University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh STYLISTIC TRAITS IN AFRICAN PIANISM WORKS OF THREE ART MUSIC COMPOSERS J. H. NKETIA, AKIN EUBA AND GYIMAH LABI BY EMMANUEL BOAMAH TIllS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFULT ~NT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR ~~ OF PhD DEGREE / MARCH, 2007 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that except for the references to other works which have been duly acknowledged, this dissertation is the result of my original research, and that this study has not been presented either in whole or in part for another degree elsewhere. CANDIDATE EMMANUEL BOAMAH ___+ -t~_-t.,t-____ SUPERVISORS DR. P. Z. KONGO ---Cl-:rMp~~YI&J~"II'; II%==::"'----__ PROF. W. O. ANKU ---~--l~+.!-- ------ DR. S. D. ASIAMA ________~ ~"""---_'__--'-...:..- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank ftrst and foremost my supervisors, P. Z. Kongo, W. O. Anku, S. D. Asiama. all lecturers of the Department of Music, University of Ghana, Legon for their suggestions, cooperation and encouragement. I am also grateful to R. Vogels (School of Music and Theater, Hannover Germany) who through seminar presentations and supervision made me reconsider many aspects of the concept African Pianism that I had hitterto taken for granted. For funding, fInal research and completion of this dissertation, I am again indebted to Volks Wagon (VW) foundation in Germany, who through a student ten-month exchange programme gave me the opportunity to travel to Germany to complete this project. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT This study seeks to offer a comprehension of African idioms used in composing for the piano. Works analysed have explored the wider possibilities of the seven-tone scale system and the resources of the five-tone scale form. All works analysed are examples of ways in which traditional material may be lifted from its original context and modified to create a completely new piece. The works are deep and meaningful attempts to change African traditional music structure. They demonstrate ways in which modem composers are trying to make the old traditions relevant today, and to bring the traditional African music into phase with the society around them. These works analysed, can be classified as African Art music, that is, music structured for intent listening or music presented as concert music, but which are rooted in the traditions of Africa. ~ The problems of choice of idiom, notation and that of the conflict for theories that arise from the syncreticism which characterizes African Art musical scene, are among the problems that composers face and solve in their creation processes. The nature of the solution to these problems by each composer affects his style. African pian ism is an innovation which has been added to the literature of African Art music. The growth of a music is assured as long as the practitioners of that music continue to find new modes of expression for it. The vitality and potential of African music, viewed in the light of dynamic changes which are currently taking place in African culture, indicate that we are on the threshold of a new and exciting period of African music. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration Acknowledgments ii' Abstract iii CHAPTER I Introduction Aims And Objectives 3 Scope 6 Social Relevance 7 Theoretical Framework/literature Review 7 Methodology 11 Historical Perspectives 12 CHAPTER II Musical Analyses of Selected Works by J. H. Nketia 25 CHAPTER Ilf Musical Analyses of Selected Works by Akin Euba 87 CHAPTER IV Musical Analyses of Selected Works by Gyimah Labi 125 CHAPTER V Summary and Conclusion 172 Theoretical Observations Deduced From the Analytical Study 178 Recommendations 195 Appendix 227 Scores of Pieces Analysed Bibliography 335 iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTERl INTRODUCTION African Pianism describes the approach of composition that combines African elements for the piano. It also deals with the keyboard music of African art composers. Works by art composers who are not Africans, but derive idioms from African music for their creative works can be included. In Africa, the pianoforte is one of the most popular western instruments. The need to write African music has to do with the evidence that the piano is more developed and offers greater opportunity to the composer. The percussive and melodic capabilities of the piano, make it a most ideal medium for expressing the rhythmic and percussive features of African music. In an article entitled 'Traditional Elements as the basis of New African Art Music' Euba 1970c writes: For those composers interested in cross-cultural musical synthesis, this writer sees a possible line of evolution in the use ofw estern pianoforte in combination with African drums and other instruments of percussion. The piano already displays certain affinities with African music and by creating a type ofA frican pianism to blend with African instruments, it should be possible to achieve a successful fusion. Some of the composers whose works exemplifY the concept of African Pianism include Akin Euba, J.H. Nketia, Gamal Abdel, Gyimah Labi, Joshua uzoigwe and Keno Kafui. The concept of African Pianism entails, in a general sense, a literary distillation or evocation of certain features that are characteristic of African traditional music. African Pianism, even though as a concept may be verified in a specific case by external musical evidence, still remains a working symbol. In other words, as a symbol it has no absolute 'truth' but is relative. For an African composer, it seems that the most University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh important thing is the need for him to strive by every available means to capture in his music that cultural or spiritual essence which pervades the musical expression of African continent. Some of the questions people often ask, with various inflections of voice, 'do you really like African music arranged for the piano'? 'do you really understand it'? Indeed, it would be difficult with regard to our own music to reply satisfactorily to the question, or to do more than put down a few of the points that need to be understand. African music has an unfamiliar convention. It is this strange familiarity, which we as musicians are conscious of in African melody, harmony, form etc. But more imagination is needed to place ourselves at the point of view from which we may enjoy the method of African traditional music, and its arrangement for the piano. It is assumed Africa is more aware of western structure in music due to its colonial experience. In Europe the conventions of folk-song do not land us as musicians in any great difficulties. There is nothing in them, which an artist who is content to eschew conceits cannot as a matter of fact sing. Beyond Europe, at any rate in Africa, with which we are now concerned, it is different. An enormous amount of convention, the growth of centuries, stands between us and the reproduction and therefore the appreciation oftheir melodies, for we understand little of any music we can take no part in. And yet no true musician would tum his back on it if he were convinced that the conventions were interesting in themselves. African traditional music, as elsewhere, of varying aesthetic qualities, and it is as rare perhaps to hear the best there as it is in Europe. Music cannot stand still. Its whole essence consists in fmding short cuts to old routes. In the process of transformation as in the case of African traditional music, which is based on oral tradition, some aspects are lost. The whole of African musical history is full of instances of this. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AIMS AND OB.JECTIVES The aim of this study is to discover the stylistic traits in the African Pianism works of three art music composers, namely J.H. Nketia, Akin Euba and Gyimah Labi. The aims at demonstrating the peculiar ways in which each composer organizes materials and also look at the essential compositional processes. The study presumes that there exists a style peculiar to each composer and that these stylistic differences can be attributed to a host of factors. It is presupposed that a critical scrutiny of such works will reveal their structural relationship that admit of generalizations on style. According to the New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980 vo1.l8 p.316) 'style' is: A term denoting manner ofd iscourse, mode ofe xpression, more particularly, the manner in which a work ofa rt is extended to an individual composer ofa period, ofa geographical area or centre, or have a society or social junction. A particular style may be a synthesis of different styles. For example, the syncretic idiom of the composers selected for study may be expanded as a synthesis of western art and African traditional musical styles. Compositions in African Pianism can be referred to as art compositions. The term Art music in application to African music, presents a lot of problems for many scholars. The problem of terminology also continues to worry many scholars. One term is replaced by another, sooner or later. Art is a preferable term used by some scholars to replace classical, one of the terms used in classifYing the world's corpus of musical styles as well as to denote the music of a particular historical period. In other words, the music of Baroque, Classical and Romantic are distinguished as art works of different historical epochs. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The following are however certain distinguishing attributes that are often associated with art or classical styles when used synonymously. Music belonging to the art or classical style is often notated or documented unlike the majority of traditional music of many cultures, which live on oral tradition. Similarly, art music has most of the theories that underline its organization written out. Bruno Nettl, in drawing a distinction between the musical styles refers to the interchangeable use of the terms by saying 'something that is often called art or classical music'. The observations by Nettl about art music exemplifies the point of the evolution of the classical style in certain societies having taken place vis-a viz social stratification, or class distinction. In an article entitled 'creating Authentic Forms of African Art Music' Euba (1989), identifies four categories of art music produced by African composers in this century. 1) Works, which make little or no conscious use of Africanisms. Such works are few and include Ato Turkson's 'Three pieces for flute and piano'. Ayo Bankole's ' Toccata and Fugue for organ'. 2) Works in the second category are those that employ African melodies and or rhythms as thematic material in compositions, which are otherwise western in conception. This category is exemplified by several of Fela Sowande's compositions, such as 'African suite for strings', 'sacred idioms of the Negro' for organ and 'Folk symphony'. The African elements in these works are subdued by western structural and instrumental. 3) Works in which African and Western elements are co-dominant, through the balancing of structural and or instrumental features or by the presence of African-language texts. Examples are J.H. Nketia's 'Volta fantasy' for piano, 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Gamal Abdel Rahim's ballet 'Hassan and Naima' and Ayo Bankole's 'Festac Cantata'. 4) In the fourth category, western elements are absent or minimal. This category is typified by Solomon Mbabi-Katana's orchestral work 'midday Dreams' and by Duro Ladipo's folk opera 'oba koso'. The study also aims to stimulate creative imagination of up coming composers. The possibility that the contemporary composer could write music for keyboard that utilizes and develops the principle of two contrasting pitch lines, as well as secondary supporting lines, since this is an idiomatic feature of African 'keyed' instruments. He could write, music that is reflective or contemplative, music that has drive or dance-like quality, music in which a time line is only felt but articulated in one way or the other. The study also aims to identity specific traditional techniques employed in African Pianism. These compositional techniques may encompass both formal structures and melodic, harmonic and rhythmic techniques as well. The study seeks to show some of the new areas that composers of art music with distinctive African features are currently pursuing. Lastly the study seeks to show that, there are compositions that explore African musical concepts or the distinctive features of African music as source of enrichment, but not as the focus of expression. What gives unity and coherence to such works may be some recurring structural feature or the harmonic idioms whose progressions become focal points in themselves because the selected African features they are supposed to carry forward, remains static. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SCOPE This study would only examine and analyse works by Euba, Nketia and Gyimah Labi that exemplify the African Pianism concept. Such works can be solely for piano, or for a solo instrument and piano accompaniment. The study is interested in analysis of the elements of the compositions. Any diachronic dimension in this study is therefore complementary and aims at justifying certain theoretical viewpoints. Since the investigation is not ethno-musicological in content, it does not need any comprehensive ethnographical content. The study is nevertheless on the works of the three African composers. The works under study as we shall see, represent a synthesis of European classical and African traditional musical styles. Historically, the compositions under study have been composed between the third and the eighth decades of the twentieth century. The major concern for each composer is to explore African rhythmic and tonal usages. Other composers who have endorsed this concept are Gyimah Labi and Joshua Uzoigwe. In his compositions in African Pianism, Labi has compositions, which, he calls 'dialects' (1-5). These 'dialects' continue the search for the African alternative. They reflect the essence of some of our folk music traditions and entail the boundlessness that the professional pianist seeks. Uzoigwe, on his part, used different dance forms from Nigeria for his compositions in African Pianism. In his compositions, rhythm is the focus. He tries to explore the percussive capabilities of the pianoforte. In his works, the piano is used as a medium of achieving the complex rhythmic effects employed in African traditional music. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SOCIAL RELEVANCE This study aims at contributing to theory as basis for composition in particular and musicology in general. Style description is a hall-mark of comparative analysis which emphasizes synchronic view points aimed at providing the understanding of individual styles of composers, popular, classical and traditional styles. The study would also provide the basic needs of musicians who may in future like to study to compose in the style of African Pianism, which is a very new concept. This work would also serve as a source of material for scholars interested in African compositional practices, students and composers who are involved in music programmes and activities, who need repertoire on African styles. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKILITERATURE REVIEW. The selected compositions would be broken into their composite elements, such as tonal organization, which involves melodic, harmonic or vertical sonorities. Others are rhythm and tempo, texture, form and dynamics. The analyst believes that such a method facilitates the arrival at the features that he is looking for, than combining all the features in one analytical process. Synoptic and analysis would be extended to some elements in the study. They include cadences, dynamics among others, where the analyst is looking for elements of consistency and variations. All the three aspects of analysis as distinguished by Meyer would be adopted. These are the 'formal' kinetic-syntactic and 'referential analysis, which is his view of musical signification. By formal one refers to the different structural units of the pieces that would be examined. Kinetic-syntactic is concerned with the description of the energy level in a particular piece, for example, points of tension and relaxation, stability and 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh clarity. Referential involves the attempt to use music to depict extra-musical experience. This work would also investigate the extent to which some of the theoretical concepts stated in a composers ethnomusicological writings can be dramatized through compositions by the same personality. For instance, the following quotation from Nketia can be tested in his compositions. , It is not a harmony of block chords built on primary triads and secondary chords and their inversions, or a system of progression based more on chord relationship than of melodic movement. Traditional African harmony has its own logic'. (Nketia 1963). Concepts from Reti's book: 'The Thematic Process in Music', would be drawn upon in the analysis. This will be seen especially under the examination of thematic development or transformation. The analyst is very anxious to unearth new theories, with some conclusively abstracted from the analysis while others would be generated by analytical process. No significant research in terms of analysis has been conducted on African pianism musical style, which is comparatively a new area. Among the materials that will offer general information on African Pianism is Euba's introduction to the proceedings of an international symposium and festival held at the university of Pittsburgh in October 1999, on the theme 'Towards an African Pianism " The author who is regarded as the father of the concept tries to propose a definition of scope and methodology for African Pianism. Euba writes: 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 'Western keyboard instruments were introduced to Africa by Christian missionaries (dating from the mid-nineteenth century in West Africa) and therefore disseminated through trade and other agents of culture contact ... Today, they are among the most common western instruments in Africa and (in their electronic forms) have been widely adopted by pop musicians'. (P5). In developing the theme on African Pianism, Euba (1989: 151), states that techniques used in the performance of African xylophones, thumb pianos, plucked lutes, drum chimes and the polyrhythmic method of African instrumental music in general would form a good basis for an African pianistic style. The ingredients of an African pianism include (a) thematic repetition (b) direct borrowings of thematic material (rhythmical and or tonal) from African traditional source (c) percussive treatment of the piano. (Ibid.l52). He later added the fifth ingredient, making the piano behave like African instruments' (1993:8). Nketia one of the African composers who endorsed the concept of African Pianism provides further insight into the theory of African pianism in the preface (Piii) of his African pianism: Twelve pedagogical pieces: African Pianism refers to a style of piano music, which derives its characteristic idiom from the procedures of African percussion music as exemplified in bell patterns, drumming, xylophones and mbira music. It may use simple or extend rhythmic motifs or the lyricism of traditional songs and even those of African popular music as the basis of its rhythmic phrases. It is open ended as far as the use of the tonal materials is concerned, except that it may draw on the modal and cadencial characteristic of 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh traditional music. Its harmonic idiom may be tonal, atonal, consonant or dissonant in whole or in part, depending on preferences of the composer, the mood or impressions he wishes to create or heighten or soften the jaggedness of successive percussive attacks. In this respect, the African composer does not have to tie himself down to any particular school of writing if his primary aim is to explore the potential of African and tonal usages.' The relevance of Nketia and Euba's views to this study is that, it provides valuable information on the African pianism concept. This information would help me in my investigation into the analysis of the selected works. From Euba and Nketia on African pianism, the understanding, is that compositions in African pianism can employ techniques and styles used in the performance of African instruments like the xylophone, thumb piano and drum music. The whole idea is to let the piano act like an African instrument. Apart from that, there can also be the use of traditional songs or African popular music, arranged to suit the capabilities of the piano. The harmonic idiom may be tonal or atonal. The process of appropriation of local material may range from as little as germ of ideas to a whole section of the local material. The issue of reduction to suit the piano is an important one. In his article, Is Afrrican Pianism Possible?'(African pianism university of Pittsburgh, October 1999), Kofi Agawu, examines the concept of African pianism from various angles. Agawu argued that for musicians from Africa to compose for the piano is to speak with a foreign accent His initial challenge to the notion African' , notwithstanding, he than proposed some ways of looking at existing African art music for the piano that revealed what he called 'choreographic usage' of African rhythm and applied them to four pieces of music, by Nketia (The volta Fantasy), Bankole ('0 yaka 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh konga'), Euba (scenes from Traditional life) and Joshua Uzoigwe (lbo folk songs arranged for piano). Models such as transcription of folk song, sets of variations, development of main themes- these have all been done in 'European pianism' argued Agawu, so why repeat them? He finally acknowledged that if one were to accept the notion that there could exist a body of music called'A frican piano music' then perhaps African pianism was a 'not impossible concept'. METHODOLOGY. Although the core of this study is analytical, documentary research on the works of the three composers selected would be conducted. Interviews would be extended to other people for their views and opinion on the African pianism concept, and especially the music reception to the performance of works in African pianism. A greater part of this study would be centred on scores. There would be a selection of compositions by the selected composers (Nketia, Euba and Labi), which reflect this concept for analysis. In order to have a better overall perception of the works, tape recordings of some of the representative works would be reviewed for critical listening and analysis. 'Valid performance depends primarily on the perception and communication of the rhythmic life of a composition ...w e must discover the rhythmic shape ... form and then try to make it clear as possible to the listener' (E.T. Cone 1969:39). In the above, Cone observes that, form and analysis should aid performance. On the converse, performance can also aid the analyst and this is what the investigator's long term familiarity with the representative pieces through performance is expected to II University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh provide. The analysis at certain points will therefore be approached from the perspective of a performer. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY mSTORICAL PERSPECTIVE. Before the socio-cultural interaction between Africa and Europe, western classical music was neither known, performed nor appreciated by Africans. Africans therefore solely relied upon their native music for all spheres of life. Since the arrival of the Portuguese at Elimina in 1482, which marks the earliest European music among other cultural phenomena on the Gold Coast, now Ghana had been steadily and increasingly significant. On the part of missionaries, the introduction of western Christian hymns which were sung by the converts, and the type of music taught at the seminaries and other parochial institutions favoured the assimilation of western musical styles by Africans. Western classical anthems and marches were performed by school choirs, school and church bands. At the tum of the nineteenth century, a class of Africans educated along European lines, developed a taste for western culture at the expense of African culture. Consequently the earliest Ghanaian composers of art music sounded extremely western. Apart from the texts being in Ghanaian languages, choral pieces had no other parameter that could be identified with the composer's nationality. These early songs were similar to translated western hymns and anthems. Composers did not only compose patriotic choral pieces, but also instrumental works that were deeply rooted in traditional African music. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It must be noted that, it was this same time (The nineteenth century) that the piano entered Africa, together with the harmonium. The harmonium was used as an accompanying instrument for Christian hymn singing. Thus the harmonium eclipsed the piano until well into our century, when a few well-to-do middle class families, educational institutions and European embassies and consulates began to acquire more pianos for domestic or ceremonial use, or for purely symbolic purposes. In the last three decades or so, various electronic keyboards have entered Africa with astonishing rapidity, used by churches, dance bands and various individuals for music making. The piano has remained a majority instrument in Africa. The age of imitation of western classical conventions by composers without the exploitation of African musical elements is past with most contemporary African composers of art music. In Ghana and other African countries, composers have fused both African and Western materials to establish a vocabulary that has become a distinctive art style. The concept of African pianism is one of the distinctive art styles for the piano. A composer's level of appreciation of his indigenous musical culture, natural pride and his responsiveness to the musical needs of his dynamic society may affect his finished product. Nketia, writing on 'Developing contemporary idioms out of Traditional music', identifies three problems that are related to the use of traditional musical idioms in art musical styles. He illustrates how this may 'hinder originality', provide 'authenticity' and 'identity'. Nketia observes that traditional musical elements can be incorporated in art music as either a reversal technique' 'syncretic technique' or the technique of reinterpretation (Nketia 1982:83-85). 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The way and manner in which each of the three composers addresses the issue of choice ofidiom will be examined in this study. mSTORICAL BACKGROUND AND MUSIC OF COMPOSERS. J.RNketia. Joseph Hanson K wabena Nketia was born on June 22, 1921 at Mampong in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. He first studied music under his mentor Robert Danso, a well known theory teacher and organist, whose style of playing the harmonium inspired him. Under the tutorship of Robert Danso, Nketia's playing of the harmonium improved so much that during his second year at Akropong Training College, he played at church services both at the College an the Presbyterian church in town. Many factors influence a composer's perspectives and approach to his work, in particular his nurture, training, cultural background, personal philosophy and musical experiences. For Nketia, his lifelong interest in composition started at Presbyterian Training, College Akropong, where he was trained as a teacher from 1937-1941. Ephraim Amu and Robert Danso were his music teachers who introduced him to the fundamentals of both African and western music. Otto Boateng, who was a primary school teacher at Larteh near Akropong was a prolific composer who also influenced Nketia. Nketia studied works by Amu, Danso and Otto Boateng. His early works are therefore influences of these composers. The period 1942-44 was, the period in which Nketia tried to develop his own style. In addition to what he had learned from western music, including the basic skills he had acquired, and the collection of music, strengthened his grounding in the music of his 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh own culture before he left to Briton in 1944 to study linguistics at the school of oriental and African studies, university of London. Five years of study and exposure to western music and the musical life in the UK made a great impact on him. It enabled him not only to continue to compose songs in the traditional style but also to explore ways of creating meaningful synthesis of the techniques and materials he had acquired abroad with those of his own culture. He wrote a lot of choral music during this period, and also started writing instrumental music. This was when he returned to Ghana in 1949. He also turned from writing small-scale pieces to extended works, such as the Bolga sonata for violin and piano, Cow/an sextet and later the Republic suite in seven movements for flute and piano. He also drew his compositional materials not only from the Akan, but also from the Builsa, Kassena Nankani, Dagara, Anlo-Ewe of Ghana, the Fon of Benin, Ijaw of Nigeria, and societies in East Africa where he did most of his research. He used some of these materials in small-scale pieces such as pedagogical pieces for atenteben and piano, and the twelve pedagogical pieces for piano. The award of a Fellowship of the Rockefeller Foundation in 1958, enabled him to do advanced studies in music at the Julliard School of Music and to study with Henry Cowell, the American composer at Columbia university. He continued to combine his creative interest with academic research on his return from his studies in the US. He has a lot of publications to his credit. Nketia learnt to use the keyboard to accompany his songs from his teachers Amu and Danso. He was ready to make that kind of transition to modernity and to go along with the margins of tolerance in musical intonation that Ghanaians accept when they make their own music with instruments of adoption. Borrowing such an instrument as the piano for Nketia does not mean that one cannot adapt it to suit one's purpose. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Traditional guitarists have their own style of playing and style of guitar accompaniment and African pianists could also develop their own African pianism. In his art compositions, Nketia combines both traditional principles of parallel harmony and voice separation and the common practice in harmony. It is the creative use of harmony as an expressive feature in African art music that interests him. The application of these and other procedures enabled him to create art songs. Besides composing original art songs in this manner, he also transformed traditional songs into art songs. He also uses such songs and their dance forms as thematic material. For Nketia, what is important is not only what one selects but how one treats it. A piece would sound African when the basic characteristics of the source materials feature in the body of the composition. Apart from drawing material from traditional music, he also arranges songs from the repertoire of Ghanaian popular music. As a music educator, he tries to reach a wide variety of tastes and levels of sophistication. He believes that music educators should study folk music not in isolation but combine it with the study of other disciplines like dance movement, drama, arts and crafts. An interdisciplinary approach to the study of the arts is a contentious issue many institutions of learning are not prepared or ready to deal with. His prediction that intercultural music education may become a dominant feature of the twenty-first century, global music cannot be disputed. Indeed multi-cultural music education is taking shape, although at a slow pace, in many countries of the world today. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AKlNEVBA. He was born on April 28, 1935 at Lagos, Nigeria. He spent his early childhood in Lagos. He is from the Yoruba ethnic group of Nigeria. His parents had a piano at home, and he learnt to play it at a very early age. In his dissertation on Dundun Drumming of the Yoruba (Euba 1974) he gives an account of some of the traditional music types and events that were popular in those early periods of his childhood. These he says influenced him greatly as a composer. They also helped to inculcate in him the cultural foundations of the African, particularly the Y oruba people. The musical performances at public ceremonies, rites, and traditional dances of this early period influenced him in the works of his adulthood. He studied music at the Trinity College of music in the UK in 1952. Euba regards, with very much value, the years he spent at the Trinity College of Music, London and says: 'I had very sympathetic teachers and for the last three of the five years which I spent there I was receiving mostly individual tuition'. He studied piano, composition, harmony, counterpoint, and orchestration, organ and score reading. Some of the teachers who influenced him are, Eric Taylor and Dr Arnold Cooke. Within a span of four years at the Trinity College, Euba acquired a series of professional diplomas. They are Associate of the Trinity College London (piano performance) 1954, Licentiate of the Trinity College London (Teachers' Training Diploma) 1955, and the Licentiate of the Trinity College London (piano performance) 1956. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In 1956, Akin Euba wrote his first major work called the 'Introduction and Allegro for orchestra'. This was a year before he left Trinity College. His study of composition influenced the writing ofthis piece, which he believes was very western in content. He returned to Nigeria as a composer and a piano performer in 1957. His work as a senior programme Assistant between 1957 and 1960, he says brought him into contact with various kinds of Nigerian traditional music. This contact was eventually useful to him both as a composer, as well as his development as a scholar. It was in the arrangement of folk songs that enabled him to use African material. In 1962, he received a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship to study ethnomusicology at the university of California, Los Angeles. Here he was introduced to different musical cultures from many parts of the world, and as time went on he was to acquire a deep theoretical knowledge in African music. His studies at the university of California, made him aware of 1) one of the most important methods by which he could Africanize his work, that is employing African traditional instruments. 2) that fact that, African traditional music was not archaic but a living art. By studying its theoretical means, it was possible to compose in its idiom. 3) Developing what he considered an African idiom. Based on this background, he started composing pieces using the African idiom. Apart from Mantle Hood, the teachers whom Euba considers to have had the greatest influence on him at UCLA are Klaus Wachsmann, Charles Seeger, Kwabena Nketia and Roy Travis. His last academic year as an undergraduate at UCLA was that of increased influx in the creative activities, particularly in writing for the piano. It was at this time that he began to explore the' African' percussive aspects of the piano. Out of this he developed the idea of African Pianism. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is quite clear that, composers when seeking to acquire a personal style, often fall back to writing almost exclusively for an instrument or instruments with which they are most familiar and which they began learning at a very early age. In Akin Euba's case, it was the piano that he used for his experiments. In this regard, he composed a lot of piano pieces. He based his choice of musical elements and their mode of realization entirely on African resources. Akin Euba bagan to acquire, through his research, a deeper knowledge of the music of his culture, which he in turn employed as an aid to his creative experiments His intention at this time, was to make people aware of a new type of music-making which, In essence, derives its basic elements from several African musical traditions. His exposure to western and other foreign idioms of music made him realize that, there are abundant possibilities in the traditional music of Africa, and to develop a new art music which makes little or no reference to foreign idioms. In advocating for a new art music, he is, fully aware of its attendant problems like notation, and the development of a style of music, which would serve as a common musical language for the whole of the African continent. Akin Euba does not suggest that composers should resist foreign influences. On the contrary, he believes in fusion in art, as long as it does not deprive the new African music of its identity. With his knowledge gained in his research, he also began to show an interest in combining music and poetry in his compositions in a way that could be regarded as reminiscent of the African musical tradition. On the literary side, he has a number of articles and books published. On music education, he believes that I) music should be studied in its universal dimensions. 2) African traditional music should be promoted and sustained. 3) The 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ceative genius of Africans in music should be promoted. 4) We develop a training method that will enable Africans to playa maximum role in the international world of music. 5) The techniques of formal music education to supplement the customary oral tradition of Africa, should be developed. In addition to compositions and scholarly writings, he travels extensively to various parts of the world, mostly to music conferences. GYIMAH LAB!. He was born on the 27th of September 1950. He is from Larteh-Akuapim in the Eastern part of Ghana. He was educated at the College-Conservatory of Music, University of Cincinnati, USA, where he obtained his Doctoral degree in Theory and composition; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA, where he obtained a Masters degree in Theory and Composition; University of Ghana where he obtained a Bachelor ofA rts degree in music and philosophy. He has lectured at the Department of music, Mercy College, Dobbs Ferry, New York from 1987-88. He lectured at the Department of Music, University of Nigeria at Nsukka from 1984-85, and worked at the music Department of music of the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation between 1971-77. He also lectured at the University of Ghana, Legon and directed the Ghana National Orchestra from 1989-2000. He is currently working in the USA. He learnt to play the piano at a very early age. His area in music is piano, theory and composition. As a composer, he believes that there should be curricula that leads the student to the mastery of both western and African music and musical instruments with good proficiency. The main aim of such a programme, he believes, would produce excellent practical musicians who would be bi-culturally literate. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Labi greatly increased and diversified the repertory of the National Symphony Orchestra in Ghana while he was its director from 1988-97. He has been commissioned by many organizations, including the West Virginia university center for black culture and research (for Ancient Perspectives number 3 1993). Labi has consistently sought to incorporate indigenous musical materials in his works. His active support for Akin Euba's concept of African Pianism in which indigenous musical practices shape the percussive, rhythmic and timbral elements, is clearly evident in his "Dilects" which he wrote from 1986-94. Gyimah Labi is essentially a modern composer. Modernity does not depend on certain tricks of diction but on the relationship between the mind that expresses and the means of expression. The modern mind needs a modern vocabulary, but the vocabulary will not make the modern mind. Some composers have the modern mind but have not found the idiom which suits it. The modernity of Gyimah Labi is the simple fact that he is a modern African and that his music is in direct relation with real life; moreover he has not shrunk from life, but has lived it intensely. Labi has pursued the calling of hard work-working, revered, and an inspiring teacher. We may sum up Labi's characteristics as exemplified in his life and reflected in his art as great force of character, indomitable energy, sense of thoroughness, and above all intense human sympathy. Labi is above all an orchestral composer, and that sure touch which distinguishes his orchestral writing is due largely to the fact that he has been an orchestral player; he has learnt his art, both technically and in substance, not at second hand from text books and models but from actual life experience. As in his life, so in his art Labi does nothing by halves. He can be nobly diatonic with the greatest effect if he wants to. If he wants a harmonic clash he makes a complete 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh one, he never lets one off lightly. We find typical examples from his Dialects in African Pianism. His use of rhythms and melodies appear a little pungent for the timid souls. Or perhaps some hearers may fmd a sense of strain in some of his compositions. His works sometimes make people uncomfortable. It is of the essence of modem music, as all of modem thought, to drive straight to the root of the matter in hand; to let the matter rule the form, not the form the matter. Labi is a practical musician, he knows what he wants to say and uses the most direct way of saying it. If he desires that a melody shall sound remote from its harmonic context, he does not hesitate to make it remote-he does not compromise by making it look as if it 'fitted'. Equally, if he so wishes, he uses successions of sevenths or triads without any attempt to disguise them into respectability. A large and important part of Labi's musical work consists of arranging traditional tunes. African traditional folk songs influenced greatly his musical thought. Labi's introduction to his traditional melodies was in a collection of songs, which he harmonized for the orchestra. His study of composition in America also influenced his style of composing. Whatever the influence may have been it is obvious that Labi has freed himself from all conventions in the matter of rhythm, melody and harmony. He often employs 'modal' melodies. The folk-song is one of the great sources of modal melody, and this he employs a lot in his compositions. It is sometimes argued that the particular idiom which a composer uses is a mere accident, that the fountain of inspiration flows or does not flow as the case may be, and that the particular vessel into which it flows is of no consequence But idiom is part of the inspiration; it is not enough to have great emotions, the true way of materializing these emotions has to be found. Many a composer who has had potentially much to say has failed because he did not discover the vocabulary from which he choose the 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh necessary means of expression. Of course, every true composer makes his own idiom. But it cannot be doubted that the folk-song with its melodic curves, its free rhythm, Its simplicity, and its sincerity has played its humble part in giving a tendency and direction to many composers to whom it was naturally sympathetic. I am far from saying that there are no weak points in Labi's music. Labis's weaknesses e the defects of his qualities occationally his magnificent technique masters him and the end gets lost in the means. Sometimes he spoils the noble simplicity of his work by an unnecessary piece of elaboration; at other times the very individuality of his thought which requires such a personal technique causes a flaw in his work; in some of his pieces we do not always fmd complete unity of idea and expression. The very fact that these lapses are noticeable only goes to show how individual his music is. His harmony occasionally exhibits an error of style, its because intention at that moment became over-exuberant; it is the melodic inspiration does not quite always hit the mark (as happens to all composers at times) it is because the composer is too honest and too whole-hearted to hide it under an indistinct muttering in the accepted style. His Dialects in African Pianism represent Labi's maturest stage What the future may have in store we cannot say-whether he will become simpler, or whether he will lead us into new paths where it will be difficult to follow; but of this we may be sure that there will be good reason behind whatever he does. He will not be simple merely through timidity, nor will he seek out strange devices merely for the sake of eccentricity; he knows too well that whatever the future of music may be, it will always grow out of its great past. All art is the imperfect human half-realization of that, which is spiritually perfect. Labi's music seems especially to be a quest after that which in earthly life we can only partially fulfil Labi's music is usually robust and never shirks a definite tune when the 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh occasion demands it. In spite of his masterful command ofhannonic resource, he never lets chordal complications interfere with clear outline and defmite expression. Teaching and conducting were added to his creative ability and this gave him that grip of the facts of music out of which he built up his wonderful technique. To many men this constant occupation with the practical side of art would have been a hindrance to inspiration, but to Labi it seemed to be an incentive. Labi has no use for half measures whether in life or art. What he wants to say he says it forcibly and directly. Whether he gives us the familiar chords or leads us to the remotest confmes of harmony as in his Dialects in African Pian/sm, his meaning is never in doubt. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER 2 This chapter deals with the analysis of six pieces by Nketia (3 piano pieces, and 3 solo pieces), which exemplifY the African pianism concept. The piano pieces are: 1. The Volta Fantasy. 2. At the cross Roads. 3. Akpalu. The Solo pieces with piano accompaniment are: 1. Antubam (cello & Piano). 2. Onipa beye bi (man has come to accomplish only part of his tasks). 3. Aprannaa sa me (pursued by thunder). Nketia's compositions include choral compositions (sacred and secular). Example of his sacred and secular pieces are: A (sacred pieces) I) Mo kamfo no (lets praise Him). 2) Onyame :>b:>adee( God the creator). 3) Nsuro (Do not be afraid). B (secular pieces). I. Nante yie (farewell). 2. Buronya aba (christmas is here). 3. Dee :>man wo no (what the country has to offer). Examples of his Solo pieces with piano accompaniment are: 1. Wo ho te sen (how are you?). 2. Meda wo ase (thank you). 3. Yaanom Montie( comrades listen). 4. Me wura, gya me Kwan (my husband, see me off). 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Examples of his Instrumental wodes are: 1. 12 pedagogical pieces for piano. 2. 4 flute pieces. 3. Suite for flute and piano (seven movements). 4. Bolga sonata (violin and piano). The following are the musical elements, which are going to be used in analysing the six selected pieces. They are: 1. melodic construction 2. harmonic structure 3. form 4. rhythm and meter 5. texture The African resources in relation with the five musical elements are also going to be examined. THE VOLTA FANTASY. This piece was written in 1976. The Volta is the name of Ghana's largest river and source of Ghana's hydroelectric power. The area around the river is known as the Volta Region. The Region has a rich corpus of musical cultures, which are normally classified into the Southern and Northern Sectors. Nketia seems to have drawn more inspiration for the music of the Southern Ewes for the piece in question. In this piece, the composer has concentrated on the "agbadza" dance music for materials to organise the piece. The "agbadza" is a musical type found among the southern Ewes (the Antos). 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The rhythm of the "gankogui", which is a double bell, is what has been used in many guises in the work. This rhythm is referred to as a time line, which serves as a point of reference to the other instruments. This line is used in several ways as a basis for organizing the contrasting pitch lines and also as a basis for organizing the percussion rhythms that support the pitch lines. The following is the rhythm in question: The above bell rhythmic motif is common in the fantasy going through a host of transformations. The following are the transformational stages the piece has undergone. BAR OF Element(s) of Transformation OCCURANCE 2 Fragmentation of the motif, that is, it occurs in the lower registers of the piano simulating the intervallic or pitch difference of the double bell. 8 A repeat of the above 28-29 First statement of the full motif. The interval has been widened up into a compound fourth with a fall of a third later followed by the rise of a perfect fourth. The melodic interval of the fourth is a favourite one within "agbadza" music. 