UNIVERSITY OF GHANA THE IMPACT OF THE GHANA SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAMME ON ENROLLMENT, ATTENDANCE AND RETENTION IN GA SOUTH MUNICIPAL SCHOOLS BY HUSEIN KAMALUDEEN (10396013) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FORTHEAWARD OF MPHILPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEGREE JUNE, 2014 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own original work and that no part of it has been presented for another degree in this University or elsewhere. …………………………….. …………………………. HUSEIN KAMALUDEEN DATE (10396013) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii CERTIFICATION I hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down by the university. ………………………………… …………………………… DR. E Y. M. SEIDU DATE (SUPERVISOR) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION I dedicate this project work to my lovely wife, and children with love and gratitude. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For giving me life, good health and strength for the completion of my MPhil, work, may Allah alone be praised and glorified. A good deal of credit for this project work goes to my supervisor and lecturer, Dr. E Y. M. Seidu for encouraging me to complete this task. His corrections and many suggestions were of great help in developing this project work. I appreciate the concerted efforts of my computer assistant, Mr. Matthew Havor, for the type settings of the whole thesis. I am equally thankful to my parents for all their spiritual and material supports. I also extend my profound gratitude to my relations, friends and brethren who were praying behind the scene. Thank you. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................................ i CERTIFICATION .............................................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................ x LIST OF ACRONYMS ...................................................................................................................................... xi ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background of the Study ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Development of Research Problem .................................................................................................... 4 1.3 The Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Research Questions ............................................................................................................................ 6 1.6 Significance of the study ..................................................................................................................... 6 1.7 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................................................... 7 1.7.1 The Change Theory ...................................................................................................................... 9 1.7.2 Relevance of the Theory of Change to the Study ...................................................................... 10 1.7.3 Food for Education Conceptual Model ...................................................................................... 12 1.7.4 Impact on Educational Achievements ....................................................................................... 12 1.8 Organization of the Study ................................................................................................................. 13 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................................ 15 2.4 The GSFP ........................................................................................................................................... 15 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................................... 18 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 18 2.2 School Feeding Programmes around the World ............................................................................... 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 2.2.1 The SFP in India .......................................................................................................................... 18 2.2.2 The HGSFP in Kenya ................................................................................................................... 21 2.3 Education and the GSFP .................................................................................................................... 24 2.5 Development Objectives and Concepts of the GSFP ........................................................................ 27 2.6 Enrolment ......................................................................................................................................... 27 2.7 Nutrition ............................................................................................................................................ 30 2.8 Attendance ........................................................................................................................................ 32 2.9 Cognitive Ability and Academic Improvement ................................................................................. 34 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................................... 41 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ 41 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 41 3.2 Research Design ................................................................................................................................ 41 3.3 Population of the Study .................................................................................................................... 42 3.4 Sample Size ....................................................................................................................................... 43 3.5 Sampling Techniques ........................................................................................................................ 43 3.6 Sources of Data Collection ................................................................................................................ 46 3.7 Data Collection Instruments ............................................................................................................. 47 3.8 Pilot Testing of Questionnaire .......................................................................................................... 48 3.9 Questionnaire Administration .......................................................................................................... 49 3.10 Data Presentation and Statistical Analysis ...................................................................................... 50 3.11 Limitations/Challenges of the Research ......................................................................................... 50 3.12 Study Area ....................................................................................................................................... 51 3.12.1 Ga South Municipality .............................................................................................................. 52 3.12.2 Education Sector in the Municipality ....................................................................................... 52 3.12.3 Economic Activities in the Municipality ................................................................................... 52 3.12.4 Development Projections of the Municipality ......................................................................... 53 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................................... 54 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................... 54 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 54 4.2 Background information about respondents ................................................................................... 55 4.3 Teachers Response on Enrolment .................................................................................................... 56 4.4 Enrolment Before and After GSFP .................................................................................................... 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 4.5 Enrolment of Beneficiary Schools ..................................................................................................... 59 4.6 Students and Teachers Responses on Attendance ........................................................................... 63 4.7 Impact of GSFP on Retention ............................................................................................................ 64 4.8 Involvement in Learning ................................................................................................................... 65 4.9 Period of Admission .......................................................................................................................... 67 4.10 Provision of Meals and Academic Performance ............................................................................. 68 4.11 Challenges Facing the GSFP ............................................................................................................ 69 4.12 Suggested Measures to Improve the GSFP ..................................................................................... 70 4.13 Number of Schools and Students covered Nationwide and the Achievements of GSFP ............... 71 4.14 General expectations, suggestions and recommendations by respondents .................................. 71 4.15 School environment and involvement in learning .......................................................................... 73 4.16 Regularity to School ........................................................................................................................ 73 CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................................. 74 DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................... 74 5.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 74 5.1 Summary of Key Findings .................................................................................................................. 74 5.1.1 Enrolment, Attendance and Retention ...................................................................................... 75 5.1.2 Involvement in Learning ............................................................................................................ 76 5.1.3 Period of Admission ................................................................................................................... 76 5.1.4 Provision of Meals and Academic Performance ........................................................................ 77 5.1.5 Challenges Facing the GSFP ....................................................................................................... 77 5.1.6 Suggested Measures to Improve the GSFP ................................................................................ 78 5.2 Some Challenges and Prospects of the GSFP .................................................................................... 79 5.2.2. Prospects ................................................................................................................................... 79 5.3 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 80 5.3.1 Enrollment .................................................................................................................................. 80 5.3.2 Retention ................................................................................................................................... 81 5.3.3 Attendance ................................................................................................................................. 82 5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................ 82 5.5 Future Research Scope ..................................................................................................................... 85 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 86 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................................ 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii Appendix 1: Study Questionnaire for Students in Selected Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) Schools .................................................................................................................................................... 93 Appendix2: Study Questionnaire for GSFP Official, DIC Member, SIC Members, GES SHEP Coordinator, CS, Head teachers and Class teachers. ................................................................................................... 96 Appendix 3: Study Questionnaire for Parents ........................................................................................ 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Constituencies and the sampled schools in the Ga South 42 Table 3.2 Details of respondents 43 Table 4.1 Respondents 52 Table 4.2 Teachers Response on Enrolment 53 Table 4.3 Impact of GSFP on enrolment 54 Table 4.4 Enrolment of beneficiary schools from 2010-2014 Academic Year 54 Table 4.5 Impact of GSFP on attendance 58 Table 4.6 Impact of GSFP on retention 59 Table 4.7 Involvement in Learning 60 Table 4.8 Period of Admission 61 Table 4.9 Provision of meals any day school opens * Academic Performance 62 Table 4.10 Challenges facing the GSFP 63 Table 4.11 Suggested measures to improve the program 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1.1 Theory of change model 10 Fig. 1.2 Conceptual Framework for Food for Education (FFE) 12 Fig. 2.1 GSFP Actors and Relationship 25 Fig. 2.2 GSFP Annual Operating Plan, 2010 26 Fig. 4.1 Enrolment before and after GSFP in the Beneficiary Schools 55 Fig. 4.2 Enrolment in the Beneficiary Basic Schools 57 Fig.4.3 Involvement in Learning 60 Fig. 4.4 Challenges Facing the GSFP 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi LIST OF ACRONYMS AU: African Union BECE Basic Education Certificate Examination CAAD Comprehensive African Agriculture Development CAAP Comprehensive African Agricultural Development CS Circuit Supervisor DAP Development Activity Proposal DCE District Chief Executive DDO District Desk Officer DIC District Implementation Committee ESP Education Strategic Plan ESPRR Education Sector Policy Review Report ESR Education Sector Review FCI Food Corporation of India FCUBE Free Compulsory and Basic Education GES Ghana Education Service GPRS Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy GSFP Ghana School Feeding Programme GSMA Ga South Municipal Assembly HGSFP Home Grown School Feeding Programme IDP Internally Displaced People IQ: Intelligent Quotient MCA: Millennium Challenge Account University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii MDGs Millennium Development Goals MDM Mid-Day Meal MLGRD Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development MME Management Monitoring and Evaluation MoE Ministry of Education MoFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture MoFEP Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning MoWCGSP Ministry of Women and Children, Gender and Social Protection NEPAD New Partnership for African Development PDS Public Distribution System PSC Programme Steering Committee PTA Parent-Teacher Association RCC Regional Coordinating Council SEND School Enterprise Development Organization SFC School Feeding Committee SHEP School Health Education Programme SIC School Implementation Committee SIGN School Feeding Initiative Ghana Netherlands SMC School Management Committee SMC School Management Committee SNV Netherlands Development Cooperation UNDP United Nation Development Fund University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii UNHTF United Nation Hunger Task Force UNICEF United Nation Children Education Fund WFP World Food Programme University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiv ABSTRACT The purpose of the study was to examine how the Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) has impacted on enrolment, attendance and retention of children in some beneficiary Basic Schools in Ga South Municipality.The target population for the study was sixty-eight (68) participating schools in the Ga South Municipality of the Greater Accra Region and other stakeholders of the programme. The Public Relation Officer of GSFP, District Desk Officer, School Implementation Committee member, Circuit Supervisor and School Health Programme Officer of GES, School Implementation Committee member, Head Teacher, Class Teacher, Students, Parents and Caterers were the units of analysis. Random and non-random sampling methods were used to select ten schools and a sample size of 105. Questionnaires, semi- structured interview guides, and observation were used to solicit information from the respondents. The research has revealed some successes and failures of the GSFP. Prominent among the successes are; moderate increase in enrolment, attendance and retention; an increase in involvement in learning and cognitive ability of students and employment creation. Areas that need more attention are; Quality and Quantity of Meals; Recruitment of Caterers and Training, Procurement and Value chain, De-worming of beneficiary Students, non-availability of School Kitchen and Canteens and Monitoring and Evaluation. The recommendation of the study shall provide policy makers relevant information that will feed into other educational policy framework(s) that seek to achieve universal basic education in a long run. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction Formal education and wage employment are the two factors that are strongly correlated with poverty reduction. Boateng et al., (2000) found a strong correlation between poverty and level of schooling. Hence any attempt by the Government to increase access and quality education at the basic level and even beyond will be lauded. This chapter provides the reader the background of the study which consists of the concept of school feeding programme as an initiative of New Partnership for Africa‟s Development (NEPAD). The major partner, the Royal Netherland, and other donors of the programme have also been mentioned. 