production. For example, DDT is banned but some farmers in the study area, though few (10%) mentioned the use of the chemical for vegetable production. Majority (82.4%) of the respondents were illiterates and did not know the health and environmental effects of improper disposal of pesticides containers. They, thus throw the used pesticides containers into water bodies and the surrounding environment. this study also found that respondents with higher education levels were more likely to practices that will contaminate irrigation water and tomato crops. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 87 These results positively supported the previous study conducted by Bruening, Radhakrislma, and Rollins (1992) which stated low significant positive relationships existed between educational level of farmers and their perceptions about good agricultural mismanagement practices. It is therefore important to educate farmers on proper methods of handling and using these pesticides and disposal of the containers. Earlier research has shown that, there is an overuse, misuse and abuse of pesticides in farming mainly due to illiteracy and ignorance of the health effects of these chemicals (Ntow et al., 2006). Yeboah et al., (2004) reported that majority (82.4%) of tomato farmers are illiterates and do not adhere to safe agronomic practices. Many of the agrochemicals are toxic to human health and the environment and as a result their use should be strictly regulated internationally, nationally and regionally with regulations and conventions (WHO, 2008; PAR, 2000). It is important for Environmental Protection Agency and Agricultural Extension Officers to educate farmers on the proper handling and usage of these pesticides. The reliance on organic fertilizers (poultry manure and cow dung) in the study area could lead to the contamination of the irrigation water and the tomatoes produce especially farmers at Doba and Yigwania where organic manure is applied on the farms by broadcasting method. None of the irrigation schemes had a toilet facility; farmers therefore practice open defecation close to the water bodies and the farms. These practices can lead to the contamination of irrigation water and tomatoes produced. Majority of the respondents at Bonia complained about malaria and schistosomiasis as their major health problems. The Canal that is used for irrigation may have created an ideal breeding site for mosquitoes or for snails, bringing both the vectors and the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 88 disease closer to the farmers (Boelee, 2006). The irrigation water bodies serve as a source of water for bathing and other recreational activities by the farmers and their families. These activities can easily lead to the transmission of the schistosomiasis to the farmers. Various studies have associated this disease with water-contact activities like recreational (swimming) or specific agricultural activities, washing of clothes and cooking utensils, fishing and with the proximity of homes or communities to sites harbouring cercariae shedding Bulinus and Biomphalaria snail species (Matthys et al., 2007; El-Ayyat et al., 2003). Farmers at Doba and Yigwania ranked diarrhea first to malaria and schistosomiasis as their major health concern. This may be as a result of poor sanitary conditions arising from lack of toilet facilities and free range system of animal husbandary in these two areas. Farmers within the study community rear animals by the free range system and the rich grazing fields along the water bodies attract grazing animals. Twenty-nine (72.5%) of the farmers at Doba and 28 (80%) of farmers at Yigwania do not have fences to keep these animals out of their tomato farms. Field observation also showed that 25 (55.6) farmers from Bonia, 23 (57.5) from Doba and 18 (51.42) from Yigwania did not prevent wild animals from entering to their farms (Figure 5). A possible reason why respondents tried to prohibit wild animals from accessing their gardens may be they were more concerned about preventing crops from being eaten or destroyed rather than being concerned about food safety issues. Therefore, they may not consider keeping other animals, such as domestic bird animals and pets, out of their gardens because these animals would not damage their crops. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 89 The high nitrate levels in the Dam and canal water samples could have been as a result of the presence of these animals that have defecated or urinated into the water bodies directly or indirectly through runoffs. Earlier works carried out to assess the quality of underground water in the study area recorded high concentration of nitrate ions (12.40mg/l) in some selected wells above the recommended standard of 10mg/l. They attributed this high concentration of nitrates to the presence of animals (Oyelude et al., 2013). These water bodies serve as source drinking water for both domestic and wild animals in the area. The sloppy and low lying nature of irrigated lands in the study area especially the farms at Yigwania could have facillitated the transport of faeces of wild birds, domestic animals, human excreta and household waste into water sources which might have lead to contamination of irrigation water. Earliear findings revealed that farm run-offs could be a major source of contamination because it often carries faeces of wild birds, domestic animals, human excreta and household waste into water sources (Amponsah- Doku et al., 2010; Drechsel et al., 2000). It implies that fecal matter from domestic and wild animals could be a source of contamination of irrigation water and tomatoes produce. Farmers should prevent animals from entering their irrigation farms, especially during the growing and harvesting seasons. Several studies have come out with findings that animals can cause contamination of irrigation water and vegetables through their faeces. They suggested that farmers should stop animals from entering their farms in order to reduce the risk of contamination (Davis and Kendall, 2005; Bihn, et al., 2000). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 90 5.3 Physico-chemical characteristic of irrigation water samples The results showed that average pH values obtained from water samples collected from the irrigation water sources (river, dam and canal) were close to neutral and optimum for the growth and development of most mesophillic bacteria and must have supported the proliferation of heterotrophic bacterial count, total coliform and faecal coliforms in these water sources. According to Pautshwa et al. (2009), temperature and pH have an effect on the level of faecal coliform and enterococci in water bodies. Electrical conductivity (EC) is also an important parameter for water quality. Higher conductivity indicates high amount of ions that exceed the recommended limit (Ayers and Westcot, 1985). None of the three different sources showed levels of EC above the limit recommended for irrigation. However, EC was significantly correlated with most of the physico-chemical parameters. Sunitha et al., (2005) identified that the EC finds higher level correlation significance with many of water quality parameters, like TDS, total alkalinity, sulphates, total hardness and magnesium. Mahajan et al., (2005) identified that all the parameters are more or less correlated with others in the correlation and regression study of the physico-chemical parameters of ground water. Kalyanaraman (2005) identified that the water quality of ground and surface water can be predicted with sufficient accuracy just by the measurement of EC alone. This provides a means for easier and faster monitoring of water quality in a location. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a very important indicator for the survival of aquatic organisms and is thought to be a better measure of water quality than feacal coliform counts. The main factor contributing to reduced dissolved oxygen levels is the build-up University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 91 of organic wastes. Findings from this study indicated the practice of free range system of animal husbandry and open defecation as well as the discharge of sewage into the water bodies which could account for the observed lower levels. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in unpolluted water normally range between 8 and 10mg/L and concentrations below 5 mg/L adversely affect aquatic life (Rao, 2005; DFID, 1999). The mean values of nitrate and nitrite obtained for dam water and river water sources where high. Nitrate and nitrite levels for dam were 23.3mg/l and 11.8mg/l respectively whiles that of the river was 11.7mg/l and 7.6mg/l respectively. Free range system of animal rearing as well as open defecation and the use of organic and inorganic fertilizers could account for the high levels. Earlier works carried out to assess the quality of underground water in the study area recorded high concentration of nitrate ions (12.40mg/l) in some selected wells above the recommended standard of 10mg/l for drinking water. They attributed this high concentration of nitrates to the use of inorganic fertilizers and manure in agricultural activities, and indiscriminate disposal of human and animal excreta (Oyelude et al., 2013). The significant higher levels of nitrates observed in the dam water sources could have been as a result of increased human and animal activities in and around the water body. Because the canal is a built infrastructure unlike the dam and the river, the people do not defecate close to it. The canals are also design in such a way that animals cannot get direct access to the water. This might have been the reason for the low levels of nitrate in such water bodies. The low levels of DO and the high nitrogen levels correlates very well with the high levels of total coliform, heterotrophic bacteria and faecal coliforms in these water bodies since nitrates levels in water bodies can stimulate the growth of microorganisms. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 92 The levels of phosphate were within World Health Organization guidelines for irrigation water. Canal water recorded the lowest because there is less activity along such water body. Doba dam recorded the highest and is due to human and animal activities from around the vicinity of the dam water body. 5.4 Bacteriological quality of irrigation water and tomatoes produce The results showed that the water samples from the canal, dam and river did not meet the International Commission and the World Health Organization (WHO, 2006b) guide lines for faecal coliform bacteria limit (1x103cfu/100ml) in unrestricted irrigation of crops likely to be eaten raw. This is in agreement with previous investigations in Tamale and and Kassena-Nankana East municipality which indicated that most of the water sources for irrigation are polluted (Ataogye, 2012; Abdul-Ghaniyu et al., 2002 ). The observed high levels of faecal coliform are an indication of faecal contamination and hence poor bacteriological quality of the irrigation water being used in the study area. Fecal coliforms normally live in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. Their presence in water and tomatoes produce is an indication of fecal contamination and of the potential presence of enteric pathogens which originate in the digestive system of these animals. Hence these waters are not suitable for human consumption and irrigation of tomatoes and other vegetables without prior treatment. There is therefore the need to improve education of farmers and residents to desist from defecating along the banks of irrigation water sources as they can serve as a source of contamination of vegetables. Furthermore, consumers’ needs to be aware and impressed upon to wash vegetable properly before consumption. Moreover, the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 93 municipal authority needs to enforce by-laws preventing open defecation and other insanitary practices along water sources. Furthermore, the local administration needs to provide toilet and waste disposal facilities. On the contrary, the canal water was less polluted than the dam and river. The canal irrigation system at Bonia is part of the Tono irrigation facility which is managed by the Irrigation Company of Upper Region (ICOUR). The management