30-31 A repeat of the above used to establish the rhythm. When performing "agbadza" players of other supporting instruments may have to wait and get the pulse well from the bell before their turns for entry. 32-33 The interval between the imitated bells is now narrowed into a perfect fourth for the first two beats of the motif. A counter melody 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employing a mixture of thirds and fourths as melodic intervals is also heard. 34-35 The bass is the repeat of the two previous measures. The point of transformation is where the texture becomes dense, with the right hand playing tones in which 4th and 5th are harmonic intervals. 36-37 The silence in bar 36 is an element of transformation, which also contributes as a point of relief to the listener. The emphasis on the 5th as a harmonic interval is seen after the resumption of the right hand over the second half of bar 37. The melody overlaps the next statement of the motif. 38-39 The accompanying melody is a long note in the right hand, forming the harmonic intervals of the 6th, 8ve and dim 4th to the left hand. 40-41 After a rest on the first beat of the right hand, there has been a heavY texture of chords all based on the same rhythm (i.e. homophony). The second and the ensuing notes are now lower than the first. 48-49 The bell rhythm has now been transferred to the right hand. Registeral transfer and inversion have taken place. The interval of a fourth is employed in the right hand with the left creating a hemiola rhythmic effect against the right. 83-84 The bell rhythm is still in the right hand. The element of hemiola now begins on the second half of measure 50, while the left hand plays very low descending octaves that are wider than two octaves from the right hand. 87-88 The right hand retreats from playing chords and instead plays a counter melody against the 5th in the left hand, which outlines the basic bell rhythm homophonically. 89- 90 The left hand of 87-88 has been retained with counter melody in the right hand bar 34-35. The texture becomes thin and linear interest gains the ascendancy until the last beat of bar 90 where a chord is heard. 91-94 A repeat of bars 36-39 with only first note altered from "E" to "A" 95 - 96 A return to "E" as the commencing note of the motif. The second 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh crotchet beat and subsequent ones attract chordal pronouncements with interplay of register, In bars 44-47, we experience a repetition ofa two bar phrase. The rhythm of bar 44 can be seen as an extreme transformation of the bell rhythm with the alternation of the bells now represented in octave leaps. This measure also alludes to the clear and muted sound of the "axatse", the rattle used in the "agbadza" ensemble. The role of the rattle is to also outline the time line. There exists a phrase in bars 5 and 6 (both melodic and harmonic) that deserves mentioning. Other subsequent occurrences of the phrase are at bars 11-12,26-27, which have not been transformed. In bars 68-70 however, are versions of transformed states of the phrase. The return of the original undeveloped forms of the phrase at distant 121-122 gives the theme a structural significance. It represents the only thematic substance that appears in both the introduction and the coda of the piece. The major rhythmic motifs of the various sections are: r r j) __ -I l' .J ~. II II II II ., 0 ___- J III J ~. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I!i ~~ , -, ~ ~ e e ~ A , J,. t .. .. IV . ~ . The melodic intervals of a fourth feature prominently in the piece. Examples can be found in the following bars, 47, 48, 52-62.Nketia's liking for a fall ofa perfect fourth at the end of melodic phrases is also seen at bars 57, 60, and 62 in the right hand. The ring melodic trend in the left is returned by the right hand creating a quasi-mirror effect. (See bars 52, 54 and 56). Nketia also uses the repetition of phrases as a dramatic too~ one can identify three main approaches, which Nketia uses in this work. 1. He sometimes tends to unfold the phrase statements gradually. This may be observed in the opening phrase of section A of the piece. In addition, he increases the dramatic direction by continuous juxtapositions of other independent phrases, 2. He at times extends a phrase or sentence through the repetition duplication of its end portion, as in bars 52-56. Also, at times shortens phrases to quicken the rhythmic/dramatic action as in bars 52-56. 3. He also mUltiplies the number of certain notes within a phrase (for example the note A from bars 1-12). This technique is similar to that employed by secondary instruments in "agbadza" drumming. In this piano work, as well as in "agbadza" music, this 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh technical device enhances dramatic movement, especially when accompanied with dynamic emphasis. 4. By placing individual phrase patterns in various registers of the piano in such a way as to give the listener the feeling that more than one instrument is playing. Nketia also employs the ostinato style as in Xylophone music. The bell pattern is used as an ostinato in the left hand, while the right hand plays a kind of a melodic line. In certain pieces of Xylophone music, the ostinato begins for some time before the main melodic line. This piece employs this kind of style. Bars 28-39 (Section A) can be registered as a complete Xylophone piece, which can be repeated several times with some variation in the melodic line. "Shifting tonality" is a common device with "agbadza" music. Nketia has accordingly used transposed forms of both pentatonic and hexatonic scales. Some of the songs of the Anlo people use the hexatonic scale in addition to the pentatonic scale. In contemporary Anlo traditional vocal music, there are cases of heptatonic scales. All the three types of scales can be cited in the "Volta Fantasy" by Nketia. The following are some of the modes and scales that can be found in the introduction (bars 1-27). J j J J A hexatonic scale (Hemitonic). J J J r A pentatonic scale (Hemitonic). 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh J r A pentatonic scale (Hemitonic) F r r I~ E In bars 34 and 35, Nketia employs a heptatonic scale, which is not a regular feature in "agdadza". because in composition, there may be points of departure at certain stages of the creative process. J J J J r r Nketia's liking for a fall of a perfect fourth at the end of melodic phrases is again seen in this piece at bars 57,60 and 62 in the right hand. A transposed version of the scale used at bars 1,72, 18, is now reached at bar 54 to 55 and the hexatonic scale used at bars 5-6 is also transposed and used at bars 50-52. This technique is a major characteristic of the entire work. For example in section A from bar 28-39, the pattern is announced, and then other rhythms and melodies are played against the bell pattern. In many places in the work, this kind of timbre and motives interplay, coupled with the use of dynamics greatly add to the drama. The harmony of this piece is dominated by quartal and tertian harmonies. In addition, there is also the use of polarity. These harmonic techniques are all characteristic 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh features of "agbadza" vocal music. Examples of quartal and tertian harmonies can be found in bars 13,21,34,40-43,48-51,62-64 etc. Examples of polarity can be found in bars 12-13, 19-20,64-65, and bar 80. Using thematic treatment as criteria or a determinant of form, this piece can be regarded as being in ternary form. Introduction Bars 1- 27 Section A Bars 28 - 51 Section B Bars 52 - 96 Coda Bars 97 - 126 The introduction has been worked into the main body of the pieces, without any breaks nor change in tempo. The introduction makes use of the idea of call and response. Bars 1 - 4 can be regarded as a long call (t), followed by a soft (P) response in bars 5 - 6. This is repeated from bars 7 - 12. The major identifYing element of section A is the full statement of the bell rhythm with its all-attendant transformations. When the bell pattern is announced (bars 28 - 39), other rhythms and melodies are played against this bell pattern. In many places in the work, this kind of timbre and motives interplay, coupled with the use of dynamics greatly adds to the drama. In section B (Bars 52 - 82), there are sections whose tonal materials do not fit the context of "agbadza". For example the thirds in the right hand at bars 63 -64. The formation of chords on tertian rather than quartal is another parameter seen at bars 70 _ 71. These elements serve a good role of providing a contrasting section against the outer sections. The major distinguishing factor in the coda, is the rhythmic motifs, which are quite distinct from those of the previous sections. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AT THE CROSS ROADS This is a piano piece composed in 1961 This piece is based on the Akan proverb which says that the traveler who asks for directions, never misses the right turning when he comes to a crossroad (obisabisafo] nto kwan). The dynamism of the piece derives from the continuous invention of new motivic material. The melody based on the proverb is in a form, that is based on questions in different forms, but not completely answered by the supporting parts until they reach the final phrase. The first question, which begins in bar I, is answered immediately in the second half of bar 2 to the first half of bar 3. The second half of bar 3 begins another question and answered in bar 5 to the first half of bar 6. The first six bars feature the motifs used in the entire piece. This has also been arranged in a contrapuntal pattern. The lowered seventh and the raised fourth in this piece, is very much used in Akan vocal music. The occurrence of the lowered seventh and the raised fourth varies from place to place. The lowered seventh is commonly approached from below by a second or a third and occasionally by a fourth. It is never used Chromatically. That is to say, it is never approached from, nor does it ever resolve on, the natural or plain seventh. In some Akan songs, the tonic may be approached from the lowered seventh only at the beginning, and middle sections, and never at the end of phrases. Generally the lowered seventh resolves on the sixth, either directly or indirectly through the fifth. Occasionally it descends on to the fourth. The approach of the raised fourth is commonly made from a note above. It is usually a second or a third, or a fourth above. But at a phrase junction it may be approached from a second below. Irrespective of 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh approach, the raised fourth usually resolves on to the fifth. There is usually no incidence of the Chromatic progression of a plain fourth to a raised fourth or vice versa. In this piece, the lowered seventh is frrst used in bar 9. In the right hand melody, the flattened seventh is approached from below by a second and resolves unto the fourth. The left hand melody, is also approached from below by a second and resolves unto the sixth. In bar 13, in the left hand melody, the flattened seventh is approached from below by a second and also resolves unto the fourth in bar 14. These are all very typical styles used in Akan vocal music. In bar 19 and 20, we find the use of the raised fourth. In bar 19, it is approached from a note above, which is a second, and in bar 20, it is approached from below a second. In bar 19, the raised fourth resolves unto the third, and in bar 20, it does not resolve unto any note. The resolutions of the raised fourth in bar 19 and.20 is not the usual practice in Akan vocal music. This explains the fact that, there may be points of departure at certain stages of a creative process. The lowered seventh in bar 25 is treated in the same way as in bar 9. In bar 27 the lowered seventh is approached from below by a third and resolves unto the sixth. In bar 33, the raised fourth is approached from above by a third and resolves unto the fifth in the right hand melody. J 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This is quite typical of Akan vocal style. The lowered seventh and the raised fourth used in Akan vocal music can be referred to as preferred notes. Preferred notes because they are used by singers as alternatives to their respective plain forms, and one form or the other may be used depending upon (a) which one a singer prefers for a particular melodic effect (b) the notes that precede and follow it or (c) the intonation of the text .. In Akan vocal music, tones are organised into melodic patterns especially at the end of phrases. These give character to individual songs. One can find such endings in the songs of "Adowa" and other musical types. Such endings can be described as cadential sequences. In this piece, Nketia employs this technique, at the phrases. We find the first example in bars 13 - 14, in the right hand melody. J E§J IJ The second example can be found in bars 28-30, in the right hand melody. 4' J J j J ) IJ This example is repeated in bars 51- 53. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In this piece, melodies rarely stand still at phrase endings. The phrase endings do not take long notes, we fmd these in bars 14,24,30 & 37. There is also much melodic rise at phrase junctions. This is to say that the initial tone of a succeeding phrase is very often higher than the fmal tone of the preceding phrase. The first example can be found in bars 14 - 15. IF r Ed Bar 14 is the end of a phrase while bar 15 is the beginning of another phrase. The note F in bar 15 is higher than the note D in bar 14. The second example can be found in bars 37 - 38. J J J IF r Ed The extent of the rise usually in African traditional music, is variable. It may be any interval between a second, an octave or a compound interval The effect of the rise is that it sometimes takes the melody from one tonal range into another. The common intervals used in the melody of this piece, are seconds, thirds and fourths. Some of these intervals used are both ascending and descending. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ,4' 8 ,J F ~ J J Ej Ir r U2J j fr p IJ c; r !f 7 fJ jl Ijl 'i 'i 'i There are lots of descending thirds and fourths. Examples can be found in bars 7,9,11,20,21,25 & 26. In Akan vocal music, descending thirds and fourths are preferred to their ascending counterparts. However, the ascending forms of seconds and fifths are used much more than their descending forms. In this piece, such examples are found in bar 22 & 23. ,. F E7l IJ 'J tFJ] U Fj J j 'J A J I J J 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh These are mostly seconds. 4'tJ] FTI ,A Ir F USJ F7J Ip , • The employment of sequences add variety to the contour of melodies. Two types of sequential treatment can be utilized. The frrst is that in which a whole phrase is sequentially repeated. In the second type, a motif or section may be sequentially repeated. Example of the second type can be found in bars 7 - 13 in the right hand melody. Allied with the sequential forms, are the interlocking patterns. In bars 3-4, we find an rtF 1E2J J J example of this. The melody is interlocked by ascending seconds. Two notes lying a second or a third apart may be repeated twice or more, when this happens the sequence is said to be pendular. Example of this can be found in bars 40.- 41,27 - 28. F7J IEJ E F J Il J J J 73 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh These are all techniques very common in African songs built on the heptatonic scale. The technique of imitation which is also common in African traditional music is also employed in this piece. Bars 34 - 3 5 (Rhythmic imitation). Another feature of Akan vocal music which Nketia employs in this piece, is that, in general the ending tone of the phrases is lower than the beginning The gives a downward trend to the phrases. Examples can be found in bars I - 14, 15 -30, 38 - 53. There are however, instances in which the ending of the phrase shows an upward trend. Nketia applies the principle of modality to the heptatonic scale. In African traditional music, the principle of modality is applied not only to pentatonic scales, but also to heptatonic scales. Almost every note of the scale may occur as an ending tone. Songs may end on C, D, E, F, G or A. The seventh is rarely used. In this piece, most of the phrases together with the final phrase end on D. The piece can be said to be based on the following scale: ) ( r The scale can be described as hemitonic heptatonic scale. The craft of pitch combination or harmony in traditional African music is a very varied craft. Notable forms of harmony are (1) polarity, that is, singing in octaves or the duplication of melodies in octaves (2) Homophonic parallelism in seconds, thirds and fourths (3) polyphony of a contrapuntal nature (4) Homophonic polyphony, where there is a vertical relationship between the parts (5) ostinato accompaniment to a melody (6) Notes occurring together at overlappings of call and response phrases (7) melodic 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh decoration with sporadic added pitch, giving rise to sporadic divisi during unison passages. Homophonic parallelism in thirds can be referred to as tertial, while those of fourths can be referred to as quartal. Heptatonic traditions emphasise the third as a consonant interval. Homophonic parallelism in thirds may therefore be used consistently in chorus responses. In this piece, we find examples of homophonic parallelism in thirds in bars 6 -7,33 - 37. There are also examples of harmonies based on fourths and fifths, which is not very characteristic of heptatonic traditions. Examples can be found in bars 9 - 10, 21,24 - 25. The composer can draw his inspiration from a traditional dance or vocal music. He may derive rhythmic materials for his Choral or instrumental pieces by capturing certain popular drum or vocal rhythms, with which he is familiar. In "At the Cross roads", Nketia uses rhythmic motifs that simulate those that can be heard in Akan vocal music. The piece which is in duple rhythm, employs short duple motifs. The following are some of the rhythmic motifs used in the different sections are: 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh J. j j ILJ J J J 11' It has to be remembered that, since it is an instrumental work, text is no longer a constraint that controls the rhythmic organization. Another rhythmic feature in this piece is the elongation of the note in bar 2 across the bar, which displaces the accent in bar 3. J- --- -----IrJ J J J The creation of a syncopation results in the elongation of a note. There are other examples in bars 16 - 17,39 - 40. The syncopation is a technique used very much in African traditional vocal and instrumental music. There are also examples of the repetition of rhythmic motifs. Examples can be found in bars 19 - 22. Rests used in this piece, have been carefully ordered to permit dialogues between the right hand and the left hand. Rests help to thin out the texture, generate contrast in tone 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh colour, and create exceUent opportunity for themes and some statements to have the required emphasis and to be heard clearly. Although the rhythm of this piece is generally static, there is much vitality at certain portions of the music. Example bars 18 -- 24. The organization of the materials in this piece, is quite African because the basic characteristics of the source materials feature in the body of the composition. Its also quite simple in texture and good for listeners who have a short span of attention. It can be repeated over and over with the accompaniment of African instruments like bells and drums. Rhythmic patterns can be created for the bell and drums to accompany the piece. The first section of this piece ends in bar 14. From bars 15-30 can be regarded as another section. Bars 31-37, can be regarded as a bridge passage to the final section, from bars 38-53. It should be noted that the final section, bars 38-53 is an exact repetition of the second section (bars 19-30). The form of this piece can be described as a binary form (AB). All the sections are based on the antiphonal technique. ANTUBAM This piece was composed in 1964 as a tribute to Kofi Antubam, who was one of Ghana's great artist. He was born on the 14th of April, 1922, and died on the 4th of April,1964. In an article in the Sankofa magazine on Kofi Antubam's life and work by Ato Bedu-Addo, (1977:21), he writes: "Kofi brought robust accentuation of aesthetic African values to African and Ghanaian Art. He gave rotundity and 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh symbolism a new meaning, a new emphasis, and the utilitarian value of his creativity and originality in this respect was evident" This piece composed for solo cello and piano is an original piece not based on any traditional tune, but uses several features of our traditional way of accompanying a song. Nketia in this piece gives dominant percussion rhythms to the piano accompaniment. This piece can be regarded as more of a lamentation piece than a funeral dirge. Dirges make use of free bodily movement together with gestures, but without handclapping or percussion of any kind. There is also wailing and sobbing accompanied by tears. Dirges are not intended for dancing. The rhythm is free. In lamentation songs, however, percussion and handclapping may be added. The songs have regular pulse, and the music may be danced to, wailing, sobbing and tears are not very important. The musical features of Akan lamentation songs are similar to the Akan traditional vocal music. The analyst would see how the features of Akan traditional vocal music is reflected in this piece, because the melody in this piece has the character of an Akan traditional song. In Ghana, the Akans occupy a very large area in the middle belt of the country. They are located in the Brong Ahafo, Ashanti, Western Central, Eastern and parts of the Volta Region of Ghana. Music permeates all cultural activities of the Akans of Ghana, from cradle to death. Their traditional vocal music has its own character. The piece has several sections, and the piano part acts as beats of drum rhythms and hand clapping, as we have in African traditional style of singing. The call and response style is also largely used in this piece. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION A (Bars 1-12) The use of the call and response technique in traditional African music is seen in this section. This style is also used largely in Akan vocal traditional music. From bars 1-8, the piano calls and the cello responses. The piano call in bars 1 and 2 is sequentially repeated in bars 3 and 4. In bars 9 - 12, the piano makes use of the duplication of melodies, and also double thirds which are also an octave apart. Singing in sporadic thirds or in parallel thirds, unison or duplication of melodies (polarity) when men and women sing together, are all common features in the vocal Akan traditional music. Nketia uses all these features in this section. The piano accompaniment employs unison bars 1- 8 duplication of melodies, bars 9 - 11, and parallel thirds in part of bar 11, and the whole of bar 12. The cello part from bars 2 - 12, can be regarded as beats of drum rhythms. The cello part also from bars I - 8 uses a higher E note, that is E above the middle C, but from bars 9 - 11, it takes it an octave lower and ends with A below the middle C in bar 12. In this section also, there is the use of the technique ofrhythmic variation and repetition especially in the piano accompaniment. The importance of this technique in this section and also in the other Sections is that, it exhibits a unique African approach. The tonality in this section is based on the heptatonic modality. SECTION B Bars 13-35 This section has the main melody of the lament song. It has the character of an Akan traditional song. The cello begins this melody from bars 13 - 18, and this is done in the style of a dialogue with the piano accompaniment. The piano imitates this melody from bars 19 - 22. The left hand rhythmic pattern of the piano from bars 19 - 22 is treated 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh like a percussion rhythm, supporting a melodic line. The cello also uses the same rhythm as also a support for the melodic line. r r r IF r r E One of the techniques employed in Akan vocal traditional music, is where a lead singer sings an entire verse through, repeated immediately by the chorus. Other songs are organized into clear sections for lead singer and a chorus. In the simplest type, each section consists of a single phrase, sung by the lead singer and answered by the chorus with a set response. The response phrase may be similar to the lead phrase or it may be a continuation of it. Nketia employs the use of this style, where the response phrase is similar to that of the lead. He does this between the cello and the piano. The cello phrase from bars 13 - 18, can be regarded as the lead singers phrase. The melodic line in the right hand of the piano part, from bars 19 - 23, can be regarded as the response phrase, which is similar to the cello phrase. The heptatonic modality is still maintained in this section. In African traditional music, the examination of phrases and their endings shows that nearly every note of the scale may occur as an ending in a specific context. Every note of the scale can occur as a cadential note of a non-final phrase or a final phrase. The tones of the pentatonic scale occur in five forms, those of the hexatonic and the heptatonic, in six and seven patterns respectively. Singers are therefore not as conscious of scales in the form of melodic materials. The controlled use of selected interval sequences forms the basis of melodic structure. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The systems of tonal organization in African music is referred to as the modes or modal types. The principle of modality can be applied to pentatonic, hexatonic or heptatonic scales. In this section as well as the other sections, Nketia uses the principle of the heptatonic modality, and the final tone of the melody in the cello part is E, bar 34. The common intervals utilized in Akan traditional melodies, are seconds, thirds and fourths. These intervals may be ascending or descending. The descending fourth is also more commonly employed within the phrase. We find this kind of technique in the cello part in bar 16, last beat to the first beat in bar 17, and in bars 30 - 32. Ascending and descending seconds and thirds in the melody of the cello are prominent. This is also a feature in songs which employ the heptatonic scale. Chains of fourths are not common in heptatonic melodies. In addition to ascending, and descending, sequences, songs in heptatonic can use pendular and interlocking pattern, of melodic movement. We find this style used in the cello melody of this section (Bars 29 - 33). The piano accompaniment in this section, in contrast to Section A comprises of Chords mainly, as opposed to the linear harmony in Section A. Another important feature of the piano part, is the use of parallel octaves. The duplication of melodies in octaves (polarity) are employed by some African societies who emphasize this in their singing when men and women sing together. In addition to polarity, homophonic parallelism in thirds, seconds and fourths have been employed in the piano accompaniment. SECTION C (bars 36 - 541) The cello has the melody which is in its high register. It now plays in the treble clef throughout this section. The piano engages in a dialogue with the cello, bars 36 - 40. We note the use of octaves and thirds again bars 36 - 40 in the piano accompaniment 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In bar 38 oft he cello part, there is the use of the descending, fourth, which is a common feature in Akan traditional music. From bars 42 - 44, the cello part uses a sequence which is interlocking. This is a common stylistic feature in songs built on the heptatonic scale. The piano accompaniment supports this in parallel thirds with the raised fourth. The raised fourth is less frequently used in Akan traditional music. Usually in the course of a phrase, the approach is commonly made from a note above: it is usually a second or a third, or a fourth above. But at a phrase junction, it may be approached from a second below. Irrespective of approach, the raised fourth resolves on to the fifth. In bar 43 of the piano section, it resolves to the third when used again in bar 44. This can be described as a point of departure from the normal practice. There is also the use of the flattened seventh in bars 46 - 51, in the cello part. The flattened seventh is occasionally used in Akan songs. It is commonly approached from below by a second or a third, and occasionally by a fourth. It is never used chromatically. Generally the flattened seventh resolves on the sixth, either directly, or indirectly through the fifth. Occasionally it descends on to the fourth below. The flattened seventh used form bars 46-51 in the cello part first resolves into the second bars 46 - 47, then to the sixth in bar 47, then to the second, bar 50, and to the sixth through the first in bar 51. We find also the point of departure from the normal practice of the use of the flattened seventh. The piano accompaniment makes use of the hemiola rhythm (a combination of two equal sections of duple and triple rhythms.) bars 46 -48. Nketia uses the hemitonic heptatonic modality in this section. The following scales have been used: 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fe J J J ~r IF r hr fJ r r r IF r r r The final tone ofthe melody (Bar 54) in the cello part in this section is F. As mentioned earlier in traditional music, every note ofthe scale may occur as an ending in a specific context. The piano supports this final tone (F) by doubling of the melody in octaves. In this section also we note the formation of chords on both the tertian and quartal. This serves a good role of providing contrast. SECTION D bars SS - 92 This section begins with a short piano interlude, bars 55 -- 59 The rhythm here is percussive. The piano rhythm in bar 55 (left hand) is taken up by the cello in bars 58- 59 in pizzicato. The cello returns to the use of the treble clef, bars 62-73, an indication of the high register of its melodic material. The melody from bars 62 - 67, is limited to the use of only two sequences of seconds and thirds. We also note the use of the descending fourth in bar 66. A common practice in Akan vocal traditional music. From bars 68 -- 73, the melodic line of the cello is very repetitive and the rhythm percussive. From bars 74-91, the cello plays the same melody it played in Section C, but this time, in the bass clef in a different tonality. We find the use of tonal shifts in this section there is the use of the key of A major, from bars 62 - 72. F sharp minor bar 73, E major from bars- 74 91. The cello melody and piano accompaniment is repeated almost in the same style as in Section C, but now 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in the tonality ofE major. We also note the use of the formation of chords on the tertian and quartal in this section. Shifting tonality is a common device in African music, and Nketia emp 1o ys this technique in this section. The major scale has been the tonal basis of this section. The next section E from bars 92 - 102, is the exact return of Section A. From 104-125 is also the exact return of Section B, with a coda of six bars from bars 126 -131 The whole piece ends in C major. The Piano Accompaniment The piano accompaniment has its own formal and structural development, and can be played separately as a piece, just as the drums that combine with a chorus in (adowa) musical o/Pe and similar types of ensembles can stand on their own, because what they play are conceived as pieces that combine with sets of songs that share similar recurring, motives. The piano accompaniment has its own life. The piano is not just to accompany or provide a harmonic framework within which the melody may be heard, but (a) It provides percussion rhythms to the melodic lines. Examples of this can be found in (i) Bars 1- 4, 13-16. (b) It occasionally doubles the cello melody and atimes couples it with parallel thirds as it is customary in Akan traditional music. Example of this can be found in bars 42 - 44. 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CELLO ,. p r p p P IF P Jt , P ~r p J IF F F Piano Right Hand. ,. p , , j r I,: , , ~ (c) ~: IJ F It highlights p'arrtic ular statements or motives in the Cello part through the use of the call and response technique or imitation. We find example of this from bars 13 - 24. The Cello statement is from bars 13 -- 18, then the piano imitates this from bars 19 - 24. (d) it provides the element of parallelism in octaves, and also unison. This is a common style used in traditional Akan vocal music Examples of this can be found in bars 1 - 2 (unison), 9 --11 (parallel octaves). 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I~: : :::: I:: :: I , 1 It provides a harmonic vocabulary which is not very heavy in terms of chordal structure. Mostly parallel thirds and octaves The fact that the piano accompaniment in this piece can stand on its own, shows how Nketia employs African traditional practice whereby the drum ensemble accompanying a chorus can stand on its own. He allows himself to draw inspiration from his total experience of African music and also from his experience from individual ethnic groups. AKPALU This piano piece was composed in 1970. The piece is an adaptation of a song composed by the late Vinoko Akpalu, a renowned Anlo-Ewe traditional composer. Vinoko Akpalu was born at Tsiame near Anyako, in the Keta district of the Volta Region. Akpalu was born under circumstances far from happy, a fact which he mentions in some of his compositions. As Akpalu's father was a trader and a traveler, 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh he could not bring up his son himself. Akpalu was left in the care of his mother and his Uncles' when he was still only a young boy, his mother died, leaving him in the care of a harsh uncle, under whom he suffered many hardships and privation. Indeed, life was so cruel to him that he developed self-pity and lamented his fate in Songs. By the age of twenty-five, Akpalu was on his own as a composer and often collected Children at the beach and taught them songs, a practice which soon attracted the attention of older people. Akpalu used his own experiences and attitudes as themes for his compositions. His songs include comments on personal experiences, songs of self-defense, historical songs, sorrow caused by death and poverty, and songs about himself as a composer. The piece is based on a typical Anlo-Ewe style of traditional music. The title of the original piece composed by Akpalu is "v]lusiawo Agoo" (priests of the gods, I am asking permission). Nketia, in arranging this song for the piano, has arranged it in a ternary form: SectionAl Bars 1 - 13 SectionA2 Bars 14 - 22 Section B Bars 23 -35 SectionA3 Bars 36 - 45 (ABA) In section Al (Bars 1 - 13), Nketia takes the original melody an octave up, from bars 1 - 9. From bars 10 - 13, is the original melody. In section A2 (Bars 14 -22), Nketia uses the original melody from bars 14 -15, but moves an octave higher again from bars 16 _ 18. From bars 18 - 22, he uses the original melody, but deletes bars 10 _ 13 of AI. In section B (Bars 23 - 35), Nketia uses the original melody. In section A3 (Bars 36 _ 45), 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh he uses the same style as in AI, that is the melody taken up an octave, but in the last three bars he brings the melody down to its original pitch. In the original melody, bars 10 - 13, is a sort ofa link passage to the B section (bars 23 _ 35). I believe this explains why Nketia in arranging this song for the piano, omits this link in section A2 and A3. Nketia explores the wide range of the piano by taking the first section of the original melody an octave up. The original melody which was written for solo has the following form: ABC, and ends with bars 10 - 13 of section Al ofNketia's arrangement. Anlo traditional songs make use of the pentatonic, hexatonic and heptatonic or the seven tones "Ancient Minor" or "Natural Minor" according to Western Terms. An important feature of melodic organization associated with pentatonic structures is that of transposition, whereby the melody is shifted from one position to another. In this piece, in which the melody is based on the pentatonic scale, (penta-ray scale), we find transpositions whereby the melody is shifted from one position to another. The melody of this piece is based on the following penta-ray scale: ,f e 3 J J J IF F J J a3 J IF r 'tC] r r F F Ir ' ~ I' J 'r r r lEd Ed 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The melody from bars 4-8, is based on the following scale: J J r F This same scale re-appears in bars 28-30 in a different "Key" ,4' F d E t t !IF P F " r r ~D' J J 14 J t The second scale: is also used in bar 8 in the melody. 41 ] J J J jiJ I; J ]. 41] J IJ IJ r F The phrase marked above which uses the second scale, is also found at another place in a different key and in a different rhythmic setting. BarIl F Ir 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In Anlo-Ewe music, there are no chord clusters, rarely would one hear a triad like this one: The harmony derived from the polyphony, of Anlo music, in general is basically octaves, with parallel 4ths and 5ths. The accompanying 4ths and 5ths may themselves also be sung in octaves. The "Parts" in Anlo music therefore range from unison, octaves, and three parts to four parts. When Women alone sing one would not hear more than two parts which usually would be 4ths or 5ths below or above the melody. In the same way when men only sing, one would hear only unison, breaking into 4ths or 5ths from time to time. It does not mean only perfect intervals accompany the melody all the time, they appear to be singing in parts. The parts may be 3rds (major or minor) or even 2nds. Occasionally one would come across 6ths and 7ths. The only thing that is constant in their music is the octave when both men and women sing together. All the other harmonic intervals from the minor 2nd to the major 7th come in and fade off again. In Anlo music, the use of parallel thirds is not very common, as one finds in Akan music. The total effect of harmony in Anlo music is bareness and uneasiness. But after some exposure to this style of music one's ears become "tuned" to it and one would begin to enjoy it. In arranging this piece by Akpalu, for the piano, Nketia tries to employ the harmony derived from the polyphony of Anlo-Ewe music, since the melody is based on the typical traditional style. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh First we find the use of the octave in the left hand of the piano in bar 1 and 2 against the main melody. Also in bar 19 we fmd the melody doubled in octaves. In bar 4 and 5, there is the use of 5ths and 4ths against the melody. The hannony of 4ths and 5ths can also be found in the following bars, 11- 13: The 4ths and 5ths are all used below the melody, which is very typical of Anlo traditional singing. From bars 10 - 13 we find the example of the style ofa melodic line in octave unison. A style used when men and women sing together. There are also examples of harmony in 3rds, 2nds, 6ths and 7ths. These can be found in bars 3, 6,7 I' i~I tf .,'. t= l .. T ~ It} EJ U I These are thirds used against the melody. Examples of seconds can be found in bars 8- 9. In bar lOwe have an example of intervals of a 6th • 'IB 0 U 10 I I 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In bar 18, we have an example of an interval of a 7th. , It should be noted that the melody from bars 23 - 32, which is harmonized in parallel 4ths is used against the bell pattern of "Agbadza" dance music. In the performance of this piece by the traditional folks, it is usually accompanied by the bell pattern of "Agbadza" Nketia uses this bell pattern very effectively against the parallel 4th and 5th from bars 23-32. This gives the picture of a Chorus against the "Agbadza" dance ensemble. This means the bell pattern, used against the melody is made to assume a percussive role. Melodic phrases of Anlo-Ewe traditional songs, just like other traditional African songs begin and end on any pitch of a scale. In the first section of this piece (bars 1- 13), there can be two phrases. From bars 1 - 9 and from bars 10 -13, the initial tone of the first phrase is A and final tone is D. In the second phrase the initial and final tone is D. The phrasing as well as the initial and fmal tones of A2 (bars 14 - 22) is the same as Al (bars 1 -9). Section B (bars 23 -35) is based on five phrases of the 'agbadza' dance bell pattern. And a link of a three bar phrase to A3. The phrasing as well as the initial and final tones of A3 (bars 36 - 45), which is the final section is the same as in Al (bars 1 -9). The following are common intervals used in Anlo music. (1) minor 2nds (7) perfect 5ths (2) major 2nds (8) minor 6ths (3) minor 3rds (9) minor 6ths (4) major 3rds (10) The 8ves 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (5) perfect 4ths (11) Maj. 9ths (6) Aug4ths All these intervals may be used ascending or descending. The rising augmented 4th is not common, falling Augmented 4th is common. It is common to leap twice in the same direction or in different directions. Example of this can be found in bar 32, perfect 4th. f'Ed f Another example can be found in bars 11· 12 (perfect 4ths) Leaps can be of the same interval or may be unequal. The perfect 5th may be followed by the perfect 4th or the other way round. The perfect 5th or 4th may also be followed by major 2nd or a major 3rd. Example can be found in bar 1. EJO This is a leap of a 4th followed by a major 2nd• Leaps in the melody may be an octave, followed by a 2nd or a 3rd. Example can be found in bar 163 - 17.1 r f IE J4 1 r r F F This is an octave followed by a minor 3rd• There are other examples in the left hand of the piano. In bar 2. J F 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This is an octave leap followed by major 2nd. These are all styles of singing in Anlo-Ewe traditional music. The following are some of the cadential endings of the traditional music of the Anlo-Ewes, a-c. (A) 48 J J J IJ J J ~ j I IJ J Is s * * They all have one thing in common. The intervals between the four notes are equal (I) major 2nd, (2) minor 3rd and (3) major 2nd• (b) ,. J J J IJ ~J J ''JI J j IJ j j (C) J 1 IJ J J J 'IU J 3 1* * * In (b) the intervals between the ending notes are all equal (1) major 2nd and (2) major 2nd• In (c) all intervals are major 2nds, following in succession. In this piece, we have cadential endings from example (a) and (c). In bars 13,34,35 we have, 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In bars 8-9, 21-22, 43-45 we have, 'I P , , h 1 , I) ~ ~. P In examining this piece in terms of modulations, the melody goes through different scales by the time it comes to an end. Examining the pattern of the modulations, one may fmd the modulations are sometimes transpositions of previous passage into another key. In this piece, there is a regular shift of the key centre to a 5th above. Bars 1-7 KeyC Bars 8 Key G (a 5th above the previous key) Bars 9-13 Key D (a 5th above the previous key) Bars 21-22 KeyD Bars 22-24 KeyG Bars 29-35 Key D minor (Natural minor) Bars 44-45 Dminor The rhythm of African songs, in strict time is organised in two ways; the first is characterised by the use of the following short or long triple motives, with equivalent rests: Short Motives: J jl J J11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Long Motives: J. J. r J The second type of rhythmic organization consists in the use of the short duple motive (I), which may be subdivided into (II). r r fJ. Or (III) Of the two groups of long and short triple motives, all the short and long motives may occur in a particular song. In this piece, we find the use of all the short and long motives, from bars 1-45. This explains the fact that African rhythmic procedure does 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh not confine itself to the use of one type of motif in a song. The common practice is to use duple to triple or vice versa. We fmd an example of this, in this piece, where 4 time changes to 6/8 from bars 9-13. In arranging this melody by Akpalu for the piano, Nketia has done well to follow the Anlo-Ewe traditional practice of singing and ensemble work. ths The texture of this piece is based mainly on homophonic parallelism in 4 • There are few bars, which are contrapuntal. Examples of areas of homophonic parallelism in 4ths are at bars 11-13,23 - 30. Examples of areas of contrapuntal texture are at bars 1,14 and 19. TEXT The following are the words and translation of the song. The title of the original song is: V:>lusiawo Agoo Agoo mado V:>lusiawo Agoo, Agoo mado Ha neva ne madzi eel T:>gbi Gbe! Asimadodebatume! Mey:> mi heel Kovi dagbia mesea ko ga zun 0 Tsidzabebe agama Iiae ge Nye ha la nu kpokpoe 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Viro lo be, nye ha la nu kpokpoe Dzie~, aV:l~, hago lago De vivina, deW:lnu meli 0 Eyata mew:l kpoo meW:ldzaa Atia de liasi nyim:l da ye Mezu hesi~ abe da ye Nyayitoviwo mezu hesin:labe da ye Nyaitoviwo, nyemaku adz:l o. Ko ko manye ado de afia de V:llusiawo agoo, agoo, mado Ha neva ne madzi ee T:lgbi Gbe! Asimadodebatume Mey:l mi heel K:lvi dagbia mese ako ga zuna 0 Tsidzagbe, Ice agama Iiaege! Translation Priests of the gods, I am asking permission Let song come, for me to sing The god, thou who cannot be offended, I call upon you A small thin ant hill soon becomes a big ant hill On rainy days the Chameleon would be climbing it My songs are not common-place songs, VmIc says! "my song are not common-place songs" Men and Women, let there be peace 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The worship of the gods is sweet, but there is no money to do it, That is why I am quiet and simple. Is there any tree that is more bitter than ''Nyim::l'' I am a cantor, comrades! I will not die to reincarnate I will only change! Into an ant hill somewhere Let song come, for me to sign it The god Gbe, then who cannot be offended I call upon you A small thin ant hill soon becomes a big ant hill On rainy day, the chameleon would be climbing it. ONIPA BEYEE BI (MAN HAS COME TO ACCOMPLISH ONLY PART OF ms TASKS) This is one of the early pieces, composed on April 25, 1944. According to Nketia, when Nana Sir Ofori Ata passed away in 1944, he was very much shocked by the news that he composed a lament piece entitled "Yaanom Montie" (listen countryman) for voice and piano. This was composed on April 21, 1944. According to Nketia, four days later, still not recovered from the shock, he composed a second song titled "Onipa beyee bi" for also piano and voice. It is not surprising that the piano introductions of the two pieces are strikingly similar. The melodic movement has been generally conjunct with seconds and thirds constituting the domineering melodic intervals. The perfect fourth is the widest melodic interval within a melodic phrase. See bars 9,IOinto 11,20,21 into 22,47 etc. there are however a few wider intervals between the terminal and commencing notes of separate 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh melodic phrases. Cases in point are a minor sixth at bar 15 and a perfect octave at bar 42. The techniques of melody construction employed in "Onipa beyee bi" follow those of traditional practice, which allow for close correspondences to be established between the rhythmic and melodic contour of musical phrases and verbal phrases. The types of melodic direction found in African traditional songs have been employed in the solo part of this piece. Stepwise movement, pendular, interlocking and axial melodic shapes are discemable in the solo part. The following are some of the phrases and their underlying melodic structures: ~MB A s- s plPF EfJIF r giRd s I 0- ni-pa beye bii ne nyen nyinaa The construction of the antecedent phrase and also the consequent, which is a lower sequence to the latter consists of three melodic structures blended together. The fragments marked in brackets (a) (b) and (c) represent pendular, interlocking and stepwise movements respectively. 