1.1 Background of the Study Article 38 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana requires Government to provide access to Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education, and depending on resource availability, to Senior Secondary, Technical and Tertiary Education and life-long learning. Ghana Government‟s commitment towards achieving her educational goals has been expressed in the following policy frameworks and reports: Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy 2002 – 2004 (GPRS I);Education Sector Policy Review Report (ESPRR, August 2002);Education Sector Review (ESR, October 2002) and the Government‟s White Paper on the Report (2004);Meeting the Challenges of Education in the 21st Century, Review of Education Reforms in Ghana, October, 2002;Education for All (UNESCO, 2000) and Education Strategic Plan (ESP) covering 2003- 2015. Despite these Policy frameworks and Reports highlighting educational Strategy and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 direction for Ghana, not much has been achieved in the areas of attendance and completion rate. This has led to the development of another home grown school feeding to increase the momentum and sharpen the focus for the realization of the free Compulsory Basic Education. Given the importance of the programme, the School Feeding concept was embraced by the NEPAD. The concept was also partly in line with the Millennium Development Goals. The Millennium Development Goals formulated in 2000 stems from the desire to address the challenges of advancing globalization. The MDGs paid particular attention to hunger and poverty eradication. This led to the formulation of a sub goal which read; eradication of hunger by 2015 (UN, 2005b). It is significant to state that the School Feeding Programme is said to contribute to achieving this first Millennium Development Goal (Ghana, 2006a). To complement the Government‟s effort of achieving the objectives of the School Feeding Programme the World Food Program (WFP) identified school meals as an area to work with the Government, to provide 122,000 primary and junior high school children in 304 schools with daily cooked nutritious meals. In addition, girls in junior high schools are given Take-Home Rations (THR) as an incentive to encourage girls‟ education. WFP buys food for this program mainly from within Ghana, in support of the Government‟s “home-grown” school feeding program. WFP support thus contributes to improving education and increasing farmers‟ incomes. Another organization that has helped to strengthen the work of the School Feeding Programme is the United Nations Hunger Task Force (UNHTF) which recommended 7 ways to achieve the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 eradication of hunger by 2015. One of the strategies identified by the UNHTF to achieve this goal is the implementation of the SFPs with locally produced foods rather than imported food (aid). The UNHTF considers SFPs as a good combination of education and agriculture which will increase school attendance, especially for girls. The NEPAD, an affiliate of the African Union (AU), also adopted the approach of the UNHTF but focuses on the combination of SFPs and agriculture. Ghana was the first of 12 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa implementing a SFP modeled of NEPAD. In Ghana, the SFP started in 2005 on a pilot bases and was rolled out from January 2006 up to the end of the first term of the 2010/2011 academic year. The programme feeds about 1,739,357children in all the 216 districts of Ghana. The objective of the Ghana SFP is to contribute to poverty reduction and food security and to increase school enrolment, attendance and retention. The GSFP is an initiative by Ghana to achieve the UN-MDGs on hunger, poverty and primary education. It is in response to the Comprehensive African Agriculture Development (CAAD) programme of the NEPAD. The concept of the GSFP is to provide pupils in selected public primary schools in the country with one hot, nutritious meal per school day, using locally-grown foodstuffs as a consequence of relieving their parents of the financial burden and promoting food security in the country. The program is designed to create in a long run foundation for community based development. This policy seeks to achieve three main objectives: (i) reduce short term hunger and malnutrition in school children, (ii) increase school enrolment, attendance and retention and (iii) boost domestic food production.The policy is wholly consistent with other educational policy frameworks like University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy, the Education Sector Plan (2003-2015), Imagine Ghana Free from Malnutrition, among others. As stated above, the GSFP began in late 2005 with 12 pilot schools, drawn from each region of the country. By August 2006, it had been expanded to 200 schools covering 69,000 pupils in all the 138 districts, at the time with a plan to reach a total of 500 schools comprising 155,000 children by the end of the year. The plan was to scale up the programme gradually to cover 1.04 million primary school and kindergarten children in the most deprived communities and schools of the country by December 2010. The country weaned itself from the Royal Netherlands Government, a major partner in 2011. National coverage has increased from 1.04 million to 1,739,357 children in the ten administrative regions and in all the 216 districts. 1.2Development of Research Problem Following the United Nation‟s declaration and the subsequent adoption of the MDGs to step up development efforts across the world, a number of countries including Ghana have devised various strategies to enhance the quality of life of the people. A notable area worthy of study is Ghana‟s efforts to increase access to basic education in line with the MDGs. Arguably, this explains why the nation and its development partners introduced the GSFP in 2005. It was envisaged that the introduction of the GSFP will have the triple effects of enhancing enrolment, attendance and retention of pupils in beneficiary schools. Some studies assert that SFPs improve the health and nutrition status of beneficiaries (Bundy et. al, 2009). Whilst other studies have also hailed the significance of the GSFP to access to education, it has also been contended that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 the envisaged gains are not being realised because of some emerging challenges. For example, it has been posited that the Government of Ghana had not designed measures to ensure the Programme would be sustainable following the withdrawal of financial support by donors (Agyeman, 2011). In the face of the above observation, it appears there are few empirical studies that attempt to assess the impact of the GSFP on enrolment, attendance and retention in beneficiary schools. It is further imperative to note that whilst there have been occasional references in the literature on some of the challenges facing the SFPs, there are hardly any concerted attempts at establishing the specific challenges confronting the GSFP in the Ga South Municipal Schools. This study therefore attempts to contribute filling that gap in the literature. Apart from the above, as the country continues to employ the GSFP as a means of improving access to education, it is significant to explore the critical success factors that could ensure the effective and efficient implementation of the GSFP. To this end, it would be appropriate to conduct an empirical study using a beneficiary school as a case study. This study therefore attempts to study the Ga South Municipal Schools in order to identify the ingredients to the successful implementation of the Programme. 1.3 The Purpose of the Study The overall purpose of the study was to examine how the GSFP has impacted on enrolment, attendance and retention of children in some basic schools in the Ga South Municipality. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1.4 Objectives of the Study The specific objectives of the study were as follows: 1. To examine the influence of GSFP on improving enrolment, attendance, and retention. 2. To examine problems/challenges encountered by the GSFP in the Ga South Municipality 3. To identify the critical success factors necessary for efficient and effective implementation of the GSFP. 1.5 Research Questions The study seeks to address the following questions: 1. What is the influence of GSFP on improving enrolment, attendance, and retention amidst inadequate physical development and educational materials necessary for the schools‟ operation? 2. What are the problems/challenges encountered by the GSFP in the Ga South Municipality? 3. What are the critical success factors necessary for efficient and effective implementation of the GSFP? 1.6 Significance of the study This study will contribute immensely to policy development by providing insights into enhancing the administration of the GSFP. For instance, re-orienting to a system that monitors indicators that limit school meal effectiveness, inter-school needs assessment indicators not only of enrolment and attendance be captured (school infrastructure, learning materials, kitchen and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 eating facilities), opportunity for school administrators, teachers and school management committees (SMCs) to interact for learning and sharing information regarding the GSFP. Knowledge of the impact of SFP on enrolment, attendance and retention will provide sufficient ground to critique current management regime of the GSFP in order to make the policy sustainable. The study will further provide policy makers with relevant information that will feed into other educational policy framework(s) that seeks to achieve universal basic education in a long run. A better understanding of the impact of the GSFP will help create new structures or measures that will deliver on the developmental aspirations of the beneficiary schools in the Municipality and the country as a whole; For instance increasing access without compromising quality. It must be understood, however, that the work may present or reveal some weaknesses of the structures regarding enrolment, attendance and retention in the observed schools and the prescription/recommendation will pave the way for further research into the ever changing or unstable aspect of the educational process and consequently give policy direction. 1.7 Theoretical Framework The framework provides appropriate information of the empirical literature on SFP and other relevant concepts. This study had adopted concepts Change Theory and Food for Education University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 model to examine the impact of GSFP on enrolment, attendance and retention issues in the schools under study. Framework is vital for guiding a research, ensuring coherence and for establishing the boundaries of the study (Bak, 2004). Theories and constructs are like spectacles, they help the researcher to see more clearly the object of concern. This is in line with Vitahl, Jansen and Jansen (2013) who also see theoretical framework as a well-developed, coherent explanation of an event/phenomenon. In other words, the theoretical perspectives and assumptions about what counts as knowledge, the nature of that knowledge and how it is acquired, makes it possible to make sense of a set of data. Although theories take several forms, many scholars have agreed that they assist in interpreting and understanding events in the world. One of the major functions of theory is to order experience with the help of concepts. It also selects relevant aspects and data among the enormous multitude of “facts” that confront the investigator of social phenomena (Coser, 1981). Similarly, the purpose of a theory is to provide tools for the interpretation of collected data, prevent the fragmentation of knowledge by ordering, give the inquiry a focus, and provide theoretical explanations and deeper understanding of what is being investigated. A major criticism leveled against the usage of theories is inconsistency. Generally, major concepts and constructs of a study should be consistent with the theory‟s framework and as a result takes away the originality of the study. In addition, a theory sets standard for scholarly discourse that does not go beyond the boundary of an academic discipline, therefore the logic of theoretical discourse is too abstract to be applicable to the experience of the practitioners. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 1.7.1 The Change Theory Change theory model is based around a 3-step process (Unfreeze-Transition-Freeze) that provides a high-level approach to change. It gives a change agent a framework to implement a change effort, which is always very sensitive and must be made as unified as possible. The 3 phases of the Kurt Lewin model provide guidance on how to go about getting people to change: a change agent will implement new processes and re-assign tasks, but change will only be effective if participants embrace it and help put it into practice (Lewin, 1935). This is seen in what the GSFP sought to do with the provision of food for students to attract them to school. When a structure has been in place for a while, habits and routine naturally set in. The organization as a whole will go in the right direction, so with the GSFP in place, the habit of going to school is developed and managers and implementers of the programme will also do what is right. People or processes may have strayed off course. For example, tasks that are not relevant or useful anymore are still being performed by force of habit, thus even with provision of food to students, they may want to stay out of school since they are used to absenting themselves under the pretense of hunger without anyone questioning the legitimacy of their reasons. Same can be said of the parents of the children who may also reassign the children instead of releasing them to school. There could be managerial lapses. People might have learned to do things one way, without considering other more efficient methods. This behavior has to be checked, and thus the unfreezing nature of the theory. Unfreezing means getting people to gain perspective on their day-to-day activities, unlearn their bad habits, and open up to new ways of reaching their objectives (Lewin, 1935). This can possibly affect the whole or part of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 stakeholders of the GSFP. So there is the need for continuous communication and open door policy in order for the wheels of change to be set in motion. Once team members prepare their minds and are desirous to change, change can start. The change process can be a very dynamic one if it is to be effective. It will probably take some time and involves a transition period. In order to gain efficiency, people will have to take on new tasks and responsibilities, which entails a learning curve. A change process has to be viewed as an investment, both in terms of time and the allocation of resources: after the new organization and processes have been rolled out, a certain chaos might ensue (children less than four years were also sent to school), but that is the price to pay in order to attain enhanced effectiveness within the structure. Change will only reach its full effect if it‟s made permanent (Lewin, 1935). Once the organizational changes have been made and the structure has regained its effectiveness, every effort must be made to cement them and make sure the new situation becomes the standard. Further changes will be made down the line, but once the structure has found a way to improve the way it conducts its operations, “freezing” will give the people the opportunity to thrive in the new environment and take full advantage of the change. In order not to get people going back to old habits, performance and reward system must be established, success must be celebrated and force-field analysis be made to remove all possible barriers. 1.7.2 Relevance of the Theory of Change to the Study Any successful programme creates change, and it comes as a result of the participants adopting solid knowledge of what works for others. The SFPs are run worldwide and therefore are University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 characterized with successes and failures. The constructs/variables of the change theory are; problem, community needs/assets, desired results, strategies, influential factors and assumptions. Problem as in the case of this study is the enrolment, attendance and retention and the influential factors are the availability of funds as enabling factor in the provision of meals, supervision and other related elements. Community needs/assets also have to do with the contribution(s) from the community in question accepting a change in their attitude towards enrolling their children who are school-going age in school. Additionally, local farmers are made to sell their farm produce to the school matrons. The desired result should reflect an increased enrolment, attendance and retention of school children in that community. The success story of other countries/organizations is adopted for the attainment of the objectives. All of the above elements can be summarized as implementation issues. Fig. 1.1: Theory of change model Source: Kurt Lewin’s model (1935) Unfreeze are the forces that are striving to maintain the status quo, and dismantling the current mind set. This is usually by presenting a provocative problem or event to get people to recognize the need for change and to search for new solutions. Transition is a phase where new behaviors, values, and attitudes are adopted. This may be a period of some confusion as we switch from the old ways of doing things to a new one. FREEZE UNFREEZE TRANSITION University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 Freeze is the final stage of crystallizing and the adaptation of ownership of the new concept. The organization may revert to former ways of doing things at this point unless the changes are reinforced through freezing. 1.7.3 Food for Education Conceptual Model The SFPs are a visible social safety net used by political leaders around the world. Communities that participate in these programs can see the tangible benefits to their children, such as their children being fed regularly or families supplied with additional food. The Food for Education (FFE) programmes are typically targeted towards populations that are food insecure, reside in areas with high concentrations of low socioeconomic status, who are facing poor attendance and enrollment in schools. School children are the target of these types of interventions and children who are younger than five years old are left out. The limitations of FFE programs are that children who are less than five years are not to benefit from such scheme. According to Adelman et al. (2009),first thousand days of a child is the most vital period during which malnutrition may have its largest impact. 