and regulation of the activities of farmers in canal irrigation system could be the reason for the low level of contamination of irrigation water in the canal compared to the dam and the river water bodies. Also the flowing nature of the canal may cause pollutants to be distributed thereby reducing their concentration (Fei-Baffoe, 2008). The environmental assessment revealed that water from major gutters and drains within the heart of the municipality flow directly into the river water body and this could be a contributing factor to the high microbial load in such water body compared to the dam and the canal water bodies. Tomatoes samples analyzed showed heterotrophic bacteria count, total coliform count and faecal coliform counts more than the 1 x 103 per 100 g wet weight hence can be classified as undesirable for consumption according to the International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Food (ICMSF, 1974) and the World Health Organization guidelines (WHO, 2006b). The possible sources of contamination of the tomatoes in the study area are; irrigation water, manure, wild and domestic animals, human excreta and human handling. The use of contaminated irrigation water and produce handling practices could result in increases in the bacterial load on the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 94 tomatoes (Keraita et al. 2007; Amoah et al., 2005; Obiri-Danso et al., 2005; Keraita et al., 2003; Francis et al., 1999;). Both external and internal tissues of the tomatoes sampled were contaminated with bacteria and this corroborates the findings of previous studies that pathogens may colonize both internal and external plant parts and can survive for long periods depending on environmental factors and nutrients (Olaimat and Holley, 2012; Brandl, 2006). Solomon et al (2002) have shown that pathogenic E. coli 0157:H7 can become internalize in the inner parts of vegetables and become protected from the action of sanitizing agents. The presence of E. coli and other pathogens in the internal parts are of particular concern because it would be difficult to remove such pathogens by washing the external parts. Washing of vegetables may not eliminate pathogens in the internal parts in order to make them safe for consumption once they are contaminated. This emphasizes the need to ensure good agricultural practices to protect the health of consumers. Suslow, et al., (2000) suggested that since it is difficult to remove or kill harmful bacteria that exist in produce, minimizing microbial contamination from production to consumption is the best option than cleaning the produce after it has been contaminated. The findings from this study also revealed that contamination of the external parts of tomatoes was higher than the internal tomatoes parts for all pathogens tested. This is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 95 because the external parts come into direct contact with plausible contaminants such as the irrigation water, organic manures and human excreta. Most of the isolated pathogens were enterobacteria that could be transmitted by both animals and humans. Isolation of pathogens such as Xanthomonas maltophilia, Klebsiella pneumonia and Staphylococcus aureus from the tomatoes produce as well as the water sources indicates the potential risk of infections. Outbreak of water and food borne diseases such as bacillary dysentery, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, typhoid, respiratory infections, gastroenteritis, and food poisoning could occur if hygiene, water and sanitation facilities and practices are not up to standard in these areas. Finally, Isolation of E. coli from the tomatoes produce is of significant concern because strains of these bacteria are pathogenic and are the most common cause of infantile diarrhea in many countries, specifically in the developing world. Many studies in different parts of the world have linked pathogenic E. coli as one of the most common pathogens associated with the endemic life-threatening diarrhea in many countries (Black et al., 1981; Guerrant et al., 1983 and Feachem et al., 1983). There is the need to develop risk reduction strategies at the farm level to help safeguard the health of consumers. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 96 CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Conclusion The study was conducted to assess three irrigation systems in the Kassena-Nankanna East Municipality with respect to microbiological quality of irrigation water and tomato crops grown. The study showed that more than 80 percent of farmers involved in tomatoes cultivation in the study area are males. Majority of the farmers were illiterates males and were within the ages of 20 to 40 years. Farmers with low level of education and no training in irrigation were more likely to carry out improper agricultural management practices that could lead to the contamination of irrigation water and tomato crops. Findings from the study indicate the need to educate farmers on good irrigation practices in order to reduce the level of contamination of irrigation water and tomato crops. The study has confirmed that water from major gutters and drains within the heart of the Municipality flow directly into the river water source and this could be a contributing factor to the high microbial load and nitrate levels in such water body compared to the dam and the canal water sources. Other negative practices by farmers include; disposal of used pesticides containers into water bodies and the surrounding vegetation, applying pesticides on tomato crops without wearing protective gear, the practice of open defecation close to the water bodies and the farms, rearing of animals by the free range system and overhead or splash irrigation method using buckets and watering cans. This further emphasizes the need to educate tomatoes farmers on good agricultural practices . University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 97 Bacteriological analysis of both irrigation water and tomatoes indicated that though with varying loads, the level of bacterial contamination of the irrigation water sources as well as the tomatoes is above the