6 ~ Mj 1- 1 ~ 10 F ~ F IF T)- I 0- woraa beye bi-oo 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The above is partially axial in structure with the axis being the note D. (a) (a) (b) The above are four short phrases that are generally axial in layout. The note "B" "A", "B","A" are the most important notes that are revolved around in the four phrases. Fragments of interlocking, scalic structures are also apparent in the above sections marked (a) represent stepwise progressions while (b) stands for interlocking traits. (b) (c) Fragments marked (a) stands for elements of interlocking structures, (b) represents triadic melodic structures, which are usually reached through arpeggiation. Finally, (c) represents pendular traits while reiterated melodic notes are seen towards the end of the phrase. The structure of the various phrase lengths will now be compared. Similarities in musical texts of the phrases will be helpful and eventually help to arrive at the form of the song. There are fourteen melodic phrases of different lengths in "Onipa beyee bi" apart from the fifth and the tenth, which have not been balanced in any way, the phrases invariably move in pairs, with the first of each pair serving as an antecedent and the following is the consequent phrase. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Starting with the solo part are the following phrases. What 1 designate as "phrase A" 6 takes after the piano introduction. The antecedent phrase occupies bars 8 - 114 of a 6/8 meter. This phrase has been harmonised to end on an inverted perfect cadence. The consequent phrase of "A" occupies 126 _154 which gives a regular balance of 2516 bars, like the previous one. This ends in a bolder perfect cadence. Following are two shorter phrases that can be dubbed as "B". They can be located in bars 156_175 and Ir-194 respectively. Unlike the preceding pair of phrases, there is no long break intervening them. Another regular phrasing could have been created between the two. But for the last phrase ordered to alter the commencement of a repeated but modified "A" phrase, the length of the consequent is 12/3 as against 1 516 of the antecedent. At bars 206 - 244 is a return ofa transformed version of "A" which had no need of being balanced. It is 2 516 bars long, which tallies with the initial phrases. What can be described as phrase "C" is reached at bars 226 244 and 246 264, which are each 1516 bars in length representing antecedent and consequent phrases respectively. There are modified repetitions of "phrase C" that occur at bar 266 284 and 286 - -303• The cadences are the same as above but the consequent phrase becomes shorter in order to allow the commencement of a new phrase without any break. This eight melodic phrase can be described as phrase "D". Occurring at bar 30-33 as a new antecedent, it spans 3 l12bars.This is followed by a consequent phrase that occupies bar 35-37, which is 3 bars long. It is shorter than the antecedent and thus creates an irregular balancing. It is also declamatory unlike the preceding phrase. Before a return to the earlier phrases is another phrase, which has no partner. It spans bars 38 - 42, thus bars long and it can be designated as phrase "E". 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A return of phrase "B" at 426 - 444 create another balanced set of phrases. They are of the same length of 15/6 as at their initial appearance. The point of transformation is in the accompaniment part. While a perfect cadence and an inverted perfect cadences in "A" and "0" majors have been respectively used to harmonize the two phrases, the points of transformation is the higher registers in the right hand of the piano at the return of these phrases between 43-46. The melodic phrases at bars 466 504 and 505 - and 535 are repetition of the piano introduction bars 1-45 has been repeated and modified at the end of the piece. This is therefore the return of phrase "A". This return therefore puts the song in a ternary form. It is interesting to note however that the first-appearances were done by the piano before taken over by the solo voice at 86- 154 But the real replica of the piano melody is the coda of the piece. One can conclude that Nketia does not always maintain the same length of phrases. They vary from bar to bar, but he rather teams the phrases up in twos so far as melodic materials and length are concerned. THE PIANO ACCOMPANIMENT The melody in the piano part from bars 1-7 has previously been said to be the same as that of the solo voice's two concluding melodic phrases. Before the entry of the solo voice, the piano part has quite an uninterrupted chordal progression. Among some interesting points to note is Nketia's beginning of certain pieces with different chords other than the tonic. In this piece, the composer decides to harmonize the mediant in the melody at 1 bar with a submediant harmony instead of the tonic chord. This the composer has done to create a different tonal flavor, on the gloomy side to begin the piece. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bars 2 into 3, with an interrupted cadence speaks loudly of an Nketia idiomatic harmonic vocabulary. He is fond of harmonizing the melodic progression of the sub-dominant to tonic with a dominant seventh to tonic or its substitute chord i.e. submediant. -~J! tJ r r r r I i 1 I : I I I I v7 vi v7 I The repetition of the above example is seen at the end of the piece where the piano gives a similar harmonization to the melodic phrases at bar 48 into 49and 52 and 53 In the harmony above, Nketia omits the fifth of the dominant seventh chord and doubles the seventh since one should resolve unto the mediant and the other in the' melody falling a fourth unto the tonic. This is quite idiomatic of Nketia. Transposed versions of this harmonic idiom are also prevalent in this, and other works ofNketia. In this piece, see bars 20 into 21, where the idiom is used in the sub- dominant key i.e. G major but in its inverted form i.e. vb-I. In the piano introduction, the harmonization of the beginnings and the ends of the two phrases, that is, bar 1-4, 4-8 demonstrate the composer's ability of giving a varied version or an alternative harmonization to a repeated phrase. There is a point of transformation that depends on harmony, and it serves the purpose of enhancing affection. It also justifies the popular axion that the African musician hardly repeats himself and verbatim, when rendering a repeated musical event due to 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh his improvisatory powers and the desire to vary as part of the attributes of a good musician. vi ivb iib iiic7 ivbii7 i- The third chord in bar 6 is a passing chord that can also be regarded as the third inversion ofthe supertonic seventh chord with the fifth omitted. After the entry of the solo voice, there exist sporadic chords in the accompaniment part with intermittent rests. This enhances clarity since the silent beats of the piano make the solo more audible at those stages. Descending scale fragments in the right hand of the piano link the silent portion of the declamatory melody around bar II into 12, and also bridges itself between bars 9-14. The chordal layout becomes continuous and passages through different tonal centers characterize bars 16-22. "A" major, which is the dominant key is reached in bars 16-17 while "0" major is established at bars 20 into 21. Coupling of the bass line is also noticed in bars 16,18-20. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A new accompaniment figure is experienced through bars 23 until 30. A continuous doubling of the bass line, usually on the first half of each measure is later followed by arpeggiated versions of chords whose base they constitute. The arpeggiation is in the right hand and is made through alternation of the keys of "G" and "D" majors. Rests between bars 31-38 at different points for both the solo and the piano part, have been carefully ordered to permit dialogues between the two timbral forces, although not based on the same thematic material, while the solo voice is heard unaccompanied in bars 31 to the early part of 33, the piano also replies alone at bar 34. There are however overlappings in the dialogues of the solo and the piano accompaniment between bars 35 and 38.At this point of the dialogue, the texture of the Piano part has been thinned and emphasis placed on its linear tonal organization than the vertical. Reiteration of chord notes with a few octave skips in the left hand over the first and second quaver exist at the bars numbered 39-42. An embedded shading of the melody in these piano parts in octaves and parallel thirds can also be discerned at this point. There is a reversion to chordal pronouncement with the right hand in a registrar transfer through "A" and "D" majors with bars coupling in the left hand. In bar 47to the end of the piece, there is a homophonic harmonization of the return of the piano introductory melody, now in the solo voice. The piano duplicates the solo melody in unison at bars 47-50, after which it retreats to use chords to harmonize part of the phrase that spans bars 51-53. The piano accompaniment also acts as gongs and drums accompanying a traditional song. From bar 33-38, the left hand rhythm of the piano sounds just like a drum pattern. Nketia uses both 3/4 and 6/8 for this piece. This reflects his metrical considerations at this phase of his career since this work was composed in 1944. The grouping of notes and the numerous crotchets in the piece favour 6/8 then 314. There are many 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh traditional African songs in which 3/4 and 6/8 are used interchangeably. Onipa beyee bi is based on the triple motif -- ( long) (long) and (short). However, it must be noted that, in Africa, rhythmic procedure does not confme itself to the use of one type of motif in a song. The common practice is to use different motifs concurrently. Measures or parts of measures may change from duple to triple or vice versa. In this piece, Nketia employs this technique, where the piano accompaniment consists of triple and duple motifs. A number of cross-rhythm effects are produced. Examples can be found in bar 20 -38. The following are some of the rhythmic motifs used in the piece: (a) (b) 6£ ~J J n I, J. IJ. J. IJ. J~C) ~, " 'I),", }1 I' n J. IJ . J. I, , JI The form of this piece can be described as binary form with a coda. Introduction - 1_91 Section A bars fj - 23 1 Section B bars 232 - 471 Coda bars 48 - 54 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In the first section the piano accompaniment is very chordal, while in section B it makes use of broken chords: Ii ~ tJ ~: .: --.: -rI I 21 I I I 124 e~c : 11""'· r . I -rI. THE TEXT Onipa bB}'E bioo NE nye ne nyinara Onipa beyee bi 00 N'enye ne nyinara Owora beye bioo Owora beyee bi 00 Onipa beyee bi 00 Ne nye ne nyinara Owora aho:lfe ne deen? Owora aho:lden ne deen? Owora sika ne deeben Enne ye pe owora Ne no akasa ehe na yebehu no Yepe owora, owora, hena yebebu no Odomankuma wuo 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ne*toJooo Owora dabreye bioo Onipa beyee moo Ns nys be nyinara oworaee Onipa bsys s bioo n's nys Nyinaraoo TRANSLATION Man has come to accomplish only part of his tasks Owora accomplished what he could Man has come to accomplish only part of his tasks Owora, what is beauty? Owora, what is strength? Owora, what is wisdom? Today, we are looking for Owora to talk to him Where shall we find him? We are looking for Owora, Death has taken him away Owora accomplished what he could . Man only accomplished What he can in his lifetime, And not everything. The song text of this piece shows Nketia's careful and meticulous use of words to enhance the beauty of his songs. The words are close to the music both in rhythm and inflection. 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This song which is lfIriUen in Akan, reflects the value, of companioship, and the emotional state of seperation, loneliness, disappointment and consolation. Commenting on this composition ''Onipa beyee bi" in his book titled "AfRican Art music" Nketia, writes: ''Composing such music and poetry came to me quite naturally, except that I had to learn the intricacies of the art in my community, largely through social experience, and later through formal training". APRANNAA SA ME OJI OJI OJI IJI J Jj JI }I I & & . II II J Ip j & P P Ji I J J ,. J J I .. _---- 161 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1."bree observations are evideht from the melodic organization of this piece: (i) As a piece, the number of repeated notes is significant: most of the intervals in the melody are repeated. (ii) The use of stepwise movement is noticeable. It may be further noted that wide and jumping movement is extremely rare. The few instances of 6th th and 5 are used at the junction between phrases and at a phrase end. This is between bars 45 and 61. In the original melody bar 61 continues immediately after bar 45. Other instances of the leap can be found in bars 62 - 63, and 65. (iii) An examination of the direction of the intervals (i.e. ascending, descending or repeated) shows that the repeated notes are still more favoured, and that the ascending and descending intervals are evenly, used. In examining the melodic organization ofthis piece, it tends to a large extent to follow the melodic organization of Akan folk songs. It should be noted that there is the use of the lowered seventh in bar 89 to end the piece. The rhythm, of the original piece (miye Gb:lm:l Ko), is highly determined by syllable distribution and the rate of syllable flow. The length and also the ordering of the note values are dictated and conditioned by relative lengths of the spoken version of the text. In arranging this piece for the piano, Gyimah Labi modifies the whole rhythmic structure of the piece. Example the beginning of the original piece has the following rhythm: 2. 11 11 162 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Three obsemdioos are evideht from the melodic organization oftbis piece: (i) As a piece, the number of repeated notes is significant: most of the intervals in the melody are repeated. (ii) The use of stepwise movement is noticeable. It may be further noted that wide th th and jumping movement is extremely rare. The few instances of 6 and 5 are used at the junction between phrases and at a phrase end. This is between bars 45 and 61. In the original melody bar 61 continues immediately after bar 45. Other instances of the leap can be found in bars 62 - 63, and 65. (iii) An examination of the direction of the intervals (i.e. ascending, descending or repeated) shows that the repeated notes are still more favoured, and that the ascending and descending intervals are evenly, used. In examining the melodic organization of this piece, it tends to a large extent to follow the melodic organization of Akan folk songs. It should be noted that there is the use of the lowered seventh in bar 89 to end the piece. The rhythm, of the original piece (miye Gb::l~ Ko), is highly determined by syllable distribution and the rate of syllable flow. The length and also the ordering of the note values are dictated and conditioned by relative lengths of the spoken version of the text. In arranging this piece for the piano, Gyimah Labi modifies the whole rhythmic structure of the piece. Example the beginning of the original piece has the following rhythm: 24 WWI# r.... . ___r _ __r 162 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Three observations are evideht from the melodic organization of this piece: (i) As a piece, the number of repeated notes is significant: most of the intervals in the melody are repeated. (ii) The use of stepwise movement is noticeable. It may be further noted that wide th th and jumping movement is extremely rare. The few instances of 6 and 5 are used at the junction between phrases and at a phrase end. This is between bars 45 and 61. In the original melody bar 61 continues immediately after bar 45. Other instances of the leap can be found in bars 62 - 63, and 65. (iii) An examination of the direction of the intervals (i.e. ascending, descending or repeated) shows that the repeated notes are still more favoured, and that the ascending and descending intervals are evenly, used. In examining the melodic organization of this piece, it tends to a large extent to follow the melodic organization of Akan folk songs. It should be noted that there is the use of the lowered seventh in bar 89 to end the piece. The rhythm, of the original piece (miye Gb:lm:l Ko), is highly detennined by syllable distribution and the rate of syllable flow. The length and also the ordering of the note values are dictated and conditioned by relative lengths of the spoken version of the text. In arranging this piece for the piano, Gyimah Labi modifies the whole rhythmic structure of the piece. Example the beginning of the original piece has the following rhythm: 24 L.,.r_ .r.... _ __r B B 162 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This is in the first two bars of the original piece. The arrangement for the piano is 68 We find a lot of such rhythmic modifications in the whole arrangement. One interesting aspect of the rhythm, in this arrangement is the combination of duple and triple divisions of the pulse. These effects embedded hemiola at certain points of the music, both vertically and horizontally. The alternation of two contrasting rhythmic effects can for instance cited at bar 31 and 54-56. There are also lots of examples of syncopated rhythms. The following are examples; bars5-8 (a) p p P J... _ ---_I. J. . )\ )\ )\ (b) ~ r i IJ· D D D (c) ~. 1'1'1'1' l' l' J Jl (d) D ' Jl Jl J_ _ lJ· l' Jl Jl In the original piece, there is no tempo mark, this arrangement has LARGHETTO d. = 92 as the tempo mark for the piece. There are no tempo fluctuations, except in bar 88 163 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This is in the first two bars of the original piece. The arrangement for the piano is 68 ,. p pP I J J We find a lot of such rhythmic modifications in the whole arrangement. One interesting aspect of the rhythm, in this arrangement is the combination of duple and triple divisions of the pulse. These effects embedded hemiola at certain points of the music, both vertically and horizontally. The alternation of two contrasting rhythmic effects can for instance cited at bar 31 and 54-56. There are also lots of examples of syncopated rhythms. The following are examples; bars 5-8 (a) p p P J... _ ---_I. J jl . . jl jl (b) J r r IJ· p P P (c) ,. Jl }\ lq"l }\ }\ J Jl (d) P "I Jl}\ J_ _ lJ· }\ Jl Jl In the original piece, there is no tempo mark, this arrangement has LARGHEITO d. = 92 as the tempo mark for the piece. There are no tempo fluctuations, except in bar 88 163 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh where there is the use ofa ritardando. Changing meters are also prominent in this piece. The following is a table of the changing meters: BARNQ. CHANGING METER Bar 2 2 4 Bar 3 3 8 Bar 4 6 8 Bar 20 3 8 Bar21 6 8 2 Bar 22 4 6 Bar 23 8 9 Bar 76 8 6 Bar 77 8 Meter changes as we have seen in the other a dialects is a way of achieving rhythmic variety. The following sums up the types and effects of dynamic markings. The first and the major kind is sectional dynamic contrasts. Dynamics aimed at lifting the most important melody or thematic fragment represents the second type. Thirdly is the gradated crescendo and diminuendo. Examples of sectional dynamic contrasts are (f) 1 164 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh - 3, (mt) 4 ..... 12, (mt) 13 - 23 (t) 24, (mp) 49,51 (mt) at 53 (t) and m( at 58 (ft) at 61 (t) and (ft) at 82, mfat 88 and (Pp) at 90. ht the second example, the dynamics are aimed at lifting the main melody of piece. Example in bar 36, "cantabile assai," this is where the first section of the main melody begins. The same dynamic marking is used again (cantabile assai) where the second section of the melody also begins. In bars 45 - 48 we have the third example, that is the gradated crescendo and diminuendo. Homophony best describes the textural layout of this dialect. Homophonic parallelism involving different intervals has been the composer's major device in concurrent pitch organization. At most portions of the piece, there are at least two parts always identically moving in parallel harmonies: Bar I - 4 parallel 4ths in the right hand an left hand. Bar 5 - II parallel 3rds in the right hand Bar 13 -16 parallel4ths the right hand against parallel6lhs in the left hand. Bar 20 - 23 parallel 4ths in the right hand against parallel 6ths in the left hand. Bar 26 - 30 - parallel 3rds in the right hand Bar 45 - 46 parallel 8ves in the left hand Bar 47 - 54 parallel3rds and 2nds in the right hand, against parallel 8YeS in the left hand Bar 61 - 87 parallel 3rds, 4ths and 2nds in the right hand against 8ves in the left band. 165 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh - 3, (mf) 4 - 12, (mf) 13 - 23 (t) 24. (mp) 49,51 (mf) at 53 (t) and m~ at 58 (ft) at 61 (t) and (ft) at 82, mfat 88 and (Pp) at 90. In the second example, the dynamics are aimed at lifting the main melody of piece. Example in bar 36, "cantabile assai," this is where the first section of the main melody begins. The same dynamic marking is used again (cantabile assai) where the second section of the melody also begins. In bars 45 - 48 we have the third example, that is the gradated crescendo and diminuendo. Homophony best describes the textural layout of this dialect. Homophonic parallelism involving different intervals has been the composer's major device in concurrent pitch organization. At most portions of the piece, there are at least two parts always identically moving in parallel hannonies: Bar 1 - 4 parallel 4ths in the right hand an left hand. Bar 5 - II parallel 3rds in the right hand Bar 13 -16 parallel4ths the right hand against parallel6ths in the left hand. Bar 20 - 23 parallel 4ths in the right hand against parallel 6ths in the left hand. Bar 26 - 30 - parallel 3rds in the right hand Bar 45 - 46 parallel 8Yes in the left hand Bar 47 - 54 parallel 3rds and 2nds in the right hand, against parallel 8yes in the left hand Bar 61 - 87 parallel 3rds, 4ths and 2nds in the right hand against 8Yes in the left hand. 165 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From bars 88 to the end the piece thins out to a monophonic texture, together with a change in tempo. This change in texture facilitates the identification of the closing bars of the piece. The organization of vertical sonorities is a variable that can be counted upon in assessing the degree of individualism in a composer's work. The choice of chords, cadences and modulations are among parameters under concurrent pitch organization that can collaborate and represent a distinct trait of the composer's vocabulary. The harmonic structure of this piece is mostly based on contemporary chord structure. The first harmonic structure found in this piece is the use of superimposed thirds. Examples can be found in bar II, 31, 32 62. The second harmonic structure which happens to be the most prominent is parallelism. We find examples of parallel progression of 4ths, 2nds, 3rd £fl" and 8ues. The introduction consists of first juxtaposed 4ths and 2nds for the first three bars 5 - 12. r II' From bars 13 -16, we find the use ofparallel4ths and 6ths moving at the same time. 166 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Other examples of parallelism can be found in bars 20-23, 45 -46, 99- 53, 61-78. I~:::: :::1: : : : : : I The third hannonic structure one can find in this piece, is melodic doubling. We fmd example of the doubling of melodic lines at the octave. Examples can be found in bars 53,54,61- 63,66,68,73 -76. :: Another harmonic structure used, is the exhaustive use of the concept of chromaticism. Examples can be found in bars 13 - 34 (Introduction). Section A, B and the coda also makes use of a lot of chromaticism. The use of chromaticism enriches the harmonic and melodic colour of the piece. 167 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh With regard to tonality, the composer employs the major scale (F major) as the source of his tonal matter. Although in F major, the composer turns away from this tonality, and uses obscured sense of tonality at certain portions of the piece. There are no clear- cut modulations. The opening bars of the piece, for example are quite deceptive to the listener, since they suggest a different modality which is short lived, until bar 36, where the major mode becomes well defined. Alternation of major, modal and chromatic flavours sums up the composer's attempt to create some form of variety in his tonal matter instead of clear-cut modulation. This is reminiscent of Schubert's style with regards to his Art songs. Schubert's alternation of major and minor modes satisfies a dramaturgical purpose, namely creating different moods. AFRICAN RESOURCES USED IN THE PIECE. In examining the piece, one can point out few idioms used in African vocal music; (i) Singing in unison or in octaves where men and women sing together. The use of melodic doubling. Example, Bars 61 - 63. (ii) Homophonic parallelism in thirds and fourths is used in some African societies. The choice of interval is generally related to the kind of scale pattern on which the music is based. Parallel thirds are characteristic of societies that use the heptatonic scale. Parallelism in fourths or fifths is more characteristic of pentatonic traditions. In this piece, the composer uses both parallelism in thirds and fourths. Examples of the thirds and fourths can be seen in the introduction of the piece. (Bars 1 - 34). 168 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh With regard to tonality, the composer employs the major scale (F major) as the source of his tonal matter. Although in F major, the composer turns away from this tonality, and uses obscured sense of tonality at certain portions of the piece. There are no clear- cut modulations. The opening bars of the piece, for example are quite deceptive to the listener, since they suggest a different modality which is short lived, until bar 36, where the major mode becomes well defined. Alternation of major, modal and chromatic flavours sums up the composer's attempt to create some form of variety in his tonal matter instead of clear-cut modulation. This is reminiscent of Schubert's style with regards to his Art songs. Schubert'S alternation of major and minor modes satisfies a dramaturgical purpose, namely creating different moods. AFRICAN RESOURCES USED IN THE PIECE. In examining the piece, one can point out few idioms used in African vocal music; (i) Singing in unison or in octaves where men and women sing together. The use of melodic doubling. Example, Bars 61 - 63. (ii) Homophonic parallelism in thirds and fourths is used in some African societies. The choice of interval is generally related to the kind of scale pattern on which the music is based. Parallel thirds are characteristic of societies that use the heptatonic scale. Parallelism in fourths or fifths is more characteristic of pentatonic traditions. In this piece, the composer uses both parallelism in thirds and fourths. Examples of the thirds and fourths can be seen in the introduction of the piece. (Bars I - 34). 168 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh With regard to tonality, the composer employs the major scale (F major) as the source of his tonal matter. Although in F major, the composer turns away ftom this tonality, and uses obscured sense of tonality at certain portions of the piece. There are no clear- cut modulations. The opening bars of the piece, for example are quite deceptive to the listener, since they suggest a different modality which is short lived, until bar 36, where the major mode becomes well defined. Alternation of major, modal and chromatic flavours sums up the composer's attempt to create some form of variety in his tonal matter instead of clear-cut modulation. This is reminiscent of Schubert's style with regards to his Art songs. Schubert's alternation of major and minor modes satisfies a dramaturgical purpose, namely creating different moods. AFRICAN RESOURCES USED IN THE PIECE. In examining the piece, one can point out few idioms used in African vocal music; (i) Singing in unison or in octaves where men and women sing together. The use of melodic doubling. Example, Bars 61 - 63. (ii) Homophonic parallelism in thirds and fourths is used in some African societies. The choice of interval is generally related to the kind of scale pattern on which the music is based. Parallel thirds are characteristic of societies that use the heptatonic scale. Parallelism in fourths or fifths is more characteristic of pentatonic traditions. In this piece, the composer uses both parallelism in thirds and fourths. Examples of the thirds and fourths can be seen in the introduction of the piece. (Bars 1 - 34). 168 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (ui) African traditions who use the heptatonic scale make use of parallel sequences of thirds consistently or sporadically in chorus responses. This piece makes use of this style, example can be found in bars 5 -10. (iv) African vocal music makes use of melodic interlocking patterns of movement. Example in this piece can be found in 5 - 10. Here we have descending thirds and fourths that interlock. The use of the cross rhythm which is found in African percussion music is also made of in piece. Example can be found in bars 29, 31, 35, 60, 85, 87. (v) Bar 89 of this piece make use of the flattened 7th, which is used very frequently and well-established in Akan vocal music. It is used to decorate melodies. In this piece, it is used to decorate the final cadence. (vi) We also note the use of ornamental melodies, which is also common in African vocal music. Examples can be found in the main melody of this piece. Bars 63, 6 - 68,70, also part of the introduction (Bar 58) and part of the coda (Bar 82). The syncretic nature of African art music poses challenges to composers who have to make meaningful creative use of African traditions and modem development in form and harmony. We find this especially in these Dialects by Gyimah Labi that I have analysed. Gyimah Labi tries to fuse contemporary and African idioms. For the performer it needs virtuosity to really execute these pieces, and for the listeners, they would find African melodies and percussion music fused with the western style for the piano. The piece has the following formal structure: Introduction - 1-34 Section A - 35-57 Section 8-58-81 169 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Coda-82-90 The introduction consists of first juxtaposed 4ths and 2nds for two bars. This is followed by sequential movements in parallel 3rds (bars 4-12). From bars 26-27, the initial phrase of the theme is suggested. This is followed by an extemporization which suggests other ways of continuation (bars 28-35). In section A (bars35-57), the theme is presented. It is extended and rehannonized. Pappoe's bar 8, first section has now been restated in bar 57. The second section B (bars 58-81) has a closer correspondence to that of Papp oe. The original melody is presented but hannonized differently. Bars 82-90 constitute the closing section (the coda) with materials already presented in the body of the piece. TEXT OF ORIGINAL PIECE MiyE gb:Jm:l Ko Egbsi po milee, milee, milee Egbsi Po milee, milee milee Shi bois hani naa kpls Mi sen ksbD:l1J IJ Ksks Ie baa womi Ni eha mi noko ni Ela eha mi ew:lle Mi ma W:l ma W:l Mramramra Tsebe Is egbei po Milee,milee 170 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TRANSLATION I have somebody, His name, I do not even know, His name, I do not even know, But let me ask something and immediately, he will carry me, and give me something, sing for me and put me to sleep. He provides my needs very quickly, Even though I do not know his name, I have a friend. 171 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION It is hoped that, this study of the analysis of selected works in African pianism, will provide a clearer comprehension of the idioms that underscore the respective styles of the composers. The analysis will also offer a comprehension of African idioms used in composing for the piano. These works in African pianism have explored the wider possibilities of the seven-tone scale system and the resources of the five-tone scale form. All the works analysed are exatnples' of ways in which traditional material may be lifted from its original context and modified to create a completely new piece. Due to western influence, the earliest works by African composers sounded quite western. However, with the advent of the nationalist movements of the pre- independence era of many African states, and also the continuous quest for the "African identity", current African Art works have drawn much from the traditional music of the continent. Cultural, psychological and philosophical among other factors may together determine the style of a composer. Problems of choice of idiom, notation and that of the conflict of theories that arise from the syncreticism which characterizes African Art musical scene, are among the problems that composers face and solve in their creative processes. The nature of the solution to these problems by each composer also affects his style. African pianism is a musical innovation and change. Musical change, like any other, is not of one kind. The changes occurring in African arts today are quantitatively more than, and of a different nature from, the usual accumulative changes occurring in the 172 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh aociely and in the philosophic beliefs that support and sustains the society. African pionism is an innovation which has been added to the literature of African Art music. Using generally a category and feature analytical method among others, the following represent the styles and the traits in the selected works of the three composers. The major and modal scales have been the main tonal basis for Nketia and Gyimah La,bi. The major, and the 12-tone series have been the main tonal basis for Akin Euba. The minor scale has not been favoured by the three composers. On the other hand, Nketia has made good use of pentatonic and hexatonic scales, drawn from African traditional practice. In using the tone row to compose "scenes from traditional life, Akin Euba, uses pitch elements not directly generated from the row. The 12 notes of the series do not appear intact. All three composers, especially Gyimah Labi exploits the more extended range of the piano. For Nketia and Akin Euba their highest and lowest notes are usually short, and they serve as points of climaxes. The highest and lowest notes of Gyimah Labi are however long and atimes serve or do not serve as points of climaxes. In the solo works for voice and piano, Nketia and Akin Euba work within a narrow registral compass for the solo. The piano is relied upon to make up for the narrow range. On melodic intervals, the minor and major 3rds, minor 2nds major 2nds, perfect 4ths and 5ths are their most frequent melodic intervals. Perfect octaves and unison are also prominent melodic progressions in all three composers, especially Gyimah Labi. Perfect octaves and unison singing are techniques used in African traditional music. For Gyimah Labi, he does not only uses perfect octaves, but also diminished octaves. This happens to be one of his trade marks in his compositions analysed. 173 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Octave leaps and perfect octaves in unison is an Akin Buba trait. Nketia favours a melodic drop of a fourth. This is usually seen at cadencial points. His use of the lowered seventh is usually approached from below by a second and resolves unto the fourth. His use of the raised fourth is approached from a note above and resolves unto the fifth. These are all influences of Akan traditional music on the composer. Nketia remains quite diatonic when melodic construction is concerned. Conversely, Gyimah Labi and Akin Buba sound quite chromatic. Although melodic structure differs from piece to piece, interlocking structures involving thirds is an Nketia trait. Pendular, axial, scale fragments, triadic or arpeggiation, motifs built on upper or lower neighbour notes, repeated melodic structures, consistent melodic variation, and at times complex and diversified melodies and sequences can be found in works of the three composers. With regard to melodic phrases, those pieces for solo and piano by Akin Buba and Nketia maintain a close relationship between text and melody. Speech therefore determines the relative length of the melodic notes. In some of the pieces by Nketia and Gyimah Labi, the ending tone of phrases is lower than the beginning. This gives a downward trend to the phrases. This is a feature in Akan vocal music. It should be noted that the practice of organizing tones into melodic patterns especially at the end of phrases in traditional African vocal music, has been employed by the three composers. Melodic phrases are so organized that when one hears the ending of one phrase, one can anticipate or expect the ending of the succeeding one. All three composers also use transpositions of melodic phrases, a typical African practice. 174 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In his piece "scenes from traditional life" Euba uses short melodic phrases which use only limited notes in the row. Also he uses melodies which are easily adaptable to different phrase lengths. Harmonic vocabulary of the three composers is mostly based on western and African harmonic principles. Among the African harmonic principles are, homophonic parallelism in seconds thirds, fourths, fifths and sixths. 2) polarity, 3) polyphony of a contrapuntal nature. 4) ostinato accompaniment to a melody. 5) Notes occurring together at overlappings of call and response phrases. 6) melodic decoration with sporadic added pitch, giving rise to sporadic divisi during unison passages. Among the western harmonic principles are 1) Chromaticism. The harmony of Gyimah Labi and Akin Euba's works analysed are quite chromatic. The chromatic chords aid them to move to remote keys and they also add color to the harmonic structure. 2) Primary and secondary chords, used atimes with their sevenths. The favourite chords of Gyimah Labi are the dominant seventh, supertonic seventh and the augmented sixth chords. 3) Twientieth century tonal vocabularies. Euba and Labi have used this quite extensively in their compositions in African pianism. They are a) Tone clusters, which add a bit of color to the harmony. b) Chords built on superimposed thirds. c) parallelism in 2nds, 3rds, fourths, fifths and sixths .c) Use of non harmonic materials, examples are passing tones, suspensions, changing notes, pedal points, unprepared suspensions with delayed resolutions. e) polychords and f) Atonality. Of the three composers, Nketia demonstrates a more balanced syncretic ism of African and western harmonic idioms. All the three composers use staggered rhythmic motifs. Notable rhythms used by all three composers are: 1) The cross rhythm used especially in African percussion music. 2) Hemiola 3) Shifted accents and rapid meter changes. 4) Asymetric divisions and meters 5) 175 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In his piece "scenes tiom traditional life" Euba uses short melodic phrases which use only limited notes in the row. Also he uses melodies which are easily adaptable to different phrase lengths. Hannonic vocabulary of the three composers is mostly based on western and African harmonic principles. Among the African harmonic principles are, homophonic parallelism in seconds thirds, fourths, fifths and sixths. 2) polarity, 3) polyphony of a contrapuntal nature. 4) ostinato accompaniment to a melody. 5) Notes occurring together at overlappings of call and response phrases. 6) melodic decoration with sporadic added pitch, giving rise to sporadic divisi during unison passages. Among the western harmonic principles are 1) Chromaticism. The harmony of Gyimah Labi and Akin Euba's works analysed are quite chromatic. The chromatic chords aid them to move to remote keys and they also add color to the harmonic structure. 2) Primary and secondary chords, used atimes with their sevenths. The favourite chords of Gyimah Labi are the dominant seventh, supertonic seventh and the augmented sixth chords. 3) Twientieth century tonal vocabularies. Euba and Labi have used this quite extensively in their compositions in African pianism. They are a) Tone clusters, which add a bit of color to the harmony. b) Chords built on superimposed thirds. c) parallelism in 2nds, 3rds, fourths, fifths and sixths .c) Use of non harmonic materials, examples are passing tones, suspensions, changing notes, pedal points, unprepared suspensions with delayed resolutions. e) polychords and t) Atonality. Of the three composers, Nketia demonstrates a more balanced syncreticism of African and western harmonic idioms. AU the three composers use staggered rhythmic motifs. Notable rhythms used by all three composers are: 1) The cross rhythm used especially in African percussion music. 2) Hemiola 3) Shifted accents and rapid meter changes. 4) Asymetric divisions and meters 5) 175 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh principle of repetition and variation or improvisation which helps in achieving rhythmic variety. 6) Isorhytbms which Akin Euba uses in his 'scenes from Traditional Life". This is very much found in African drum music, where rhythmic patterns are organized into different pitch contours. 7) Polyrhythms 8) Non-accentual rhythms 9) Additive rhytbms IO)Traditionai known rhythmic patterns. Although the dynamic and tempo changes differ from piece to piece for all the three composers, one realizes that each composer makes use of dramatic use of dynamics. Some ofthe dynamics help to: I) Accentuate sectional differences 2) Emphasise the beginning of metric changes, and new motifs 3) Brings out different scenes or moods depicted in music. Metronome marks for defining desired tempos are used by all three composers. All works analysed, reveal the alternation of different textures. Certain sections of the pieces are homophonic, while others are polyphonic. For Euba's "scenes from traditional life", textural organization favours the style of polyphony. Horizontal and vertical occurance of motives are used. Vertical arrangement of notes are in contrapuntal patterns that do not weary the listner in long ostinato passages. There are also elements of monophony in the works of all three composers, where the parts are in unison and polarity. Variation of the density of texture by cutting down the number of voices at certain points is a common trait with all the composers. Nketia uses very ponderous chords for his piano accompaniment. The piano accompaniment of Euba reveals a mixture of linear and vertical tonal interests. Dissonant textures under an almost continuous string ofc hanging melodies is a trait of Gyimah Labi. 176 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh :ro8to" Gwphonic parallelism is a predominant Nketia trait. Nketia and Euba are fond of teaming up two parts and assigning them a thematic material against those of another team. Fluctuation of the number of voices, due to doubling abounds in the piano works of all the three composers. Cutting of thematic parts or the fragmentation of motifs, transfer of the theme to a different register of the piano, the expansion and compression of melodic and harmonic intervals are devices that Nketia and Euba use in developing their themes. Change of chords over a fixed textural phrase, fragmentation of motifs, compression and expansion of melodic intervals, arpeggiation, shifting tonality, and the changing of a repeated phrase from major into minor with the same tonic are some of Gyimah Labi's transformational devises he extends to his motifs. In addition to all these, Nketia is also fond of using the modal scale which makes the Iistner feel a piece is in the minor. This is a style of African traditional vocal music. The modes make a kind of stellar photograph of western harmony. The whole of western harmony is based, on the fact which the ear, however, only endorses, that any note may be treated as a leading note in either direction. It is in the same way that the ear endorses these modes, to plunge suddenly into them, is to be completely bamed. The principle of balance by which the several parts of a piece, whether it lasts half a minute or half an hour, stand out from one another in strong contrast and each part in its way, build up the general sense of unity, is called form. Form is, however an instinct than a principle. It is dangerous to follow it too much into detail, because a composer may at any moment wrap his principle in new detail and justify it. Still, even instinct must work in elements of design which make on the while either for variety or for unity. 177 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh With regard to form, Nketia can be ascribed clarity of fonn as one of his traits. The piano pieces analysed, favour ternary form. The solo with piano accompaniment pieces are mostly through composed. Euba and Gyimah Labi's works however, do not really have clarity of fonn. They are mostly in raphsodical form. They are fond of improvising on themes and varying repeated phrases. Themes are variously treated in its dozen appearances and is not so monotonous to the listner. This is very typical style of African traditional music. The elements of call and response, and the ostinato structural frame work are discernible in the works of the three composers. Models from traditional music like "adowa", 'agbadza' by Nketia and Gyimah Labi and also contemporary types like the 'high- life' have been used in the works analysed. THEORITICAL OBSERVATIONS DEDUCED FROM THE ANALYTICAL STUDY. Scales and melodic organization (The lowered seventh and the raised fourth). The lowered seventh and raised fourth are true members of the scale that contains them. Their use in a melodic or hannonic phrase is not similar to that of a foreign note within a diatonic passage. Their mode of use and the frequency of the lowered seventh and raised fourth in the works of the three composers, and African traditional music, the source of this scale, provide the above evidence. Four major scales can be derived from the heptatonic scale that admits of the interchangeable uses of the major and the minor sevenths from the tonic (ie leading notes) and perfect and augumented 4ths from the tonic. The original scale.(c major). 178 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh •• bll' g.. II' • II' A derivative of the original. (F major). 4 II' _II' II' The original sca1e.(c major). ~. • - lI- - - • A derivative of the original.(G major). I- e ~- • - • - The lowered seventh and the raised fourth notes have a dual structural status. The lowered seventh may represent the seventh degree of the original scale or serve as the subdominant key. The raised fourth may represent the fourth degree of the original scale or serve as the dominant key. Their structural significance therefore, depends on context. The lowered seventh and raised fourth offer the avenue for smooth tonal shift without the use of a new accidental. Because of the dual membership of the lowered seventh and the raised fourth, the subdominant and the dominant keys are the most related to the tonic in the heptatonic scale that contains them. 179 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The subdominant and the dominant keys have been favoured in "At the Cross Roads",and "Antubam" by Nketia, and in the "Dialects" by Gyimah Labi. They cause melodies to droop a little at certain points, and so give value to B and F when they are restored later on. The ear is cheated for the moment of the major scale it expected, and has been presented with another, the major scale with the flat or sharp. They come in the first place as vocal accommodations, but they stay as musical effects. They do not establish, they only suggest a new scale. From this analytical study, its been realized that departure at certain stages of the creative process can be possible. Examples are using both the heptatonic and pentatonic scales in one composition, as we find in the 'Volta Fantasy' by Nketia. Also the possibility of using melodies that deviate from the 12 tone-row to compose. The row can serve as a point of reference rather than using intervallic properties of the transformations which motifs undergo. This is seen clearly in Akin Euba's 'scenes from traditional life' . Music has been called a universal language, and no doubt, in the deepest sense, it is. But just as no one language can really be pronounced differently in different mouths, so the very same notes will be sung a way as to be unrecognizable to us. This is conspicuously the case with African traditional vocal and instrumental music. I am referring to the use of grace notes in African traditional music. We think of grace-notes as something which may but need not be added to the note, not as something inherent in it. The object of grace is, to add importance to the notes of a melody, as surely as the various light and shade of a picture brings the contours of the face. Grace is so natural an accompaniment of any non-harmonic music that it may seem idle to search for a reason for it. 180 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The subdominant and the dominant keys have been favoured in "At the Cross Roads",and "Antubam" by Nleetia, and in the "Dialects" by Gyimah Labi. They cause melodies to droop a little at certain points, and so give value to B and F when they are restored later on. The ear is cheated for the moment of the major scale it expected, and has been presented with another, the major scale with the flat or sharp. They come in the first place as vocal accommodations, but they stay as musical effects. They do not establish, they only suggest a new scale. From this analytical study, its been realized that departure at certain stages of the creative process can be possible. Examples are using both the heptatonic and pentatonic scales in one composition, as we find in the 'Volta Fantasy' by Nleetia. Also the possibility of using melodies that deviate from the 12 tone-row to compose. The row can serve as a point of reference rather than using intervallic properties of the transformations which motifs undergo. This is seen clearly in Akin Euba's 'scenes from traditional life' . Music has been called a universal language, and no doubt, in the deepest sense, it is. But just as no one language can really be pronounced differently in different mouths, so the very same notes will be sung a way as to be unrecognizable to us. This is conspicuously the case with African traditional vocal and instrumental music. I am referring to the use of grace notes in African traditional music. We think of grace-notes as something which may but need not be added to the note, not as something inherent in it. The object of grace is, to add importance to the notes of a melody, as surely as the various light and shade of a picture brings the contours of the face. Grace is so natural an accompaniment of any non-harmonic music that it may seem idle to search for a reason for it. 180 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Gyimab Labi's Dialects are typical forms of compostion which exhibit 'grace' in all its glory. He makes us aware of the possibility of using grace notes in composition, because this is an important feature in Afiican melodies. What gives its peculiar flavour to a melody, what defines more than anything else the character of a particular Afiican song, is the position of certain notes (central notes). Round these notes are grouped the phrases of the song. They derive their meaning, their point, from their relation to it. There is usually a skill in the way in which it is made central without being monotonous. It is central because it is never treated twice exactly in the same way, although it might occur many times in a song. Either the note is on a different beat of the bar, or of a different length, or it is an ascending instead of a descending phrase. This is one of the very important aspects of a good African traditional melody. All three composers use this style in the melodies of the compositions analysed. Transposition which is an important feature of melodic organization with pentatonic structures, and the 12-tone row allows the composer to shift melodic motives from one position to another. This helps bring about melodic variety in composition. We find this in the 'volta fantasy' by Nketia and 'scenes from traditional life' by Euba. HARMONY AND TEXTURE The art of the three composers offer a message with regard to harmony and texture in general, and consonances and dissonances in particular. Traditional African harmony has its own logic', is an assertion by one of the composers namely, Nketia. The use of harmony and texture in composition should have cultural explanation, seems to be the message by all three composers. The intervals of thirds and sixths are the best harmonic consonances associated with certain African traditions, like the Akans and 181 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Northern Ewes in Ghana. The perfect intervals of the fourth. fifth and an octave are also better identified with certain traditions like southern Ewes of Ghana and the Yorubas ofN igeria. So far as the music of the above mentioned societies are concerned, no amount of mathematical proof can place different intervals above those mentioned earlier, when considering consonant harmonic interrelation. The compositions of the three composers analysed, illustrate this point, and explains the difficulty of total divorce between art and traditional styles. It is not all tonal shifts that constitute modulation. The New Oxford companion to music recognizes two kinds of modulations, namely diatonic and chromatic. The element of shift is common and present in both types. Nevertheless one lacks an element which is usually associated with modulation. This are new accidentals that may be chromatic to the original key, but diatonic to the new key. In the 'At the cross roads', by Nketia, the Dialects by Gyimah Labi, they use the scale with the lowered seventh or the raised fourth which also has a second major scale inherent in the original. There are therefore two possible tonal centers in which sections of the piece may be positioned. This does not call for the introducing of any foreign notes. Shifting of tonal centrality, is a typical feature of African traditional music, especially those who use the pentatonic scale, and to some extent those who use the heptatonic scale. The development and a critical evaluation of terminology should accompany different theoretical concepts. It is for this reason, why schenker prefers using tonicization to modulation. To schenker and his students, what we term modulations are just part of his process of prolongation of one and the only major tonal center which reigns throughout apiece. 182 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In the theory ofhannony, chord significance has been addressed within the framework of both conventional music and schenkerian analysis. Theorists, have distinguished the primary chords as the most significant in functional harmony. The other, secondary chords have been classified as parallels to the tonic, subdominant and dominant. Functionally however, when working within a major key, the mediant like the submediant may have two status depending on context. The mediant may function as a dominant substitute that may progress to a tonic or a submediant key. This use can be seen in Nketia's 'onnipa beye bio' for solo and piano. This is due to the presence of the leading note. Nevertheless, in the major scale that makes interchangeable use of the major and the minor seventh from the tonic, both functions are clear. Because of the lowered leading note, the mediant chord which is a minor triad in a major key will become a diminished triad. Schenkerian analysts on their part have dropped the subdominant chord in terms of significance. Because of their theoretical axioms, it is only the tonic to dominant and back to tonic that are prolonged. Chords are classified relating their significance to the chords that they may prepare or substitute. Context counts a lot when considering chord significance. RHYTHM. METER. AND DYNAMICS As evidenced in the works of Gyimah Labi and Akin Euba, the rhythm of African melodies tell us two things, first that variety of metre is more important than variety of accent, and secondly, that cross rhythms greatly enhances the interest. Variety of metre is seen as a sure mark of a strong tune. Rhythmic strength I observed from my analysis, lies in subordinating the attractive figures to the steady march of the whole, not in pursing them for their own sweet sake. 183 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh " Ithythm is determined by the words, which decide where it will be appropriate to take breath. Also rhythm is determined by the length of melodic notes and glides in melodic tones. All composers have made use of rhythms derived from the rhythms of speech utterances (speech rhythms), the rhythms of vocal music (lyrical rhythms), percussion rhythms that can be spoken, that is imitated by voice or played on any instrument, including string instruments. Dynamics help to bring out the variety of metre, cross rhythms, motifs and the rise and fall of text. From all the works analysed, I observed that it was only Nketia who payed attention to form as used in the western sense. The other two composers (Gyimah Labi and Akin Buba), made use of the African style ofform. The form of an African song is derived partly from the contexts in which it is used and partly from the form of the verbal texts on which the melody is based. There is always room for extemporization and for rearrangement of the order of verses. The actual shape of a song, therefore grows out of the situation in which it is sung. Buba and Labi payed attention to the basic forms like the call and response, basic melodic patterns and phrase lengths, resultant forms and patterns as used in African music. The three composers have been able to do more than stating the problems in using African elements to compose. They have tried to fuse traditional African musical elements in such a way that it more closely reflects the value system that infuses the culture. In a continent like Africa, which is experiencing fundamental alterations of its 184 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh basic structure, the role of the creative artist is not only very important but also iDevitably painful. Certain aspects of their compositions analysed indicate transition and change of a major order, not a slow, natural evolution, but a deliberate quick turn toward a particular direction (African Pianism). They have made a good attempt to expand the expressive possibilities of the piano. At the same time, these pieces place greater emphasis on the composer as a unique personality, as an individual with a personal statement to make. The compositions are deep and meaningful attempts to change African traditional music structure. They demonstrate the ways in which modem composers are trying to make the old traditions relevant today, and to bring the traditional African music into phase with the society around them. The question of aesthetics is quite difficult to handle within one's own culture; cross culturally it becomes impossible, as too many factors exist that are largely inaccessible to the outsider. Nonetheless, the aesthetic criterion is the one which I fmd to be at least partially valid. In this respect several points need to be stressed. First, one does not expect a stylistic innovator to be the same person who perfects that style, particularly when the composer is moving from a long-established and sophisticated oral tradition into a fledging written tradition. Second, modem composers are trying to reach an all- African audience, who do not share the feeling for and knowledge of the cumulative meanings of traditional African music. Finally, an aesthetic criterion that subsumes all other criteria is itself an innovation and is to some extent western. In a traditional society in which music is closely linked to religion and ritual, in which the music system supports the entire of belief, the question of beauty is always subordinate to the question of efficacy. Meaningfulness, relevance, and simple usefulness are infinitely more important than the creation of sensually delightful sound 185 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh patterns. In the best of all possible music systems, meaning fullness and beauty coincide. Composers write innovative compositions and are atimes attacked on aesthetic grounds. More and more art in Africa is becoming a product. One buys tickets to see a performance. The person on sit next to is not necessarily one's neighbour. The audience is not necessarily the community whose presence at an artistic event strengthens communality and a shared belief system. THE PIANO STYLE The piano offers greater opportunity to the composer that seeks boundlessness. The piano, we should note has its own style, and therefore any composer writing for it should know its style, whether composing for it in the African or western idiom. It is not just tranfering African music to the piano, but the composition should be pianistic. The following are some of the styles. The use of: 1) scalic passages, in ascending or descending order. 2) Arppeggios and Broken chords. 3) Octaves. 4) Chromaticism. 5) Compound intervals and skips. 6) Concord and dissonant harmonies, involving five or more notes. I found all these styles of writing for the piano in all the works analysed. 186 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh l!ltoBLEMS When the Afiican adopts a syncretic approach in his compositions as regards idiom, as I observed from the three composers in this study, the ultimate problem is the conflict oftbeories. That of consecutive octaves and fifths under western conventional rules as against the principles of homophonic parallelism. That of modulation in western music, and its absence in traditional African music. The imperfect cadence progressing from a second inversion of the tonic chord to the dominant, has been changed to the dominant seventh due to the constrains of text. The African composer using the syncretic approach in his compositions, must master the fundamentals of African melody, harmony and rhythm so that he can create typical Afiican tunes based on any of the varieties of heptatonic, hexatonic and pentatonic scales used in African societies. When he is able to do this, he need not always borrow tunes from the traditional repertoire, for he can create tunes that would be true to the traditional idiom. As long as the fundamental African rhythmic, harmonic and melodic usages pervade the music or form its foundation, using the syncretic approach, in my opinon is the best approach when it comes to the writing of African music for the piano. I say this because it allows one more freedom, and also gives one more materials to work with. The only problem seems to be how to make western harmony less obstrusive in new African music that adopts the syncretic approach. The composers in this study have demonstrated how the use of one's traditional musical idioms in art compositions may provide identity and authenticity. The use of more traditional idioms in our art music may make it more intelligible to the indigenous people to appreciate. Like the Russian composers of the Romantic period, we must 187 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh have our art music rooted in our nature music. This is the best way by which the Afiican composer wJll establish his national identity. The styles of Nketia, Gyimah Labi and Akin Euba, represent the African art musical style and tradition. Manifested in a very strong and an overgrowing instrumental style (African Pianism), he composers exhibit an artistic fabric of African and Western musical parameters. Like several other art musicians in Africa, they have been born into a dynamic indigenous culture. On the other side of the scale is the strong western musical tradition assimilated by them through their formal musical training. As evidenced in the works of the three composers, the musical materials used as well as organizational devices explain this synthesis in the compositional matrix. Western harmonic and contrapuntal principles such as homophonic parallelism, sporadic chording, polarity which are African. The rhythms of the composers have been either 'dance derived' or 'text-derived'. The tonal inflections of African languages and other aspects of text play significant role in dictating melodic direction among other elements of their compositions. Different scales usually found in western classical music, and traditional African music, have been employed by the three composers. In European culture, as well as certain oriental cultures, folk music and art music exists side by side, with greater or lesser relationship between the two. Considering the present state of the African society, it should be possible to develop the following types of music side by side: (i) music on a tribal and utilitarian basis as it exists at present, (ii) a common language of music based on stylistic elements found in the total repertoire of music indigenous to Africa, (iii) music unique to an individual tribe but constituting a mixture of elements which are normally separated either because of their utilitarian functions within the tribe or because of a disinclination among the members of that 188 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh · tribe towards experimentation, and (iv) a fonD of music which is in essence a branch of the western or other musical idioms foreign to a African culture. A fonn of music universal to all Africa will probably be used more for contemplation than to serve as accompaniment for social events. There is already a clear need among Africans for a new fonn of music which would serve a function roughly identical with that for which westerners use their art music. African musicians in who have been exposed to western music have attempted to supply from this need by devising compositions which are essentially on western idioms. These composers sometimes employ a few elements of African music in their works in the hope of creating a new idiom of African music. When they write a symphony for example, they use African folk tunes for their thematic material in the belief that this is sufficient to produce an African symphony. But apart from the fact that the folk tunes sound more European than African, the rest of the work is usually conceived, instrumentally and stylistically in accordance with principles of European symphonic practice and the resultant composition must be regarded merely as a variant of the western musical idiom. It is possible to create a kind of African symphony in which the notion of symphony is constructed to mean no more than an intellectual work of great depth and dimensions. In order for such a work to be truly African. it must use the stylistic and instrumental materials of African music. African musicians who are seeking to create new idiom of African music which is designed primarily for aesthetic listening and who see the means to this end in a sort of fusion of African and western styles have apparently decided that African traditional music is so limited in scope that it cannot furnish the elements necessary for the creation of the new idiom. On the contrary, my own exposure to western and other 189 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh foreign idioms of music has made me realize that there are abundant possibilities in the traditional music of Afiica to develop a new Afiican art music which makes little or no reference to foreign idioms. The basic elements for this kind of music certainly exist in African traditional music even though African musicians, in their preoccupation with the use music as a part of social functions. have not exploited them for this purpose. Within the limits of tribal, the music alone it is possible to devise new sound combinations with sufficient variety for extended listening. But by drawing upon the totality of African musical idioms, the modem African composer will not only broaden the scope of his music but will be able to create a language of music which can be understood by all Africans. African composers in the western idiom often lament the fact that performers to interpret their work and the audience to appreciate them are both lacking in Africa. They are therefore forced to go to Europe. These composers, it would appear, have not made much impact in Europe either, partly because they are too few in number and partly because their works are all too often written in a style which is no longer fashionable in Europe. Thus, these artists must be regarded at least the time being, as constituting a marginal group whose work may never really take hold in Africa and may never command much influence in Europe until it is able to compete successfully with the music being produced by contemporary European composers. But by working towards the development of a style of music which, in its essential elements, is a continuation of the traditional styles of African music and which can serve as a common musical language for the whole of the African continent. African composers will not only have a wide audience for the performance of their music. Africans should not be discouraged from acquiring foreign musical idioms since it is an advantage to be able to communicate with non-African audiences .. 190 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Afiican traditional music lay emphasis on repetition but practitioners of new art should be less concerned with repetition and more with variation. In other words, they should aim at creating a musical idiom which would be suitable for contemplation. The new music should be a recombination of the elements of traditional music and should be a realization of the stylistic potentialities of those elements. I am not suggesting that African composers should resist influences from abroad in their creation of the new music. Fusion in art could be quite healthy. In order that the new African music may retain an African identity, however, its composers must be judicious in their use of materials foreign to African culture. ASPIRING COMPOSERS Crafting compositions using African idioms entail mastery of the elements that constitute the hallmark of African music as well as the principles of composition. To prepare a student for such an undertaking, there must be a worked out curricula that progressively lead to the mastery of both western and African instruments with good proficiency. The objective of such a program would be to produce excellent practical musicians who would be bi-culturally literate. A comprehensive program in African music should address morphological as well as practical concerns. It should also aim at exposing the student to a wide body of African music literature. Theories that deal with structures in African music must be introduced at appropriate points in the curricula. Much understanding may be obtained through a participatory music making process. In other words, there must be an active practical program based on formal tutoring to enable the acquisition of correct techniques and understanding. The process of idiomatic writing entails the rewriting of one's African musical thought process in an appropriate manner for conventional western instruments like the piano. 191 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The budding composer bas to Illquaint himself with structures in Afiican music. Matters such as meter, tempo, time line, rhythmic, harmonic and melodic characteristics as well as instrumental organization become important in identifying Afiican musical types. The concept of form would also have to be addressed. This entails the basic notion that a piece is structured with elements that function like a living organism. This is not to say that folk music lacks this quality. To obtain meaningful formal structure, one must have a coherent syntax. Ideas must be found, presented and worked out upon relationship. The relative importance and function of the elements would determine the nature of the construction. The activity of composition, then, consist of three steps. First an appropriate subject must be found, one that would enable the vision of an entire composition. To aid this process, the student should be exposed to a large body of folk materials as possible. Through a sifting process appropriate subject may be obtained. After obtaining the characteristic features of the musical types that the composer has carefully selected for their potential in development, the remaining two stages entail the convertion of the features into art music. Here the composer would have had to study analytically, the greater body of mater pieces in the greater music literature. The future African composer may consider techniques such as the hocket, stratification, improvisation among others for organizing his work on African lines. There are also a host of rich timbral resources as well as the structural aspects of the diversified musical genres ofo ur continent which may be judiciously used. The various ways of handling form, harmonic and rhythmic structures, generation of motion, tentions and resolutions, coherence of syntax etc, shall be quickly understood through the study of various master pieces. However, the composer must understand 192 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that it is in the adaptation and expression of the universal compositional principles in African tenns that the challenge lie. From the African perspective, the interrelationship between melody, harmony, polyphony, the time line and other instrumental supporting units must be clearly understood. The law of comprehension should reign supreme. Coherence and authenticity should also be the decisive factors in creativity. Every composer cannot expect to have a world-wide message, but he may reasonably expect to have a special message for his own people and many young composers make the mistake of imagining they can be universal without at first been local. Is it not reasonable to suppose that those who share our life, our history, our customs, our climate, even our food, should have some secret to impart to us which the foreign composer, though he be perhaps more imaginative, more powerful, more technically equipped, is not able to give us? This is the secret of the African composer. The young composer must not shut himself up and think about art; he must live with his fellows and make his art an expression of the whole life of the community. Young composers should learn how to use traditional idioms in their compositions. Most of the best beings in modern music come from composers who have kept close to their several native traditions and whose individual genius has enabled them to extend it in directions undreamt of by their predecessors. In addition to all that, in order to encourage budding African composers to become interested in the establishment of the new music, several workshops should be set up in each African country. In these workshops young musicians could be made familiar with African music from various parts of the continent and taught to use this music as the basis of their own original work. Exercises in creative writing should always be 193 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh preceded by exercises in which the students are required to imitate existing styles of Afiican music. In conjunction with this, performance workshops should be established in which the participants learn to play traditional music from different parts of Africa, and which could be used as laboratories for the development of new performance techniques. This kind of experience will make a strong foundation for producing a new breed of perfoming artist needed to interpret the new African music. PERFORMERS The syncretic nature of African art music poses challenges not only to composers who have meaningful creative use of African traditions and developments in form and harmony but also to performers who need to expand their orientation and interpretative skills, particularly where such music embodies concepts, and expectancies to which they are not accustomed because their performance background is in western music. A vibrant musical life can only be sustained if there is a good pool of competent performers who interpret the works of composers to appreciative audiences. Because of the limited employment opportunites in Ghana for professional musicians who specialize in art music, many of those who acquire proficiency in performance operate as music teachers in educational institutions. Other performers treat music as a hobby rather than a vocation because of their commitment to their professions. Given the necessary encouragement and incentive, all these musicians can contribute, to the growth and development of art music in Ghana. For performers who are interested in works in African pianism, there is the need for them to familiarize themselves with melody, harmony, rhythm, texture and form in African music, this can help one to interpret such pieces properly. 194 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AUJ)IENCE In Ghana, audience for art music already exists. Concerts could be given to such audiences in different locations by musicians who can handle the difference in orientation that the rhythmic structures and tonal expectancies of African works demand. Given adequate institutional support for performances of the works of our composers, African art music can indeed become a significant focus of cultural life in contemporary contexts. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION Cultural institutions may have to upgrade their interests to promote the art style on an equal footing as its rival styles, ie popular and traditional. Competitions may be instituted not only in choral music, but in other spheres, like composing for the piano, the orchestra, and performances for boosting the standard in both African and Western instrumental music. Firms, corporations and individuals may in a complementary way help the commission on culture to organize such competitions that will promote art music instead of its neglect for only 'popular'. The planning and the implementation of music curriculum by the Ministry of Education must be aimed at lifting art music from its present state. Bimusical programmes have been instituted in Ghana for quite a long time now. The study of music history may include the history of Ghanaian art music, questions in theory and compositional techniques may include styles associated with our Ghanaian composers. For instance, the solo and piano style of Nketia or the orchestral or the harmonic style of Gyimah Labi. More theoretical studies should be conducted on traditional music of Ghana. This would aid future theorists and composers of art of our country. Attempts at writing 195 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tIleory books such as: Multipart organization among the Akans or Southern Ewes, should help the future music student answer questions like: complete the following in the vein of adowa, agbadza, etc. Future composers may have to make exhaustive use of the different scales that can be abstracted from Ghanaian traditional music. Such scales may be used in poly-modal or tonal devices, or borrowing compositional techniques ftom Debussy and Schoenberg but using our own scales. Music programmes should intensify and continue to ensure accuracy in rhythmic transcriptions. The three composers have demonstrated how rhythm dances should be introduced into the schools' drumming programmes. There is a wealth of rhythms hidden in these dances which are yet to be tapped and used in future works. Courses in African music should reserve ample time for active participation on the part of students. A student will learn great respect for the complex polyrhythms of African music if he tries to duplicate them. He will become aware of the technical discipline needed for performance and can transfer this to his composition. Interest in African art music should not cause the neglect of other aspects of world culture. Materials can be collected, developed, and organized for General Education courses in oriental music. American Indian music, Caribbean and South American music if the thrust toward world orientation in General Education is to have validity. The use of African traditional idioms in composition is only one aspect of the desire to find an art on the fundamental principles which are essential to its well being. African art music is the expression of the soul of Africa. By this I mean any community of people who are spiritually bound together by language, environment, history, and common ideals and above all, a continuity with the past. I want to add that we must be careful that too much dependence on outside influences does not stifle rather than foster our own art. If we have no musical soul of our own, how can we appreciate the 196 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh G ..,aaifestations of the musical souls of others? If we have music in us it must show itself actively, DOt passively and respectively. The growth ofa music is assured as long as the practitioners of that music continue to find new modes of expression for it The vitality and potential of African music, viewed in the light of dynamic changes which are currently taking place in African culture, indicate that we are on the threshold of a new and exciting period of African music. The study on the piano works of Nketia, Euba and Labi have been illuminating, pointing at the dynamism which characterizes our art musical scene. The message of the three composers through the investigator is that, everybody should contribute his quota in refining, preserving and developing the African Art musical style, into a stronger and an enviable tradition. What follows are twenty-three pedagogical pieces I have composed based on my findings from this study. All these pieces are based on the type of melodies, harmonies, rhythms texture and form in African music. The following pieces are African folk tunes arranged for the piano: I. Adu e bo yen dwa 2. M'egya fie 3. Mampon 4. Mpambano 5. Fiddle 6. Agba 7. Penthemitonic 8. Iseoluwa 197 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In arranging these tunes for the piano. I payed particular attention to the areas each piece is from. Example, the fll'St three pieces from the Akan speaking area of Ghana, make use of techniques like parallel thirds, sixths and the lowered seventh, which is a prominent singing style of the people. The pieces Agba and Penthemitonic, from the Volta region of Ghana, make use of techniques like the pentatonic scale ( hemitonic and anhemitonic ) and the intervals of fourths and fifths, which are all techniques employed in the singing style of the people. The rest of the pieces are based on melodic, harmonic and rhythmic styles used in African traditional music. These pieces, I believe can help the student familiarize himself with African idioms in composition. 198 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In arranging these tunes for the piano, I payed particular attention to the areas each piece is from. Example, the first three pieces from the Akan speaking area of Ghana, make use of techniques like parallel thirds, sixths and the lowered seventh, which is a prominent singing style of the people. The pieces Agba and Penthemitonic, from the Volta region of Ghana, make use of techniques like the pentatonic scale ( hemitonic and anhemitonic ) and the intervals of fourths and fifths, which are all techniques employed in the singing style of the people. The rest of the pieces are based on melodic, harmonic and rhythmic styles used in African traditional music. These pieces, I believe can help the student familiarize himself with African idioms in composition. 198 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah ADU EBO YEN DWA Allegretto fj I I I .. I ~ I I ~ r r r r . r . r· .. 6 " I t\ I t\ I .. -,... .-. .., r r 1 I r r rrr 1 r' I I T JJ fj .... .... I .. - tJl I I 1 I r' r r r : I T I I I 16 " 199 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah MEGYAFIE 1\ u I I ..; I r' r . .. .". ."..".. ~ ."..". .. .".."..".. ~ .".~ : r· IJ A u tJ -, .......... ...... ~. _("J~~ 1-(;,/. .. ."..". .".' ~ .. .,. -.". .. .,.-- -9' : 200 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah THE XYLOPHONE Moderato fJ I I - - u - #-#-#- : fJ rTi_ tJ r ° ro I r ° ~ .,. #- I JJ fJ - . ., ., tJ ro ro I..J-I ,. .. ro r ° ~ ~ : /6 fJ 201 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah THE XYLOPHONE Moderato /'J I I - - .~ - ### : /'J iT"1 .........- tJ r . r' I r . # f*" # J/ /'J - . -; ., . . tJ r' r' ~ r' r . f*" .,. : T 16/'J 201 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah THE XYLOPHONE Moderato f'J I - - - ~ tJ .,...,...". : f'J I i'TI - o tJ r ° r I r ° .,. .". .". : I JJ f'J - ~ -; -; ro r- ,. ,. o tJ ~ r r ° .". .,. : I /6 fJ 201 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah AKPE Allegretto 202 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E,Boamah YENWURA Moderato I~::: :t: :: I:: ::J:: [" I:·~ :1 II .. - -- : v ... I I r I r I T lJ II l. l. ~ vI r" -j" ., 1" ~~ : --.... ~iiiiiiiiIiiiiii IS II I r" 203 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah MAMPON Allegro /I I I ~I I I I ~ I ~ r I I I I -. : '. - 6 /I ~ I I I I ~ ~I I I I I I ITJITJ ..J. J. I I. : -- JJ /I ..: t.J I J. J. I J-- -~J : L..J...J L-J-I I T 16/1 tJ 204 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah MAMPON Allegro Ii I ~I I I I ~ I I -tJ ,. , , , -, I I : '. - 6 II ~ I I I I ~ -tJ I I I I I I JllfJl J J. I I : -- II f1 ~ tJ , J. J. I ;.-- r-.J. : ~L,....J....I I I "T 16J j 204 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah MAMPON Allegro A 1\1 1 1 1 ~ I I ~ r 1 I I I I I : '. - 6,.. "I I I I ... ~I I I I I I ITJm J. J. I 1 : -- T T lJ ,.. tJ I T I J. J. J--- - -,J. 1 : L..W L-J-I I T /6,.. tJ 204 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah BOKOO ADAGIO fl ~ tJ I ...... ~ .... J...- ~J. : II rr-r - : -~ -~ tJ r I r '-" ! I J ... 11-... ... : I I II fl - v r· r . j".,ooI I I .,.--.,. ... J.--J. : - I I I 16 11 J I 20S University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah WELCOME Allegro " v ,Dm .~.Dm w,n mJ· : ; ;" ; ; i J i " v J. J. ,Dm JJJ ,Dm J J J p;;" ; r r r pii:' 7 r' r' 10- " r-r-t - -- v - ,Dm ,Dm .,nm .,Dm : ; ; J ; ; 7 I- , ; ; J i '7 '7 J i " v"_" ., n ITJ ., nITJ ; 7 f. 7 '771- i 206 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah THE INTERLOCKS Allegro fI I r __ ""i} fI .. tJ .. .. .. -.. .. fI .. tJ I fI tJ4J. -. . .. '~ .. . 9 fI rT1 r::n - .. t:r . ~ .1OiI",/ fI .. t:r4J. 13 'A ..-.....- tJ "--I-' ..!:t .. , tJ .. -- . .. ;. 207 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah MAJESTY Allegretto 208 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah PENTAA Allegretto ----d ...l - - IQI'J,;~ ++l tJ ,- it" I - ~ ..l.. I l - .zt1 .~ 209 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah PENTAA Allegretto .......A It:ZI:~ ......--.. - ~ tJ it I~ JI I ~ -tI-i tJ .. - 10 IS 209 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah MPAMBANO Andante 210 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah FREME Allegretto fI r-T""'1 ~ r-- tJ ... 1...1...1 ...... " -" . ••• .. .. : 1 1 -I ~ 11 fI - ........... 1 tJ 1 r r I r· r·- .. : L....I...I T 16 fI 1 1 1 211 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah THE FIDDLE Moderato 11 j6 - ~ -v ~ ~ .. - - - I I I I I I 11 j6 -..-.. - - v .... ~ ~. ,. - - .............., --.......! - ...... .. ';j ...... - A u V .... ~ .. .........~ : .* T I - 212 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 fl 101 m ,. .. t.J ~iJ~ .~~f'-f'- . . : • -- - - /6. fl 101 - -- tJ .. ~ : 1...1...1 - ~ /9 fl 101 tJ . . I I 24 fl 101 tJ L 1 I I I r 213 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah AGBA Moderato f) ~ ~ .... .. .. .. .. ...... ~ ~tC t-~ ~ fIl. A : I I I L....I r I I r JJ fl_ u .. .... ~' .. y ......... ~ f!I. f!I.~ I-A.fL f!I. A : I 214 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 fI - tJ ~ ... - .. - - "iJ - - --" .l""""'I'" - ~ L...I....I I 215 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah ISEOLUWA Allegro rna non troppo ,.. " II. I I II. . ~ I I ~ I ~ tJ ,. ,. ,. .. •. .. .. .. .. • -'. -.I : --- ,.." ~ I I .. ~ : 41\ ,.r. lJ 7171 -; 71 ?J. -- r I r 9 ,.. " I - I 1 JIL .1 : : lJ r II r .. II .... : 13 ,.," II. I I II. ~ tJ . . ,. •• : : ~ 0 I I r I 216 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1811 ~ itl .1 -1 -1..-- - ~ i .... --, -- .sc ~ .... ~ -- ..IlL. 1 ...:::LL -- ~ I I I 217 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah ONIPA Moderato 218 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 A~ I ~ r r i i r r r r r r : - -- -~ - -- ---I ~""C" 241l. ~. ~ - tJ r r ~ L...: - I 219 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah FIDA Andante 220 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah GOGE Moderato 221 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah MBRE Moderato 8 fl ..... I I I r--. --. V - ....-J.-J '--.1,,--.. .... -~ .... 1ft 111:* 1 I l~fl . 222 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E. Boamah PENTHEI\ fIC Allegretto f'J I I ~ I I '" I : '" tJ TI I * ~-"-:J .. .. .,..,. : f'J '" I tJ .". ~~ ~ # 7!1 -,J "71 .._ _. .. . .. . r fI-' 11 _fJ I ~ .:r " I 11 ...... .... ~~ - .,.' . : - /6 f'J iT ~ ...... : --- - I 223 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 224 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh E.Boamah THE STUDY Moderato ~ u - - --- ~ JJ'; J J J mrn : - -. 1:L U -.--- - ---- ~ -- I.,..J...I /I f'J~ - - u - .~~ •••• --.- ~ : ...- 15 ~ - u ..... .._- ..... - ...... - ~ : ~ 225 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh /91 1 _ - -.J - - :.... " ./ I : I ........ 1..1...1 I.,...J...I 1..1...1 24 fl 226 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UOL TA FANTASY (c. 1967) " I .. . tJ -r I ~ ... m.f }. r:rJ J J } !-~~~ -= I. - r I t = ;; W I I 6 ~ ~ ~ ~n .. ~ J " I ~ I I ~~~ tJ t J ~ J71 P r " ..= ==-----=- .. . .,~. l I 12 ....... 227 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh J. 29 .J. " a .. .- a a-•. I*- ~~ b• ")II" • tJ -I ,..,- • • ~ .. • - - -- I r I 33 " ~- ~ - .. .. tJ ~ T =-2:~ ..,:: I 'w) ""- ., . .- .. a I ,.., '" I I -~ ~ 'l'" I I -. .-. .. ....,. .. 37 ... .. ... 228 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 47 ~,. r;:" ~~ I :I -,. "'iJ - r --- -r - . r.' 1, ... ,. ~. r-f=' ~ ~,.. ...... '"7' -.. ~ 52 ---- ,56 " h I .; r I r .. . ... ... ~ .'J: ~ ~ -r'\: .... 1 ... 1 #1 r I , 61 . 229 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ,5 I I=iE 4 ..J. ===:! ~ p=r ...., ~ I J I r .,G...". ..... -. ~ ~ ;"1 .".,I.I.[ - - ~ ..1._ =t- , I I I I t...J-.J ...... 70 '- -4 I Ir"':'I' ..JI. ~ r r I r . .. •• •• V I ;. ;. ff .. ...t m:: -~ 'T #' r I r I r t 7S 230 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 231 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 113 118 :1" ). rn I L f) (' , J Y~""''' rit. I I z 123t~'~ .. *' It .. *" ~~~. 232 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AT THE CROSS ROADS (c. 1961) . 1 233 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It ~ --""l "'IT ..... ..m-:-: - I~ ...1. I t"ttl" tJ ~ j-vt ... ...... ~ .......... ...... ~_o~u ~. - ...... I1'~"7 I I r I...,j t:L..J ---- Z7 1\ ~ ..-..0001 i ! t.l •. -r- 4J: ~ ~ . t tr .. ! - I I I 49 0' r r " \ j 234 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh J. II. KWIIIIIII",'NIIIU'" 1964 I t!:r~:!:'~~I:!::· I~= ~ ~=;=~~:t--~-F-' ~:--. T2Ep r~'--2EE==r;r ~ _~E-~_3 i 235 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh .- r-1O ..- ----. 1f~~f> . ~ " I l- !V ~ r r I I . I V p" .." ~;i T 1 .. = =====- ~ r r ~ r ~ "J. -~ -~ ~ fe, II I ~ r a r I ~ r- I ?r I ~ r University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh /I - -"1 i" ..., v i W,,--,7t :i A I- I lei l! r w'---' ~4 d. J. I , ,/ ~- ..---... r r t r r r I - I I " l-eJ > II ~ ~ t F ~ ~ .-.--. t eI ,-"i. marc.to --- ::::::::=-- , ........ -- ~ ~ L. . ~ If. .4- I .' - ". pJzz. plzr. _II tI OJ ~ ~ I -~.~ ~ . v 1 . IP - marcllto I ,L: : ~ r: .4- f!:.' ~ -- !- t- !l- 1,. r' 237 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ~ ~ -r J. J ) I J I J ,J J J J CINC. poco I I!§ n ... 1 #It • ~ V i* ~ A M. I'""i ,,]) J II h I h I I " I ItJ "I r - 'VI N· ...: pp aR •• B• • ~.~ .. . k" ltik .. ,!. fII/ ~. f «r -®.J-~r r I 238 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ~J... .- -...J, " I" \ II fI!J1~ I -'--- P'~J: roi aJ. J j J .. -:" - --., .-:---: : "r T "i' I I I plzz. ~ .iIIlI> -"-~~ 'rl ~ t ~ ~ f. ~ : , . A " ~ I ~ iT! " I--r-1 I" .....,.: -tf P ......>. .,..~.-~ .- . . . /t--"". ,. t' f. ~ ~ 91~ f. f. ~ - > ri " r-r-t l I , ~ rT1 m)J J pm II I" ~ \II V L...J-J 1/ j .,..~.,..--.,.. .,.. . . . ~"',..,. / FI , J 'I' I r , I! r (TIE" ti~ I ~lffii4 t' i d I ~: 239 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 111 f: ~ • f!. fi '. h f, I .. .. 1.---.. .. . 11- ~ .AJ J J J A ~ r I ~. 1Iff I I l I ~. f!:. P. r -';y - - I fi .:----. .t ~ , A 1:- I h I h I ~ I tr -y T r---rr : pr [ I I I V }1 J-r--J. ~1 jJ -=::::::::: t t =====-a p r r ~ / 240 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AKPALU (c. 1970) 241 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 fl· !" t.. ,..., - - ..... ..1 ~ :IlI1 ~ ~ ~ r· ~ .. ~. tJ ~ r r "r I - ..... __ 6. .... i ~. " 1, •. lb. -- ..... r I , I ' I 242 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9. ONIPA B£Y£E BI 1944 1'=92 g.!. ~Ij ~r r~ .~r r~V ~IV~ r~ P~r~lr~~~ =i-"-' ,',:"-'T=r=l I ' ,. i ! _I~I~ '-r;~'t ~5I ~Pr §tD~l~r~ --'~'._ =_~~ i~~~~.,•, ~~ ~ I'a· 0 ni· pa bE· yE I! I Il I' I 11 !' 7· University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (JIII'AII£Y££ 81; SJ o - a-fa bE - yE E -------- _.-' ---- . --_.----+- 0- 21 --- bE - ye E bioo. '_'>J\ ~: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh -,- . . ;-- ne noa • ka <3. E· he na YE· _h e • hu nn" ,_. -,-- ,~~:- ! -- -~j; " J:~.;:...~...... -,I ,. ,-- U5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9---· l!=-011 - ~ - ~--~-. ..~.. .. o. 246 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ",11'\ Rt::y£e: RI o ----~t::=:_=--=. ---- ni." pa ny.. Ill· ., . .,. .L-&:. .. _. . __ _ -f-(r-:._----- 247 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14. APRANNAA SA ME 1947 J =86 E - nne dc.a I'l::.- mO.(1 • It'''. ------, -;,~~~-, L ~ , Ii • :4..:~ ~~~W~ '~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~~~=Tl-~-_--~-~-~-:':~:.,. .t =E=~r:~. ==~I ±'J~ 1: ~ r3~ r3~ ,=-~==-~1--~E~~ 248 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AJlRANNAA SA ME 1108 1\il me. a ,31 i 3 l 1 31 ~7 U, to.. -. ..' ~ tJ -.~ ... Mon nye me. 1\· -i!.\ ';I~ nom 111011 - nyc: me. Illl.?-~3~ " II H --L ~ tJ ,3, ,I 3, L..\:.J 1 11 l11a- gua. IlmJl- nyc me. .l. 249 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v ~ mOIl- nye mc. • • It II a mo::.::,:. A - ye - rE- mo.n - Ie u. ~. ~~~~ :)~.~ 9~~:l,~I.~~~~~~~~~~~.~.. ~~~~~ ~ ~.a=l l.J ;., : I '110 UJ ,3 V i 1 3, I • _J.I ~ To \YO bo.n sc.A ~I~-\\'a ., - h;t~1 k"u £ ;--3-- = ..t I! , -.---; -~ I,:o:r: ~.. ... t- 250 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fM'JIANNAA SA ME 1110 rit. !3, Illem';l.\'"t) -- :-.H'I - .~ - 1'3, ,3i I 'f. .--. baa - ku mon - nye me. sa 1111,.".n11 na.a ~'Jt IJ I ,J .~. 'UJ 3 251 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ,"'f(,\:-;~,\" S,\ ~tE 1111 ,3, :~~-3---- sa me.oo - - Na.a '1 3, ,3, kU.lI ; -~1==--3~ ~ ~-!.: g~ ;- .. - I .. ~ ~ - : ! -- ..-, ---- 252 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ':'~AA SA MEII12 • • ;)-baa - ku A - pra - nnm, ~a me. m',,· ~£m yEn kn .,. "I- --I • • --+.' • • mon - nyc me. 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I I a~ I ~!: ...: :" i', [ 'l' J ffi l~: 'hJ : :r I A~ I I a' - .. - I I"""" -tt· I b I I d I t:':: #:::'i:J : :'i:;oo!~; r 263 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh - 91 - 264 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 265 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh - 93- SccnesfromTndilionall.ife 266 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh III. MO JA 'WE GBEGBE - p r r s ~- r IE r F Mo jli 'we_ gbe - gbe Ki I: J nw\>n rna gbil - gbe mi, Mo jii 'we 0 - ni -----------~ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh K'a W3 __ ~e o - ju ro - ko - ro - ko p - 19 q- p -g~-r~ -rcr. 6 q - g<; - r~ - r~. -. 268 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh , , t II." ORE META t ........... . I I I ;~ 269 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Mo ti Iq m'o - PI) ba - I~ 0 - do; -=:,;-1-- ~ 9-p~ we - we ~ 'kii pa pa-k6, I - ~~ - n- k€ .. 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'* University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ~. *~. *~. * " I I . .. ... .. .. 11 )~ 9 q~ ri t. - - - - - - - - -- ------------ " ---------~---J accel. ~ I ..... .. ~~ 4 .... ~ .. ~ 9 w V" ... ~ ~.i·. ~* ~. * ~. tio. * Tempo Primo fl I I I ~ • .fL ~ ~ I .fL .. 11- ( ~3 :> :> fI. I J I tJ 'l) , ~ ~ ~. , '10. * ~ ~ 4 tio. *~. * ~. 326 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • >- >- 1\ , I r I I I I I I I I I I .. ... • .. f01 - >- ->- >-.- - - - - I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 I I J ']w. * ']w. * ']w. * " I - - .".. I - ..... ~ .. V" .. ... ... • 9. YII" ,. .. ~05 .. • -II- -II- )- ,:- 1.._ L_ 1.1. .- .. ;- I.. l .L _ - .I.b .. - L I J........J - I l 1 j * ~. * ~. * ~. * >- • _ft , I ... t fI- ,e :: , !- t.J .. .. ... .. ... ... • ... ) 109 i >- --;;0;;;.... >- j - ..L. I I I I I I I I - : * ~-~ =~ • .~ ~ ~ ~ ']w. 327 * University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ), :, ~. *~. ~. ~. * 't'o. ~. * ~. * 'XW. * 'feO. 328 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh '1,1-0-. _~ \ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DIALECTS·4 (Pappoe - tIie Pine .9Lpp£e) LARGHETTO J= 92 ~ ,..---- (.tw. *' 330 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I I :;0.- I :.--- tt .. · .=. , ----t:· , >-.....-;if. • •. b. •• 11;---""" I 'f) j:: expressivo I I ~ r ~ ". .: "~ .. 4- .. ' .... zs ---* 29 cantab assai 33 *' *' 331 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh * 'J.~. 41 -'fu--. r--F: * * * University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ff~---t-----I~~~ 333 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ---- ----- 77 81 1L I > I >~ I I > I I :> -w- f -tJ ..,p :j ri ntorz. ~empfe '= q-- 'P'" I ::;0_ > m.f RH i L J i J rit. __ 'OJ . J> 7" i • .bl i• . 1 :::,(,.1. - [W'. "J". 7' s.. I -, .... ~ I 85 :L ~ > ~. ., • "Xw. * =::,jjj. 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