1.7.4 Impact on Educational Achievements The possible goal of targeting children through FFE programme is to scale up their educational achievement so as to enhance their potential future productivity and earnings. However, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 School Meals improvement in educational achievement due to serving food in SFPs is interdependent and connected, as shown in Figure 2 below. To begin with, FFE programs increase school attendance by lowering the opportunity costs of attending school and providing additional incentives to engage in learning (formal education). This culminates to more time spent in school and more time spent towards learning. When a child is interested in learning, there is high probability of being retained in school to reap the assured benefits of education. Households may elect to have their children in schools for academic work because of the expectation of high return that comes with literacy. Figure 1.2: Conceptual Framework for Food for Education Source: Author’s own construct (2014) 1.8 Organization of the Study This study was divided into five distinct chapters. Chapter one embodied the background of the study, problem statement, research objectives and questions, significance of the study, and Retention Increasing Enrollment and Attendance Engagement in Learning Educational Achievements University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 theoretical framework/conceptual framework. Chapter two presented the literature review. The Home Grown School Feeding Programme in Kenya, enrolment, nutrition, attendance, cognitive ability and academic improvement were considered. The chapter critically reviewed similar studies that have been done on the topic and draws inferences expected to help explain, support or challenge the problem statement of the study. Chapter three offered a detailed methodological approach to the study while Chapter four focuses on data presentation and analysis of the study. This chapter revealed the views of respondents concerning enrolment, attendance and retention in the beneficiary schools as well as some implementation challenges and possible solutions to the problems. The final Chapter five provided the summary of findings, recommendations and conclusions of the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 CHAPTER TWO 2.4The GSFP According to GSFP policy document, GSFP 2006 Programme Pilot Review Report, and Programme Document 2007-2010, the basic objectives of GSFP is to provide children in public primary schools and kindergartens with one hot nutritious meal prepared from locally grown foodstuffs on every school going day. The policy has a secondary objective of improving education, health and agriculture of the country. The health component involves the fact that pupils of the beneficiary schools are to be given good drinking water, de-wormed and fed in a good sanitary environment. In line with improvement of education, enrolment of pupils will improve so as to achieve universal basic education. In the agriculture sub sector the patronage of locally produced goods and food security in the country will be achieved. Programme implementation partner organizations such as Netherlands Development Co-operation (SNV), School Enterprise Development Organization (SEND) and WFP are to carry out training sessions for caterers and cooks to enhance their capacities. The recruitment of caterers and cooks as required by SNV is based on an academic qualification and standard for hygiene (GSFP Pilot Programme Review Report, 2007-2010). To achieve the objectives of the programme, roles were assigned to the following key stakeholders as follows: i. The government made up of Cabinet and Parliament are responsible for passing the GSFP Bill to legitimize the operations of the programme and sourcing for funds; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 ii. The Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD), in collaboration of the Ministry of Education (MoE) is responsible for the implementation and supervision of the programme; iii. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) is responsible for the achievement of the agricultural objectives; iv. The Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MoFEP) is responsible for the release of funds; v. The Ministry of Women and Children, Gender and Social Protection (MoWCGSP) is responsible for monitoring and supervision; vi. The GSFP National Secretariat is responsible for the implementation of the policy at the national level (Duah, 2011 citing GSFP Annual Operating Plan 2008, page 11) According to Duah (2011), Regional Coordinating Councils (RCCs) are to form the programme steering committee in every region. The RCCs are to plan and execute the programme with inputs from the national level. Each Assembly in collaboration with the DIC and SIC is to manage and implement the programme at the local level. They are in charge of food procurement and logistic spending. The Ministry of Agriculture through the District Agriculture Directorate is to sensitize the farmers to produce and supply foodstuffs. The Directorate is also to provide training for farmers especially cooperative farmer groups and assist them to access loans to increase their productivity. The DICs are in charge of planning and monitoring of the programme in all the beneficiary schools whilst the SICs do the implementation and supervision in each school. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 A household survey conducted in Bangladesh showed dropout rates between the SF program and the control schools suggested net reduction in dropouts by 1.6 percentage points for the program schools (Ahmed, 2003). Econometric analysis further indicated a significant reduction in dropout rates attributable to the programme in 2002 -2003. Fig.2.1: GSFP Actors and Relationship Source: GSFP Annual Operating Plan, 2010 Office of the President Collaborating Ministries Programme steering committee Ministry of Local Government & Rural Development GSFG National Secretariat GSFP Reg. Coordinating Council GSFP Reg. Coordinating Office Local Programme Management Implementation Nexus Food & Logistics Spending/Community impact MMD Assemblies District Implementation Committee School Implementation Committee University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Literature review has become an important aspect of research in its own right since it provides an overview of what has already been done on the research issue (Pautosso, 2013). De Los et al. (2008) stated that literature review places the current research in its historical context by describing the background to the study and the relationship between the present and the previous study. The literature for this study is reviewed along two paths. The chapter provides definitions of constructs and in-depth review on the topic understudy. 2.2 School Feeding Programmes around the World 2.2.1 The SFP in India India has the longest tradition of the SFP since the 1920s. It is also the largest in the World. The Mid-Day Meal (MDM) is the name given to the in-school feeding and external assistance came in 2001 when it had the legal backing from the Supreme Court of the land (Dreze and Knigdoon, 2001). It is managed by a mix of Public and Private Partnerships. It operates through the Food Corporation of India (FCI), which procures food domestically and then distributes it to a network of FCI stores, where it is then transported to individual schools and villages. The program is largely decentralized by the state, with operations varying throughout the country. There are no local procurement targets as Home Grown Procurement is less important in India (as a net exporter of grain). The massive public distribution system based on the procurement of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 vast quantities of grain from farmers at minimum support prices makes the SFP much less important as a source of demand for grains. However, there is scope for the local procurement of vegetables and condiments. Governance of School Feeding: India has a federal system of governance with a central government, twenty-eight state governments, and seven Union Territories. India attained self- sufficiency in food grains by the1970s and is now a grain surplus country and a leading exporter of food grains. The Department of Food and Public Distribution under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution is in charge of managing the food economy of the country. A public distribution system (PDS) managed by the FCI operates alongside a free market. The objectives of the FCI are primarily: 1. Effective price support operation for safeguarding the interests of the farmers. 2. Distribution of food grains throughout the country by the PDS. 3. Maintenance of satisfactory level of operation and buffer stocks of food grains to ensure national food security. The FCI procures food (wheat, paddy, rice) through purchase centers at pre-announced „procurement prices‟ fixed by the Central Government and food is then sold to State Civil Supplies Corporations or Food Corporations at a price, fix by the government. The state then distributes the food to the public through fair price shops or ration shops at „ration‟ or „issue‟ prices. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 The central government supports the states by providing free food grains (for example, rice or wheat) to implementing state agencies and reimbursing the cost of transportation to the district authorities. States pay for any additional food items required and for food preparation and they can choose from providing cooked meals at school or dry rations. Efforts have been made since 2001 to improve school infrastructure for the programme, especially regarding the construction of kitchens, and to tackle challenges related to clean water, appropriate utensils, and eating facilities. Still, challenges remain in guaranteeing the quality and stability of the programme in all of the states under a decentralized system. Cost per Child per Day: Primary: Rs. 3.30, Upper Primary: Rs. 4.92. Cash Transfer Scheme: Government financial assistance apart from provision of food includes: Supply of food grains such as wheat, rice; Reimbursement of transportation cost from food storage point to the school; Provision of cooking ingredients including vegetables, oil, etc; Assistance in construction of kitchen, store, utensils, devices; Management, Monitoring, and Evaluation (MME) at 2% of total assistance. In addition to its support during the school year, the central government supports a MDM programme during summer vacation in drought-affected areas. Supply Chain/Procurement: Procurement of food grains and ensuring continuous availability of adequate food supply is the responsibility of the FCI. The State Government makes arrangements for the transportation of food grains from the nearest FCI depot to each school through state appointed transport agencies. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 Nutrition Standards: Nutritional norms prescribed under MDMs are; Primary: 450 Calories, Protein 12g, Upper Primary: 700 Calories, Protein 20g. Adequate quantities of micronutrients like iron, folic acid. Menus vary according to local eating customs. Involvement of Local Communities: The involvement of local communities has been minimal. There has been increased participation in supervision and contribution. 2.2.2 The HGSFP in Kenya The WFP provides meals to 770,000 children in Kenya‟s arid and semi-arid lands, with the aim of increasing enrollment, stabilizing attendance, increasing completion rates, and improving the government‟s capacity to manage the SFP through training. The WFP is supporting a gradual handover of its SFP to the government‟s HGSFP, which targets 538,000 in semi-arid areas. A targeting exercise identified twenty-eight marginal agricultural districts with access to markets for the new programme. There is no official target for the procurement of food, but „local‟ is defined as (i) from parents of school children (ii) within the school zone (iii) near school, in community, or (iv) from the local market. The current proposal includes food produced in the whole of Kenya. Governance of School Feeding: The SMC and School Feeding Sub-Committee (SFC) directly manage the HGSF program at the school level. Each school has an SMC that includes the head teacher as the secretary, a chairperson who is a parent, and other parents who are members. Schools have two separate University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 bank accounts; (i) a general-purpose account and (ii) instructional materials and supplies. A third account is required for the school feeding programme. There are three bank signatories: the head teacher, the chairperson, and the treasurer. Schools have experience with financial management and procurement, and the MoE is basing their school feeding procurement model upon already existing structures for monitoring and evaluation and procurement that are used to purchase textbooks and other school supplies. General responsibilities are: (i) Standards and regulations are set by the MoE (nutritional requirements, storage and handling guidelines, etc.), as well as fundraising, advocacy, and coordination and implementation at the national level. (ii) Supervision, reporting, M&E, and technical assistance (trainings and advice in nutrition, storage, preparation, bookkeeping, etc.) occur at the district level. (iii) The head teacher keeps records, prepares a procurement plan, and confirms quantity and quality of commodities delivered, and signs for delivery. (iv)The SMC and SFC, led by the head teacher, manage the HGSF program at the school level. Parents represented by the committees are responsible for overseeing the general management of the programme, which includes overseeing food deliveries, signing off on reports and delivery notes, and making procurement and management decisions. To access funding at the school level, three parties must sign for it (head teacher, SMC chairperson, and the SFC chairperson. Cost per Child per Day: The average daily cost per child in the MoE HGSF program is approximatelyUS$0.09, a little over half of the WFP feeding program price at US$0.16 per child. Cash Transfer Scheme: The MoE funds are disbursed to the schools twice a year, directly into a specified bank account for each school. The account is designated for only the local purchase of cereals, pulses, and oil. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 Supply Chain/Procurement Mechanism: The MoE, HGSF issues have local tenders for cereals, pulses, and oil, while the parents source salt and firewood. A school‟s ability to purchase locally grown products is hindered because all schools in the HGSF program are within semi-arid areas, where production capacity is limited. As a result, the MoE has suggested using traders as a fallback in times of decreased rainfall. When food prices are at their lowest, directly after harvest, schools will purchase as much as possible to ensure a sufficient supply for the entire term. Nutrition Standards: The MoE of Kenya has not established menu options for the HGSF program, but has instead adopted the WFP‟s daily hot lunch ration, with legumes (mainly beans or yellow split peas), 150g of cereals (mainly maize), 5g of fortified vegetable oil, and 3g of iodized salt. Involvement of Local Communities: Community participation and involvement of the SFP, and typical contributions include firewood, water, cash for cooks‟ salaries, and salt. When households cannot contribute, the SMC makes alternative and the remaining supplies are purchased from the tenders that come from members of the community. The SMC knows the traders and what they are capable of producing and delivering. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 2.3 Education and the GSFP Education is widely considered to be a critical tool for national development. As a result, many economists have emphasized the impact of education on economic growth (Lucas, 1988; Barro, 1991), although others have raised questions about the causal relationship between education and economic growth. Education has also been found to play a crucial role in the adoption of new agricultural technologies in so many countries (Rosenzweig, 1996) and is also seen as a means to improve health and reduce fertility (Schultz, 1997 and 2003; Strauss and Thomas, 1995), as well as an intrinsic good in itself (Sen, 1999). This general notion of education is emphatically expressed under the MDG which is aimed at achieving universal access to primary education by the year 2015, and eliminating gender disparity in education by 2015. The phenomenon of SFPs is common to both the developing and industrialized countries. Many countries therefore have SFPs running. For example, in 2004 the WFP alone had SFPs in 72 countries, covering 16.6 million school children (WFP and UNESCO, 2005b). School Feeding is defined as the provision of food to school children (Bundy, 2009; Gelli, 2010). In general, SFPs come in one of two basic modalities (Gelli, 2010): 1. In-school feeding, where children are fed in school; and 2. Take-home rations, where families are given food if their children attend school. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 The In-school feeding can in turn be divided into two common categories, which are, programs that provide meals, and programs that provide high-energy biscuits or snacks (Bundy, 2009). However, a take-home ration is where a family is provided with uncooked food supply if their children attend school throughout the month or twenty (20) days in a month. Generally, the objectives of SFPs are to provide meals or snacks to reduce short-term hunger in the classroom so that students can concentrate and learn better, and to attract children to school and have them attend regularly (Ahmed, 2004). According to Wynn (Wynn, 1987; cited in Kristjansson et al, 2009) socio-economic differences in nutrition may be one of the most important factors causing socio-economic differences in health and mortality. Global estimates suggest that, in the period 2000-2002, over 852 million people across the world were undernourished (FAO, 2004).Many of these were children. Most of these were in developing countries, but even in the United States, more than 3 million children experienced ‟food insecurity with hunger‟ in the period between 1998 and 2000 (Sullivan, 2002). Early malnutrition and/or micronutrient deficiencies can adversely affect physical, mental, and social aspects of child health (Muthayya, 2009; Buttenheim, et al. 2011). Bundy, et al. (2009) also agrees that FFE improves on children‟s health and nutrition, while Jomaa, et al. (2011) points out an increase in both energy intake and micronutrients are a result of the provision of school meals. The effects of malnutrition on physical health may include underweight, stunted growth, lowered immunity, and mortality. Early malnutrition and/or micronutrient deficiencies have been linked to poorer cognitive functioning (Scrimshaw, 1998; Worobey, 1999; Leslie, 1990). Short-term hunger can adversely affect attention and interest (Levinger, 1996; Read, 1973). Overnight and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 morning fasting (e.g. skipping breakfast) has been shown to adversely affect performance on cognitive tasks, particularly for children who are nutritionally at risk (Pollitt, 1995). The GSFP was established in 2005 by the Government of Ghana and the Dutch Government as a means to boost domestic food production and increase school enrolment, attendance and retention among kindergarten and primary school children (Ghanaweb 2014). However, the SFP started in September 2005, with 1,984 pupils, in 10 pilot schools, one in each region of Ghana. The programme, which received widespread praise when it was established, was inspired by the CAADP Pillar 3 of NEPAD under the recommendations of the UNHTF and part of government‟s efforts to attain the MDGs 1 and 2, which seek to eliminate extreme hunger, poverty and achieve universal basic education (Ghana News Agency, 2014). In august 2013, the National Coordinator of the programme, Mr. S.P. Adamu, disclosed that the programme is “now feeding 1,600,000 pupils from 4,920 public primary schools throughout the country and Four hundred thousand (400,000) more pupils are to benefit from the GSFP, beginning the 2013/2014 academic year” (Daily Graphic, 2013). The GSFP is the Ghanaian version of a HGSFP that has been mandated to provide pupils in selected public primary schools in the country with one hot, nutritious meal per school day, using locally-grown foodstuffs (Afoakwa, 2009). It was a four-year programme (2007 to 2010) with funding from the Dutch and Ghana governments. The programme was expected to link the demand for food created by school feeding to the supply of food by small-scale farmers through local procurement mechanisms. Thus, the demand for home-grown food is expected to stimulate local market forces in such a way as to inspire small-scale farmers to expand production. The GSFP has wider implications for farmers in strengthening community food production and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 consumption systems through reduction in post-harvest losses, provision of a ready market for farm produce and incentives for increased production which will ultimately enhance food sovereignty (Quaye et al, 2010). 