acceptable limits. Comparing the results to WHO standard for irrigation water indicated they are not suitable for irrigation especially to grow tomatoes and other vegetables, which can be eaten raw. Microbial contamination of tomatoes in the study area is not limited to the external surface, but the internal parts could also pose risk to consumers. A variety of important pathogens were identified from the tomatoes as well as the water sources and indicate the potential risk of transmitting diarrheagenic bacteria and causative agents of other important diseases. Limitations of the Study The laboratory analysis for the microbiological quality of irrigation water and tomatoes crops did not include down streaming analysis and as a result certain specicific pathogens were not confirmed. The researcher did not include some farms which were part of the study due to inaccessible nature of roads leading to these farms. Since most of the farmers were illitrates, it was difficult for the researcher and field assistants to ask questions based on the questionnaire design which had no leading questions but which had to be asked in this case. . University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 98 6.2 Recommendations Agriculture extension officers and other regulatory agencies should adopt innovative measures to educate farmers on proper agronomic practices in order to improve upon the microbial quality of vegetables produced in the area. Agricultural extension officers of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture should educate farmers on best methods of pesticides and fertilizer application in order to avoid possible contamination of surface waters used in irrigation. A detailed yearly environmental assessment programme should be included in the Kassena-Nankana East Municipality development planning programme in order to help identify environmental antecedents that might be contributing to the contamination of irrigation water and vegetables and also help educate farmers on ways and means of preventing these contamination. Irrigation companies or management should ensure periodic monitoring of water quality and practices that could predispose irrigation water to contamination. The municipal authority needs to enforce by-laws preventing open defecation and other insanitary practices along water sources. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 99 The local administration needs to provide toilet and waste disposal facilities in the study area. Farmers should stop irrigation for some days before harvesting. this will help reduce the contamination level on the tomatoes fruits before they are harvested. Safety practices associated with tomatoes should not be limited to external washing only since the internal parts also pose risk to consumers. There is the additional need of heating tomatoes where possible to eliminate microbes both externally and internally before consumption. The researcher recommends that the study should be replicated in other regions in the country to assess the level of bacteriological quality of tomatoes and irrigation water. This is important because a greater portion of tomatoes in the Ghanaian market are produced through the irrigation method across the whole country. 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University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 113 APPENDICES Appendix A: Sample of questionnaire The aim of this study is to obtain background information about environmental sources of contamination of irrigation water and its effect on the quality of tomatoes produce and to discuss matters related to the health of the farmers in the Kassena-Nankana East Municipality .The result will be used to provide useful advice to farmers on ways to reduce vegetable contamination. Thank you very much for your kind cooperation. PART A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA 01. Sex: male [ ] female [ ] 02. Age: below 20yrs [ ] 20 -30yrs [ ] 31 – 40yrs [ ] Above 40 [ ] 03. Are you married? A. Yes [ ] B. No [ ] C. divorce [ ] D. Separated [ ] E. others.............. 06. Religion: Christian [ ] Moslem [ ] traditional [ ] others [ ] 07. literacy status: Primary [ ] JSS/MSLC [ ] SSS/A’ level [ ] Graduate/Certificate [ ] Illiterate [ ]. 08a.Do you have any training in farming? Yes [ ] No [ ] B if yes what level of training? Attended agricultural institutes [ ] Offered agaric at S.S.S [ ] Through extension officers [ ] others. [ ] 09. How long have you worked on irrigated farms? 10. How far is your home away from the farms? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 114 PART B ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT Irrigation water quality assessment 11. What is your source of water for irrigation? A. canal [ ] B. Gutter/stream [ ] C. river [ ] D. Dam [ ] E. others.................................. 12. What is the commonest source of water for irrigation in the Municipality? A. canal [ ] B. Gutter [ ] C. river [ ] D. Dam [ ] E. Others…………………………… 13. What water source do you consider best for irrigation? A. Well [ ] B. Pipe [ ] C. canal [ ] D. Dam [ ] E. Others……………………… 14. Is source of water for irrigation water regular? Yes [ ] No [ ] Irrigation method 15. a When do you cultivate your crops? All year round [ ] Rainy season [ ] Dry season [] b. Which irrigation method(s) do you use? Watering cans [ ] Water hose [ ] Sprinkler [ ] Furrow [ ] others (specify)……………………………… c. Are you satisfied with this system? Yes [ ] No [ ] D.If no, which alternative would you prefer…………………………………… 16a. Do you wash your hands after irrigation/farming activity? Yes [ ] No [ ] b. if yes with which water? Dam [ ] canal [ ] stream/river [ ] borehole [ ] others [ ] c. Do you wash your hands with soap/disinfectants? Yes [ ] No [ ] University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 115 Fertilizers 17. Has animal manure been used for fertilizer on your farm? Yes no If no, skip question 18a to21 18. What kind of animals is the manure from? A.Cattle [ ] B.Sheep [ ] C.Goat [ ] D.Poultry [ ] E. Unknown [ ] 19. Do you use any protective clothing when applying manure? Yes [ ] No [ ] 20. Do you wash your hands with soap/disinfectants after manure application? Yes [ ] No [ ] 21a. Are yes chemical fertilizers used? Yes [ ] No [ ] b. How are they applied? Pesticides used 22. a.Do you apply pesticides on your farm? Yes [ ] No[ ] b. If yes, which type(s) of pesticides?……………………………………………… c.How are they applied? d.What is the water source used for mixing and applying pesticides? A. canal water [ ] B.borehole water[ ] C.dam water [ ] D. others[ ] e. do you employ any protective measure when applying pesticides? Yes [ ] No [ ] 23.a Where is pesticide equipment stored when not in use? A on the farm B. sent to the house C.others University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 116 B.Where do you put the put the pesticides containers after using the pesticides? A. sent to the house [ ] B. leave it on the farm [ ] C. throw it into the water body [ ] D. others [ ] Tools and Equipment and equipment used in the farm 24a.Are irrigation tools frequently maintained? Yes [ ] No [ ] b.Is there any broken parts of your irrigation equipment? Yes [ ] No [ ] 25. What do you use to harvest your vegetables? A.Bare hand [ ] bare hand with utensil (e.g.: knife) [ ] c. Gloved hand [ ] d.Gloved hand with utensil[ ] e. Automated/machine (no hand contact) [ ] f.Others [ ] Animal Management Are there animals around the field Yes [ ] No [ ] 26a.if yes, then are farm animals or domestic animals housed or grazed anywhere near the field? Yes [ ] No [ ] b.If yes are there fences to keep them out of crops and away from water sources? Yes [ ] No [ ] c.Is there evidence of amphibians, reptiles, insects or other birds inside the packing area? Yes [ ] No [ ] d. if yes, do you derived them away from the farms? Yes [ ] No [ ] 27. Are farm animals (e.g., horses, donkeys) used in the fields? Yes [ ] No [ ] University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 117 28. Are there any health problems in some of the farm animals? Yes [ ] No [ ] Explain: Health and hygiene 29. What is the prevailing health problems associated with your farming business? A. malaria [ ] B. schistosomiasis [ ] C. cholera [ ] D. others[ ] 30. Do you have access to portable water Yes [ ] No [ ] 31. What water treatment practices do you apply? 32. Do you seek medical attention when you are ill? Yes [ ] No [ ] 33.a Do you have sanitation facilities? Yes [ ] No [ ] b. If yes then where are they located a. home [ ] b. farm[ ] others [ ] c. What type sanitation facilities do you have? A.Toilet [ ] B. urinary facilities [ ] C. othetrs [ ] 34a. Are there toilets facilities near the farm? Yes [ ] No [ ] b.If no, where do you defecate/urinate? On the farm [ ] closed to the farm [ ] near the water source [ ] very far from the farm [ ] 35. Do you wear disposable gloves when touching tomatoes produce? Yes [ ] No [ ] 36. a. Are there children in the fields? Yes [ ] No [ ] If no skip 37b to d b.if yes, do they come in contact with the produce? Yes [ ] No [ ] University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 118 c. Do they defecate/urinate in the fields? Yes [ ] No [ ] d. Do they wash their hands after defecating? Yes [ ] No [ ] 37a. has your source of water for irrigation been used for other purposes? Yes [ ] No [ ] b.If yes, explain…………………………………………………………………… 38.Are there runoffs into your farms and irrigation water source? Yes [ ] No [ ] University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 119 Appendix B: Multiple comparisons of the physic-chemical characteristics of the irrigation water. Post hoc Multiple Comparisons LSD Dependen t Variable (I) SOU RCE (J) SOUR CE Mean Difference (I- J) Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound PH canal Dam .18500* .05230 .001 .0811 .2889 River .02500 .05230 .634 -.0789 .1289 Dam Canal -.18500* .05230 .001 -.2889 -.0811 River -.16000* .05463 .004 -.2685 -.0515 River Canal -.02500 .05230 .634 -.1289 .0789 Dam .16000* .05463 .004 .0515 .2685 EC Canal Dam -178.79444* 17.50876 .000 -213.5634 -144.0255 River -234.72778* 17.50876 .000 -269.4967 -199.9588 Dam Canal 178.79444* 17.50876 .000 144.0255 213.5634 River -55.93333* 18.28731 .003 -92.2483 -19.6184 River Cana 234.72778* 17.50876 .000 199.9588 269.4967 Dam 55.93333* 18.28731 .003 19.6184 92.2483 TDS Canal Dam -77.58611* 7.49031 .000 -92.4604 -62.7118 River -111.55278* 7.49031 .000 -126.4271 -96.6785 Dam canal 77.58611* 7.49031 .000 62.7118 92.4604 river -33.96667* 7.82338 .000 -49.5023 -18.4310 River cana 111.55278* 7.49031 .000 96.6785 126.4271 dam 33.96667* 7.82338 .000 18.4310 49.5023 SAL Canal Dam -.00722 .01473 .625 -.0365 .0220 River -.02056 .01473 .166 -.0498 .0087 Dam Canal .00722 .01473 .625 -.0220 .0365 River -.01333 .01539 .389 -.0439 .0172 River Canal .02056 .01473 .166 -.0087 .0498 Dam .01333 .01539 .389 -.0172 .0439 TURB Canal Dam -195.63333* 28.14401 .000 -251.5218 -139.7449 River -273.70000* 28.14401 .000 -329.5884 -217.8116 Dam Canal 195.63333* 28.14401 .000 139.7449 251.5218 River -78.06667* 29.39546 .009 -136.4402 -19.6931 River Canal 273.70000* 28.14401 .000 217.8116 329.5884 Dam 78.06667* 29.39546 .009 19.6931 136.4402 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 120 Appendix B continued NO3_N Canal Dam -21.69000* .18617 .000 -22.0597 -21.3203 River -10.15667* .18617 .000 -10.5264 -9.7870 Dam Canal 21.69000* .18617 .000 21.3203 22.0597 River 11.53333* .19445 .000 11.1472 11.9195 River Canal 10.15667* .18617 .000 9.7870 10.5264 Dam -11.53333* .19445 .000 -11.9195 -11.1472 NO2_N Canal Dam -10.765573* .303465 .000 -11.36819 -10.16295 River -6.506310* .303465 .000 -7.10893 -5.90369 Dam Canal 10.765573* .303465 .000 10.16295 11.36819 River 4.259263* .316958 .000 3.62985 4.88868 River Canal 6.506310* .303465 .000 5.90369 7.10893 DAM -4.259263* .316958 .000 -4.88868 -3.62985 PO4 Canal Dam -21.81056* .16360 .000 -22.1354 -21.4857 River -.61389* .16360 .000 -.9388 -.2890 Dam Canal 21.81056* .16360 .000 21.4857 22.1354 River 21.19667* .17088 .000 20.8573 21.5360 River Canal .61389* .16360 .000 .2890 .9388 Dam -21.19667* .17088 .000 -21.5360 -20.8573 DO Canal Dam .25278 .54965 .647 -.8387 1.3443 River .64944 .54965 .240 -.4420 1.7409 Dam Canal -.25278 .54965 .647 -1.3443 .8387 River .39667 .57409 .491 -.7434 1.5367 River Canal -.64944 .54965 .240 -1.7409 .4420 Dam -.39667 .57409 .491 -1.5367 .7434 BOD Canal Dam -1.47722* .48834 .003 -2.4470 -.5075 River -1.30389* .48834 .009 -2.2736 -.3341 Dam Canal 1.47722* .48834 .003 .5075 2.4470 River .17333 .51006 .735 -.8395 1.1862 River Canal 1.30389* .48834 .009 .3341 2.2736 Dam -.17333 .51006 .735 -1.1862 .8395 Na+ Canal Dam -2.35500* .13519 .000 -2.6235 -2.0865 River -2.25833* .13519 .000 -2.5268 -1.9899 Dam Canal 2.35500* .13519 .000 2.0865 2.6235 River .09667 .14120 .495 -.1837 .3771 River Canal 2.25833* .13519 .000 1.9899 2.5268 Dam -.09667 .14120 .495 -.3771 .1837 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 121 Appendix B continued K+ Canal Dam -8.07167* .26361 .000 -8.5951 -7.5482 River -2.85167* .26361 .000 -3.3751 -2.3282 Dam Canal 8.07167* .26361 .000 7.5482 8.5951 River 5.22000* .27533 .000 4.6733 5.7667 River Canal 2.85167* .26361 .000 2.3282 3.3751 Dam -5.22000* .27533 .000 -5.7667 -4.6733 Temp. Canal Dam -.08389 .09800 .394 -.2785 .1107 River .02278 .09800 .817 -.1718 .2174 Dam Canal .08389 .09800 .394 -.1107 .2785 River .10667 .10236 .300 -.0966 .3099 River Canal -.02278 .09800 .817 -.2174 .1718 Da -.10667 .10236 .300 -.3099 .0966 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 122 Appendix C: Multiple comparison of bacteriological quality of irrigation water and tomatoes produce in the study area Multiple Comparisons LSD Depen- dent Varia- ble (I) SOU R-CE (J) SOU R-CE Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound Hetrotrop hic bacteria count in water Canal Dam - 402376038. 88889 27164137 2.63164 .142 - 941801969.5 121 1370498 91.7343 River - 497365305. 55556 27164137 2.63164 .070 - 1036791236. 1787 4206062 5.0676 Dam Cam 402376038. 88889 27164137 2.63164 .142 - 137049891.7 343 9418019 69.5121 River - 94989266.6 6667 28372016 0.44982 .739 - 658401276.0 543 4684227 42.7210 River Canal 497365305. 55556 27164137 2.63164 .070 - 42060625.06 76 1036791 236.1787 Dam 94989266.6 6667 28372016 0.44982 .739 - 468422742.7 210 6584012 76.0543 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 123 Appendix C continued Heteroterop hic bacteria in external parts of tomatoes Canal Dam - 31473941 .66667 22673907.7 8274 .168 - 76499828.8 799 1355194 5.5466 River - 79550941 .66667* 22673907.7 8274 .001 - 124576828. 8799 - 3452505 4.4534 Dam Canal 31473941 .66667 22673907.7 8274 .168 - 13551945.5 466 7649982 8.8799 River - 48077000 .00000* 23682124.3 0905 .045 - 95105005.4 205 - 1048994. 5795 River Canal 79550941 .66667* 22673907.7 8274 .001 34525054.4 534 1245768 28.8799 Dam 48077000 .00000* 23682124.3 0905 .045 1048994.57 95 9510500 5.4205 Heterotro- phic bacteria in internal parts of tomatoes Canal Dam - 1713277. 77778 2185846.12 893 .435 - 6053934.98 65 2627379. 4309 River - 6060111. 11111* 2185846.12 893 .007 - 10400768.3 198 - 1719453. 9024 Dam Canal 1713277. 77778 2185846.12 893 .435 - 2627379.43 09 6053934. 9865 River - 4346833. 33333 2283041.82 243 .060 - 8880501.92 65 186835.2 599 River Canal 6060111. 11111* 2185846.12 893 .007 1719453.90 24 1040076 8.3198 Dam 4346833. 33333 2283041.82 243 .060 - 186835.259 9 8880501. 9265 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 124 Appendix C continued Total coliform in external parts of tomatoes Canal Dam - 7283172. 22222 10353914.2 9876 .484 - 27843994.0 223 1327764 9.5778 River - 18381505 .55556 10353914.2 9876 .079 - 38942327.3 556 2179316. 2445 Dam Canal 7283172. 22222 10353914.2 9876 .484 - 13277649.5 778 2784399 4.0223 River - 11098333 .33333 10814310.7 8657 .307 - 32573411.3 142 1037674 4.6475 River Canal 18381505 .55556 10353914.2 9876 .079 - 2179316.24 45 3894232 7.3556 Dam 11098333 .33333 10814310.7 8657 .307 - 10376744.6 475 3257341 1.3142 Total coliform in internal parts of tomatoes Canal Dam - 558783.3 3333 327057.114 68 .091 - 1208253.94 51 90687.27 84 River - 972883.3 3333* 327057.114 68 .004 - 1622353.94 51 - 323412.7 216 Dam Canal 558783.3 3333 327057.114 68 .091 - 90687.2784 1208253. 9451 River - 414100.0 0000 341600.015 32 .228 - 1092449.93 02 264249.9 302 River Canal 972883.3 3333* 327057.114 68 .004 323412.721 6 1622353. 9451 Dam 414100.0 0000 341600.015 32 .228 - 264249.930 2 1092449. 9302 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 125 Appendix C continued Faecal coliform in water Canal Dam - 5820550.0000 0 3544242.3 4542 .104 - 12858712. 8800 121761 2.8800 River - 12511550.000 00* 3544242.3 4542 .001 - 19549712. 8800 - 547338 7.1200 Dam Canal 5820550.0000 0 3544242.3 4542 .104 - 1217612.8 800 128587 12.8800 River - 6691000.0000 0 3701840.3 9778 .074 - 14042121. 3783 660121. 3783 River Canal 12511550.000 00* 3544242.3 4542 .001 5473387.1 200 195497 12.8800 Dam 6691000.0000 0 3701840.3 9778 .074 - 660121.37 83 140421 21.3783 Faecal coliform in external parts of tomatoes Canal Dam - 350669.44444 * 153206.30 972 .024 - 654906.81 23 - 46432.0 766 River - 444982.77778 * 153206.30 972 .005 - 749220.14 56 - 140745. 4100 Dam Canal 350669.44444 * 153206.30 972 .024 46432.076 6 654906. 8123 River -94313.33333 160018.77 165 .557 - 412078.90 04 223452. 2337 River Canal 444982.77778 * 153206.30 972 .005 140745.41 00 749220. 1456 Dam 94313.33333 160018.77 165 .557 - 223452.23 37 412078. 9004 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 126 Appendix C continued Faecal coliform in internal parts of tomatoes Canal Dam -1507.45455* 551.48949 .008 -2603.0847 - 411.824 4 River -2475.12121* 551.48949 .000 -3570.7514 - 1379.49 11 Dam Canal 1507.45455* 551.48949 .008 411.8244 2603.08 47 River -967.66667 564.46749 .090 -2089.0799 153.746 5 River Canal 2475.12121* 551.48949 .000 1379.4911 3570.75 14 Dam 967.66667 564.46749 .090 -153.7465 2089.07 99 Total coliform count in water Canal Dam - 416321944.44 444 478879617 .46515 .387 - 136728195 7.6598 534638 068.770 9 River - 1435181944.4 4444* 478879617 .46515 .003 - 238614195 7.6598 - 484221 931.229 1 Dam Canal 416321944.44 444 478879617 .46515 .387 - 534638068 .7709 136728 1957.65 98 River - 1018860000.0 0000* 500173447 .75977 .044 - 201210534 0.0487 - 256146 59.9513 River Canal 1435181944.4 4444* 478879617 .46515 .003 484221931 .2291 238614 1957.65 98 Dam 1018860000.0 0000* 500173447 .75977 .044 25614659. 9513 201210 5340.04 87 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 127 Appendix D: Descriptive statistics of the physic-chemical characterics of the irrigation water in the study area Descriptives N Mean Std. Deviati on Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Mini mum Maxi mum Lower Bound Upper Boun d PH Canal 36 6.941 7 .25000 .04167 6.8571 7.026 3 6.70 7.90 Dam 30 6.756 7 .13817 .02523 6.7051 6.808 3 6.50 7.00 River 30 6.916 7 .22141 .04042 6.8340 6.999 3 6.50 7.30 Total 96 6.876 0 .22466 .02293 6.8305 6.921 6 6.50 7.90 EC Canal 36 122.4 722 13.9088 6 2.31814 117.76 61 127.1 783 98.0 0 136. 00 Dam 30 301.2 667 123.498 41 22.5476 2 255.15 16 347.3 817 142. 00 564. 00 River 30 357.2 000 24.5292 2 4.47840 348.04 06 366.3 594 312. 00 400. 00 Total 96 251.6 979 124.618 59 12.7188 3 226.44 78 276.9 480 98.0 0 564. 00 TDS Canal 36 66.51 39 11.0430 9 1.84051 62.777 4 70.25 03 49.0 0 79.0 0 Dam 30 144.1 000 51.6285 5 9.42604 124.82 16 163.3 784 71.0 0 185. 00 River 30 178.0 667 11.4671 4 2.09360 173.78 48 182.3 486 156. 00 188. 00 Total 96 125.6 198 56.5604 8 5.77268 114.15 96 137.0 800 49.0 0 188. 00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 128 Appendix D continued SAL Canal 36 .1361 .04871 .00812 .1196 .1526 .10 .20 Dam 30 .1433 .05683 .01038 .1221 .1646 .10 .30 River 30 .1567 .07279 .01329 .1295 .1838 .00 .40 Total 96 .1448 .05959 .00608 .1327 .1569 .00 .40 TUR B Canal 36 14.5000 1.56497 .26083 13.970 5 15.02 95 12.00 18.0 0 Dam 30 210.133 3 94.2863 3 17.2142 5 174.92 62 245.3 404 44.00 639. 00 River 30 288.200 0 180.756 72 33.0015 1 220.70 43 355.6 957 34.00 502. 00 Total 96 161.166 7 163.380 93 16.6750 0 128.06 26 194.2 707 12.00 639. 00 NO3_ N Canal 36 1.6167 .49425 .08238 1.4494 1.783 9 1.10 2.80 Dam 30 23.3067 1.21625 .22206 22.852 5 23.76 08 21.00 24.9 0 River 30 11.7733 .21162 .03864 11.694 3 11.85 24 11.40 12.4 0 Total 96 11.5687 9.03382 .92201 9.7383 13.39 92 1.10 24.9 0 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 129 Appendix D continued NO2_ N Canal 36 1.0510 5 .240682 .040114 .96961 1.132 49 .801 2.01 3 Dam 30 11.816 62 1.19117 3 .217478 11.371 83 12.26 141 9.40 0 14.3 61 River 30 7.5573 6 1.82860 4 .333856 6.8745 5 8.240 17 4.21 7 10.2 25 Total 96 6.4485 1 4.69075 7 .478748 5.4980 8 7.398 95 .801 14.3 61 PO4 Canal 36 1.5361 .16929 .02821 1.4788 1.5934 1.20 1.80 Dam 30 23.346 7 1.10289 .20136 22.934 8 23.758 5 20.10 24.70 River 30 2.1500 .39194 .07156 2.0036 2.2964 1.40 2.80 Total 96 8.5437 10.0570 9 1.02645 6.5060 10.581 5 1.20 24.70 DO Canal 36 5.3028 2.34002 .39000 4.5110 6.0945 .80 7.50 Dam 30 5.0500 2.13376 .38957 4.2532 5.8468 1.40 6.90 River 30 4.6533 2.16616 .39548 3.8445 5.4622 1.40 6.80 Total 96 5.0208 2.21644 .22621 4.5717 5.4699 .80 7.50 BOD Canal 36 4.6194 2.75617 .45936 3.6869 5.5520 1.20 8.60 Dam 30 6.0967 1.02469 .18708 5.7140 6.4793 4.00 8.50 River 30 5.9233 1.51537 .27667 5.3575 6.4892 3.00 8.80 Total 96 5.4885 2.06952 .21122 5.0692 5.9079 1.20 8.80 Na+ Canal 36 2.5750 .47472 .07912 2.4144 2.7356 2.20 5.20 Dam 30 4.9300 .61260 .11184 4.7013 5.1587 4.40 6.20 River 30 4.8333 .55837 .10194 4.6248 5.0418 4.20 6.20 Total 96 4.0167 1.24676 .12725 3.7641 4.2693 2.20 6.20 K+ Canal 36 3.8083 1.39045 .23174 3.3379 4.2788 3.20 11.70 Dam 30 11.880 0 1.10216 .20123 11.468 4 12.291 6 6.80 14.20 River 30 6.6600 .31360 .05726 6.5429 6.7771 6.20 7.40 Total 96 7.2219 3.53277 .36056 6.5061 7.9377 3.20 14.20 Tempe rature Canal 36 27.019 4 .46156 .07693 26.863 3 27.175 6 26.50 29.00 Dam 30 27.103 3 .33986 .06205 26.976 4 27.230 2 26.70 27.90 River 30 26.996 7 .36245 .06617 26.861 3 27.132 0 26.40 27.70 Total 96 27.038 5 .39480 .04029 26.958 5 27.118 5 26.40 29.00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 130 Appendix E: One way ANOVA of the physico-chemical characteristics of irrigation water in the study area ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Ph Between Groups .632 2 .316 7.060 .001 Within Groups 4.163 93 .045 Total 4.795 95 EC Between Groups 1008806.601 2 504403.300 100.551 .000 Within Groups 466523.639 93 5016.383 Total 1475330.240 95 TDS Between Groups 218532.063 2 109266.031 119.016 .000 Within Groups 85381.310 93 918.079 Total 303913.372 95 Salinity Between Groups .007 2 .004 .986 .377 Within Groups .330 93 .004 Total .337 95 Turbidit y Between Groups 1330456.067 2 665228.033 51.324 .000 Within Groups 1205409.987 93 12961.398 Total 2535866.053 95 NO3_N Between Groups 7700.199 2 3850.099 6788.196 .000 Within Groups 52.747 93 .567 Total 7752.946 95 NO2- N Between Groups 1950.158 2 975.079 647.059 .000 Within Groups 140.145 93 1.507 Total 2090.304 95 PO43- Between Groups 9568.044 2 4784.022 10922.767 .000 Within Groups 40.733 93 .438 Total 9608.776 95 DO Between Groups 6.939 2 3.469 .702 .498 Within Groups 459.759 93 4.944 Total 466.698 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 131 Appendix E continued BOD Between Groups 43.958 2 21.979 5.632 .005 Within Groups 362.920 93 3.902 Total 406.877 95 Na+ Between Groups 119.856 2 59.928 200.391 .000 Within Groups 27.812 93 .299 Total 147.668 95 K+ Between Groups 1079.897 2 539.948 474.859 .000 Within Groups 105.747 93 1.137 Total 1185.644 95 Tempe rature Between Groups .192 2 .096 .610 .546 Within Groups 14.616 93 .157 Total 14.807 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 132 Appendix F: Descriptive statistics of the bacteriological quality of irrigation water and tomatoes produce in the study area Descriptives N Mean Std. Devia tion Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Min imu m Maxim um Lowe r Boun d Upper Bound Heterotrop hic bacterial count in irrigation water Canal 3 6 2771027. 7778 11154 684.2 0629 18591 14.03 438 - 10031 74.36 29 65452 29.918 5 300 00. 00 6.70E+ 007 Dam 3 0 40514706 6.6667 12911 05510 .2952 2 23572 2537. 36930 - 76959 654.0 797 88725 3787.4 131 122 000 .00 6.50E+ 009 River 3 0 50013633 3.3333 14849 53162 .0350 2 27111 4114. 56174 - 54354 290.1 688 10546 26956. 8355 320 000 .00 8.00E+ 009 Total 9 6 28394019 7.9167 11096 82133 .1367 1 11325 6458. 45284 59097 700.1 197 50878 2695.7 136 300 00. 00 8.00E+ 009 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 133 Appendix F continued Heterotrop hic bacterial count external part of tomatoes Canal 36 1559391. 6667 83075 26.16 165 13845 87.69 361 - 12514 70.78 75 43702 54.120 8 310 0.0 0 5.00E+ 007 Dam 30 3303333 3.3333 26998 356.6 9754 49292 02.99 294 22951 981.2 601 43114 685.40 66 1.7 0E+ 006 9.00E+ 007 River 30 8111033 3.3333 16175 9938. 14768 29533 189.0 0804 20708 179.7 474 14151 2486.9 193 630 000 .00 7.80E+ 008 Total 96 3625466 7.7083 96593 759.8 4673 98585 59.33 173 16682 952.9 019 55826 382.51 48 310 0.0 0 7.80E+ 008 Heterotrop hic bacterial count internal part of tomatoes Canal 36 93988.88 89 21296 7.720 93 35494 .6201 6 21930 .9791 16604 6.7987 330 0.0 0 900000. 00 Dam 30 1807266. 6667 27480 98.63 967 50173 1.871 73 78110 9.770 2 28334 23.563 1 390 00. 00 1.22E+ 007 River 30 6154100. 0000 15592 365.2 5896 28467 63.39 240 33181 5.125 7 11976 384.87 43 410 00. 00 7.10E+ 007 Total 96 2523172. 9167 91158 90.58 333 93038 6.686 68 67612 1.813 3 43702 24.020 0 330 0.0 0 7.10E+ 007 Total coliform count in external parts of tomatoes Canal 36 307827. 7778 9335 47.95 136 1555 91.32 523 - 8039. 4051 62369 4.960 7 300 0.0 0 5.60E+ 006 Dam 30 759100 0.0000 1142 8546. 6388 3 2086 557.5 9786 3323 510.5 508 11858 489.4 492 340 000 .00 4.80E+ 007 River 30 186893 33.3333 7412 1535. 0373 9 1353 2678. 9123 0 - 8988 102.7 156 46366 769.3 822 128 000 .00 4.00E+ 008 Total 96 832803 9.5833 4213 9735. 4300 868.7 - 2102 16866 343.5 300 0.0 4.00E+ 008 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 134 Appendix F continued Total coliform count in internal parts of tomatoes Canal 36 111283. 3333 1806 92.61 745 3011 5.436 24 5014 5.747 5 17242 0.919 2 300 0.0 0 620000 .00 Dam 30 670066. 6667 1270 781.3 4893 2320 11.87 015 1955 49.11 25 11445 84.22 08 340 00. 00 6.40E+ 006 River 30 108416 6.6667 1989 705.6 6327 3632 68.89 152 3411 98.36 17 18271 34.97 17 300 00. 00 9.00E+ 006 Total 96 589929. 1667 1370 945.8 6472 1399 21.57 640 3121 49.71 67 86770 8.616 6 300 0.0 0 9.00E+ 006 Faecal coliform count in irrigation water Canal 36 328483. 3333 2695 02.15 106 4491 7.025 18 2372 96.92 44 41966 9.742 3 790 0.0 0 920000 .00 Dam 30 614903 3.3333 1042 8346. 0733 9 1903 946.7 9396 2255 024.9 133 10043 041.7 534 241 000 .00 6.00E+ 007 River 30 128400 33.3333 2345 9612. 6897 0 4283 119.6 8683 4080 069.9 890 21599 996.6 776 310 00. 00 8.00E+ 007 Total 96 605726 4.5833 1510 6104. 0293 5 1541 760.2 8639 2996 483.4 276 91180 45.73 90 790 0.0 0 8.00E+ 007 4782 4240 64.40 701 0 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 135 Appendix F continued Faecal coliform count in external parts of tamotoes Canal 36 2913.88 89 2684. 7881 3 447.4 6469 2005. 4873 3822. 2905 .00 8300.0 0 Dam 30 353583. 3333 3477 55.23 406 6349 1.128 73 2237 29.39 48 48343 7.271 8 .00 940000 .00 River 30 447896. 6667 1053 942.5 2427 1924 22.69 829 5434 8.060 3 84144 5.273 0 .00 4.30E+ 006 Total 96 251555. 2083 6441 21.44 619 6574 0.369 81 1210 44.07 32 38206 6.343 5 .00 4.30E+ 006 Faecal coliform count in internal part of tomatoes Canal 33 184.545 5 282.7 3321 49.21 753 84.29 26 284.7 983 .00 900.00 Dam 30 1692.00 00 2645. 2291 5 482.9 5056 704.2 552 2679. 7448 .00 9500.0 0 River 30 2659.66 67 2783. 3488 7 508.1 6765 1620. 3471 3698. 9862 .00 8900.0 0 Total 93 1469.24 73 2397. 0281 6 248.5 6024 975.5 852 1962. 9094 .00 9500.0 0 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 136 Appendix F continued Total coliform in irrigation water Canal 36 111847 22.2222 1432 4431. 5740 8 2387 405.2 6235 6338 031.8 712 16031 412.5 733 320 000 .00 6.50E+ 007 Dam 30 427506 666.666 7 1626 6693 38.82 859 2969 8783 0.159 48 - 1799 0164 6.928 1 10349 14980 .2614 3.0 0E +00 6 9.00E+ 009 River 30 144636 6666.66 67 3063 9690 22.56 932 5594 0164 9.719 42 3022 6183 0.802 7 25904 71502 .5307 1.9 0E +00 7 1.39E+ 010 Total 96 589779 687.500 0 2010 0956 03.89 469 2051 5452 3.489 73 1824 9646 3.868 4 99706 2911. 1316 320 000 .00 1.39E+ 010 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 137 Appendix G: One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the bacteriological quality of irrigation water and tomatoes produce in the study area ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Heterotrophic bacterial count in irrigation water Between Groups 468897590055 5734000.000 2 2344487950 277867000.0 00 1.942 .149 Within Groups 112293495576 713500000.00 0 9 3 1207456941 685091330.0 00 Total 116982471477 269230000.00 0 9 5 Heterotrophic bacterial count external part of tomatoes Between Groups 104007670480 389040.000 2 5200383524 0194520.000 6.182 .003 Within Groups 782376001445 760770.000 9 3 8412645176 836137.000 Total 886383671926 149760.000 9 5 Heterotrophic bacterial count internal part of tomatoes Between Groups 623318258767 361.100 2 3116591293 83680.560 3.986 .022 Within Groups 727113054832 2223.000 9 3 7818419944 4324.980 Total 789444880708 9584.000 9 5 Total coliform count in external parts of tomatoes Between Groups 555264577225 0693.000 2 2776322886 125346.500 1.583 .211 Within Groups 163144298314 878880.000 9 3 1754239766 826654.500 Total 168696944087 129568.000 9 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 138 Appendix G continued Total coliform count in internal parts of tomatoes Between Groups 157684477750 00.002 2 788422388 7500.001 4.504 .014 Within Groups 162783345803 333.300 93 175035855 7025.089 Total 178551793578 333.300 95 Faecal coliform count in irrigation water Between Groups 256191284855 6250.500 2 128095642 4278125.20 0 6.232 .003 Within Groups 191165531512 63332.000 93 205554334 959820.780 Total 216784659998 19584.000 95 Faecal coliform count in external parts of tamotoes Between Groups 369440140300 6.945 2 184720070 1503.472 4.809 .010 Within Groups 357203801543 88.880 93 384090109 186.977 Total 394147815573 95.830 95 Feacal coliform count in internal part of tomatoes Between Groups 98466652.463 2 49233326.2 32 10.30 1 .000 Within Groups 430141794.84 8 90 4779353.27 6 Total 528608447.31 2 92 Total coliform in irrigation water Between Groups 348540104034 6007600.000 2 174270052 017300380 00.000 4.644 .012 Within Groups 348992001592 230600000.00 0 93 375260216 765839360 0.000 Total 383846011995 690700000.00 0 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 139 Appendix H: A picture of tomatoes samples in a ziplock bag University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh