University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS IN THE ACCRA METROPOLITAN DISTRICT BY AYISHETU ABDULAI 10106302 THIS LONG ESSAY IS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES, UNIVERSTIY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN MIGRATION STUDIES. JULY, 2018 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that with the exception of works by others that have been referenced accordingly, this work is my own work and neither part nor whole has been submitted anywhere for the award of another degree. AYISHETU ABDULAI 10106302 SIGNATURE ………………………………………… DATE ………………………………………………… PROF. JOSEPH K. TEYE SUERVISOR SIGNATURE ………………………………………. DATE ………………………………………………. i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my late daughter Winansong. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to take this opportunity to thank all and sundry who contributed in diverse ways to the successful completion of this long essay. Firstly, to the Almighty God. To all stake holders such as the opinion leaders, heads of household and individuals who contributed immensely during data collection. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Rural urban migration has been a phenomenon that has gained world attention due to its associated challenges. This study sought to find out the effects of rural urban migration on the socio- demographic characteristics of migrants living in Abossey Okai Zongo. Using a mixed method approach, both qualitative and quantitative methods were applied in the administration of 100 semi-structured questionnaires. The questionnaires were administered using a multi-staged approach. Respondents generally have low socio-demographic status. However, the results also indicate that respondents experience improvement in their livelihoods after migrating from the rural areas to Accra. The study also revealed that there are a lot of challenges that migrants go through in urban areas which include high rent cost, high cost of living, shortage of water, among others. The major coping strategy adopted by migrants to reduce the challenges they go through is by their association with religious and social groups. It recommended that although the government has made education free up to the senior high level, efforts are made to ensure its sustainability and measures put in place so that people within the school going age will be enrolled and educated. The study also recommends that efforts are put in place by district assemblies and other development agents in rural areas to boost local capacity so that equal opportunities can be provided between rural and urban areas. Also, there should be education on the need for more private people and groups to assist government in the provision of certain services in the urban centres. Future research should focus on identifying the reasons why there is a relationship between gender and improvement in livelihood of migrants. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Study Background ................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of Problem ............................................................................................................ 5 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 7 1.5 Proposition ............................................................................................................................ 8 1.6 Justification of the Study ...................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORIES AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ....................................................................................................................................................... 10 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 10 2.2 Defining Migration ............................................................................................................. 10 2.3 Patterns of migration with a focus on Ghana ...................................................................... 11 2.4 Causes of migration ............................................................................................................ 14 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5 Challenges, opportunities and coping mechanisms for migrants in urban centres ............. 15 2.6 The Structuration Theory .................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER THREE: STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY ................................................. 18 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 18 2.2 Background of Study Area.................................................................................................. 18 2.3 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 22 2.3.1 Research Design........................................................................................................... 22 2.3.2 Sources of data ................................................................................................................. 23 2.3.3 Research instruments ....................................................................................................... 23 2.3 Sampling technique for questionnaire survey ................................................................. 24 2.4 Sample size determination .................................................................................................. 25 2.5 Data analysis ....................................................................................................................... 26 CHAPTER FOUR: EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS ....................................................................................................................................... 27 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 27 4.2 Socio-demographic characteristics of migrants in Abossey Okai Zongo ........................... 27 4.3 Effects of migration on livelihoods of migrants............................................................. 30 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Challenges and opportunities that exist for rural-urban migrants .................................. 38 4.5 Coping mechanisms adopted by migrants to deal with challenges ..................................... 46 4.6 Chapter summary ................................................................................................................ 51 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................................. 52 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 52 5.2 Summary of key findings .................................................................................................... 52 5.3 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 53 5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 54 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 56 APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................................................................. 57 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4. 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents ..................................................... 29 Table 4. 2: Crosstabulation between gender and level of livelihood after migration ................... 31 Table 4. 3: Crosstabulation between level of education and what respondents development depend on ........................................................................................................................................... 36 Table 4. 4: Magnitude of challenges between previous and current location ............................... 43 Table 4. 5: Crosstabulation between magnitude of problem between previous and current location and respondents’ level of education ...................................................................................... 44 Table 4. 6: A crosstabulation between respondents’ religion and how religious groups help in addressing challenges ............................................................................................................ 50 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4. 1: Livelihood before and after migration to Accra……………………………………30 Figure 4. 2: Life after moving to Accra……….…………………………………………………32 Figure 4. 3: What does your ability to improve livelihood depend on?............…………………34 Figure 4. 4: whether respondents have regretted after moving to Accra………………………...37 Figure 4. 5: Effect of challenges on livelihoods of respondents………………………………...41 Figure 4. 6: Impacts of challenges on livelihoods……………………………………………….42 Figure 4. 7: Importance of opportunities in livelihood development……………………………45 Figure 4. 8: Existence of welfare associations in community…………………………………...47 Figure 4. 9: participation in associations………………………………………………………...48 Figure 4. 10: Whether religious groups are helpful in addressing challenges…………………..49 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Study Background Urbanization is fast becoming one of the most topical issues around the globe. This is partly due to the rapid population growth of cities and big towns since the 1950s, and its associated problems. Currently, more than half of the world’s population live in urban centres, and it is projected that by 2050, this figure will rise to 75% (UN DESA, 2015). The growth in urban populations has been linked largely to migration. International migration, for instance, plays pivotal role in urban population growths. In 2010, more than 200 million people lived in cities outside their home country (UNDP, 2009). Nearly one in five of the world foreign-born population resides in the established global gateway cities (Çağlar, 2014). In many of these cities such as Sydney, London and New York, migrants represent over a third of the population and in some cities such as Brussels and Dubai, migrants account for more than half of the population (ibid). However, developing countries and emerging economies currently experience the fastest rates of urbanization. There are twice as many people (2.3 billion) living in urban agglomerations in developing countries as there are people living in cities in industrialised nations, and by 2030 there will be four times as many people living in developing cities compared to industrialised cities, totalling 3.9 billion people (UN-Habitat, 2014). The rate of urban population growth in developing countries is unprecedented with the current rate at 3.5% per annum. Although within developing countries Africa is not experiencing the highest rate of urban population growth, it is still a significant phenomenon on the continent given the management challenges that is associated with African cities when it comes to urbanization (Songsore, 2009). In 1950, about 14.5% of the population in Africa lived in urban centres whilst in 1980 and 1990, 28% and 34% respectively lived in urban centres (UN-Habitat, 2014). 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In Africa, international migration receives a lot of attention in debates. However, internal migration is far more significant in terms of the total number of people involved, the remittances that accrue and its poverty reduction potential (UNDP, 2009). The increasing urban population in Africa is attributed mostly to rural-urban migration. Although there exist multivariate factors that account for movement of people from the rural to urban centres, economic factors and improved wellbeing account for majority of these movements (Awumbila, 2015). Most people especially the youth move into urban areas in search of better jobs and improved living conditions. It must be emphasized however that, the fast rate of urbanization and rising migration to cities comes along with both risks and opportunities for the migrants, the communities in which they settle and governments (Awumbila, 2014). Urbanization and urban areas are seen as engine rooms for human development (UN-Habitat, 2012). Cities in Africa provide avenues for migrants to develop livelihoods, engage in entrepreneurship and accumulate assets, thus contributing to the development of human capital (Awumbila, 2014). Conversely, the capacity of towns and cities to plan for and accommodate the increasing number of migrants by providing employment and access to land and basic amenities is limited in Africa and other developing countries (Songsore, 2009). The provision of essential services and other basic social amenities are hugely inadequate for migrants in African cities. Rural-urban migration is seen as creating pressure on urban infrastructure, environment and employment. Rural migrants in urban centres are therefore seen as trading their rural poverty for urban poverty; a phenomenon linked to rising levels of urban poverty (Awumbila, Owusu and Teye, 2014). 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In Ghana, the issue of urban population growth and its associated problems and opportunities is not too different from the rest of the continent. Over the past three decades, the population of urban centres in Ghana has more than tripled, rising from 4 million in 1980 to nearly 14 million in 2010 (Crookes, 2015). Due to the non-commensurate population growth in urban centres with the urbanization process itself (i.e. extension of social services, increased job creation, growth of infrastructure, etc.), migrants face a lot of challenges that contributes to poverty especially in low income communities (Songsore, 2009). Accommodation is hugely inadequate in these migrant communities and city authorities and the government seem to have neglected these communities in terms of the provision of services and infrastructure. Migrants therefore adopt different strategies to survive which have poverty implications (Awumbila, 2014). Although in a broader sense poverty levels in urban Ghana and for that matter Accra are lower than that of rural Ghana, evidence suggests that the poverty levels in urban areas are on the rise (GSS, 2007). For example, Accra after six rounds of the Ghana Living Standards Survey, has increased significantly its standard poverty incidence from 4.4 per cent in 1999 to 6.6% in 2015. However, poverty in Accra is not homogenous as some districts or localities record higher incidences of poverty compared to others. For instance, La Dade Kotopon Municipal has the least poverty incidence of 1.3% followed by Accra Metropolis and La Nkwantanang Madina with 2.6% and 2.8% respectively. On the other hand, the Shai Osudoku (55.1%) and Ningo Prampram (31.2%) have the highest poverty incidence with rates more than four times the regional average (GSS, 2015). It is key to observe that the districts with highest incidence of poverty are all indigenous communities with relatively low number of migrants compared to those with less incidence of 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh poverty. This does not go to suggest that poverty incidence in communities with higher percentage of migrants is insignificant. Within the districts with low incidence of poverty there are pockets of settlements that experience high rates of poverty. In Accra, migrant communities such as Old Fadama are considered one of the areas with high incidence of poverty in the capital city. Social services such as health facilities, access to potable drinking water, good shelter, among others are lacking in these communities making residents relatively poorer (Awumbila et al., 2014). There have also been contrary views when it comes to the issue of poverty among migrants in the urban centres. According to Sabates-Wheeler et al (2005), rural urban migration leads to a long- term effect of alleviating migrants from poverty and presenting them with opportunities. Reactions on the relationship between migration and poverty is therefore mixed given that whilst some believe there is a positive relationship, other evidence suggest otherwise. It is therefore appropriate that the connections that exist between migration and poverty in the urban centre are explored. It is against this background that the study focused on the effects of rural urban migration on socio- economic status among migrants in the Abosey Okai Zongo in the Ablekuma Central sub-metro of AMA. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Statement of Problem Urban poverty has gained much attention among development partners for some time now given the fact that governments and stakeholders are constantly looking for ways to reduce urban poverty. Some migrant communities are considered the most deprived in city centres given the fact that access to social services are hugely inadequate in these areas. Also, members of migrant communities engage in menial jobs such as head potters and picking of scraps as livelihood strategy which have serious health and socio-economic consequences. This probably explains why governments and city authorities frown upon rural urban migration. Due to the seaming social canker associated with migrant communities there has been a lot of literature on the linkage between poverty and migration in the urban centres. Whilst some of these studies suggest that migrating to urban centres leads to increased poverty among migrants thus worsening the plight of migrants (Asare, 2012; Ostby, 2015; Ackah and Medvedev, 2010), others assert that migration to urban areas actually lead to alleviating or reducing poverty among rural urban migrants and thus providing opportunities for people to improve their socio-economic wellbeing. For instance, according to Cavalcanti (2005), the rapid decline of poverty in Ghana in the last two decades from about 52% in 1991 to 28% in 1996 could be partly attributed to urbanisation, and consequent shift away from agriculture towards urban economic activity. Also, Skeldon (1997) supports this claim by suggesting that urban areas provide additional source of resource that can sustain rural-urban migrants making them wealthier and better educated compared to their rural counterparts left behind. There exists a plethora of studies on urban poverty in Ghana and other parts of the world, with most of them suggesting that rural-urban migration leads to poverty among migrants in urban areas 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Asare, 2012; Ostby, 2015; Ackah and Medvedev, 2010). According to Essamuah and Tonah (2004), urban poverty leads to men not being able to perform their traditional duty as breadwinners thus other household members have to combine their domestic duties with income generating activities. This leads to the neglect of other important activities such as education, making the future bleak especially for children. According to Awumbila (2014), migrants have no choice but settle in shanty towns and slums, where they lack access to decent housing, sanitation, health care and education, making them poorer in effect. This notion that rural-urban migration leads to poverty attracts a lot of policy directives that are against rural urban poverty. Central and local government policies generally tend to discourage rural-urban migration. For instance, The Ghana shared growth and development agenda (2010-2013) emphasize measures largely aimed at curbing rural-urban migration and other types of migration to urban areas (NDPC, 2009). These policy directions are sometimes underscored by studies that suggest that rural urban migration leads to poverty among migrants (Cameron, 2012). However, Awumbila (2015) assert that the view that rural-urban migrants transfer poverty to the cities is too simplistic and needs to be further interrogated and critiqued. Cavalcanti (2005) notes that the rapid decline of poverty in Ghana can be partly attributed to urbanisation, and consequent shift away from agriculture towards urban economic activity. Skeldon (1997) supports this claim by suggesting that urban areas provide additional source of resource that can sustain rural-urban migrants becoming wealthier and better educated compared to their rural counterparts left behind. Given the evidence above the reaction is therefore mixed with some suggesting a positive relationship between migration and poverty alleviation (Awumbila, 2015; Cavalcanti, 2005; Scheldon, 1997) whilst others suggest otherwise (Asare, 2012; Ostby, 2015; Essamuah and Tonah, 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2004). However, studies that compare the advantages and disadvantages on rural-urban migration among migrants are rather limited making it unclear whether rural-urban migrants are left poorer by living in the urban centre or are presented with opportunities by living in the urban centre. This study therefore seeks to fill this gap by considering a comparative analysis in terms of the benefits and externalities associated with rural-urban migration in the urban centre. This will help guide policy by giving a clear indication as to whether rural urban migration is beneficial or otherwise. It is in this vain that the study seeks to assess the effects of rural urban migration on socio-economic status of migrants in the Abbossey Okai Zongo in the Ablekuma Central sub- metro of AMA. 1.3 Research Questions The following research questions will guide the conduct of the study: 1. What is the socio-demographic characteristics of migrants in Abossey Okai Zongo? 2. Have the livelihoods of rural-urban migrants been affected after migration? 3. What challenges and opportunities exist for migrants in Accra? 4. What coping strategies do migrants adopt to the problems associated with urbanization? 1.4 Objectives The main objective of this study is to examine the effects of migration on socio-economic status of migrants in Abossey Okai Zongo. The specific objectives of the study will include the following: 1. To examine the socio-demographic characteristics of migrants in Abossey Okai Zongo. 2. To investigate the effects of migration on livelihoods of rural-urban migrants 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. To assess the challenges and opportunities that exist for rural-urban migrants in Abossey Okai Zongo. 4. To examine coping mechanisms adopted by migrant households in Abossey Okai Zongo to challenges of urbanization. 1.5 Proposition The study is supported by the following propositions; 1. Migrant households have a perception of low socio-economic status in urban centres. 2. Migrants perceive better opportunities in urban centres than what exist in the rural areas. 1.6 Justification of the Study The issue of poverty in urban areas has gained a lot of attention in Ghana and other developing countries. In this vain, efforts are constantly being made to curb the menace by trying to find better alternatives to living conditions and the extension of social services to the ever-increasing migrants in these settlements in the city. Poor migrant communities continuously face development deficits compared to other communities in the capital that are comparatively affluent. Poor housing and waste management, and the lack of other services present challenges in migrant communities depriving residents of basic services. It is therefore imperative that conscious efforts are made to bring these communities to par with other areas in the city. An effective plan to alleviate migrant communities from their numerous challenges will first of all require an assessment of the challenges and opportunities that exist in these communities. This study is therefore justified in seeking to highlight the challenges and advantages that exist in such migrant communities. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Some suburbs of the Ablekuma Central sub-metro of the Accra Metropolitan District such as Abossey Okai Zongo, Nima, Mamobi etc. are among the poorly planned migrant communities that exist in the capital city; Accra. Establishing the connections between migration, urbanization and poverty in this area is important for understanding other communities with similar characteristics. Finding the challenges and opportunities experienced by migrants living in these poor settlements is appropriate. This will go a long way in helping inform policies and intervention measures to shape the structure of similar settlements so that the challenges can be addressed. This will strengthen the socio-economic opportunities that exist for the people in these settlements. However, the Abossey Okai Zongo was considered for the study because it is one area that much research has not been concentrated on in this regard. The outcome of the study will therefore highlight an informed policy and recommendations that can make life in migrant communities better. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORIES AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction This chapter presents the literature review and theoretical frameworks. The literature review discusses issues such as the definition of migration, patterns of migration, challenges, opportunities and coping strategies of migrants in urban centres among others. The study is backed by Anthony Giddens’s structuration theory and the theoretical aspect discusses this theory before finally a conceptual framework is discussed. 2.2 Defining Migration Across the developing world, migration represents an important living and adaptation strategy in response to different events and structural shifts (Awumbila et al., 2014; Deotti & Estruch, 2016). This suggests that migration is not a homogeneous process but can be categorised in different pathways. Awumbila et al., (2014) argue that migration thus reflects a social perception since a person who would be considered a migrant in one context may not be seen as such in another, and vice versa. The Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) defines a migrant as a person who has moved and stayed at his/her current place of residence for at least a year (GSS 2008). However, Awumbila et al., (2014) argue that this definition is limited since it does not capture seasonal migrants, who tend to stay at their places of residence for less than a year. As a result, Awumbila et al., (2014) defined a migrant as ‘someone who has moved and settled in an area for at least six months.’ This definition thus captures both seasonal and permanent migrants, and also provide an adequate timeframe to assess migrants’ well-being and perception at their place of residence. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Following the above introduction, the rest of the literature review focuses on examining patterns of migration, including the characteristics of migrants, causes and forms of migration, challenges and opportunities for migrants and livelihood adaptation strategies of migrants. 2.3 Patterns of migration with a focus on Ghana Migration patterns are complex; vary greatly between countries and depend on stages of structural transformation, as well as household and individual characteristics (Deotti and Estruch, 2016). In west Africa, seasonal internal migration, especially north-south migration, has been an important movement pattern since early colonial times (Anarfi, Kwankye, Ababio, & Tiemoko 2003). In Ghana, migration is very common, with at least one migrant in more than 43 percent of all households in 2005/06 (Ackah and Medvedev 2012). For centuries, due to its central location, Ghana occupies a key crossroad of important migration routes in West Africa related to nomadic movements and traders. As a result, studies examining migration patterns, determinants, and impacts date back to the 1960’s (Ackah and Medvedev, 2010). In recent years, migration routes have been supplemented by increasing rural-to-urban migration, as cities in Ghana, such as Accra and Kumasi, became magnets for not only traders, but also young migrants seeking work and educational opportunities (Adepoju 2003, Anarfi et al. 2003). For instance, a study by Ackah and Medvedev (2010) using a sample of 4,000 Ghanaian households taken from the 8,687 households which participated in the 2005/06 round of Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS 5) showed that more than 80 percent of Ghanaian migrants stay in Ghana and among them, 70 percent go to urban areas. At the regional level, the greater Accra and Ashanti regions attract more than half of all internal migrants and migrants make up a substantial share of the population in these regions (Ackah and 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Medvedev, 2010; GSS, 2014). On the other hand, the southern regions of Ghana —Western, Central, Eastern, greater Accra, Volta, and Ashanti — accounts for 88 percent of all internal migrants, while the Northern and the two Upper regions together account for only 5 percent of the total destinations. Considering that the greater Accra and Ashanti regions are the most urbanized regions in Ghana (Songsore, 2009), it is not surprising that they serve as attractive destination for migrants. Urban areas globally, and in particular Ghana, serve as a hub of educational, social, and economic development and therefore serve as a natural destination for migrants particularly from rural regions (UN-Habitat, 2014; Songsore, 2009). Most parts of Africa including Ghana is urbanizing rapidly and as urbanization proceeds in a country, the city and the countryside become differentiated in many ways, and understanding the migration patterns between these two areas becomes increasingly important (Tabutin and Schoumaker 2004). In west Africa many studies on migration have consistently focused on rural-urban migration (Anarfi, Kwankye, Ababio, & Tiemoko 2003). However, over the past two decades, there has been a growing interest among scholars on examining in detail the socio-demographic characteristics of migrants, particularly differences in terms of sex and how it affects their migration patterns (Reed, Andrzejewski, and White 2010). Historically, both men and women in Ghana have been relatively mobile (Ackah and Medvedev, 2010). The coast and the forests regions have historically drawn labour, primarily men, to the fishing and logging industries and to the cocoa farms. Larger market towns and cities, including Accra and Kumasi have drawn market traders who may be men, but are more often women. Despite these, research on migration has traditionally been sex-biased, in that men were often the only migrants studied or conceptualized (Curran et al. 2006). Although Ackah and Medvedev, (2010) suggest that this bias is somewhat being corrected by more recent 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh scholars, they further argue that much of this newer scholarship is qualitative and even when quantitative methods are used, there are still relatively few studies of internal migration (rather than international migration) that focus on sex differences, particularly in the developing world, and few studies in sub-Saharan Africa. For instance, until recently, many assumptions about internal migration in Africa, were based on empirical evidence from censuses or surveys (like the Demographic and Health Surveys). Although censuses are essential, they tend to be broad and not focus specifically on migration and have limited usefulness. These suggest that there is the need for more empirically based studies focused on internal migration and the patterns thereof. An equally important aspect of migration that is gaining attention is the migration of young people (UNICEF, 2014). Young people account for the bulk of migration flows (Gingsburg et al., 2014 Awumbila et al., 2015; Msigwa, 2013). Young migrants aged 15–24 years account for one-eighth of migrant workers and are moving mainly in search of better livelihoods (UNICEF, 2014). Yet in Ghana, research on youth migration has received little attention (Duplantier A., Ksoll C., Lehrer K., and Seitz W. 2017). According to the UNICEF, (2014), the number of young migrants increased from 23.2 million in 1990 to 28.2 million in 2013. A peculiar pattern of youth migration is that, majority of migrants follow a ‘distress migration’ pattern, most pronounced among rural youth (Deotti & Estruch 2016). Deotti and Estruch (2016) defines distress migration as the situation whereby ‘migration is not an informed and voluntary choice but the only perceived option for improving their employment and life prospects and meeting their particular aspirations and needs’ (p.4). An important aspect of distress migration is that women account for an increasing proportion of migrants (GFMD, 2015). Particularly in Africa, there are 101 female migrants under the age of 20 for every 100 male migrants (UNDESA, 2013b). Despite these, there are limited data 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and evidence specifically related to the distress migration of rural youth and its determinants (Deotti and Estruch, 2016). 2.4 Causes of migration In many parts of Africa, migration is a complex phenomenon and a key component of livelihood strategies in rural households, which focus on minimizing risks and diversifying household income (Deotti, L., & Estruch, E. 2016). There are many reasons for migration and they are interrelated at various levels (national, local, household and individual). For instance, although civil unrest, war, ethnic conflicts and violations of human rights are certainly among the causes of migration, in many cases, particularly in Ghana, migrants decide to leave their community for economic and sociocultural reasons to seek work elsewhere. A study by Reed, et al. (2010) showed that, in Ghana, at the household level, the determinants of migration include the gender, age, and education level of household head, male-to-female, youth, and elderly dependency ratios, home ownership, and household size. For instance, Reed et al. (2010) revealed that individuals are more likely to migrate if the head of the household is female and if the head is younger while for women, an increase in the income ratio has a higher effect on migration than an increase of the unemployment ratio. Many studies have also found that, at household level, young members may move to work elsewhere as part of the household’s risk diversification strategy but also in response to the household’s expectation of higher returns in the future or to personal aspirations (Duplantier et al., 2017). In particular, rural youth are those more likely to migrate in response to the lack of gainful employment and entrepreneurial opportunities in agriculture and related rural economic activities. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5 Challenges, opportunities and coping mechanisms for migrants in urban centres Several studies have look at the challenges and opportunities that rural-urban migrants experience, particularly in their destination countries. According to Awumbila, Owusu, & Teye (2014), in Ghana, there is a widely held perception that rural-urban migration cannot lead to positive outcomes for migrants. However, the authors argue that, the relationship between rural-urban migration and poverty reduction is not adequately understood nor explored. For instance, in their study on the livelihoods of poor migrants living and working in two urban informal settlements in Accra: Nima and Old Fadama, Awumbila et al., (2014) found that despite living in a harsh environment with little social protection, an overwhelming majority of the migrants believed that their overall well -being has been enhanced by migrating to Accra. Based on this finding, the authors concluded that, urban slums are not just places of despair and misery but places where migrants are optimistically making the most of their capabilities and are trying to move out of poverty, despite the obvious difficulties. In Ghana, urban slums, mostly inhabited by migrants, are characterised by dense population, unsafe buildings, overcrowded and unsanitary conditions, lack of access to basic facilities such as clean water, sanitation and health services (Owusu et al. 2008). Owusu et al. (2008) described urban slums as ‘the new face of poverty in Ghana’, which are host to many internal and international migrants. For instance, a study by Awumbila et al., (2014) found that most of the migrants studied in Accra were living in poor neighbourhoods and in poor housing structures - in a shack or other temporal structures. Despite the challenges migrants often face, most migrants have evolved with complex livelihood and adaptation strategies. For instance, in a study of migrant slum dwellers in Accra, Ghana, 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Awumbila et al., (2014) found that most migrants used their own ingenuity to build houses and create jobs in the informal sector and beyond in order to survive and live in Accra. Thus, official assessments and perceptions of urban poverty need to take into account the fact that poor people are attracted to urban areas to utilise the multiple economic opportunities there and can therefore create wealth. 2.6 The Structuration Theory The structuration theory was developed by the British sociologist Anthony Giddens in 1984. Giddens believed that understanding people’s activity is the central purpose of social analysis. Structuration theory was specifically developed in a series of books which began with Giddens’ New Rule of Sociological Method (1976), and continued through his central Problems of Social Theory (1979) and later culminated in the most extended and systematic statement, the constitution of society: outline of the Theory of Structuration (1984). The proponents of structuration theory do not believe that individual actions are only based on individual intentions as proposed by humanists. Also, they do not believe that actions are conditioned by structures. The two main tenets of the structuration theory are human agency and structures. Giddens explains that there is a relationship between human agency and social institutions. Human agency refers to people’s capabilities, and their related activities or behaviour, but not the agents themselves. Structures on the other hand could be economic, ideological, institutional, etc. individuals are born into societies that entrap them within social structures, which both constrained and enable them. The agents do not have a complete knowledge of the world. They interpret and transform the empirical world but these interpretations and transformations are constrained and enabled by the structures at the real level. Individuals also gradually transform structures. This is what Giddens 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh refer to as the duality of structures. Whilst structures are products of the intended and unintended actions of people, they also subsequently shape people’s action; not by strict determination but by providing flexible orientation which may either constrain or enable what is impossible (Leach et al., 199). Relating the structuration theory in the context of migration and its association with socio- economic status of migrants, it can be observed from the literature review that migrants are presented with both challenges and opportunities in the urban centre. Whilst whether they are able to come out of these difficulties can be related to the structures available at the urban centre, their human agency also plays a role in shaping their socio-economic status. The duality established in the theory is very helpful in investigating the impacts migration has on socio-economic status of migrants. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE: STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY 2.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the characteristics of the study area. The physical and demographic characteristics such as population, sex and age distribution, household characteristics and economic characteristics are discussed. In addition, the chapter discusses the methods used in solving the study’s objectives. These include sources of data, research instruments, approaches for data collection, sample size and the data analysis used in this study. 2.2 Background of Study Area 2.2.1 Location In the whole of Ghana there are 216 District, Metropolitan and Municipal Assemblies and in Greater Accra alone there are 16 MMDAs and the Accra Metropolitan Assembly is one of them. The AMA was delineated in 1989 by an act of parliament; Act 462 together with six sub-metros. Several changes have occurred with respect to the area covered by the AMA and the other sub- metros under it. The last amendment to the coverage of the AMA was done in 2012 under L.I. 2034. In all, there are 10 sub-metros under AMA with 76 electoral areas and 72 communities under it. The administrative head is the Metropolitan Coordinating Director whilst the Metropolitan Chief Executive is the political head appointed by the president (GSS, 2014). Figure 4.1 shows the map of Accra Metropolitan Area with the various sub-metros within it. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.1: Map of Accra Metropolitan Area Source: GSS, 2014 2.2.2 Population characteristics of the AMA The AMA as at 2010 had a population of 1,665,086 which represents 42 percent of the total population of the Greater Accra region. There are more females (51.9%) than males (48.1%) and 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh all the communities in the metropolis are urban. The largest proportion of the population is made up of children below the age of 15 who form 42.6% whilst those 60 years and above form the least proportion with 5.9%. There total dependency ratio figure is 48.5% with child dependency standing at 42.6% whilst that of old age dependency is at 5.9% being the least (GSS, 2014). 2.2.3 Migration, mortality and fertility The AMA has a lower fertility rate (2.2) compared to the regional average (2.6). within the metropolis the General Fertility Rate stands at 63.7 births per 1000 women which is lower than the regional figure of 75.7. This trend extends to the Crude Birth Rate which the AMA scores a figure of 19.7 with every 1000 population which is less than the average for the region which stands at 22.7. The crude death rate for AMA is 4.4 per 1000 population. Males record a higher death rate (50 per 1000) compared to females (30 per 1000) for ages 70 and above. Accident/violence/homicide/suicide related cause of death is high making up 12% of deaths with all other death causes making up 88%. The migrant population of the district stands at 778,267 which is 47% of the total population. The region with the highest percentage of migrants in the metropolis is the eastern region (27.8%) whilst Upper East region has the least migrant population (1.2%) (GSS, 2014). 2.2.4 Household characteristics The AMA has 1,599,914 number of people residing in 450,748 households. The mean household population is 3.7 residents per household. Children form the largest number of household members (35.5%) whilst grandchildren form the least proportion with 6%. About 11% of the household 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh composition is made up of spouses with nuclear families making up 26.9% of the household population (GSS, 2014). 2.2.4 Nationality Ghanaians for the majority of residents in AMA with a percentage of 91.2% whilst those who have naturalize make up 1.3% and the non-Ghanaian residents forming 4% (GSS, 2014). 2.2.5 Literacy and education The AMA has a high literacy rate among ages 11 years and above with 89% being literates whilst the rest are illiterates. There are more female non-literates (98,439) compared to males (39,567). Fifty-two per cent of the population admit that they can speak and write Ghanaian languages and English. The population in school is about 533,291 and out of this number 38.4% are in the primary school, 18.2% are in JHS and 12.8% are in SHS (GSS, 2014). 2.2.6 Economic activity The active population is about 70.1% with regards to those 15 years and above with 29.9% of that same group not being active. Those employed under the economically active population stand at 93% with 7% being unemployed. About 52% of the economically inactive population are students with 19.4% engaged in household chores. About 3.1% are either disabled or not healthy to work and about 57% of the active population are seeking work for the first time. Agricultural, forestry and fishery workers make up 1.7% of those employed, with 38.5% being in the services industry, 20.1% in the craft and trade related with the remaining 17.2% being in the professional field (GSS, 2014). 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.7 Housing Majority of houses (68.8%) in the AMA are compound houses followed by separate houses (9.4%), and semi-detached houses (6.6%). Household members own the highest proportion of the places they reside whilst private people follow. Government ownership form the least with 4.1% (GSS, 2014). Most of the materials used for construction are cement blocks and concrete. The two most used materials for roofing are metal sheets and slate. The AMA has about 23% of households having 10 and above members living in single rooms (GSS, 2014). Electricity, flashlight and kerosene form the most used source of light in the metropolis. Most of the households use charcoal in cooking followed by gas. Pipe borne water inside dwelling is the most widely used drinking water followed by sachet water. The use of public toilet account for 41.6% with WC (31.9%) and KVIP (14.9%) following (GSS, 2014). 2.3 Methodology 2.3.1 Research Design Mixed methods approach was adopted in this study. This includes the use of both qualitative and quantitative methods. According to Teye (2012), the mixed method approach is very important in investigating complex phenomena. The mixed method approach also has the advantage of filling shortfalls that may ensue from either the qualitative or quantitative method (Creswell and Clarke, 2007). The quantitative data was used in making inferences to represent the study population whilst the qualitative data provided additional information that informed the quantitative choices made by the respondents. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study also adopted the cross-sectional approach in collecting data. This is because the study did not seek to investigate trends with respect to how rural urban migration influence socio- economic status of respondents. According to Abrahamson (1985), this method is very appropriate if the data collection will involve more than one case and will be done in a single time period. 2.3.2 Sources of data Data for the study was obtained from the primary and secondary sources. Primary data was obtained by the administration of questionnaires, and through the conduct of interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) within the study area. The secondary data on the other hand involved the use of information from journal articles, books, public documents, the media and relevant internet sources. 2.3.3 Research instruments In obtaining the primary data two main research instruments were used. These are semi-structured questionnaires and interview guides for both one-on-one interviews and FGDs. 2.3.3.1 semi-structured questions The questionnaires were used to collect the quantitative data. Information such as the socio- economic status of respondents, their perception on socio-economic status and the challenges they face were obtained by a questionnaire survey. Household heads were targeted for the questionnaire survey, however where household heads were not available any adult representative of the household was used. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.3.2 Interview guide for Interviews and FGDs The interview and Focus Group Discussion guides were used in acquiring the qualitative data where the challenges faced by migrants and the adaptation strategies they seek were explored. The interviews were granted to community leaders such as assemblymen and representatives from the traditional authority and other development partners such as NGOs and civil society. The FGDs on the other hand involved community members who were randomly selected at different suburbs of the study area. 2.3 Sampling technique for questionnaire survey The multistage sampling technique was used in obtaining the questionnaire data. There are quite a number of migrant communities in the Accra Metropolitan District which include Nima, Mamobi, Old Fadama, among others. Abossey Okai Zongo was purposively selected for the study due to the following reasons. First of all, looking at literature, that area has been under-researched with most of the studies on migrant communities focusing on Old Fadama or Nima among others, neglecting Abossey Okai Zongo. This has led to deficient information on what actually happens in this area with regards to migrant livelihood. Therefore, in order to provide a balanced account of life in general among migrant communities, Abossey Okai Zongo was purposively selected. After selecting Abossey Okai Zongo purposively, the community was divided into four clusters where respondents were targeted from each cluster. Systematic sampling technique was then used to select the households. The first household was selected accidently after which every third house was targeted. According to Deming (1996), the multistage sampling technique is advantageous 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh because in moving from one stage to the other, only frames that fall into the previous frame are considered. 2.4 Sample size determination In selecting the sample size for the questionnaire survey the Krjcie & Morgan (1970) formula for calculating sample size was used. Since the unit of analysis for the study was the household level the total number of households within the AMA was used as the sample population. The total number of households within the AMA is 450, 794. The formula and the process of arriving at the sample size is illustrated below. 𝑋2𝑁𝑃(1 − 𝑃) 𝑆 = 𝑑2 (𝑁 − 1) + 𝑋2𝑃 (𝑃 − 1) Where: S = Required Sample Size X2 = confidence level (which is 3.841) N = Population Size (which is 450,794) P = Population proportion (assumed to be 0.50 since this would be the highest sample) d = Degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (0.05). 3.814 ∗ 450794 ∗ 0.5(1 − 0.5) 𝑆 = 0.052 (450794 − 1) + 3.814 ∗ 0.5(1 − 0.5) 𝑆 = 381.395 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 𝑆 = 381 The sample size using the formula is therefore 381. However, because the study was limited to Abossey Okai Zongo and given the resource constraints that was associated with the conduct of the study the sample size was limited to 100 respondents. Also, the study notes that not all households in the study area are migrant households. 2.5 Data analysis The quantitative data obtained from the questionnaire survey will be analysed with the help of the SPSS. The questionnaire will be coded and entered into the software. Basic analysis tools such as crosstabulation, and other descriptive statistics were used to generate tables, graphs and charts for the purpose of the analysis. Also, a chi-square test of independence was run between different category of respondents and their responses given in relation to migration and livelihood choices. The qualitative data on the other hand were analysed by transcribing both the FGDs and the interviews into word documents. Themes were then generated from the responses and used for the analysis. Also, direct quotes from respondents were used in the analysis to support some of the quantitative outcomes. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR: EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 4.1 Introduction This chapter contains the discussion of the results of the study. The first section of the chapter discusses specifically the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents where variables such as age, gender, level of education, income, marital status, among others are considered. The subsequent sections talk about the effects of rural urban migration on livelihoods of migrants, challenges and opportunities that exist for rural-urban migrants, and the coping mechanisms adopted by migrants to deal with challenges in urban areas. The chapter concludes with a chapter summary. 4.2 Socio-demographic characteristics of migrants in Abossey Okai Zongo In order to assess the effects of rural urban migration on socio-economic status, the study tried to look at the characteristics of respondents in the study area. In Table 4.1 a summary of the characteristics of the respondents are provided. Gender of respondents was considered because the study sought to investigate the gender dynamics associated with migration. It can be observed from Table 4.1 that females formed the majority of respondents (56%). This is in line with the population distribution of the AMA where females compared to males are the majority although females form 51.9% in the whole of AMA (GSS, 2014). With respect to age, the highest proportion of respondents were in the 31-40 years category (32%) with the least category being above 50 years. This is consistent with findings by Gingsburg et al., 2014 which concluded that young people account for the bulk of migration flow because they want to seek for better livelihood options. There were more people who had completed JHS/Middle schooled (43%) compared to those who have completed other levels of education, whilst those who have completed tertiary institutions 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh formed the least category (4%). People with low level of education and less skills normally migrate to urban areas to seek for non-existent jobs. In the long run this may compound the challenges in the urban centres. Although unemployment is a major issue in Accra, close to 100% of the respondents were employed. Majority of the respondents were traders (54%) with 2% being unemployed. However, when it comes to religion one would have thought that because the study area (Abossey Okai Zongo) is a Muslim community most of the respondents would be Muslims. This was not the case as half of the respondents were Christians and the other half being Muslims. Majority of the respondents were married (58%) but a significant proportion were single (34%). This is varied compared to the district statistics where 36.3% are formally married and 49% were single (GSS, 2014). This may be so because the GSS (2014) report considers the population from 12 years and above while this study only considered those 20 years and above. However, majority of the respondents being married can be explained by the fact that most of the respondents spent less time in school (completed JHS/Middle school) exposing them to work and life early. About a third of the respondents earned less than GHS 200 a month. This means that most of these migrants earn less than the daily minimum wage rate of Ghana. This can contribute to the inability to purchase basic necessities and also afford proper accommodation. Also, majority of the respondents (70%) lived in rented houses with 15% living in their own houses. On the average, respondents have lived for 12 years in their current community with each household having an average of 9 occupants. The modal household size was 25 persons whilst the household with the least number of occupants had 2 people. This varies from the district modal household size of 1 and the household with the least size which is 6 people (GSS, 2014). 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents Variable Frequency Per cent Gender Male 44 44 Female 56 56 Age 20 and below 12 12.0 21-30 25 25.0 31-40 32 32.0 41-50 20 20.0 Above 50 11 11.0 Level of Education No Formal Education 16 16.0 Primary School 22 22.0 JHS/Middle School 43 43.0 Vocational/Technical 8 8.0 SSS 7 7.0 Tertiary 4 4.0 Occupation Artisan 15 15.0 Unemployed 2 2.0 Professional 19 19.0 Other 10 10.0 Trader 54 54.0 Religion Christian 50 50.0 Muslim 50 50.0 Marital status Married 58 58.0 Single 34 34.0 Divorced 6 6.0 Widowed 2 2.0 Income Below 200 35 35.0 201-500 32 32.0 501-1000 24 24.0 Above 1000 9 9.0 Residential status Rented 70 70.0 Owned 15 15.0 Family 3 3.0 Other 12 12.0 Source: fieldwork, 2018 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Effects of migration on livelihoods of migrants Generally, the study found out that migrants were better off after migrating to their present location. From Figure 4.1 it can be observed that whilst 19% of the respondents agreed that their livelihoods have been very good before after moving to Accra, 11% said their livelihoods were very good before moving to Accra. Also, whilst 41% said their livelihoods are good after moving to Accra 34% said their livelihoods were good before moving to Accra. It is only in ratings that were poor and very poor that respondents more respondents alluded to their livelihoods before migration to be poor (Figure 4.1). This largely suggest that majority of the respondents feel better in terms of their livelihoods compared to when they were living in rural areas. This supports the findings by Deotti, & Estruch (2016) which found out that particularly in Ghana, migrants decide to leave their community for economic and sociocultural reasons to seek work elsewhere. 41 34 31 25 19 17 13 11 7 2 VERY GOOD GOOD NEUTRAL POOR VERY POOR Before After Figure 4. 1: Livelihood before and after migration to Accra Source: Fieldwork, 2018 30 Percent University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To find out whether there is any relationship between gender and level of livelihood of migrants after migrating a crosstabulation was run between gender and respondents’ description of their level of livelihood after migrating. As displayed in Table 4.2 it can be observed that more males felt that their livelihoods had improved after migrating whilst comparatively, more females felt their livelihoods are either the same or have worsened after migrating. This could be that there are limited job opportunities for female migrants as compared to male migrants. Women are normally vulnerable due to their strength and survival abilities thus men are more likely to exhibit higher resistance in terms of survival. A chi-square test of independence at 5% level of significance was run between gender and level of livelihood. The Pearson chi-square test value obtained is 12.5 and the p-value is 0.014. Since the p-value is less than the significant value of 0.05, it means that there is a relationship between gender and level of livelihood improvement of migrants after migration. This is backed by the findings by GFMD (2015), which found out that women normally account for the highest proportion of distress migration especially in Africa due to their vulnerability in rural areas. Table 4. 2: Crosstabulation between gender and level of livelihood after migration How will you describe your source of livelihood now? Good Very good Neutral Poor Very Poor Total Frequency 22 11 7 2 2 44 Male Percent 50.0% 25.0% 15.9% 4.5% 4.5% 100.0% Frequency 19 8 18 11 0 56 Female Percent 33.9% 14.3% 32.1% 19.6% 0.0% 100.0% Frequency 41 19 25 13 2 100 Total Percent 41.0% 19.0% 25.0% 13.0% 2.0% 100.0% Source: fieldwork, 2018. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In investigating whether the socio-demographic status of respondents have improved after migration respondents were further asked a general question whether their socio-demographic status after migration has improved, remained same or worsened. The results show that majority of the respondents (75%) said their livelihoods have improved after migration whilst 20% said that their livelihoods have remained same. However, 5% said that their livelihoods have worsened after migrating to Accra. This finding is consistent with a study by Awumbila et al., (2014) which concluded that despite living in a harsh environment with little social protection, an overwhelming majority of migrants believed that their overall well -being has been enhanced by migrating to Accra. 5%, 5% 20%, 20% Improved Same Worsened 75%, 75% Figure 4. 2: Life after moving to Accra Source: Fieldwork, 2018 Some of those who said that their livelihoods have improved alluded to the fact that it is easy to find jobs in Accra as compared to their previous communities their migrated from and the wage 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh bill in Accra is comparatively higher. Although they largely agreed that their livelihoods have improved after moving to Accra they still complained about some challenges including high cost of accommodation and daily transport fares among others. Some of the respondents said the following in support of their choice of answers: I can say that my livelihood has improved very much. Previously when I was in my village the only job we could lay our hands on was farming and the returns were very little. Now, I can go to Accra and get a few things to come and sell and I am making enough money out from it to cater for myself and family. The only challenge is that rent is very high in Accra compared to my village (a 45-year-old man). Back in my hometown I sleep with my four sisters in one room but here in Accra I sleep outside in front of a shop. In terms of a place to sleep my situation has worsened (23-year- old youth). Back in Togo I received less than 200 cedis and didn’t have a good place to lay my head (a Togolese migrant in Accra). …now I don’t need to do a lot of hard work before I can get food or money. Previously in the village you have to weed an acre of land (a 35-year-old man). I get something small to use and also send some home sometimes. I have money excessively as compared to my previous settlement (a mechanic in Abossey Okai). People mostly attribute their problems or successes to either their own effort, the system around them or both. Taking consideration of Giddens’ structuration theory that seems to suggest that the interplay of both the human agency and structures come together to influence people’s wellbeing the study went further to find out the perception of respondents on what influences them when it comes to livelihood development. Therefore, a question was posed to respondents asking them what influences them in terms of their personal life development. From the responses given the results indicate that majority of the respondents are of the view that both their personal efforts and the structures around them play vital role in influencing their personal development. However, 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38% of the respondents believed that their development is mostly influenced by themselves compared whilst those who believed only in structures were 12%. This goes to suggest that people are very much aware of the roles that is either played or supposed to be played by governments and other agencies when it comes to improvement in livelihoods. People were of the view that their efforts alone without the help of external structures cannot ensure their total livelihood development to bring about improvement in their lives. 60% 50% 50% 40% 38% 30% 20% 10% 12% 0% Self Where lived Both Figure 4. 3: What does your ability to improve livelihood depend on? Source: fieldwork, 2018 Some reasons were provided by respondents as to why they hold on to these perceptions. For instance, a 35-year-old woman had this to say concerning what can promote livelihood development. …it is true that you the individual has to put in your all when it comes to self-development. However, if the government is not helping by providing the platform you can never go 34 Per cent University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh anywhere. Take for instance when there are bad roads or no hospitals, we could all die of diseases. (A 35-year-old woman at Abossey Okai Zongo). On the other hand, others who believed that the development of the individual depends on the individual were of the view that perseverance and self-development is the key to success. The following quote sums up some of the reasons given. There is nothing anybody can do for you. The ability to succeed in life all depends on you. You do not expect the government to do anything for you. You have to go the hard way to be able to succeed (a 45-year-old man at Circle). In order to find out whether the level of education of respondents has anything to do with the choice of respondents in terms of what their ability to develop depend on, a crosstabulation was run between level of education and what the ability of respondents to develop depend on. From Table 4.3 it can be observed that 100% of respondents who completed vocational school believed that both the individual and structures contribute to an individual’s development. Half of the respondents who had no formal education believed that both structures and individual efforts contribute to the development of an individual. Majority of the respondents who had attended primary school (63%) however believed in the both structures and individuals in developing an individual. Quite surprisingly, none of the respondents who had completed tertiary believed in the combination of individual effort and structures as shaping individual development. The Pearson chi-square test of independence however proved that there is a significant relationship between level of education and individual choices on what affects development. The Pearson chi-square value is 31.3 and the p-value is 0.001. Since the p-value is less than the significant value of 0.05 there is a significant relationship between the two variables. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 3: Crosstabulation between level of education and what respondents development depend on What do you think your ability to develop depend on? Where Total Yourself you live Both Frequency 3 5 8 16 NO FORMAL EDUCATION Percent 18.8% 31.3% 50.0% 100.0% PRIMARY SCHOOL Frequency 8 0 14 22 Percent 36.4% 0.0% 63.6% 100.0% JHS/MIDDLE SCHOOL Frequency 23 3 17 43 Percent 53.5% 7.0% 39.5% 100.0% VOCATIONAL/TECHNICAL Frequency 0 0 8 8 Percent 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 100.0% SSS Frequency 2 2 3 7 Percent 28.6% 28.6% 42.9% 100.0% TERTIARY Frequency 2 2 0 4 Percent 50.0% 50.0% 0.0% 100.0% Total Frequency 38 12 50 100 Percent 38.0% 12.0% 50.0% 100.0% Source: fieldwork, 2018. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To get a general outlook of how respondents feel after migrating to Accra from their rural areas, a question was posed to them as to whether they regret after moving to Accra. Majority of the respondents (85%) responded that they have never regretted whilst the remaining 15% said they have regretted (Figure 4.4). This indicates that majority of respondents prefer living in their current location than going back to their previous settlements. This could be that there is easy way of making money and catering for one’s family as compared to living in the villages. According to Awumbila et al (2014), most migrants use their own ingenuity to take advantage of the opportunities in Accra by building houses and creating jobs for themselves thus poor people being attracted to the urban areas to utilize the multiple economic activities. NO 85% YES 15% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Figure 4. 4: whether respondents have regretted after moving to Accra Source: fieldwork, 2018. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Challenges and opportunities that exist for rural-urban migrants Although the study has identified that most respondents felt their lives are better after migrating to the urban centres, it goes without challenges. The study therefore assessed the challenges faced by migrants in urban centres. A wide range of challenges were expressed from the interviews. This ranged from poor infrastructure to the provision of basic social services. Poor roads were identified as one of the challenges urban dwellers face. Most of the respondents complained about having to endure potholes and untarred roads to and from their workplace every day. This increases the travel time affecting productivity in the long run. Flooding is one of the major issues that affect people in the study area. Choked gutters and in some instances lack of proper drainage system causes a lot of havoc when it rains. According to respondents a lot of life and property have been lost through flooding which occurs every year. Atypical example is the June 3, 2015 disaster that occurred in Accra where more than 100 lives were lost. Floods have caused the destruction of properties and have left a lot of people homeless in the capital city. One woman recounts her experience with flood in the following statement: …me and my family almost lost our lives to floods. It rained so heavy that wall around our house collapse and the running water from outside entered our rooms and everywhere. The water level was up to my waist which I have never experienced before throughout my over 10 years of stay in Accra. It was only God who saved my 9-year-old daughter because we didn’t know he had fallen and collapsed and lying in the water… Another aspect of urban life where respondents identified challenges is water. Respondents complained that the supply of water is intermittent where sometimes they can go for as long as 2 weeks without water running through their taps. This indirectly affects several aspects of life including cost of living, and diseases and sicknesses. People have to travel long distances to purchase water in gallons and buckets when the taps are not flowing. This adds to expenditure on 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh water per household as buying water in bits is comparatively cost higher. One man had this to share with respect to problems emanating from water: Buying water with the Kuffour gallon costs 80p which a day we use about 7 gallons in the house. This far exceeds the amount paid when the Ghana Water flows continuously. If water could flow at all times we will end up saving a lot of water (A middle aged man in Abossey Okai). Accommodation is another aspect of the urban life that causes a lot of challenges. The high cost of accommodation in the capital city forces people to inhabit in areas that are not proper. The high cost of rent coupled with demand of 2 or more years of advanced payment make some migrants unable to rent proper accommodations. This has given rise to squatters and a lot of unplanned settlements in the capital city. This affects the city’s planning for development. The extension of emergency services to these areas becomes problematic. Also, the squatters and slums lack basic infrastructure such as toilets and proper solid waste disposal mechanisms. This promotes the littering of the streets in such communities. Respondents also complained about land and chieftaincy disputes that are very prevalent in Accra. A lot of people who acquire land in Accra have ended up to mitigate with others over the same piece of land. This is because of litigations among other problems. There is loss of money through some of these things. Also, chieftaincy disputes in certain areas threatens the peace of these centres. Sometimes there are clashes between factions fighting to become chiefs. People lose lives and property because of some of these clashes. In the long run the government may have to spend extra resources to solve these disputes which otherwise would have been invested in something different. Some of the respondents also complained that they sometimes face discrimination by the indigenes. Unequal treatment is meted out to migrants who find themselves in indigenous 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh communities. This is intensified by the language barrier with migrants, especially those who are coming from the north who find themselves in these indigenous communities. When I first came to Accra from the north I could not speak the language and buying basic things was a problem for me. And with some of the Gas when you do not speak their language the kind of treatment they give you is different (a 31-year-old migrant from Northern Ghana). Respondents also complained about high cost of living in Accra where everything is expensive compared to the rural areas. The cost of transportation coupled with how certain social services are costly raises the cost of living in the urban centre comparatively. This leaves people with less money in their pocket to be able to invest elsewhere to create more employment. Jobs are also a major problem in the city where more graduates churn out every year without jobs. The study tried to find out from the respondents whether these challenges have any effects on the development of individual wellbeing. Out of the 100 respondents a very strong majority of 90% agreed that the presence of these challenges affect their livelihood negatively whilst the remaining 10% felt that these problems have no consequences on their livelihood (Figure 4.5). this means that respondents face serious problems due to the fact that these problems or challenges are in their places of residence. The magnitude of these challenges however may vary due to the prevailing situation in particular areas. Respondents in this vein expressed concern about the need to address some of these challenges so that their livelihoods can be improved. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 100 90 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 10 0 YES NO challenges as having effect on livelihood Figure 4. 5: Effect of challenges on livelihoods of respondents Source: fieldwork, 2018. The study went further to look at the magnitude of the effects of these challenges on the livelihoods of respondents. Respondents were therefore asked to rate the level of impact of these challenges on their livelihoods and the results show that majority of the respondents (65%) agreed that the impacts of these challenges are strong whilst 16% said the impacts are very strong on their livelihoods. On the other hand, 19% said they are mild in terms of impacts on their livelihoods (Figure 4.6). The government and other development agent have to give much attention to some of these challenges in order to ensuring that the problems in urban areas are minimized so that people can also get enough opportunity to improve their livelihoods. This will in the long run promote development and nation building in a positive way. 41 frequency University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19% 16% 65% Very strong Strong Mild Figure 4. 6: Impacts of challenges on livelihoods Source: fieldwork, 2018. In comparing the level of challenges in previous and current locations respondents were asked to compare the level of challenges between their previous rural settlements and the current location in Accra. As shown in Table 4.4 majority of the respondents were of the view that the challenges they experienced when they were living in the rural areas are much higher as compared to their current settlements in the urban centre. This goes to suggest that majority of the respondents although they agree that there are challenges in the urban areas they feel that these challenges are more pervasive in the rural areas compared to the urban centre. A lot of people therefore notwithstanding the challenges will prefer to live in the urban centre rather than the rural area. In seeking to find out why respondents think the challenges in urban areas are more intense than in the urban centre a follow up question was asked for respondents to explain and among some of the responses giving were lack of jobs and basic infrastructure in the rural areas. In the rural areas there are no better roads, schools or hospitals for the wards of these migrants as compared to Accra 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh where things are comparatively better. Others talked about the fact that there are more customers in Accra in terms of trade and anything one sells there is market for it compared to the rural areas where one struggles to find customers and that makes things cheap thus less income. Table 4. 4: Magnitude of challenges between previous and current location Settlement Percent Previous 63% Current 37% Source: Fieldwork, 2018. However, a crosstabulation was run the magnitude of challenges between rural and urban areas and the level of education to find out if there is any relationship in terms of perception of challenges and respondent’s educational level. The results show that it is only those who attended primary school believe that majority believe that the challenges faced in the urban centre are of higher magnitude compared to the rural centre (Table 4.5). However, half of those who have no formal education and those who have tertiary education believed that the challenges in urban centres are more pervasive. Majority of the remaining educational categories believed that the challenges in the rural settlements far exceed that of the urban centre. A Pearson chi-square test of independence was run between these variables to test if there is any relationship between them. The Pearson chi- square test value is 27.1 and the p-value is 0.000 which is lower than the significant value of 0.05. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh this means that there is a relationship between level of education and perception of magnitude of challenges in rural and urban locations. Table 4. 5: Crosstabulation between magnitude of problem between previous and current location and respondents’ level of education Level of education Previous Now Frequency 8 8 No formal education Percent 50.0% 50.0% Primary School Frequency 5 17 Percent 22.7% 77.3% JHS/Middle School Frequency 35 8 Percent 81.4% 18.6% Vocational/Technical Frequency 8 0 Percent 100.0% 0.0% SSS Frequency 5 2 Percent 71.4% 28.6% Tertiary Frequency 2 2 Percent 50.0% 50.0% Total Frequency 63 37 Percent 63.0% 37.0% Source: fieldwork, 2018. In terms of opportunities almost all the respondents (94%) agreed that there are a lot more opportunities in Accra compared to their previous settlements. The opportunities mentioned include availability of jobs, existence of better services and social amenities such as better schools, 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hospitals, transport systems among others. There is also the existence of markets to sell and also to buy from and water is well treated compared to the villages where they do not get access to potable drinking water. These, coming together makes the urban area comparatively conducive to inhabit compared to the rural areas. In finding out how these opportunities are important in improving living conditions, respondents were asked to rate between not too important, important and very important in terms of the contributions of these opportunities to livelihood development. The results show that majority of 87% of the respondents rated opportunities as very important with 7% rating it as important whilst the least of 6% rated opportunities as not too important. NOT TOO IMPORTANT 6% IMPORTANT 7% VERY IMPORTANT 87% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Figure 4. 7: Importance of opportunities in livelihood development Source: fieldwork, 2018. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh These results affirm the argument made by Awumbila et al (2014), that migrants live under harsh conditions in Accra due to their inability to have access to certain basic necessities. Although the challenges limit their opportunities in sustaining their livelihoods, migrants are able to use their human agency sometimes to device additional survival strategies. 4.5 Coping mechanisms adopted by migrants to deal with challenges The study went ahead to explore how respondents cope with the challenges they encounter as a result of living in urban areas. This was approached from the association of respondents with social and religious groups. First of all, the study sought to find out if there are any organizations that deal with community welfare and provide support to those in difficulty. Respondents were therefore asked if they are aware of any of such organizations or associations. Majority of the respondents (63%) said they are not aware of any such organizations whilst the minority of 37% said they know of such associations. It was realized that these associations include churches, and other social groups such as tribal associations, keep fit clubs, among others. This means that either there isn’t a lot of social organizations in the study area or people are not aware of existing organizations that ensure the welfare of people. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 63 60 50 40 37 30 20 10 0 YES NO Figure 4. 8: Existence of welfare associations in community Source: fieldwork, 2018 The study went ahead to find out how community members participate in some of these associations. It was revealed that majority of the respondents are not part or do not participate in these associations that ensure community welfare. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30%, 30% YES NO 70%, 70% Figure 4. 9: participation in associations Source: fieldwork, 2018 This means that residents may be limited in terms of how they can secure external help when they are in need of assistance in times of difficulty. This could make them vulnerable and reduce their ability to cope with certain stresses in the urban centre. Further, the study assessed how religious organizations respondents are part of help in addressing the challenges faced by respondents. A general question that demands a yes or no answer was therefore passed on to respondents as to whether they think their religious groups are helpful in addressing some of the challenges they face. The results show that majority of the respondents (52.2%) do not believe that religious organizations are helpful in addressing their needs (Figure 4.10). 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53.00% 52.20% 52.00% 51.00% 50.00% 49.00% 47.80% 48.00% 47.00% 46.00% 45.00% Yes No Figure 4. 10: Whether religious groups are helpful in addressing challenges Source: fieldwork, 2018. A crosstabulation was run between respondents’ religion and whether they think religious groups are helpful in addressing challenges. It can be observed from Table 4.6 that majority of respondents belonging to the Christian religion (66.7%) do not believe that religious institutions are helpful in addressing challenges whilst majority of Muslims believe otherwise (62.2%). Following this up with a chi-square test of independence the results show that there is a significant relationship between religion and whether respondents believe religious institutions help in addressing challenges. The chi-square test value obtained is 7.52 whilst the p-value is 0.006. Since the p-value is lower than the chi-square value it confirms that there is a relationship between religion and perception on whether religious help in addressing challenges. This could mean that Muslims believe more in communal living as compared to Christians who may believe more in the family system as a form of support to one another. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 6: A crosstabulation between respondents’ religion and how religious groups help in addressing challenges YES NO CHRISTIAN Frequency 15 30 Percent 33.3% 66.7% MUSLIM Frequency 28 17 Percent 62.2% 37.8% Total Frequency 43 47 Percent 47.8% 52.2% Source: fieldwork, 2018. Some of the respondents who agreed that religious institutions provide support gave reasons such as annual meeting of their groups to contribute and help the less privileged in society. Some also talked about donations in foster homes and to hospital wards as part of the contributions made by religious groups in addressing challenges in society. 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6 Chapter summary This chapter focused on the discussion of the results of the study. Emphasis was placed on the demographic characteristics of respondents, the impacts of rural urban migration on socio- economic status, the challenges migrants go through in urban areas and lastly the coping strategies adopted by migrants to deal with the challenges. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction This chapter focus on three main issues of the study which are the summary, conclusions and recommendations. The summary contains the key findings derived from the Chapter four. Conclusions are drawn based on the key findings and then finally both policy and future research recommendations made to end the chapter. 5.2 Summary of key findings The study adopted a mixed method approach where both qualitative and quantitative methods were applied in achieving the study objectives. In all, 100 semi-structured questionnaires were administered within Abossey Okai Zongo in the Accra Metropolitan District. The study found out that there were more female respondents than males and more people had completed JHS/Middle school as compared to any other level of education. Also, there were more Christians than Muslims according to the results obtained. Majority of the respondents earned less than GHS 200 a month and they were married. The second objective of the study was to look at the effects of rural urban migration on the livelihoods of migrants. The results indicate that most respondents agree that their livelihoods have been improved after migrating and there are a lot more opportunities in Accra than in their previous rural settlements. Most respondents were also of the view that there is a relationship between gender and level of livelihood improvement of migrants after migration. Majority of the respondents also believed that their ability to improve their livelihoods is dependent on both structures and their personal efforts. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The second objective looked at the challenges migrants in urban areas go through. The study revealed migrants go through a lot of challenges including high cost of living that results from high rent charges among others. Poor roads, water shortage, lack of jobs and chieftaincy and land disputes were among some of the challenges faced by rural urban migrants in Accra. However, the study revealed that although there are challenges in the urban areas people still believe these challenges are lower than those found in the rural areas and would still prefer to live in an urban area. The last objective looked at the coping strategies adopted by migrants to mitigate the challenges they face in the urban centres. The results show that one of the main ways in which people cope with challenges is to join religious and other social groups in their locality. Most of the respondents do not believe in the religious organizations helping to address the challenges they face. However, Majority of Muslims believe in religious organizations being agents that address challenges compared to minority of Christians who believe same. The study therefore found a significant relationship between religion and whether religious groups help in addressing challenges. 5.3 Conclusions Based on the findings of the study the following conclusions are made: First of all, rural urban migrants have poor socio-demographic backgrounds with low education and income levels. Secondly, the study concludes that the livelihoods of rural urban migrants have experienced improvement after migration to Accra. Job opportunities have comparatively increased for migrants and income levels also risen. Migrants have access to better social services and facilities. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study also concludes that migrants go through some challenges and the challenges have negative effects on the livelihoods of migrants. Some of these challenges include high accommodation cost and rent advance, high cost of living, bad roads, water shortages, among others. However, the study concludes that although there are challenges in urban areas there are better opportunities in the rural areas. Lastly, the study concludes that the major coping strategy adopted by rural urban migrants is by joining religious and other social organizations in order to reduce the challenges they face and get help in times of need. 5.4 Recommendations The study has first of all helped to reveal that rural urban migrants have comparatively low socio- economic status in terms of income and level of education. It is therefore recommended that although the government has made education free to the secondary level, efforts are made to ensure its sustainability and put measures in place so that people within the school going age will be enrolled and educated. This will equip the population to have a wider opportunity in terms of securing jobs. The study has also helped in identifying that migrants are better off in urban centres compared to living in rural areas in terms of their socio-economic status. It is therefore recommended that efforts are put in place by district assemblies and other development agents in rural areas to boost the local capacity so that equal opportunities can be provided. This can be done on a multi-sector approach where all stakeholders will be brought on board to look for the best way. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study has shown that there are a lot of challenges that migrants face in Accra and therefore it is recommended that serious attention is paid to the development of proper infrastructure such as quality roads and the enforcement of rent laws to avoid long advance rent demand from house owners. Also, there should be education on the need for more private people and groups to assist government in the provision of certain services in the urban centres. The study recommends that future research interrogates the reasons why there is a relationship between gender and improvement in livelihood of migrants. This will help inform policy on the best way to deal with challenges that target gender. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Ackah, C., & Medvedev, D. (2012). Internal migration in Ghana: determinants and welfare impacts. International Journal of Social Economics, 39(10), 764-784. Ackah, C., & Medvedev, D. (2012). Internal migration in Ghana: determinants and welfare impacts. International Journal of Social Economics, 39(10), 764-784. Awumbila, M. (2015). World Migration Report 2015: Linkages between Urbanization, Rural– Urban Migration and Poverty Outcomes in Africa. International Organization for Migration. Awumbila, M., Owusu, G., & Teye, J. K. (2014). Can rural-urban migration into slums reduce poverty? Evidence from Ghana. Migrating Out of Poverty Working Paper, 13, 1-41. Cameron, S. (2012). Education, Urban Poverty and Migration: Evidence from Bangladesh and Vietnam. Working Paper 2012-15, UNICEF Office of Research, Florence. Deotti, L., & Estruch, E. (2016). Addressing rural youth migration at its root causes: a conceptual framework. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5718e.pdf Duplantier A., Ksoll C., Lehrer K., and Seitz W. (2017). The internal migration decisions of youth in Ghana. UNU-WIDER, Accra October 5 2017 https://www.wider.unu.edu/sites/default/files/Events/PDF/Slides/MigrationConf-slides- Duplantier.pdf GSS (2015). Ghana Poverty Mapping Report. Accessed on 04/10/2017 at: http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/publications/POVERTY%20MAP%20FOR%20G HANA-05102015.pdf GSS (2014). District Analytical Report Accra Metropolitan Assembly. Accra: GSS. Reed, H. E., Andrzejewski, C. S., & White, M. J. (2010). Men’s and women’s migration in coastal Ghana: An event history analysis. Demographic research, 22. Serbeh, R., Adjei, P. O., and Yeboah, T. (2012). Internal Migration and Poverty Reduction: Rethinking the Debate on the North-South Movement in Ghana. Journal of Social Sciences Skeldon, R. (1997). Rural to Urban Migration and its implications on poverty alleviation. Asia Pacific Population Journal, 12(1). 3-16. Songsore, J. (2009). The urban transition in Ghana: Urbanization, National Development and poverty reduction. Retrieved from pubs.iied.org/pdfs/GO2540.pdf 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CENTER FOR MIGRATION STUDIES QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HOUSEHOLD RESPONDENTS Introduction I am a Masters student from the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana undertaking a research on Effects of Rural-Urban Migration on Socio-economic Status in the Accra Metropolitan District. I will be glad if you could spend a few minutes of your time to assist me in this regard by responding to the following questions. You are assured of confidentiality and no direct statement will be attributed to you in the final report. Thank you. SECTION A – DEMORAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS 1. Sex a. Male b. Female 2. How old are you? …………… years 3. What is the highest level of education you have attained? 1. No formal education 2. Primary school 3. JHS/Middle School 4. Vocational/Technical 5. SSS/O’Level 6. Tertiary 4. What is your occupation? ……………………………………… 5. What is your religion? 1. Christian 2. Muslim 3. ATR 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. Other (please specify……………………….) 6. What is your current marital status? 1. Married 2. Single 3. Divorced 4. Separated 5. Widowed 7. What is your average monthly income? 1. Below GHC 200 2. GHC 201-500 3. GHC 501-1000 4. Above GHC 1000 8. How long have you lived in this community? ……………………years 9. How many people are in your household? …………………… 10. What is your occupancy status? 1. Rented 2. Owned 3. Family house 4. Other (please specify:……………) 11. In which region were you born? ……………… 12. If not born in Accra when did you migrate to Accra? 13. Why did you move to Accra? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… SECTION B – EFFECTS OF RURAL URBAN MIGRATION ON LIVELIHOODS OF MIGRANTS 14. Has your source of livelihood changed after moving to Accra? 1. Yes 2. No 15. If yes what was your source of livelihood before moving to Accra? …………………………….. 16. How will you describe your source of livelihood before moving to Accra? 1. Good 2. Very good 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. Neutral 4. Poor 5. Very poor 17. How would you describe your source of livelihood now? 1. Good 2. Very good 3. Neutral 4. Poor 5. Very poor 18. How will you describe life after moving to Accra? 1. Improved 2. Same 3. Worsened 19. Please explain your answer in 18. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 20. Among the structures in Accra and your previous rural settlement which one is more likely to make you improve your livelihood and why? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 21. What do you think your ability to improve your livelihood depend on? 1. Yourself 2. Where you live 3. Both 22. Do you regret migrating to Accra? 1. Yes 2. No SECTION C – CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN URBAN CENTRES 23. What are some of the challenges that you face in this community? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 24. Do you think these challenges affect your ability to improve your livelihood? 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. Yes 2. No 25. If your answer is yes what is the magnitude of this effect on your livelihood progress? 1. Very strong 2. Strong 3. Mild 26. Comparing the challenges in Accra and your previous rural settlement, which one is more intense and affects your livelihood negatively? 1. Previous 2. Now 27. Do you think there are more opportunities in Accra than in your previous rural settlement? 1. Yes 2. No 28. Mention some of the opportunities in Accra that cannot be found in the rural setting. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 29. How important are these opportunities in improving your livelihood? 1. Very important 2. Important 3. Not too important SECTION D – COPING STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING CHALLENGES IN THE URBAN CENTER 30. How do you deal with the challenges mentioned above that you face in this community? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 31. Do you have any association in this community that discusses community welfare? 1. Yes 2. No 32. Are you a member of this association? 1. Yes 2. No 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33. Do you think the religious organization that you are part of helps in addressing some of the challenges you face in this community? 1. Yes 2. No 34. Please explain ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 35. In general, how do you think the challenges encountered in the urban centre can be addressed? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 36. Do you have anything to say on rural-urban migration that I did not mention? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 61