2.5 Development Objectives and Concepts of the GSFP The long term objective of GSFP is to contribute to poverty reduction and food security in Ghana. This should create the foundation for community based development while the short- term objectives are: (a) reduce hunger and malnutrition, (b) increase school enrolment, attendance and retention, and (c) boost domestic food production in deprived communities of the country. The first column of the figure below is the development objective, followed by the immediate objectives. The last column illustrates the outcomes. 2.6 Enrolment Akanbi (2011), in her research on the HGSFP in Nigeria, came out with the outcome that the programme has increased attendance and enrolment rates over the years in Osun State. According the that study, between 2002/2003 and 2005/2006 session before the introduction of HGSFP, the highest enrolment figure was 97,010; but after the introduction there was an upsurge in the enrolment which has since been maintained up to year 2010 and in 2010 the enrolment went as high as 130,000. This is in tandem with the Development Activity Proposal (DAP) 1997-2001 on enrolment, the average number of children enrolled per program primary school has increased from 52 – 219. And Ayalew Abai, UNICEF country Representative, agrees with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 Akanbi (2011) and the DAP 1997-2001 when he said that, there is abundant evidence to suggest that providing each child with a complete meal, that is adequate in energy, protein, vitamin and minerals, will not only help in making the children ready for effective learning, but will also stimulate enrolment. A study conducted in Malawi by WFP showed that a small piloted SFP over a three-month period led to a 5 percent increase in enrollment and up to 36 percent improvement in attendance (WFP, 1994). Kazianga et al (2008)) propound that, the school feeding is a means by which enrolment, academic performance, cognitive development of pre-school children is enhanced. This is in line with earlier authorities in the above paragraphs. Similarly, a randomized control trial set in Internally Displaced People (IDP) camps in Northern Uganda assessed the impact of alternative school feeding modalities, both the in-school feeding and take-home rations (Alderman et al., 2012). The study used a prospective, cluster randomized, controlled field experiment carried out between 2005 and 2007, to provide causal estimates of programme impact on primary school enrolment, school attendance, age at school entry, grade promotion, and progression to secondary school for a random sample of school-age children living in the service area of the schools. Both school feeding interventions were found to have a positive impact on school participation, including enrolment for children not enrolled prior to the introduction of school feeding, and on morning and afternoon attendance. Small effects on age at entry and reduction in grade repetition were also identified for both types of school feeding modalities, though no effects were found on progression to secondary school. Measures of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 anthropometry showed no positive impact of either program on nutritional status of primary school age children. However, large and statistically significant impacts were found on height for age of preschooler siblings of on-site meal beneficiaries. The study found that during the first year of school feeding assistance, absolute enrolment in WFP-assisted schools increased by 28 percent for girls and 22 percent for boys. After the first year, enrolment trends varied according to the type of school feeding programme that was in place. Where take-home rations for girls were combined with on-site feeding for all pupils, the increase in girls‟ absolute enrolment was sustained at 30 percent even after the first year. In schools providing on-site feeding alone, changes in absolute enrolment after the first year reverted to those found in the year prior to school feeding implementation. The provision of take-home rations also appeared to reduce the dropout rate of female students, particularly in the higher primary school grades. Another evaluation of a SFP in Burkina Faso found that school canteens were associated with increased school enrollment, regular attendance, consistently lower repeater rates, lower dropout rates, and higher success rates on national exams, especially among girls (Moore, and Kunze 1994). However, in a study conducted in Kenya, the investigators did not find a difference in the attendance rates between schools with and without the SFP (Meme et al. 1998). According to the WFP (2004a) SFPs have proven effective in reducing the education gap between girls and boys. For example, program evaluation results from Pakistan, Morocco, Niger and Cameroon show that while food is the initial motivation for sending girls to school, parents of participating girls develop an interest in the education of their daughters. This change in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 attitudes is an important factor in enhancing parents‟ commitment to education beyond the duration of food assistance. 2.7 Nutrition According to Federal Ministry of Education (2007), over 90% of morbidity and 80% of mortality in under-5 children arise from four causes: malaria, vaccine preventable diseases, diarrhea and acute respiratory infections. Malnutrition is an attributable cause in over 50% of such mortality. Moreover for children who survive, the period of childhood involves exposure to other risks, including hunger. It was further observed that childhood preventable illness accounts for 49% of school absenteeism in Nigeria. This situation impacts negatively not just on school enrolment (particularly girl child enrolment), attendance and retention, but also on learning achievement. The SFP therefore is the right antidote to the problem of malnutrition. Akanbi (2011) agreed with The Federal Ministry of Education when he opines that appropriately designed school feeding programmes will increase access to education and learning and improve children‟s health and nutrition, especially when integrated into comprehensive school health and nutrition programme. The SFPs are likely to improve the nutrient intake of participating children. For example, a randomized, controlled trial of giving breakfast to undernourished versus adequately nourished children studied in Jamaica showed positive results: compared to the control group, both height and weight improved significantly in the breakfast group (Powell et al. 1998). A study in Huaraz, Peru shows that for children who received breakfast at schools, dietary intake of energy increased by 2 percent, protein by 28 percent, and iron by 4 percent compared to the control group (Jacoby et al. 1996). In Brazil, a study of a large school lunch program examined the impact of the program on consumption of calories and protein by school children in Sao Paulo. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Participation in the program was associated with an increased availability of 357 calories and 8.5 grams of protein (Dall‟Acqua 1991). Pollit (1995; cited in Ahmed 2004) reviewed several studies conducted in Chile, United Kingdom and the United States from 1978 to 1995. The author concluded that brain function is sensitive to short-term variations in the availability of nutrient supplies. Such indication is particularly strong for undernourished children. For these children, omitting breakfast alters brain function, particularly in the speed and accuracy of information retrieval in working memory. This evidence has strong implications for the developing world where a large percentage of school children are nutritionally at-risk. A study in 1983 examined 115 children aged 12 to 13 years who were enrolled in three classes in a poor rural area school. One class was served school breakfast with the other two classes serving as controls. The impact evaluation included: school achievement, attendance, and weight gain. School achievement was measured using tests that included arithmetic, spelling and reading. Children were followed over two semesters. After the first semester, the treatment group showed improved school attendance and arithmetic scores compared to the control classes, but no difference in weight gain. After controlling for school attendance, academic improvement remained significant showing some evidence that reducing hunger during school hours could affect learning of arithmetic (Powell and Grantham-McGregor 1998). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 2.8 Attendance Akanbi (2011) came out with the findings that the programme has activated the confidence of the pupils in the public primary school which resulted in regular and punctual school attendance, reduction in truancy and absenteeism, increased retention and participation in curricular activities by pupils since the pupils are sure of being provided with free meals during break time. Ayalew Abai, UNICEF country Representative, agrees with Akanbi when he said that, there is abundant evidence to suggest that providing each child with a complete meal, that is adequate in energy, protein, vitamin and minerals, will not only help in making the children ready for effective learning, but will also stimulate increased attendance. In terms of attendance, the average attendance rate in ESP schools during FY 97 was 56 %. This has increased to an average of 89 % as of now. In 1997, 55,624 children were enrolled in 423 primary schools and received the hot lunch. Currently, 274,200 children in 1,096 primary schools and 50,200 children in 342 pre-schools attend school and receive the hot lunch each day (DAP, 1997-2001). An evaluation of a school meal program in Jamaica found that after the first semester, the treatment class showed improved school attendance compared to the control classes (Powell and Grantham-McGregor 1998).Ahmed (2004), also found out mothers perception of SFP in Bangladesh and high percentage of response reflects positive effects of SFP on participating children‟s concentration on studies, interest in attending school, liveliness health, and morbidity. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 According to Levinger (1986), evaluation of the school lunch program in Orissa, India, suggest positive relationships among SFPs, attendance, and enrollment. However, in both cases, this may have been influenced by the selection of schools for the feeding program. The Orissa researchers obtained data on enrollment, attendance, absenteeism, and dropout rates were compared for schools with feeding programs and those without them. Based on the survey and other official records, the researchers divided the state into the following strata: (1) four predominantly tribal districts in which virtually all accessible schools were in the feeding program, so no comparative sample of schools without SFPs could be drawn; and (2) nine nontribal districts, in which schools with and without SFPs could be selected by random procedures and matched on various criteria. In the nontribal districts, a related sample of non-SFP schools was selected, matching the village and school on various criteria. These included similarity in size of school (+ 20 percent), village population (+ 30 percent), and the proportion of cultivators in the village (+ 10 percent). Within each school, a random selection of 10 boys from the third and fourth grades combined was made. Inaccessible schools were dropped from the sample. The basic thrust of the research was to compare a group of children participating in an SFP with a group that was not. Statistical procedures used for this purpose included correlation analysis for item-to-item reliability, Pearson correlation to test association between variables, and the chi square goodness of fit test to compare samples on various criteria. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 The authors concluded that the SFP did seem to affect enrollment positively, particularly for lower, primary grades (especially the first) and especially in the tribal areas. They also noted a small decrease in absenteeism for SFP schools; once again this was particularly observable in tribal areas and especially for the first grade. However, only in the upper primary school level of nontribal districts was there substantially higher attendance in the SFP than non-SFP schools. Other differences observed in enrollment and attendance, the authors note, could be attributed to the selectivity of the feeding program itself. However, a careful analysis of 3 to 5 year longitudinal data indicated that SFP schools had lower dropout rates, although in the survey year the opposite was true. Where the feeding program had operated more than 300 days in the 2-year period preceding the study, a decrease in absence in the SFP schools was noted; thus, history of program participation (as in the case of Madhyda Pradesh) seems to explain some variance in attendance. 2.9 Cognitive Ability and Academic Improvement A study conducted by Simeon and Grantham-McGregor (1989) examined the effect of breakfast on cognitive functions among 90 children aged 9-10 years with different nutritional status. The study examined the effects of omitting breakfast on the cognitive functions of three groups of children: stunted, non-stunted control, and previously severely malnourished. Using a crossover design, the investigators tested each child on two mornings one week apart (where the first week the child had received breakfast and the second had not). In order to have greater control over the experiment, children‟s meals on the previous evening were standardized and children subsequently fasted until they received the treatment breakfast or the placebo. Fluency and digit span tests were conducted and results showed that there was a detrimental effect of missing University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 breakfast. Results also indicated that cognitive functions were more vulnerable in poorly nourished children. In Jamaica, a study was conducted to investigate the short-term effects of giving breakfast on cognitive performance in primary school children who were mildly undernourished as compared with adequately nourished children. The experiment took place in four primary schools in rural Jamaica. Children were randomly assigned to a group provided with breakfast or a quarter of an orange as a placebo. Researchers then administered four cognitive tests (visual search, digit span, verbal fluency and speed-of-information-processing tests). After a few weeks the treatments were reversed and the tests repeated. Undernourished children‟s performance improved significantly on a test of verbal fluency when they received breakfast. Adequately nourished children did not experience any significant improvement (Chandler et al. 1995). These and the findings of Simeon and Grantham-McGregor (1989) indicate that targeting of school meals to undernourished children should achieve greater impact in terms of improving children‟s cognitive ability. However, results from a study in Chile did not find omission of school breakfast to be detrimental to cognitive performance (Lopez et al. 1993). This research examined 279 children from low socioeconomic backgrounds and categorized as normal, wasted or stunted. No consistent association was found between school breakfast and performance in short-term visual memory, problem solving, or attention tasks in any of the three nutritional groups. Results suggested that, given a motivating short-term task and maintaining routine conditions, missing University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 breakfast does not affect the cognitive performance of children. However, the researchers had no control over the food intake the night before the experiment as children stayed at home. Jacoby (2002) explores the existence of an “intra-household flypaper effect” by which in-school intake of calories from SF snacks and meals “stick” to the child. Based on an experimental design and rigorous econometric analysis, the study assessed the impact of an SF program on child calorie intake in the Philippines. The empirical results confirm the existence of an intra- household flypaper effect, where virtually all calories from SF food remain with the participating child. To Ahmed (2004), iron and iodine are critical for cognitive development. Iron deficiencies may render children inattentive and uninterested in learning. Iron supplementation was shown to improve IQ scores of previously iron deficient children (Seshadri and Gopaldas 1989). Evidence also shows that children who suffer from iodine deficiencies are more likely to perform poorly than those without iodine deficiency (Del Rosso 1999). To counter the harmful effects of micronutrient malnutrition, some school feeding programs provide fortified food. The provision of such food was shown to increase the dietary intake of micronutrients. For example, in Peru, researchers studied the effect of a breakfast program that included iron-fortified rations. The program significantly increased dietary intakes of iron by 46 percent, besides increasing energy and protein by 25 percent and 28 percent, respectively (Jacoby et al. 1996). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 Besides studies based on experimental design, some studies have examined school feeding programs directly to determine the impact on academic performance. In 22 out of 30 provinces in Burkina Faso, the success rate on a national exam for sixth grade pupils was higher for schools that had school feeding programs (Moore and Kunze 1994). Other studies of the determinants of academic achievement in Benin, Burkina Faso and Togo found that a school meal was positively related to children‟s performance on year-end tests. In Benin, children in schools with canteens scored 5 points higher on second-grade tests than did children in schools without canteens (WFP 2010). Cotton (1982) also investigated the relationship between hunger (as opposed to malnutrition) and intellectual performance. Citing research by Keys, he hypothesized a relationship between hunger "a psychological and physiological state resulting from insufficient food intake to meet immediate energy needs" and a classroom behavioral pattern characterized by irritability, apathy, and similar dysfunctions. Individual children in the sample survey who came to school without breakfast were identified and their performance on the Raven test was compared with average performance for the school. It was observed that within the SFP-schools, there was a highly significant difference between the performance levels of the two groups. Children who came to school without breakfast did markedly worse than their less hungry counterparts. On the non-program side, however, there was no significant difference between the two groups. According to Levinger (1986), no explanation of this finding for non-program schools is offered. He stated that perhaps the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 inclusion of more private schools (with their attendant higher quality of education) in the non- program sample is the cause. If so, this, too, would suggest that quality of the learning environment and diet interact in the determination of a child's intellectual ability. When the environment is developmentally rich, the intellectual stimulation available can compensate for some of the effects of hunger and, quite possibly, malnutrition. This finding also highlights the need to research whether school breakfasts should be offered instead of or in addition to lunches. However, there is some controversy over the effectiveness of school feeding programs. According to the World Food Program “Research and experience show that when food is provided at school, hunger is immediately alleviated, and school attendance often doubles within one year” (WFB 2005a). However, experts at a School Feeding/Food for Education Stakeholders meeting in 2000 concluded that there is little evidence for nutritional benefits of school feeding and that school feeding only enhances learning when other improvements in school quality are made (World Bank, 2006).Macintyre argued that school feeding programs address a symptom, rather than the root causes of hunger and that they may be stigmatizing (McIntyre 1992).For example, a study in Ethiopia found that differences in food availability and access had limited effect on the differences observed in child nutritional status (Pelletier et al. 1995). This could be because a child‟s nutritional status is a function of not only the quality and quantity of the dietary intake but also a function of morbidity, child caring and feeding practices, and household variables such as income and parental education. Further, in developing countries, poor health status of children is exacerbated by poor and inadequate: health facilities and services, immunization, safe water and sanitation, and health education programs. Some reviews even University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 show that food-based interventions alone have little measurable impact on nutritional status, morbidity or mortality levels except in crisis situations (Clay and Stokke, 2000). According to Osei et al. (2009), the effects of the capitation grant on education outcome in Ghana. The objective was to assess how the capitation grant has impacted on the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE) pass rates, gross enrollment ratios and gender difference in pass rates. The study used data from the Ghana Education Service for all 138 educational districts in Ghana between 2003 and 2007. Using regression analysis, the study found that; the capitation grant has not had significant impact on BECE pass rates in Ghana, no significant relationship existed between capitation grant and gross enrollment, and capitation grant has not impacted on bridging the gap between the BECE pass rates for male and female. Again, one important concern in school feeding studies is that, in poor families, the home diet may be reduced for children who are receiving food at school: this is termed ‟substitution‟. For example, a survey on school feeding in Malawi showed that 77% of children reported that they get less food at home when they receive school meals. This is substantiated by caregivers; 82% of caregivers reported that substitution was occurring. When there is extra food, it is used to benefit other household members, particularly children (Galloway 2006). The SFP evaluation, 2003: Household Survey, Bangladesh page 28 indicated that total energy intakes of SFP participating students increase with their household income. Consequently, average adequacy of children from relatively high income households is 12.7 percentage points higher than that of children from lower-income households. There is evidence that SFP University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 participating students share SF biscuits with other household members, mostly with their younger siblings (Ahmed, 2004). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction The research examines the impact of GSFP on enrolment, attendance and retention in the Ga South Municipality. The researcher designed a plan to visit, interview and administer questionnaire in ten (10) beneficiary schools in order to obtain data to answer the research questions. This chapter will discuss issues like research design; population of the study; sample size and sampling techniques; sources of data collection; data collection instruments; field work observation; instrumentations; pilot testing of questionnaire; questionnaire administration; data presentation and statistical analysis and limitations/challenges of the research. 3.2 Research Design The study adopted the mixed methods approach in social research. According to Gray (2009 p.199) the mixed methods approach in social research “include at least one quantitative method and one qualitative method, where neither type…is inherently linked to any particular inquiry paradigm.” In the view of Creswell et al., 2003 p.212) mixed methods involves “the collection or analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study in which the data are collected concurrently or sequentially, are given a priority, and involve the integration of data at one or University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 more stages in a process of research.” In studying a phenomenon such as the GSFP the researcher would come across various respondents whose responses could be motivated by several contextual dictates and subjective perceptions. In order words, knowledge may not be seen as objective. The adoption of a qualitative approach therefore assisted the researcher to eschew possible bias and rather appreciate the phenomenon through the lenses of the respondents and mediating such responses with his own experiences. However, there were other aspects of the impact of the GSFP which required objective measuring or quantifying in order to make definitive statements or conclusions about the volume or extent of effect (or lack of effect) believed to have been occasioned by the GSFP, hence the choice of the quantitative approach as a complementary force. Similarly, the quantitative approach allowed the researcher “identify relationships between variables” related to the GSFP and thus permitted generalizing some of the observations or findings (Gray, 2009). In effect the mixed approach was deemed to be appropriate for the study because the weaknesses of one approach are compensated for by the strengths of the other (Creswell, 2013). Hans et al (2005 cited in Gray, 2009) provides further proof of the significance of the mixed method approach when he asserts that “using mixed methods allows researchers to simultaneously generalize from a sample to a population and to gain a richer, contextual understanding of the phenomenon being researched” (Gray, 2009 p.204). 3.3 Population of the Study Population is the group from which the researcher would like the results of the study to be generalized, it included all individuals with certain specific characteristics. The population for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 the study was sixty eight (68) participating schools in the Ga South Municipality in the Greater Accra Region. Apart from the above, officials of the GSFP National Secretariat, the Desk Officer of GSFP at the Municipal Assembly, the SHEP Coordinator at Ghana Education Service, the Head Teachers, Classroom Teachers, members of the School Implementation Committee, the Cooks and the Parents or Guardian of the students also constituted part of the study population. 3.4 Sample Size In general, it is better to have as large sample as possible to reach general conclusions. The larger sample, the more representative of the population it becomes and so the more reliable and valid the results (Nwana, 1982). In view of this, the researcher used a reasonable sample often (10) schools from which respondents were selected for the study. Within this sample, one is able to draw conclusion with high degree of accuracy. A total of 105 respondents were sampled. The schools and other institutions constituted the study population. 3.5 Sampling Techniques The Ga South Municipal Assembly is made up of three (3) constituencies namely; Weija/Gbawe, Amanfro/Bortianor and Obom/Domeabra Constituencies. In order to have fair representation of the schools to be surveyed in these constituencies, the sixty eight schools were stratified into three groups and eight schools were selected from two strata and two schools from one. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 In selecting the schools the researcher took one-sixth of the population as a sample fraction from each stratum. The procedure adopted to obtain the ten schools was as follows: Alphabetical list of names of schools in the three categories was obtained from the Ghana Education Service in the Municipality. Systematic sampling with a random start was used to select the ten schools. A random number was chosen from 1 to 6. The number 6 was selected. Starting from the sixth unit, and successively every sixth (6) unit was selected, i.e., 6th, 12th, 18th, 24th, 30th,36th, 42nd 48th,54th, 60th. The choice of the stratified and random techniques at this stage was to ensure that schools across various divides in the constituencies were selected whilst allowing each school in a stratum an equal opportunity to be selected in order to prevent possible bias by the researcher. It is further instructive to note that the purposive technique had earlier been employed to ensure that only schools benefiting from the GSFP were selected. Consequently the following schools were chosen. Their population sizes are also indicated: St Jude R/C Primary School (381), Avornyokope Com. Calvary Baptist (283), Akorteaku D/A Primary (226), Odumprala D/A Primary (207), Kofi Donkor M/A (186), Aplaku M/A „2‟ Primary (402), NglishieAmanfro M/A „1‟ Primary (327), Gbawe Methodist „1‟ Basic (333), Gbawe Methodist „2‟ Basic (398) and Gbawe Methodist „3‟ Basic (246). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 The above schools were chosen because they are situated in the Ga South Municipality and are beneficiaries of the Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP). Table 3.1: Constituencies and the sampled schools in the Ga South Municipality (N=10) Constituency Total No. No. Selected Weija-Gbawe 23 4 Amanfro-Bortianor 23 2 Obom-Domeabra 22 4 Total 68 10 Source: Field data, 2014 Accordingly, the researcher selected the following respondents; a staff of the National Secretariat of the GSFP, three (3) Circuit Supervisors, SHEP Coordinator (1), one (1) Municipal and ten (10) School Implementation Committee Members, Caterers, Parents, Head Teachers, Class Teachers and Students purposively. This is captured in Table 3.2. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 Table 3.2: Details of Respondents (N=105) Respondents Number GSFP Staff 01 School Health Education Coordinator Circuit Supervisors 0I 03 District Implementation Committee Member 01 School Implementation Committee Member 10 Caterers 09 Parents 10 Head teachers 10 Teachers 30 Students 30 Total 105 Source: field data, 2014 3.6 Sources of Data Collection Both primary and secondary sources of data were utilized for the study. Primary data were directly gathered from respondents in the Ga South Municipality and other institutions through University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 observation and the administration of questionnaires. Before undertaking the fieldwork, researcher reviewed considerable amount of literature both general and specific on the research area. Secondary sources used included books, journals, reports, newspapers and theses. The sources were found in different places. The electronic section of Balme Library of University of Ghana, Legon was very useful since this enabled the researcher to have access to the most current literature on the subject. In addition, a substantial amount of government materials on Ghana‟s Local Government System in the form of reports, documents were also obtained from the Municipal Assembly‟s Library. 3.7Data Collection Instruments Data for the study was collected through questionnaire specially designed for this study. The questionnaire was used for data collection because: • the questionnaire method facilitates the collection of a large amount of data; • it provides a wider coverage of the sample than the interview method; • it is economical in terms of effort since the questionnaire can be duplicated and distributed to many respondents to produce a large amount of data (Wallen & Fraenkel, 2001). The development of the questionnaire was greatly influenced by information obtained from the literature reviewed at the early stages of the study to determine the extent of coverage of this area. The preliminary set of questions went through many drafts before it was put into a form for self-administration. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 Questionnaire consisting of mainly close-ended questions was used for the study because they provide control over the participants‟ range of responses by providing specific response alternatives (Borden and Abbott, 2002). This makes it easier to summarize and analyze responses. However, responses or information derived from closed-ended questions are not rich enough. Since responses from information derived from close-ended questions are not rich enough, the researcher included open-ended questions in the questionnaire. This was to enable the respondents to elaborate on their own responses and provide answers to questions based on their own perceptions, attitudes and suggestions on impact of SFP on enrolment, attendance and retention in the selected schools in the Ga South Municipal Assembly. The questionnaire designed for GSFP Officials, District and School Implementation Committee members, GES SHEP Coordinator, Circuit Supervisors and Teachers was organized into seven (7) sections: Background information, Enrolment, Involvement in learning, Retention, recording of absentee students during school term, nationwide coverage by the GSFP. The questionnaire for students in the selected schools for the GSFP is organized into five headings. Background Information, Regularity to School, School environment and Involvement in Learning, Academic Performance and School Meals. 3.8 Pilot Testing of Questionnaire To ensure a particular research instrument is a valid and reliable tool, it is essential that it is pre- tested. The researcher therefore undertook a preliminary field testing of the questionnaire. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 A pilot survey was conducted with the aim of pre-testing the questionnaires. This took place in February, 2014 and the questionnaires were distributed to eighteen (18) respondents (teachers), six (6) students, a caterer and the school implementation committee member of Gbawe Methodist cluster Basic School in the Ga South Municipality. The questionnaires were completed and returned giving a response rate of 83 percent. The returned questionnaires were carefully studied to find out if respondents had difficulty answering or understanding any of the questions. Comments from the respondents were used to enrich the questionnaire. 3.9 Questionnaire Administration In March 2014, the modified and final questionnaire was ready for administration. On April 1, 2014, the main fieldwork was started by the researcher and extended till May 26, 2014. The questionnaire was accompanied by a cover letter signed by the Head of Department of Public Administration and Health Management Services, stating the objectives of the research and assuring would be respondents that the study would be used for academic purposes only. In order to ensure moderate or high response rate, the researcher personally visited each school and explained the importance of the research work. To ensure that the questionnaires were completed and returned on time and with the permission of the Head Teachers, the researcher also appointed focal persons in each school to oversee the distribution, monitoring and collection of the questionnaires from the students and other teachers. Questionnaires were hand delivered to the researcher during follow up visits to the selected schools and the offices concerned. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 The respondents answered the questionnaires freely in their own words. The observation method was also ideal since it helped the researcher, to inspect for himself the Schools Physical Facilities, Students, School Kitchens and Canteens School Caterer and the Staff. 3.10 Data Presentation and Statistical Analysis Since the nature and design of the study involved the use of combination of data collection instruments. Data was analyzed using quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis. Data from the survey was coded, captured and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software programme. Simple frequencies, charts and percentages were used to arrive at results and subsequent deductions. Required information was organized in tabular forms to be more useful and interpretive. 3.11 Limitations/Challenges of the Research This study like all studies faced a number of challenges or weaknesses. A challenge faced on the field was the problem of unwillingness of the respondents. The students were ready and willing to respond, but there was not enough time to do so, since the researcher had to meet them during break hours at the time when they have to eat and play. Class teachers also had similar problem of spending a few minutes of their break hour to complete the questionnaires. Contact hours could not be compromised hence there was low response rate of the questionnaires administered. This notwithstanding the personal involvement and endurance of the researcher paid dividend. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 Getting access to some of the schools was quite challenging due to road network and the fact that some schools were fairly new and could not be captured on the map. Some of the Head Teachers also had their biases about GSFP and were thus reluctant to allow the administration of the questionnaires; but for the persuasion of the researcher it could not have been completed. Some of the respondents (parents) or guardians were also economical with information on issues. They appeared as though they were compelled to respond due to the fact that Government was doing them a favour by feeding their children and wards from the public purse. Access to the Officers, the Circuit Supervisors and the DDO and the SIC Committee member of the schools under study was frustrating. It took the researcher lot of patience and perseverance to get them to complete the questionnaires. Despite the above challenges the study still covered the relevant points that it was meant to achieve. 3.12 Study Area The Ga South Municipal Assembly (GSMA) in the Greater Region of Ghana constituted the study area for this research. The Municipality was selected because it has numerous beneficiary schools on the GSFP. The Municipality has various schools that have undergone all the management regimes of the Programme. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 52 3.12.1 Ga South Municipality The GSMA is one of the four (4) districts in the Greater Accra Region created in 2007. The total land area is estimated at 517.2 square km with about 362 communities. The population size is 378,727 representing (13%) of the entire region. 3.12.2 Education Sector in the Municipality The programme and activities of the Ga South Municipal Education is predicated on the vision and mission of the institution. The vision is to provide the relevant education to all children of school-going age in the Ga South Municipality to ensure the overall development of the children and make them functionally literate and productive to themselves, the community and the country as a whole at the end of their education. The mission aims at ensuring quality education through well thought plans and strategies of the ESP. 3.12.3 Economic Activities in the Municipality The main economic activities include fishing in the coastal and lake areas and farming in the inland areas. The majority of rural dwellers in the municipality are peasant farmers who grow maize, cassava, pepper, okro etc. There are large commercial farms which produce pineapple, water melon, pawpaw, mango, pepper and coconut for export. These employ local farm hands. Poultry is also another area worthy of note. The urban and sub-urban dwellers engage in varied activities and comprise artisans, distributive traders, handcrafters, civil servants and industrial University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53 workers. Cassava dough production and Gari making are processing activities in some areas. There are local gin distillation plants in a number of communities. The Pambros salt industry is also operating in the free zone of the municipality. The structure of the local economy is predominantly agriculture, followed by the industrial sector and the service sector is last but weights very high. The agricultural sector employs a very large proportion of the labour force. The industrial sector also seems to be the mover and engine of growth of the municipality with the construction sub-sector in the lead. The service sector is not pronounced but seems to oil the wheels of the agriculture and industrial sector. 3.12.4 Development Projections of the Municipality The Ga South Municipality is a newly created district and as such so much is expected of it in terms of development. However, the increasing population puts a lot of pressure on its social facilities. In view of this the Assembly will ensure that more of such facilities are provided by the end of the plan period. Recent discovery of oil sites and the subsequent production of oil and gas gives the Assembly prospects of economic growth due to proximity to the oil fields. Additionally, the N 1 road project financed by the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) has opened up the gates of the Municipality to investors (Ga South Municipal Assembly, 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 54 CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the findings from fieldwork conducted to examine the impact of the GSFP on enrolment, attendance and retention in the beneficiary basic schools in the Ga South Municipality. The researcher solicited the views of respondents that will appropriately answer the research questions by administering the questionnaires to 99 of his respondents. Semi- structured interview was conducted for responses from the rest of the participants. Chapter four again discusses the findings of the study under five main themes; temporary structure of school canteen; number of schools and students covered nationwide and the achievements of GSFP; general expectations, suggestions and recommendations by the respondents and school environment and involvement in learning.The analyses of findings are done in relation to the relevant literature. Of the ninety nine (99) questionnaires administered ninety four (94) representing 94.9% were returned. Kemoni (2006) citing Armstrong and Ashworth (2004) stated that a response rate of 60% and above is necessary to ensure that response from a sample will reflect the exact population. This means that the response rate in this study was highly encouraging and representative. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 55 Analysis of data and the results were presented in tables and charts using frequencies and percentages. The result of the analysis is grouped under the following six sub-headings: Enrolment, Attendance and Retention Provision of Meals and Academic Performance Involvement in Learning Period of Admission Suggested measures to improve the scheme Some Challenges and Prospects of GSFP 4.2 Background information about respondents Ghana School Feeding Programme staff and District Implementation Committee members represented 1.9 % of respondents. School Implementation Committee Members represented 10 (9.5) % of the total respondents. Circuit Supervisors and the SHEP Coordinator of the Ghana Education Service of the Municipality represented 2.85 %. Parents represented 9.5 % while Caterers represented 8.57 % of the total number of the respondents. However, Head teachers and Classroom Teachers who constituted 30 represented 28.57 % while students who had equal count as their teachersrepresented28.57 % of the entire respondents. Questionnaires were developed to cover the above respondents except the GSFP Staff, DIC, CS, and SHEP Coordinator. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 56 Table 4.1: Respondents (N=105) Entire Respondents Frequency Percentage GSFP Staff 01 0.95 % Circuit Supervisors 03 2.85 % School health Education Programme Coordinator 01 0.95% District Implementation Committee Member 01 0.95% School Implementation Committee Member 10 9.50% Caterers 09 8.57 % Parents 10 9.50% Head Teachers 10 9.50 % Class Teachers 30 28.57 % Students 30 28.57 % TOTAL 105 100 % Source: Field data, 2014 4.3Teachers Response on Enrolment For the responses of teachers on enrolment, 76.7% said yes to the increase in enrolment while the remaining 23.3% said no. This showed that majority agreed that the GSFP had increased enrolment. When asked if admission of students was restricted to a particular term, 33.3% of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 57 teachers responded in the affirmative while 66.75% responded in the negative. Table 4.2 summarizes the responses of teachers to the two major questions posed. Table 4.2: Teachers Response on Enrolment (N=30) Question Yes (%) No (%) Total Does GSFP Increase Enrolment? 76.7 23.3 100 Is Admission of Student restricted to a particular term? 33.3 66.7 100 Source: Field data, 2014 4.4 Enrolment Before and After GSFP Generally, school enrolment before the introduction of the GSFP was lower than after the introduction of the Programme. School by school enrolments is shown in Table 4.3, indicating that whilst enrolment has generally seen a relatively upward trend, some few schools recorded minimal change between 2009 and 2010 academic years. The percentage changes are respectively recorded with Avornyorkope and Nglish Amanfro 1 having 43.2 and 23.1 percent points. Three schools St Jude, Aplaku 2 and Gbawe Methodist 2 had a little above 10 percent change in enrolment. The rest of the five schools recorded less than 10 percent. This could possibly be due to lack of awareness of the GSFP. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 58 Table 4.3: Impact of Ghana School Feeding Programme on Enrolment School Enrolment before GSFP (2009) Enrolment after GSFP (2010) Percentage Change St Jude R/C 300 340 13.3 NgeshieAmanfro „1‟ 260 300 23.1 Akoteaku 190 205 07.9 Avornyorkope 190 272 43.2 Odumprala 180 194 07.8 Kofi Donkor 160 174 08.8 Aplaku „2‟ 350 390 11.4 Gbawe „1‟ 284 302 06.3 Gbawe „2‟ 320 371 15.9 Gbawe „3‟ 211 225 06.6 Source: Field Data, 2014 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 59 Fig. 4.1: Enrolment before and after GSFP in the Beneficiary Schools Source: Field data, 2014 From Figure 4.1above it is clear that there had been steady increase in all the beneficiary schools, few of them recorded phenomenal increase. It could possibly be due to full awareness of the GSFP. 4.5 Enrolment of Beneficiary Schools From Table 4.4, the total enrolment of 2010/11-2013/14 academic years are as follows: 2773, 2849, 2989 and 2957. With respect to the totals, there had been a steady increase from 2010- 2013. However, between 2012/13-2013/14, there was negative change (-32) in the overall enrolment. The enrolments of the individual schools indicated a sharp increase of 188 for Ngleshie Amanfro. The cause of this quantum leap was unclear. There was however a small change of 5 and 2 for Akoteaku and Methodist „3‟respectively. Six (6) schools recorded negative 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Enrolment before and after GSFP Enrolment before GSFP (2009) Enrolment after GSFP (2010) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 60 changes. The schools and their enrolments are listed in descending order: Gbawe „1(-77), Aplaku „2‟ (-55), Avornyorkope (-45), Odumprala (-23), Kofi Donko (-15), Methodist „2‟ (-7) and St. Jude (-5). The possible reasons for a decrease in enrolment might be attributed to transfers to urban/private schools or a mere drop out because of the inability of the Caterers to provide meals any day school opens. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61 Table 4.4: Enrolment of Beneficiary Schools from 2010-2014 Academic Year SCHOOL 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 ST. JUDE R/C 340 356 381 376 NGLESHIE AMANFRO 1 300 308 327 515 AKOTEAKU 205 217 226 231 AVORNYORKOPE CAL. BASIC 272 275 283 238 ODUMPRALA 194 200 207 184 KOFI DONKO 174 178 186 171 APLAKU 2 390 400 402 347 GBAWE METHODIST 1 302 305 333 256 GBAWE METHODIST 2 371 380 398 391 GBAWE METHODIST 3 225 230 246 248 Source: Ga South GES Statistics Unit, 2014 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 62 Fig. 4.2: Enrolment in the Beneficiary Basic Schools Source: Field data, 2014 Looking at Fig. 4.2, it appeared that increasing access has continued with great success from 2010-2012/13 academic year. However, enrolment decreased with varying degrees in almost all the schools between 2012/13 and 2013/14. In descending order, St. Jude had a steady increase from the beginning and dropped moderately between 2012/13 and 2013/14. Ngleshie Amanfro 1 had similar trend with St Jude but increased sharply between the last two years. Akoteaku also steadily increased from the beginning and inclined moderately between the last two academic years. Although, Avornyorkope, Odumprala, Kofi Donko, Aplaku 2 and Gbawe Methodist 1 steadily increased enrolment between the 2010/11 and 2012/13, there had been a sharp decline in enrolment between the 2012/13 and 2013/14 academic years. Gbawe Metodist 2 saw a moderate 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 FR EQ U EN C Y YEARS ST. JUDE R/C NGLESHIE AMANFRO 1 AKOTEAKU AVORNYORKOPE CAL. BASIC ODUMPRALA KOFI DONKO APLAKU 2 GBAWE METHODIST 1 GBAWE METHODIST 2 GBAWE METHODIST 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 63 decline in enrolment between the last two academic years while Gbawe Methodist 3 had a steady increase in enrolment throughout the periods. 4.6 Students and Teachers Responses on Attendance It appears from the study that the Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) actually had a major impact on school attendance of students. This is because, out of the 30 students studied, 25 representing 83.3% of them were regular in school as a result of the GSFP. This corroborates the findings of Ahmed (2004) that provision of meals or snacks reduces short-term hunger in the classroom thereby increasing concentration and quality learning and attracts children to school and have them attend regularly. Though 5 of them were not regular or attending school between 3 and 4 days in a week, they form the minority and are insignificant to disprove the claim that GSFP affects school attendance positively. In relation to the provision of meals any day school opens, majority of the respondents 25 (83.3%) answered yes. In contrast, 5 of the respondents said that provision of meals is not regular. Respondents could not tell the days when food will be provided. This implies that, some of the GSFP Schools are not able to provide meals based on the design. The Table 4.5 shows the responses of students in relation to the impact of GSFP on their attendance. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 64 Table 4.5: Impact of Ghana School Feeding Programme on attendance (N=30) Question Are you provided with meals any day school opens? Total Yes No Are you regular at school? Yes 25 0 25 No 5 0 5 Total 30 0 30 How many times do you come to school in a week? 3-4 Days 5 0 5 5 Days 25 0 25 Total 30 0 30 Source: Field Data, 2014 4.7 Impact of GSFP on Retention The GSFP also had a major impact on school retention of students. This is because, out of the 30 students studied, 27 representing 90.0% of the respondents stayed in school till closing time while 29 representing 96.7% believed they will complete their primary education in the same school. Those who answered negatively were very few and will not have strong effect on the fact that GSFP does not affect school retention positively. With respect to the issue of staying in school till closing time, majority of the students stayed on thereby engaging in learning process. Table 4.6 shows the responses of students in relation to the impact of GSFP on retention. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 65 Table 4.6: Impact of GSFP on retention Question Are you provided with meals any day school opens? Total Yes No Do you stay in school till closing time? Yes 27 0 27 No 3 0 3 Total 30 0 30 Do you hope to complete your primary education in this school? Yes 29 0 29 No 1 0 1 Total 30 0 30 Source: Field Data, 2004 4.8 Involvement in Learning With respect to involvement in learning, 80% believed that provision of meals increases opportunity for learning whilst 20% of the respondents have a contrary view. In relation to classroom crowding impeding learning, 86.7% of the respondents believed that it has a negative effect on teaching and learning. The rest of the respondents, representing 13.3% said it has no effect on teaching and learning. On the issue of active participation during teaching and learning, 86.7% responded yes indicating that, students are active in teaching and learning process. This could possibly be due to lack of hunger. This is in line with Grantham McGregor and Powel (1983), who found out that provision of meals engages children in learning. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 66 Table 4.7: Involvement in Learning Question Yes No Total (%) Provision of Food Increases Opportunity for Learning (Q1) 80 20 100% Classroom Crowding Impede Effective Teaching &Learning (Q2) 86.7 13.3 100% Students Participate Actively during Teaching & Learning (Q3) 86.7 13.3 100% Source: Field data, 2014 Fig. 4.3: Involvement in Learning Source: Field data, 2014 Fig. 4.3 illustrates the effects of provision of meals on learning opportunity, crowding of the class rooms on teaching and learning and as well as participation of students in teaching and learning. From Fig. 4.3, there is positive relationship between the provision of meals and 80 86.7 86.7 20 13.7 13.7 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Q1 Q2 Q3 P ER C EN T QUESTION Yes No University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 67 increased opportunity in learning. Crowding of the classrooms negatively affects teaching and learning. The concentration of students on teaching and learning is adequately enhanced. 4.9 Period of Admission In relation to the period of admission, 21 representing 70% of the respondents said admission is done as when the applicant seeks it. It implies there is no restriction to admission period. Approximately, 17% of the respondents said that admission is done only in the first term while 2 (6.7%) respondents indicated that, admission is done in the second term and third term respectively. Allowing admission any term could be an attempt by the authorities to increase access to all school-going age children. Table 4.8: Period of Admission Period of Admission Frequency Percentages First Term 5 16.6 Second Term 2 6.7 Third Term 2 6.7 All of the terms above 21 70 Total 30 100 Source: Field data, 2014 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 68 4.10 Provision of Meals and Academic Performance Table 4.9 shows the impact of provision of meals on academic performance. Majority of the respondents representing 70% agreed with the claim that provision of meals had influence on the academic performance of school children and the GSFP had transformed them from Good and Very Good abilities to Academic Excellence. This is in line with Moore and Kunze (1994) who found out the success rate on national exams in Burkina Faso and Togo for sixth grade pupils was higher for schools that had school feeding programs. Table 4.9: Provision of meals any day school opens * Academic Performance Question Academic Total Performance Very Good Excellent Are you provided with meals 9 21 30 any day school opens ? Yes 30 % 70% 100% Source: Field data, 2014 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 69 4.11 Challenges Facing the GSFP The second objective was to examine problems/challenges encountered by the SFP. It was found from the study that high rate of turnover of the caterers, delay in payments to caterers and non- availability of suitable kitchen and students‟ canteen were the major challenges facing the GSFP as shown in Table 4.10. These data were gathered from the Parents, Caterers, Classroom Teachers and the Head Teachers. These respondents constitute the majority (59) out of the entire (105) respondents. From Table 4.10, it follows that the most pressing challenge of the GSFP that needs urgent attention is one that has to do with payment to caterers for their services. However, provision of suitable Kitchen and students‟ Canteen was also prominent because 19 of the respondents representing 32.2% indicated it as a challenge. Only 16.9% responded that high rate of turn-over of Caterers was a challenge facing the GSFP. Rate of turn-over of the Caterers could possibly be as a result of non-adherence to contract terms. Table 4.10 summarizes the responses in relation to the challenges facing the GSFP. Table 4.10: Challenges facing the GSFP Challenges facing the GSFP Frequency Percent High rate of turnover of the Caterers 10 16.9 Delay in the payment to the Caterer 30 50.8 Provision of suitable Kitchen and students' canteen 19 32.2 Total 59 100.0 Source: Field Data, 2014 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 Fig. 4.4: Challenges of the GSFP Source: field 4.12 Suggested Measures to Improve the GSFP The third and final objective of the study was to identify the critical success factors of the GSFP. The study found out that, in order to sustain and improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the programme, caterers should be monitored to see to it that they are punctual and cook quality meal for the students regularly. Again, the government should make funds available to pay the caterers on time to eliminate their truancy. Kitchens and canteens should be provided by the government in each school that is benefiting from the programme in order to prevent possible health hazards. It will also provide a conducive environment for the caterers and students. Finally, the programme coordinators should organize refresher courses regarding best Catering Practices. 17% 51% 32% Challenges of GSFP High rate of turnover of the Caterers Delay in the payment of salary to the Caterer Provision of suitable Kitchen and students' canteen University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 71 Table 4.11: Suggested measures to improve the program Measures to improve the program Frequency Percent Provision of suitable Kitchen and Students' Canteen 24 37.5 Organization of refresher courses regarding best Catering Practices 40 62.5 Total 64 100.0 Source: Field Data, 2014 4.13 Number of Schools and Students covered Nationwide and the Achievements of GSFP In relation to the number of beneficiary schools and students that are covered by the GSFP Nation-wide as at April 2014, the response given was 5000 schools and 1,739,357 students. With regards to cost of meal per plate currently it is 0.50Gp. On the issue of achievements, the respondent mentioned high enrolment, enhanced socio-economic status of the beneficiaries especially parents, farmers and caterers and generation of employment for the Caterers and the ancillary Staff. 4.14 General expectations, suggestions and recommendations by respondents The system had been identified to be faulty and therefore needs institutional support for maintenance and sustainability. The respondents attributed the challenges of the scheme to be ineffective monitoring and evaluation, lack of funds and logistics, absence of baseline data and communication. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 72 Notable among the suggested interventions from the respondents are: Prior to the implementation of any policy on expansion in education, formulators and implementers must ensure that the necessary inputs are available to guarantee that quality is not compromised in the process. Government should be more resourceful in identifying the untapped areas to mobilize more funds that could sustain the GSFP. Volunteer parents who have the competence could be allowed to manage the catering services in order to ensure greater ownership of the programme. Most often the management of household (kitchen) is controlled by mothers. Also parents who are farmers must be encouraged to sell their produce to the school matrons. Having vested interest in their children‟s‟ well-being, parents would prefer to supply fresh and good foodstuffs at moderate prices for prompt payment. There should be frequent monitoring and prompt payment of caterers for them to deliver on their mandate. The communities must be motivated to own the programme. The Programme should be expanded to all public basic schools to prevent politics and inter-school shifting enrolment. Government and other agencies must donate/procure foodstuffs for the preparation of school meals. However, the supply must be of superior quality. More classrooms and furniture be provided to arrest the problems of classroom crowding. There should be training of more professional teachers and equitable distribution of such personnel so that no school suffers unduly. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 73 4.15School environment and involvement in learning With respect to the issue of school environment and involvement in learning, respondents opined that, the methodology and learning materials the teacher uses make learning a fun. Some respondents said it is the interaction (knowledge sharing) the children have among themselves during the learning process that makes learning exciting. Others said that, it is the vested interest the children have in some particular subjects. Furthermore, respondents opined that, it is the teachers‟ knowledge of the right of the child that makes the learning environment cordial and conducive. 4.16 Regularity to School With respect to the issue on regularity, majority of the respondents said they were regular at school because of economic reason and academic achievement respectively (promotion to the next class). Considering the future gains (life time earning), assured employment and empowerment, better salaries and the concomitant benefits, the respondents concluded that, there is no alternative to formal education. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 74 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Introduction The purpose of this research was to examine how the Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) had impacted on enrolment, attendance and retention of children in some beneficiary basic schools in the Ga South Municipality.This chapter presents the summary, conclusions and recommendations from the study. The first part presents summary of findings based on the objectives of the study, the second part covers the conclusion drawn from the results, whilst the final part presents the recommendations made from the study for further research. 5.1 Summary of Key Findings The summary and findings of the study are stated under the following sub-headings: Enrolment, Attendance and Retention Provision of Meals and Academic Performance Involvement in Learning Period of Admission Suggested measures to improve the scheme Some Challenges and Prospects of GSFP University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 75 5.1.1 Enrolment, Attendance and Retention Over seventy six (76.7%) of teachers interviewed said there had been an increase in enrolment. This revealed that majority agreed that the GSFP had increased enrolment. In relation to admission which has a correlation with enrolment of students, whether it was restricted to a particular term, 33.3% of the teachers said it is only done in a particular term while 66.75% of the teachers said there is no restriction. This indicates that admissions were carried out throughout the academic year. This implies that enrolment of students is done as and when an applicant presents her/himself for it. From the secondary data collected, enrolment had generally seen a relatively upward trend; but some few schools recorded minimal gap between 2009 and 2010 academic years. However, enrolments of the individual schools revealed a sharp increase of 188 for Ngleshie Amanfro Basic School. The cause of this quantum leap was unclear. There was a small change of enrolment figures of 5 and 2 for Akoteaku and Methodist „3‟respectively. Six (6) schools recorded negative changes of -7, -15, -23, - 45, -55 and -77. This implies that, some of the GSFP Schools were not able to provide meals based on the design. It could also mean a shift in enrolment to private schools that are springing up and offering affordable but quality education. It appears from the analysis that the GSFP actually had a major impact on school attendance of students. This was because, out of the 30 students studied, 25 representing 83.3% of them were regular. This corroborates the findings of Ahmed (2004) that, provision of meals increases concentration and quality learning. Ahmed (2000) and Akanbi (2011) said provision of school meals does not only attract children to school but also it makes them attend regularly. The GSFP also had a major impact on school retention of students. This conclusion is drawn because, out of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 76 the 30 students studied, 27 representing 90.0% stayed in school till closing time and 96.7% of them hoped to complete their primary education in the same school. 5.1.2 Involvement in Learning With respect to involvement in learning, 80% believed that provision of meals increases opportunity for learning whilst 20% of the respondents have a contrary view. In relation to classroom crowding impeding learning, 86.7% of the respondents believed that it has a negative effect on teaching and learning. The implication is that the teacher in charge of the class will have a lot of work to do as far as marking of exercises are concerned. On the issue of active participation during teaching and learning, 86.7% responded yes, indicating that students were active in the learning process. This could possibly be due to lack of hunger. This is in line with Grantham McGregor and Powel (1983), who found out that provision of meal engages children in learning thereby leading to high educational achievement. 5.1.3 Period of Admission In relation to the period of admission, it was revealed that 21 representing 70% of the respondents said admission was done as and when the applicant seeks it. It implies that there was no restriction to admission period. Approximately, 17% of the respondents said, admission was done only in the first term. Allowing admission any term could be an attempt by the authorities to increase access to all school-going age children. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 77 5.1.4 Provision of Meals and Academic Performance On the issue of provision of meals and the effect it has on academic performance, it was revealed that majority of the respondents representing 70% agreed with the claim that provision of meals had influence on the academic performance of school children and the GSFP had transformed them from Good and Very Good abilities to Academic Excellence. This is in line with Moore and Kunze (1994) who found out the success rate on nationals exams in Burkina Faso and Togo for sixth grade pupils was higher for schools that had school feeding programs. Other studies of the determinants of academic achievement in Benin, Moore and Kunze (1994) found that a school meal was positively related to children‟s performance on year-end tests. Also a study in Benin, revealed that children in schools with canteens scored 5 points higher on second-grade tests than children in schools without canteens (WFP 2010). Evidence also shows that children who suffer from iodine deficiencies are more likely to perform poorly than those without iodine deficiency (Del Rosso 1999). The later point makes a strong case for a nutritionally balanced meal. 5.1.5 Challenges Facing the GSFP The study discovered a number of challenges. High rate of turnover of the caterers, delay in payments to caterers and non-availability of suitable kitchen and students‟ canteen were the major challenges facing the GSFP. From the analysis of data, parents, caterers, class teachers and the head teachers who constituted the majority of the respondents(59) made the following observations. It follows that the most pressing challenge of the GSFP that needs urgent attention was the issue of timely payment to caterers for their services. However, provision of suitable University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 78 kitchen and students‟ canteen was also prominent because, 19 of the respondents representing 32.2% saw it as a critical element that will help in obtaining the objectives of the GSFP. In addition to the challenges above, 16.9% of the respondents claimed that high rate of turn-over of caterers was also a crucial challenge facing the GSFP. The former challenge could possibly be as a result of non-adherence of contract terms on the part of the government and its implementing agency on one hand and the caterers on the other hand. 5.1.6 Suggested Measures to Improve the GSFP On the issue of some measures that will help improve the system, respondents were of the view that if the following measures are implemented and adhered to, the GSFP will apparently achieve not only its short-term objectives but also the long-term ones. Of the 64 respondents, 40 of them representing 62.5% made a strong case why they think refresher courses could address many of the challenges of GSFP. Some of the points raised are that many of the caterers do not know how to cook efficiently on a large scale. Balanced diet is alien to majority of them and for those who appreciate the value of balanced diet, the kill the vital ingredients in the process of cooking. Provision of suitable school canteens and kitchen were suggested by 24 (37.5%) of the respondents. They believed that this could help solve other unexplained health issues. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 79 5.2 Some Challenges and Prospects of the GSFP 5.2.1 Key Challenges: Linkage of local farmers to the programme is weak. Local farmers are not properly connected to the supply chain. This could be as a result of the fact that even if the farmers supply the food stuffs, caterers would not readily pay for those supplies due to lack of funds since the government flows usually delays. School infrastructure and other educational resources are not adequate. Government must ensure that the infrastructure as well as materials for learning in the schools be provided with to enable smooth operation. This will not only increase access but quality as well. Securing sustainable funding for the programme is another area that deserves attention. Funding is the focal point for the achievement of the stated objectives. Therefore it is a responsibility of the Government to be resourceful and strategic enough to meet this daunting task. Collaboration with key partners and locals is imperative. Hence anything that can be done to strengthen the bond among the stakeholders must be adopted. Duty bearers or implementing agencies must be inspired to do a lot more (be responsive) in order to achieve the objectives of the GSFP. 5.2.2. Prospects Increase ownership by beneficiary districts / communities: it is possible that when the communities are integrated in the day to day running of the GSFP, it will promote efficiency and increase patronage. Improved access to potable water and sanitation facilities at the schools is paramount if the GSFP is to succeed. Improved collaboration and cooperation among partners University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 80 and target parent volunteers as well as enhanced sensitization of the public on the programme will further be useful in enhancing the gains in education. There is the need to increase communication among stakeholders to let them understand the need to move forward for the betterment of the country. The importance of the GSFP cannot, arguably, be compared to any other policy as far as the development of human capital is concerned. Baseline data should be collected for monitoring and evaluation periodically. This will inform implementers on the ingredients for future planning efforts. 5.3 CONCLUSION There is no doubt that, good quality and quantity of food prepared under hygienic condition with good supervision from professional caterers is needed to improve upon the GSFP. According to Akanbi (2011), there is abundant evidence to suggest that providing each child with a complete meal, that is adequate in energy, protein, vitamin and minerals, will not only help in making the children ready for effective learning, but will also stimulate enrolment. 5.3.1 Enrollment From the study, the GSFP had positive impact on the improvement of school enrollment since its inception. Most government schools in the Ga South Municipality on GSFP had realized tremendous and significant increment in the number of students who have enrolled and as a consequence school authorities have to put a ceiling on the intake of new entrants due to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 81 unavailability of classroom space. This has been validated as 100% of the respondents opined that GSFP had increased student enrolment. However, the programme has to be revitalized to maintain steady increase of the enrolment indicator. The researcher had noticed a gloomy picture of the enrolment between 2012/13 and 2013/14 academic year. Enrolment had declined to absolute figure of 32. Possible reasons could be; the erratic way of providing food, learning environment, quality of education in the public schools and competition from the private schools. Policy makers (managers) of the GSFP must be encouraged to focus on quality and not quantity (increase coverage of the GSFP schools). 5.3.2 Retention In relation to retention issue, majority of the students representing 90% indicated that the proramme had a positive effect on retention because of the fact that they find themselves in school till closing time when it has not been the case before the programme. The true potential of food lies in its magnetic effect (brings children to school). The Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) also had a major impact on school retention of students. This is because, out of the 30 pupils interviewed 29 representing 96.7% hoped they will complete their primary education in the same school. There is the need therefore for government to be proactive in identifying the underlying factors that will permit the continuity of this program in order to sustain the interest of the future leaders to enjoy learning all the time. Government should develop comprehensive strategies to maximize University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 82 the development impacts of school feeding by combining it with other interventions to address constraints. This means that school feeding should not be programmed in isolation. The power of school meals is second to none. 5.3.3 Attendance From the study conducted, most students are regularly being frequent in school due to the effective implementation of the GSFP. The improvement of attendance in school by the provision of meals is noteworthy as children are attracted to school by the feeding programme which was not the case before. Better still, majority of the respondents concluded that the rate of students turn up is high with the commencement of the programme. This indicated that the programme is having a positive impact on student attendance. The GSFP has been very effective until recently. Data gathered for the study is in line with Ahmed (2004), when he came out with a finding that the participating children‟s concentration, attraction to school and interest in retention is high. 5.4 Recommendations The study no doubt re-enforced the importance of GSFP as a means to increase enrolment, retention and attendance in schools. This will help achieve the MDG of having an educated society. Food can act as a strong incentive for children to attend school on a regular basis. Girls especially benefit from this, as parents may feel there are sufficient income-transfer benefits. This will make parents allow their girl children to go to school instead of hawking on the street or helping them in any economic venture. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 83 The SFP will help alleviate short term-hunger, the evidence that school feeding programs alleviate short-term hunger is very strong (Powell and Grantham, 2009). Much research has also been conducted on the effects of short-term hunger related to learning capacity. When a child is hungry due to skipped meals or much activity, their ability to learn is adversely affected. In many cultures, breakfast is not provided. This means that the child may not have eaten since the previous evening. It is recommended therefore that, to alleviate hunger and improve concentration in classrooms, meals must be nutritionally balanced and provided on time. The evidence that SFP can improve nutritional status in the children is seen from the study and the data provided. It is crucially important to upgrade the skills and knowledge of teachers and students, parents and caterers respectively on nutrition, health and sanitation matters. If the teachers and parents do not have adequate knowledge related to nutrition, health and sanitation the impact of the program will be negative. Furthermore, information relating to school infrastructure like classrooms, kitchen and canteens (physical development) and the availability of text books and other teaching and learning materials must be given more attention. If the immediate objectives of a SFP is to decrease short- term hunger and thereby increase learning capacity, this will mean nothing if the school does not have adequate facilities and teaching resources. Without textbooks and teaching materials, the children will have nothing to learn and the quality of education will then be compromised. Most of the respondents who were teachers, thought that overcrowding is impeding delivery of lessons therefore there is the need to equip them with time management skills in order to contain the situation. It is also important for the teachers to have refresher courses on teaching methods and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 84 knowledge on the rights of children as far as education is concerned. This eases tension and collision hence promotes healthy union in the learning environment. School Feeding Monitoring Committees (SFMC) must be strengthened as authorities to whom right-holders could make a claim. Duty bearers are obligated to fulfill contract terms and should be held accountable for their performance. The committees should consist of students, parents and teachers. Students, teachers and parents could make claims relating to a number of items such as food quality that would be predetermined in the SFP policy. The committee members can also make a claim on the absence of certain nutrients which could be detrimental to the growing children. Moderate levels of some vitamin deficiency can lead to stunted growth, increased susceptibility to infection (resulting to absenteeism) and higher death rates (WHO, 2004). According to FAO, (2004) Iodine deficiency causes mental retardation and brain damage, delayed motor development, growth failure, stunting and hearing and speech defects. Goiters are the most visible sign of iodine deficiency. The above highlight, make a strong case for the integration of those vital elements in the meals provided for the nutritionally challenged children. Successful SFPs require constant monitoring and evaluation to provide input on the changing needs of the students as well as data on impacts and effectiveness. As already mentioned, baseline data (assessment needs) indicators should be collected periodically to determine progress. Consultations with parents, staff, teachers and students may also be required at various stages to address changing needs, concerns and issues associated with implementation. Government is ambitious to expand the GSFP coverage instead of ensuring that what is currently running is managed well. The GSFP is generally not cost efficient in many respects. Notable among them is, the holistic feeding of the school children. Some of the school children do not like the meal for reason best known to them. It will be best if baseline data is gathered on the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 85 socio-economic status of the family of each child to determine need levels. The experience of other countries revealed significant weaknesses in the area of monitoring and evaluation. It is therefore important to break the failing system (theory of change) if we want to progress with the GSFP. Detailed monitoring and evaluation plans that are designed should be adhered to. Consequently, transition to sustainable local/national programs need revisiting as they evolve. 5.5 Future Research Scope This study was limited to one municipality that is Ga South. This theme can be extended to other municipalities in Ghana. 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School meals. Available at http://www.wfp.org/schools_meals Accessed 20/2/I4. WFP and UNICEF. 2005. “The Essential Package: Twelve Interventions to Improve the Health and Nutrition of School-Age Children.” WFP, Rome. WFP, (2004). Improving Food and Nutrition Security Through Food for Education Programs in Africa 2004. WFP, (2004). School Feeding Programs: Why They Should Be Scaled Up Now. WHO, (2003) School Deworming. At A Glance. School Feeding Programme-The Ghanaian Model as Icon for Africa World Bank (2006). “Malawi Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment”. World Bank. World Bank (2006). “Repositioning Nutrition as Central to Development”. World Bank. Worobey, J., &Worobey, H. S. (1999). The impact of a two year school breakfast program for preschool aged children on the nutrient intake and pre-academic performance. Child Study Journal, 29,113-129. Wynn, A. (1987). Inequalities in nutrition. Nutrition and Health 1987;5(1- 2):79–94. World Food Programme (2007a). “Food for Education Works: A review of WFP FFE programme monitoring and evaluation 2002-2006.” School Feeding Unit, WFP Rome. UNESCO (2000). Informe Final, Foro Mundial Sobre la Educacion, Dakar, Senegal. World Bank (2004). School Fees: A Roadblock to Education for All. Education, the World Bank. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 93 APPENDICES Appendix 1: Study Questionnaire for Students in Selected Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) Schools UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND HEALTH SERVICE MANAGEMENT QUESTIONNAIRE OBJECTIVE The purpose of this questionnaire is to gather information on: The impact of school feeding on enrolment, attendance and retention in the Ga South Municipality. The researcher is a student of University of Ghana Business School conducting the study as part of the requirement for the award of a Master of Philosophy Degree in Public Administration. Your contribution towards completion of this questionnaire will be highly appreciated and the information provided will be used for academic purposes only and shall be treated with the utmost confidentiality it deserves. CATEGORY ONE: STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS IN SELECTED GHANA SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAMME (GSFP) SCHOOLS INSTRUCTON: PLEASE TICK ONE APPROPRIATE ANSWER AND WRITE WHERE APPLICABLE Section A: Background Information 1. Class of student: [ ] class4 [ ] class5 [ ] class6 [ ] 2. Sex: male [ ] female [ ] 3. Age: 6-11 years [ ] 12-14 years [ ] 15+ years [ ] 4. Who do you live with? 1. Parents [ ] 2. Guardian [ ] 5. Do you have any brother/sister/relative who is also a student of this school? Yes [ ] No[ ] 6. If yes, how many of them do you have in the school? i 1-2 [ ] ii 3-4 [ ] iii 5 + [ ] University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 94 7. How far is your house from the school? Below 1 km[ ] 1- 2 km[ ] 3- 4 km[ ] 4 + km[ Section B: Regularity to School 8. Are you regular at school? Yes [ ] No [ ] 9. What makes you regular or not regular at school? ____________________________ 10. How many times do you come to school in a week? 1- 2 days [ ] 3- 4 days [ ] 5days [ ] 11. Do you come to school early? Yes [ ] No [ ] 12. Do you stay in school till closing time? Yes [ ] No [ ] 13. How punctual is your teacher to class? Very punctual [ ] Less punctual [ ] 14. Is your teacher regular at school? Very regular [ ] Not regular [ ] 15. Does your teacher stay in school till closing? Yes [ ] No [ ] 16. How well does your teacher relate with you? Quite well [ ] ii Very well [ ] Section C: School Environment and Involvement in Learning 17. What makes your school environment exciting? Teachers [ ] Friends [ ] Sports and games [ ] Provision of meals [ ] Others (specify) [ ] _________________ 18. Do you enjoy your classroom work? Quite well [ ] Very well [ ] 19. In your opinion, what makes learning interesting in school? _____________________ 20. What will attract you come to school during school term? Friends [ ] Teacher(s) [ ] Academic work [ ] Friends [ ] Teacher(s) [ ] Academic work [ ] Co-curricular activity [ ] Provision of meals [ ] 21. How many subjects do you have in a day? 1subject [ ] 2subjects [ ] 3subjects+ [ ] 22. How many classwork do you do in a day? 1 [ ] 2 [ ] 3+ [ ] Section D: Academic Performance 23. How was your academic performance in the past? Below average [ ] ii Average [ ] iii Good [ ] iv Very Good [ ] v Excellent [ ] University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 95 24. How is your academic performance now? Below average [ ] ii Average [ ] iii Good [ ] iv Very Good [ ] v Excellent [ ] 25. Any reason for the change? ______________________________________________ 26. Have you been repeated in a class before? Yes [ ] No [ ] Section E: School Meals 27. Are you provided with meals any day school opens? Yes [ ] No [ ] 28. Do you enjoy the meals you are served with? Yes [ ] No [ ] 29. Do you always finish the meal you are provided with? Yes [ ] No [ ] 30. Do you agree with the claim that the continuation of the GSFP will improve enrolment, attendance and retention at the basic level? Not agreed [ ] Agree [ ] Strongly agreed [ ] 30. Do you hope to complete your primary education here? Yes [ ] No [ ] 31. If no, why ___________________________________________________________ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 96 Appendix2: Study Questionnaire for GSFP Official, DIC Member, SIC Members, GES SHEP Coordinator, CS, Head teachers and Class teachers. UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND HEALTH SERVICE MANAGEMENT QUESTIONNAIRE OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this questionnaire is to gather information on: The impact of school feeding on enrolment, attendance and retention in the Ga South Municipality. The researcher is a student of University of Ghana Business School conducting the study as part of the requirement for the award of a Master of Philosophy Degree in Public Administration. Your contribution towards completion of this questionnaire will be highly appreciated and the information provided will be used for academic purposes only and shall be treated with the utmost confidentiality it deserves. Category Two: Study Questionnaire for GSFP Official, DIC Member, SIC Members, GES SHEP Coordinator, CS, Head teachers and Classroom teachers. INSTRUCTON: PLEASE TICK ONE APPROPRIATE ANSWER AND WRITE WHERE APPLICABLE Section A: Background Information 1. Sex: Male [ ] female [ ] 2. Marital status: married [ ] single [ ] 3. Educational qualification: „O‟ Level/SSS [ ] ii NVTI/Secretarial School [ ] iii Training College [ ] iv Polytechnic [ ] v University Graduate [ ] vi Post Graduate [ ] vii Others (specify) _________________________________________________ Section B:Enrolment For classroom teachers only: 4. Number of students in your class____________ 5. How many subjects do you teach? ___________ 6. What was your classroom enrolment before the implementation of the GSFP? _______ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 97 7. What is the current enrolment of students in your class after the implementation of the GSFP? ____________ 8. In your opinion, do you believe that the implementation of the GSFP has increased the student enrolment in your school? Yes [ ] No [ ] 9. If yes, how significant has the GSFP impacted on the student enrolment? Very significant [ ] Insignificant [ ] Section C: Involvement in Learning 10. Does the provision of food to students give more opportunity for learning? Yes [ ] No [ ] 11. What would you say about their attention span in class? __________________________ 12. Do students participate actively during teaching and learning? Yes [ ] No [ ] 13. Does classroom crowding impede effective teaching and learning? Yes [ ] No [ ] 14. If yes, suggest any measure that will address the phenomenon. ______________________________________________________________________ Section D: Retention 15. How often do you record student requests/ drop outs? Frequently [ ] Not frequently [ ] 16. If yes, how many students drop out of school before the implementation of the GSFP? __ 17. How would you compare the rate of student drop out after the implementation of the GSFP? Non-significant [ ] Significant [ ] Quite Significant [ ] Very significant [ ] Section E: Academic Performance 18. How would you describe the general academic performance of the student before implementation of GSFP? Low [ ] Average [ ] Good [ ] Very good [ ] Excellent [ ] 19. What would be your description of the general academic performance of the students after implementation of GSFP? Low [ ] Average [ ] Good [ ] Very good [ ] Excellent [ ] 20. What is the effect of the GSFP on long term academic achievement of the students? ________________________________________________________________________ Section F: Attendance 21. Do you record any absentee student during school term? Yes [ ] No [ ] 22. Averagely how many students absent themselves from school, during school term? _____ 23. Does provision of food to students in school improve attendance and punctuality? Yes [ ] No [ ] University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 98 24. If yes, how would you describe the rate of student attendance? Low [ ] Average [ ] High Section G: GSFP Official, DIC and SIC Members, SHEP Coordinator and CS only Apply to only Circuit Supervisors 25. Number of years you have served as a Circuit Supervisor/ Teaching Less than 2years [ ] ii 2-4years [ ] iii Over 4years 26. Number of schools under your Circuit: 5-14schools [ ] 15-20schools [ ] 20+schools [ ] 27. How long have you been working with GSFP secretariat? 28. Less than 2years [ ] 3-5years [ ] over 5years [ ] 29. How many schools are covered nationwide by the GSFP as at April 2014? ___________ 30. How many beneficiary students are fed nationwide by GSFP as at April 2014? ________ 31. What is the cost of meal per plate currently? ____________ 32. How often do you visit beneficiary schools? Weekly [ ] Monthly [ ] Termly [ ] 33. How many times do you visit schools in a term? Less than 3times [ ] 3times [ ] Over 3times [ ] 34. State the purpose of your visit. ______________________________________________ 35. Do you organize workshop for GSFP caterers? Yes [ ] No [ ] 36. If yes, how often? Weekly [ ] Monthly [ ] Quarterly [ ] Yearly [ ] 37. Who are the major sponsors of GSFP? 1. ____________________ 2. ____________________ 3. _________________________ 38. Do you think the GSFP is sustainable? Yes [ ] No [ ] 39. State three (3) achievements of the GSFP 1. ________________________________________________________________________ 2._________________________________________________________________________ 3. _________________________________________________________________________ 40. What are some of the challenges facing the GSFP? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 41. Suggest any measure that you think will improve the programme? ________________________________________________________________________ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 99 Appendix3: Study Questionnaire for Parents UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND HEALTH SERVICE MANAGEMENT QUESTIONNAIRE OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this questionnaire is to gather information on: The impact of school feeding on enrolment, attendance and retention in the Ga South Municipality. The researcher is a student of University of Ghana Business School conducting the study as part of the requirement for the award of a Master of Philosophy Degree in Public Administration. Your contribution towards completion of this questionnaire will be highly appreciated and the information provided will be used for academic purposes only and shall be treated with the utmost confidentiality it deserves. CATEGORY THREE: STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PARENTS OF STUDENTS AND CATERERS IN SELECTED GHANA SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAM (GSFP) BENEFICIARY SCHOOLS INSTRUCTON: PLEASE TICK ONE APPROPRIATE ANSWER AND WRITE WHERE APPLICABLE Section A: Background Information 1. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ] 2. Marital status: Single [ ] Married [ ] 3. Educational qualification: Basic Education/none [ ] SSCE/O‟Level[ ]Polytechnic/HND [ ] Degree [ ] Post graduate [ ] 4. Occupation: Trading [ ] Service Provider [ ] Civil/Public servant [ ] Farmer/Artisan [ ] 5. How many children do you have in the school: 1-3 [ ] 4 and above [ ] University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 100 6. What motivated you to enroll your child in this school? _________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ Section B: School meals 7. Do you have any knowledge about the implementation of the GSFP? Yes [ ] No [ ] 8. If yes, do you think it will encourage parents to enroll their children in schools? Yes [ ] No [ ] 9. Does your child receive daily meals at school? Yes [ ] No [ ] 10. How often do you receive complaints about the quantity and quality of meals served to your child in school? Very often [ ] Often [ ] Not at all [ ] 11. What is the nature of the complaints you receive? Delicious [ ] Tasteful [ ] Satiable quantity of meal [ ] Inadequate quantity of meal [ ] Tasteless meal [ ] Other (s) (specify) _________________________________________ 12. Does your child often bring home some of the served meals from school? Yes [ ] No [ ] Sometimes [ ] Section C: Student Interest in School Work and Academic Performance 13. Has there been any change in your child‟s interest in attending school? Appreciable increase [ ] Decrease [ ] No change [ ] 14. Is there any change in your child‟s academic performance? Yes [ ] No [ ] 15. What do you think, accounts for the change? ___________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 16. Is your child engaged in playing outdoor games? More engaged [ ] Less engaged [ ] Not at all [ ] 17. Is your child happier than before participating in the GSFP program? Yes [ ] No [ ] 18. Would you suggest that GSFP be continued? Give reason _________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 19. In your opinion, what should be done to improve upon the GSFP? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 101 ________________________________________________________________________ Section D: School Caterer only: 20. Do you live in this community? Yes [ ] No [ ] 21. How long do you live here? Less than 5years [ ] 5-9years [ ] over10years [ ] 22. How long have you been doing this job? Less than 5years [ ] 5-9years [ ] over10years [ ] 23. How many schools do you serve? 1school [ ] 2schools [ ] 3schools [ ] 4schools [ ] 24. How often does the Municipal Assembly organize workshop for the caterers? Weekly [ ] Monthly [ ] Quarterly [ ] Yearly [ ] Not at all [ ] 25. Do you have a canteen? Yes [ ] No [ ] 26. What is the current cost of feeding per plate? 35gp [ ] 40gp [ ] 45gp [ ] 50gp [ ] 60gp [] 27. How many workers have you employed? Less than 5 [ ] 5-8 [ ] Over10 [ ] 28. What is the mode of payment for your services? Weekly [ ] Monthly [ ] Quarterly [ ] Yearly [ ] 29. Do you pay income tax/levy? Yes [ ] No [ ] 30. Do you enjoy doing this job? Yes [ ] No [ ]. Explain_________________________________________________________________ 31. Where do you buy your supply from? Community market [ ] Factory [ ] Kiosk [ ]Farm[ 32. State two objectives/goals of the GSFP 1.______________________________2._______________________________________ 33. Any recommendation that you think will help improve the GSFP ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh