UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS AND DIPLOMACY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES FIGHTING ORGANIZED CRIME IN WEST AFRICA: THE CASE OF COMMUNITY POLICING IN GHANA BY GEORGE PEPRAH MILLS (M.A. INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS) (10169086) This dissertation is submitted to the University of Ghana, Legon in Partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of MA IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS Degree DECEMBER, 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I, George Peprah Mills, hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of an original research conducted by me under the supervision of Emmanuel Ken Ahorsu (PhD), and that no part of it has been submitted elsewhere for any other purpose. ……………………………………… ………………………………………….. George Peprah Mills E. Ken Ahorsu (PhD) (Student) (Supervisor) Date: 22/12/2023 Date: 22/12/2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to me for rising above the numerous challenges of my job as a police officer to have computed this work and my master’s programme generally, and to my wife, Monica Amoabil for her encouragement, physical and spiritual support. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who have contributed to the successful completion of this research project. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Emmanuel Ken Ahorsu, for their guidance, encouragement, and support throughout the research process. This expertise and insights have been invaluable in shaping my research and helping me stay on track. I am deeply grateful to all the participants who generously shared their time and experiences with me. Their contributions have been invaluable in my understanding of the topic at hand. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their unwavering support and encouragement throughout the research process. Without their love and encouragement, this project would not have been possible. Thank you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv LIST OF TABLES Table 4. 1. Response Rate ................................................................................................................... 49 Table 4. 2. Age of Respondents .......................................................................................................... 51 Table 4. 3. Educational level attained ............................................................................................... 53 Table 4. 4 . Marital Status of Respondents ....................................................................................... 54 Table 4. 5. Common types of crime in the target areas ................................................................... 57 Table 4. 6. Effects of Crime on development in the target areas .................................................... 59 Table 4. 7. Community policing strategies for crime prevention in the target communities ....... 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3. 1.1. Map of Greater Accra. Source: (Altan, Twumasi, & Shao, 2020) ........................... 24 Figure 3. 2. Map of the western region of Ghana. Source: (WRCC, 2019) .................................... 25 Figure 3. 3. Map of the Eastern Region with its districts. Source: (Alhassan & Hadwen, 2017) 26 Figure 3. 4. Map of the Upper East Region (Alhassan & Hadwen, 2017) ..................................... 27 Figure 3. 5. Map of the Volta Region. Source: (Adadey, Ayee, Languon, Quansah, & Quaye, 2019) ..................................................................................................................................................... 28 Figure 3. 6. Source: (Mumuni, Yaa, & Oladele, 2013) .................................................................... 29 Figure 4. 1. Sex of respondents. Source (Field data, 2022) .............................................................. 50 Figure 4. 2. Occupation of respondents. Source (Field data, 2022) ................................................ 52 Figure 4. 3. Religion of respondents. Source (Field data, 2022) ...................................................... 55 Figure 4. 4. Length of stay in study area. Source (Field data, 2022) .............................................. 56 Figure 4. 5. Awareness of the existence of community policing strategies. Effects of Crime on development in the target areas. Source (Field Data, 2022) ............................................................ 62 Figure 4. 6. Knowledge and purpose of community policing. Source (Field Data, 2022) ............. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi Figure 4. 7. Assessing coordination of police and stakeholders in crime management. Source (Field Data, 2022) ................................................................................................................................ 63 Figure 4. 8. Perception of community policing implementation in the target communities. Source (Field data, 2022) .................................................................................................................... 66 LIST OF ACRONYMS CID Criminal Investigations Department CPU Community Policing Unit ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ER Eastern Region GPS Ghana Police Service GSS Ghana Statistical Service ICT Information and Communications Technology JHS Junior High School MOFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture SHS Senior High School SITU Statistics and Information Technology Unit UN United Nations UNODC The United Nation’s Office on Drugs and Crime University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION.................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. DEDICATION....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.i ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.ii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................. v LIST OF ACRONYMS........................................................................................................................ vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... vii CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................... 1 RESEARCH DESIGN .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH ..................................................................................... 1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................................................. 6 1.2.1. Aim of the study .......................................................................................................................... 7 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................... 7 1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 8 1.5. SCOPE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................. 8 1.6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY.............................................................................................. 9 THESIS STATEMENT ................................................................................................................. 9 1.7. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................. 10 1.7.1 Preventive Diplomacy ............................................................................................................ 10 1.7.2 Historical Evolution of Preventive Diplomacy .................................................................... 11 1.7.3 Preventive Diplomacy and Organized Crime ...................................................................... 12 1.7.4 Criticisms of Preventive Diplomacy ..................................................................................... 13 1.8. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 13 1.8.1 History of Community Policing ............................................................................................ 13 1.8.2. History of Policing in West Africa ....................................................................................... 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 1.8.3 The Concept of Organized Crime ........................................................................................ 18 1.8.4. Transnational Security Threats ........................................................................................... 21 1.9. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 22 1.10. STUDY POPULATION AND SAMPLE .................................................................................. 23 1.11. COMMUNITY POLICING IN THE TARGET STUDY AREA ........................................... 23 1.11.1. Greater Accra Region ......................................................................................................... 23 1.11.2. Western Region ................................................................................................................... 24 1.11.3. Eastern Region .................................................................................................................... 24 1.11.4. Upper East Region .............................................................................................................. 25 1.11.5. Volta Region ......................................................................................................................... 26 1.11.6. Ashanti Region .................................................................................................................... 27 1.12. Selection and Delineation of the Study Area(s) ....................................................................... 29 1.13. Nature of organized crime in the study areas.......................................................................... 29 1.14. Sampling Frame ......................................................................................................................... 29 1.15. Sample Size of the Study ........................................................................................................... 30 1.16. Data Collection ........................................................................................................................... 30 1.17. Data Analyses ............................................................................................................................. 30 1.8. Limitations of the study ............................................................................................................... 31 1.19. Arrangements of Chapters ....................................................................................................... 32 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................ 32 OVERVIEW OF ORGANISED CRIME IN WEST AFRICA ....................................................... 32 2.1. Overview of organized crime in West Africa ......................................................................... 32 2.1.1. The main forms and types of organized crime in West Africa .......................................... 33 2.1.2. Scope and magnitude of organised crime in West Africa .................................................. 34 2.2 Factors contributing to organized crime in West Africa .......................................................... 36 region ............................................................................................................................................... 36 2.2.2. How the factors interact and reinforce each other ............................................................ 36 2.3 The impact of organized crime on West Africa2.3.1. The impact of organized crime on the security, economic, political, and social ........................................................................................... 37 development of West Africa ........................................................................................................... 37 2.3.1. Long-term consequences of organized crime for the region ............................................. 37 2.4 Current responses to organized crime in West Africa .............................................................. 38 2.4.1. Current approaches and strategies used to combat organized crime in the region ........ 38 2.4.2. Effectiveness and limitations to the current approaches ................................................... 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 2.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 40 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 41 3.1. Community Policing in Ghana ................................................................................................... 41 3.2. History and Implementation of Community Policing in Ghana ............................................. 42 3.3. Effectiveness of Community Policing in Combating Organized Crime in Ghana ................. 43 3.4. Potential for Adapting and Implementing Community Policing in Other West African Countries ............................................................................................................................................. 44 3.5. Challenges and Limitations of Community Policing in Ghana ............................................... 45 3.6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................................................................................ 46 3.7. Data Analysis and Presentation .................................................................................................. 46 3.8. Description of the study sample .................................................................................................. 47 3.9. Response Rate .............................................................................................................................. 47 3.9.1. Sex of respondents ................................................................................................................ 48 3.9.2. Age of Respondents ............................................................................................................... 49 3.9.3. Occupation of respondents ................................................................................................... 50 3.9.4. Educational level of respondents ......................................................................................... 51 3.9.5. Marital status of respondents .............................................................................................. 52 3.9.6. Religion of respondents ........................................................................................................ 53 3.9.7. Length of stay in municipality/district/region in years...................................................... 54 3.9.8. Common types of crime in the target areas ........................................................................ 56 3.9.9. Effects of Crime on development in the target areas ......................................................... 58 3.9.10. Community Policing Strategies and Community Participation Effectiveness in Crime Management .................................................................................................................................... 60 3.9.11. Community policing strategies for crime prevention in the target communities .......... 63 3.9.12. Perception of community policing implementation in the target communities ............. 65 3.10. Discussion of Results.................................................................................................................. 66 3.10.1. Demographics ...................................................................................................................... 66 3.10.2. Discussion on common types of crime in the target areas ............................................... 67 3.10.3. Discussion on the Effects of Crime on development in the target areas ........................ 68 3.10.4. Discussion on Community Policing Strategies and Community Participation Effectiveness in Crime Management ............................................................................................ 69 3.10.5. Discussion on Perception of community policing implementation in the target communities .................................................................................................................................... 71 CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................................. 73 4.0. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................... 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x 4.1. Summary of findings ................................................................................................................... 73 .4.2. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................. 74 4.3. Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 75 4.4. Future research recommendations ............................................................................................. 76 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................... 77 2.2.1. The main factors that contribute to the growth and spread of organized crime in the ABSTRACT This study utilized a mixed descriptive design approach, incorporating both sequential transformative and concurrent transformative approaches, to examine the impact of community policing on crime prevention and management in various communities in Ghana. Adopting a positivistic paradigm, the study collected data through observations and surveys in the Upper East, Western, Eastern, Volta, and Greater Accra Regions. The sample frame for the study consisted of communities in these regions that have implemented community policing initiatives. The study found that there is a significant level of crime reduction in the target communities, with 31.4% of respondents strongly agreeing and 57.3% agreeing with this statement. The majority of respondents also had confidence in the police (35.1% strongly agreeing and 57.6% agreeing) and believed that the police are friendly and can be relied on for assistance (33.8% strongly agreeing and 59.4% agreeing). In terms of community policing strategies, the study found that visibility strategies, such as decentralizing police posts to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi communities, and door-to-door visit strategies were particularly effective in improving safety and reducing crime. Overall, the study highlights the importance of community participation and effective community policing strategies in promoting crime prevention and management in target communities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE RESEARCH DESIGN 1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH In the past, the West African sub region was able to effectively resolve intrastate conflicts in the region through mediation and deploying troops. The advent of new and growing transnational threats to West Africa's peace and security, on the other hand, has introduced and posed a new layer of risk to the region's security. Akokpari (2016) argues that West Africa has been enveloped by terrorism, cybercrime, and organized transnational and cross-border crime among others. Organized crime is a serious and growing threat to national and international security, with farreaching implications for public safety, public health, democratic institutions, and global economic stability. The United Nation’s Office on Drugs and Crime estimates that human trafficking victim’s number up to 2.4 million per year resulting from organized crime (UNODC, Transnational Organized Crime: Let's Put Them out of Business, 2022). Criminal networks are not only expanding, but also diversifying their operations, resulting in the convergence of previously disparate threats with explosive and disruptive repercussions. As a result, Ellis and Shaw (2015) expressed the international worry over the expansion of organized crime on the African continent, particularly in the West African sub region. Darkwa (2006) expressed the fragility arising from insurrections, secession attempts, terrorists’ activities, murders, abductions and the proliferation of arms among others. in the West Africa sub region. For example, activities of Boko haram have increased since 2011. In 2014, the group kidnapped over two hundred girls from their schools in Nigeria and this drew international attention. In February 2018, more than one hundred thousand students were also kidnapped by Boko Haram. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Again, the Biafra, the secessionist movement in eastern Nigeria declared its independence in 1967 and collapsed in 1970. However, in 1999, it re-founded the movement and several activities had been carried out in an attempt to regain its independence from Nigeria. Also, in September 2020, the Western Togoland Restoration Front mounted roadblocks and attacked police precincts in areas of the Volta Region such as North Tongu District in an attempt to declare their independence from Ghana. Moreover, cybercrime is any criminal activity that involves a computer, networked device or a network. This form of crime originated from Nigeria and therefore became known as the ‘Nigerian letter’, but the phenomenon has in recent times assumed remarkable criminal dimensions through which thousands of young people operating from cybercafés in West Africa syphoning millions of dollars from victims across the world each year. In 2008, for instance, about 275 284 complaints with a total loss of US$265 million were received in the united states alone, with victims on average losing about US$931. In addition, the crime rate is estimated to have increased by about 33.1% from the previous year. In a region suffering from serious poverty, with rising youth unemployment rates and endemic corruption, the flamboyant display of wealth by cyber criminals has become a lure to the poor and unemployed youth desperate to share in the wealth. As a result, recent trends point to the increasing involvement of young economic and social desperadoes from many countries other than Nigeria. The Nigerian letter has become so popular among semi-literate young people that it has seen a rapid regionalization into a ‘West African letter’. Thus, Cybercrime in West Africa. Furthermore, human trafficking or trafficking in persons is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, trading or receipt of persons for the purpose of exploitation within and across national borders by use of threats, force or other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, the abuse of power or exploitation of vulnerability, or giving or receiving payments University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 and benefits to achieve consent. Exploitation includes at the minimum; induced prostitution and other form of sexual exploitation; forced labour or service; slavery or practices similar to slavery; servitude or the removal of organs; or the placement for sale, bonded placement, temporary placement, placement as service where exploitation by someone else is the motivating factor (Source: Human trafficking Act, 2005, act 694 as amended by human trafficking Act, 2009, Act 785) It is further estimated that 3.5 million Africans are human trafficking victims at any given moment, of which 99% of victims detected in West Africa are trafficked within the sub-region or in their own country (Africa Centre for Strategic Study 2021) To add to the above-organized crimes, drug trafficking is also in existence in West Africa. West Africa has become a hub for cocaine coming on ships and planes from Latin America into poorly guarded West African posts and airfields. The shipments are then broken down into smaller consignments and sent to Europe by a variety of means. Distribution is mostly done by criminal groups among the West African diaspora. Seizures indicate that much of the cocaine is destined for Spain and the United Kingdom, the two largest cocaine markets in Europe. Because drug trafficking is a serious threat to security in West Africa, it is on agenda of the United Nations Security Council, the Peacebuilding Commissions, the Economic Community of Western African States and the European Union. The West African sub-region is no longer just a transit route for hard drugs but also a final destination. The 2012 World Drug Report(WDR) highlights the association of drug users with acquisitive crime as well as behavioural challenges including aggression or violence. While the above revelations question the nature, effectiveness and resilience of the existing legal and institutional framework for responding to drug trafficking in West Africa, the emerging drug University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 consumption levels in the sub-region suggests the potential impact of drugs on human security in West Africa (Wabala 2013). Last but not the least, illegal mining is defined locally (Ghanaian contest) as mining operations in which miners without license have no concessions of their own operate uncontrollably within concessions of large-scale mining companies or in areas prohibited for mining (Aryee, 2013; Hilson et al, 2013). In Ghana, small-scale mining (SSM) has been carried out for many years, generating employment and income. Currently, illegal artisanal mining (‘galamsey’) has impacted the environment negatively, resulting in land degradation and water pollution. The government of Ghana, responding to public outcry against the negative effect of ‘galamsey’, placed a ban on illegal small-scale mining activities in march, 2017. This ban stopped both ‘legal’ small-scale and the illegal artisanal miners from carrying out any such activity. Couples with Military Coups in Burkina Faso and Guinea, these activities have been evidences to the manifestations of organizes crime in West Africa in recent times. Because of structural problems such as being multi-ethnic societies with porous borders that frequently separate the same ethnic groups, communities, and in some cases towns into distinct sovereign jurisdictions, states in West African have been referred to as weak states (Jackson & Rosberg, 1982). As weak states are not able to maintain a functioning economic infrastructure, control its territory, provide jobs, social security, among others; these create opportunities for organized crime to step in and fill the void by providing employment, protection and some kind of stability. The volatility of states in West Africa creates an enabling environment for organized crime to thrive. States in West Africa suffer from poor economies and weak governance. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Because of this, Mazzitelli (2007) alludes that organized crimes such as drug trafficking, migrant smuggling, human trafficking, proliferation of small arms and light weapons, armed robbery, cyber fraud, and abduction are all prevalent in states in West Africa As a result of its negative impact of organizes crime on society, international organizations such as the UN and sub-regional entities like ECOWAS have taken keen interests in fighting the canker. Because criminal networks are more fluid and employ increasingly sophisticated techniques, the threat from organized crime has become more multifaceted. The interconnected nature of today's trading, transportation, and transactional networks, which move people and things around the world and across borders has facilitated the activities of organized crime. To combat organized crime today, an integrated and comprehensive approach is required. Organized crime poses sophisticated and multi-faceted dangers that law enforcement alone will not be able to fight. There is the need therefore, according to a report by the White House (2011) to have interagency working groups to identify those organized crime networks that pose a sufficiently high national security threat to warrant the focused use of complementary law enforcement and non-law enforcement assets. Due to the sophisticated nature of organized crime and the inability to fight it using traditional policing, the concept of community policing come in handy as a complementary measure towards fighting organized crime in West Africa. As a (UN, 2009) report opined, community policing operates on the principle that police can only be successful if it operates in close cooperation with the community, therefore the concept is regarded as key to effective fight against organized crime. This study therefore looks at challenges or threats that organized crimes pose to West Africa and to study how community policing mitigates organized crimes in West Africa with Ghana as a case study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Organized crime in West Africa has become a significant international security concern since the year 2000 due to the prevalence of activities such as drug trafficking, migrant smuggling, human trafficking, proliferation of small arms and light weapons, armed robbery, cyber fraud, and kidnapping among others (Mazzitelli, 2007). The nature of organized crime is both international and internal, requiring a multi-faceted approach to address the problem. (Mazzitelli, 2007). These traffickers, smugglers, armed robbers, drug dealers, fraudsters, kidnappers and others live in the communities and that the aim of community policing is to provide police services to the people at their door steps. This is to prevent the above-mentioned criminals to move about their criminal activities freely. To buttress the above point, when policing is embedded in the community, information gathering about the above-mentioned crimes become very easy. Secondly, community policing frightens the above-mentioned criminals to settle in the communities where they operate and the community people feel more protected. In view of the above, Community policing, which entails the police working in collaboration with the community, has been proposed as a complementary approach to traditional law enforcement in addressing the threat of organized crime (Thakur, 2014). According to the Community Policing Consortium, despite being labelled as community policing, the concept entails police collaborating with members of the public to combat organized crime in local neighbourhoods. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2022) suggests that to effectively tackle organized crime, it is necessary to implement relevant United Nations conventions at both normative and operational levels, build national, regional, and transnational initiatives to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 confront organized crime, and properly collect and analyse criminal intelligence. However, despite organized crime being transnational in nature, traditional military approaches are not sufficient to effectively address it. This is because transnational criminals, their networks, and operations are often situated in communities. This study aims to fill the gap in understanding the effectiveness and problematic aspects of police-community collaboration in combating organized crime in Ghana. By doing so, it aims to contribute to the development of more effective and sustainable strategies for addressing this pressing issue in West Africa. 1.2.1. Aim of the study The aim of this study is to provide police services to the community, with a specific focus on preventing organized crime within the communities. The study will aim to explore the potential for adapting and implementing community policing strategies in other West African countries, and to examine the effectiveness of community policing in combating organized crime in Ghana. Through a thorough examination of the literature on community policing and preventive diplomacy, the study will seek to identify the key elements of successful community policing programs and the potential for such programs to be adapted and implemented in other West African countries. Additionally, the study will aim to assess the effectiveness of community policing in combating organized crime in Ghana and to identify any challenges or limitations that may need to be addressed in order to improve the effectiveness of these programs. Ultimately, the goal of this study is to provide insights that can inform the development and implementation of effective community policing strategies that can help to prevent organized crime and promote peace and security within communities in West Africa. 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The general objective is to find out how community policing has been able to fight organized crime in West Africa. Specifically, the study will consider the following objectives to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 1. Examine international organized crime in all its manifestations and prevalence in West Africa. 2. Examine international organized crime in all its manifestations and prevalence in the Ghanaian communities. 3. Find out the philosophy, logic, objectives and advantages of using community policing to fight organized crime inn west Africa and Ghana. 4. Evaluate how effective has community been in Ghana, including its successes and challenges. Based upon the findings, this study will make suggestions and recommendations for improving community policing in the fight against organized crime. 1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The following are the research questions guiding the study are: 1. What are the forms of organized crime prevalent in West Africa in general and Ghana in particular and how do they threaten communities? 2. What is the philosophy and logic behind using community policing to address organized crime in Ghana in particular and West Africa by extension? 3. What have been the successes, challenges, and prospects of community policing in combating organized crime in Ghana in particular and West Africa in general? Based on the findings, the study will make suggestions and recommendations for improving community policing as a tool for addressing organized crime in the West African sub-region. 1.5. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study focuses on the phenomenon of community policing in combating organized crime in West Africa and Ghana. Specifically, examines the effectiveness and problematic aspects of police-community collaboration in addressing transnational security threats, such as drug University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 trafficking, migrant smuggling, human trafficking, proliferation of small arms and light weapons, armed robbery, cyber fraud and kidnapping in these regions. The study also explores the potential advantages of using community policing as a complementary approach to traditional law enforcement in addressing these transnational security threats. Additionally, the study will evaluate the successes and challenges of community policing in Ghana, specifically in the Greater Accra, Western, Ashanti, Upper East, Eastern and Volta regions since its introduction in 2002. The study is drawn on existing literature and data to provide a comprehensive analysis of the topic and its potential applicability in other countries in West Africa. 1.6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The essentials of security have moved from national security largely to include human security. Human security is best protected through community securities. It is therefore hoped that the findings of the study, thus, the community policing fight against organized crime will help security personnel and government officials and policy makers to improve human security in West Africa. Again, Organized crime has become a global issue for weak states such as those in West Africa, it is important to fight them in the communities before they mushroom in the West Africa subregional arena. Therefore, it is hoped that, the findings will help government, the academic and policy markers to use community policing concept to fight organized crime in West Africa and Ghana. The study will also provide new insight and serve as a starting point for further research on this topic. THESIS STATEMENT It can be safely argued that C. P. has helped reduced the impact of crime in Ghana in particular and West Africa by extension. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 1.7. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 1.7.1 Preventive Diplomacy Preventive diplomacy is a proactive approach to addressing potential conflicts before they escalate into violent crises. The concept of preventive diplomacy is not new, but it has gained renewed attention in recent years as a means of addressing emerging security challenges, including the threat of organized crime. The United Nations (UN) defines preventive diplomacy as "action to prevent disputes from arising between parties, to prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts and to limit the spread of the latter when they occur, (United Nations, 2018). Preventive diplomacy can take a variety of forms, including diplomatic engagement, dialogue, and conflict resolution. It can be implemented at different levels, including between states, within states, and at the regional and global levels. The goal of preventive diplomacy is to address the underlying issues and root causes of potential conflicts, rather than simply addressing the symptoms. There have been several examples of preventive diplomacy in practice, such as the Dayton Accords that ended the Bosnian War in 1995, (Holbrooke, 1998) and the Good Friday Agreement that ended the Northern Ireland conflict in 1998, (George, 1999). In the context of organized crime, preventive diplomacy can be used to address the underlying issues that contribute to the growth and spread of criminal networks, such as poverty, unemployment, and weak governance. Preventive diplomacy has been applied in the context of organized crime in West Africa, particularly in the areas of maritime security and drug trafficking. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has implemented a preventive diplomacy approach to addressing maritime insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea, which is a major transit point for illicit drugs and other contraband (ECOWAS, 2019). Similarly, the West Africa Coast Initiative University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 (WACI), a partnership between the UN and the African Union, has used preventive diplomacy to address the threat of drug trafficking in the region, (UNODC, West Africa: Organized crime and illicit markets, 2018). However, there are also challenges to the implementation of preventive diplomacy in the context of organized crime. One major challenge is the lack of political will among states to address the underlying issues that contribute to organized crime, such as corruption and weak governance. Additionally, there is often a lack of resources and capacity among regional and international organizations to effectively implement preventive diplomacy initiatives. 1.7.2 Historical Evolution of Preventive Diplomacy The concept of preventive diplomacy, which aims to address potential conflicts before they escalate, has a long history dating back to the early 20th century. The League of Nations, established in 1919, was the first international organization to promote the principle of collective security, which is a key aspect of preventive diplomacy, (Thakur, 2014). However, it was not until the end of the Cold War that preventive diplomacy began to gain widespread acceptance within the international community. In the 1990s, the United Nations (UN) established the Department of Political Affairs (DPA) to coordinate preventive diplomacy efforts. The DPA's mandate is to anticipate, prevent, and resolve conflicts through the use of diplomatic tools, such as mediation and dialogue (United Nations, 2018). In 2002, the UN Secretary-General established the Office for the Coordination of Preventive Diplomacy (OCPD) to enhance the UN's ability to anticipate and prevent conflicts. The OCPD works closely with the DPA, as well as other UN agencies and regional organizations, to promote preventive diplomacy and support conflict prevention efforts, (United Nations, 2018). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 Overall, the historical evolution of preventive diplomacy demonstrates the growing recognition of the importance of addressing potential conflicts before they escalate. The UN's establishment of the DPA and OCPD reflects the commitment of the international community to use diplomatic tools to prevent conflicts and promote peace and security. 1.7.3 Preventive Diplomacy and Organized Crime Preventive diplomacy has increasingly been recognized as a useful tool in addressing the threat of organized crime. Organized crime poses a significant threat to international security, stability, and development, and traditional law enforcement approaches alone are often not sufficient to effectively address this complex problem. Preventive diplomacy, with its focus on early warning, conflict prevention, and post-conflict peacebuilding, has been proposed as a complementary approach to traditional law enforcement in addressing the threat of organized crime. This is due to the ability of preventive diplomacy to address the underlying socioeconomic and political factors that contribute to the rise of organized crime, such as poverty, inequality, and weak governance (Thakur, 2014). According to Thakur, Preventive diplomacy strategies that have been proposed to address organized crime include (1) Building partnerships between governments, civil society, and the private sector to address the root causes of organized crime and create a more conducive environment for sustainable development, (2) , Enhancing regional and international cooperation to improve informationsharing and coordination in the fight against organized crime, (3) Promoting good governance and the rule of law, including efforts to strengthen the capacity of judicial systems and law enforcement agencies to effectively combat organized crime, and. (4) Supporting the development of alternative livelihoods for those at risk of becoming involved in organized crime, such as youth and marginalized communities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 1.7.4 Criticisms of Preventive Diplomacy Despite the potential benefits of preventive diplomacy, the approach has faced criticism for a number of reasons. One of the main criticisms is that it is difficult to define and measure the effectiveness of preventive diplomacy efforts, (Pion-Berlin, 2014). Additionally, some argue that preventive diplomacy can be overly optimistic, assuming that conflicts can be prevented through dialogue and negotiation when in reality, the underlying issues may be too deeply rooted to be resolved in this way, (Thakur, 2014). Conclusively, preventive diplomacy is a proactive approach to addressing potential conflicts before they escalate into violent crises. The concept of preventive diplomacy has gained renewed attention in recent years as a means of addressing emerging security challenges, including the threat of organized crime. Preventive diplomacy, with its focus on early warning, conflict prevention, and post-conflict peacebuilding, has been proposed as a complementary approach to traditional law enforcement in addressing the threat of organized crime. However, the approach has faced criticism for its difficulties in definition, measurement and its overly optimistic assumptions. 1.8. LITERATURE REVIEW This section presents the history and development of policing in West Africa, history of community policing, the underpinnings of the style of police operations known as community policing in the context of organizational change. 1.8.1 History of Community Policing The koban system used in Japan since 1800s served as the inspiration for the community policing idea. To democratize policing, it was brought to the USA (Wang & Lumb, 2012). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 Koban is a police station that has been constructed in strategic locations throughout the city, like in front of train terminals or in busy commercial areas. Given that there are always police present and they keep watch in shifts (referred to as "kotai" in Japanese), the word "Koban" literally means taking turns to keep watch (Leishman, 2007). Community policing is viewed as a substantive approach to serious community problems and solutions, an approach that attempts to involve a comprehensive partnership of police, other public officials, and the public to improve community safety and quality of life (Thurman, Zhao, & Giacomazzi, 2001). When police decided to become more involved in local communities in order to deter and reduce criminal activity, community policing was born (Skolnick & Bayley, 1988). Today's community policing became prominent in the 1960s when urban riots and gang activity were common. Police frequently used brute force to respond to these criminal acts, and the reputation of police suffered as a result. Many residents lacked faith in the police departments in their communities. As a result, some police departments realized that the community was where they needed to be to re-establish trust. Consequently, the police began to develop a stronger local community presence. This reinforces (Wang & Lumb, 2012) view of the Koban system as the foundation of mutual trust between the police and citizens. In addition to law enforcement, the police function includes other duties that have a significant impact on the standard of living in a community (Goldstein, 1987). To this end, Community Policing advocates believe citizens should be involved in the policing process and that, solutions to problems require freeing both residents and police to be creative in solving problems (Duke & Kratcoski, 1995). James Q. Wilson and George Kelling, both of Harvard, promoted the active involvement of police in quality-of-life issues in the community in 1982. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 Braiden (1992) made reference to one of Sir Robert Peele's founding concepts stating that the police are members of the public and the members of the public are the police in order to link the resurgence of community policing to his policing philosophy. According to Peele, a community must essentially police itself, with some members being paid to do so in uniform on a full-time basis while the others handle it on a part-time basis while going about their regular lives. (Meese, 1993), asserted that community policing must be taken into account during the recruitment process and first training of new police. According to Meese, all police active in community policing must now possess the abilities associated with higher ranking officers, such as leadership, communication skills, and qualities of persuasiveness and drive. The curricula at police academies would need to be updated to include more than just routine police duties. Officers should be prepared by the instruction to comprehend their neighbourhoods. In Ghana, Community Policing is a relatively new concept. According to the Ghana Police Service (GPS) Community Policing Unit (CPU) was established in June 2002 in an effort to improve cooperation and communication with regional communities. The CPU acts as the central platform to develop ideas for the design and execution of community policing throughout Ghana. Community policing is the future of inclusive crime combat. Residents are given a sense of ownership, willingness, and personal responsibility for the safety and security of their local communities by including them in police. Through this reciprocal interaction, communities help the police in their efforts to reduce crime. The issue of whether police-community relations are actually stronger in neighbourhoods where community police are present as opposed to places where traditional policing is the norm is still up for debate (Weitzer, 2005). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 Because they were perceived as obtrusive and undesirable or because officers lacked a genuine commitment to community participation, studies of various community policing initiatives have concluded that they did not appreciably enhance communities' relations with the police (Grinc, 1994). However, some studies show that community meetings, foot or bike patrols, and other forms of community policing have beneficial consequences (Weitzer, 2005). 1.8.2. History of Policing in West Africa During the pre-colonial era, numerous nations and societies of Sub-Saharan Africa lacked professional full-time law enforcement agencies. It is scarcely a novel remark to say that in the majority of African nations, policing as we know it now did not exist prior to colonialism. In other instances, centralized monarchs maintained a small force of armed troops to uphold social norms and legal decrees. Elderly community councils were employed to enforce laws and regulations that were memorized and communicated verbally because there were no written laws. Ancestral spirits and other divinities that were seen as exercising omniscient and omnipresent surveillance and rewarding conforming behaviour with health and prosperity while punishing deviant behaviour with a variety of penalties were at the centre of pre-colonial era. (Abotchie, 1997). A distinctive aspect of this disciplinary system of thought was collective punishment. Deviance had adverse effects on the offender as well as their entire family, lineage, and possibly even the clan. Within such a punitive system, policing was a shared duty of all people, especially adults. But the concept that the retribution of ancestral spirits and other supernatural deities were based on three factors—immediacy, escapelessness, and severity—may have been the most distinguishing feature of traditional pre-colonial punitive thinking. (Abotchie, 1997). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 The concept of "immediacy" encapsulated the idea that traditional punishments were exempted from the delays and bureaucracy that modern legal systems are prone to. There were hardly any appeals provisions. The idea of the ancestral spirits being "escapeless" implied that they were all-knowing and that neither an offender nor a social norm breach escaped their attention. The ancestors were not corruptible or prone to bribes either. The ancestral spirits were then considered foundational pillars of the socio-moral order because of the severity of the punishments used to dissuade the rest of society. (Assimeng, 1986). These distinct criminal philosophies in pre-colonial era highlighted the same issues that would later transform European penal philosophy. According to (Tankebe, 2008) States that are highly developed and bureaucratized, like the Ashanti Empire, seem to be an exception, in that, they had specific units—however ad hoc— that could be sent on urgent security missions. Despite this arrangement, (Styles, 1987) argued that even centralized states did not have a specialized group of people specially vested with the responsibility of day-to-day maintenance of law and order. Due to the absence of what we now call professional policing, (Roberts, 1979) argued that in most societies, the maintenance and enforcement of law and order were achieved, generally, through various kinds of mutual surveillance by members of the family, the lineage and the community at large. Professional police forces were developed to enforce laws when European colonial powers conquered practically all of Africa in the late 19th century. According to (Stampleton, 2015) early colonial police forces were primarily paramilitary occupying armies that violently imposed new duties like taxation and forced labour. Africans were being integrated into the emerging colonial capitalist economy. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 (Stampleton, 2015) argued that colonial police forces gradually shed some of their paramilitary ethos and transformed into professional law enforcement organizations as the colonial society and economy took shape in the 1920s and 1930s and the system of indirect rule placed the maintenance of daily law and order in the hands of supposedly traditional African rulers. This change called for a more cooperative approach, more knowledgeable members, and a broader approach to crime prevention that took into account cutting-edge scientific techniques like fingerprinting and forensics. However, (Kappeler & Gaines, 2005) averred that the existence of trained, civilian police is a relatively new invention. Haberfeld (2002) states that the police system as we know it today has its origin in early tribal history. Tribal chiefs would appoint certain persons to assist them in both intimate and administrative duties with which soldiers or other officials could not be trusted. 1.8.3 The Concept of Organized Crime The term organized crime first came into regular use among the members of the Chicago Crime Commission, a civic organization that was created in 1919 by businessmen, bankers and lawyers to promote changes in the criminal justice system in order to better cope with the crime problem. The definition and intellectual development of organized crime as it exists now is heterogeneous, contradictory and shows a lack of coherence and consensus (UNODC, Transnational Organized Crime: Let's Put Them out of Business, 2022). However, (Klaus, 1999) argued that if we concentrate on the imagery that permeates the general perception of organized crime, we can detect a propensity to equate organized crime with ethnically homogeneous, formally structured, multi-functional, monopolistic criminal organizations that seek to undermine and subdue the legal institutions of society. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 According to the (UNODC, Transnational Organized Crime: Let's Put Them out of Business, 2022) a perspective that focuses on activities would define organized crime as any illegal activity that is not impulsive or spontaneous and that all criminals who do not operate in complete social isolation would be viewed as being a part of organized crime. As a result, if another person actively participates in a single criminal's criminal activities, such as by giving him respect or offering important information, that could pass as organized crime. Because of Africa's ineffective state power and governance, organized crime and criminal networks have grown, which makes it more difficult to establish successful states. It can be difficult to define "organized crime" in the African environment. According to (Shaw & Reitano, 2019) the concept of organized crime has just lately been used in talks about African policy; it is so broad that it encompasses a wide spectrum of activity. Rent-seeking from local populations by networks of foreign and local criminal enterprises has been grafted onto the continental trend toward clientelist social and political governance, regardless of whether the trajectory of African governments has been predominantly democratic or autocratic (Bayart, Ellis, & Hibou, 1999). Key characteristics of organized crime in Africa include senior members of African governments and the political elite strategically participating in and leading criminal networks. Additionally, (Ellis & Shaw, 2015), argued that the same elite continuously directs and facilitates the use of instrumental violence in these networks, which is carried out by both state and non-state actors. Smuggling, poaching, profiteering, racketeering, tax evasion, and illegal mineral mining have historically been the core components of organized crime (Opolot, 1981). Most often, dodgy business people and highly placed public officials who abuse their positions are involved in illegal activity and illegal organizations in Africa range from violent gangs with an American- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 style presence in some places to adaptable networks with connections to the state and criminal enterprises. Because there are so many fragile states that could serve as havens for such activities, organized crime poses a huge threat and challenge to Africa in general and West Africa in particular (Commission of the European Communities 2007). Millions of people and numerous nations are affected by the global issue of human trafficking. One of the main problems is the domestic trafficking of minors in Ghana, West Africa. From their home communities, (Johansen, 2006) stated particularly that many Ghanaian youngsters are trafficked to work in the fishing sector. According to a report by Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons at the US Department of State, there were 454 victims of labour trafficking and 45 victims of sex trafficking out of the total 499 victims, down from 508 victims of labour trafficking and 98 victims of sex trafficking in 2019. 417 child victims were found in 2020, compared to 200 in 2019, and the majority of those victims were Ghanaians, a change from the previous year (442 Ghanaian victims identified in 2020, compared with 276 Ghanaians in 2019). Nigerians made up the majority of the 57 casualties who were foreign nationals. Organized criminal activity includes drug trafficking, advanced fee and Internet fraud, human trafficking, counterfeiting, cigarette smuggling, illegal firearm manufacturing, trafficking in firearms, armed robberies, and the theft and smuggling of oil, just like it does elsewhere in the world (Aning, 2008). In Africa, illegal drug sales are a significant public health issue. (Patterson, 2014) argued particularly about their unregulated distribution that could result in a lack of quality assurance and increased health risks for users. The illegal trade raises significant questions about state control over drug use, distribution, and public health. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 Despite the success of the revolution in the information and technology space, (Ennin & Mensah, 2019) contend that a sophisticated crime wave known as cybercrime is currently sweeping society. It has impacted every area of the economy on a large scale, costing organizations that used ICT in some capacity for daily operations money and harming their reputation. Cybercrime has become more prevalent in Ghana as a result of rising internet usage, and those in positions of trust have expressed concern over whether our current legal framework is strong enough to combat the threat. 1.8.4. Transnational Security Threats Transnational security threats, such as organized crime, have become an increasingly pressing issue in recent years. Organized crime poses a significant threat to international security, stability, and development, with transnational criminal networks engaging in activities such as drug trafficking, migrant smuggling, human trafficking, proliferation of small arms and light weapons, and cybercrime, (UNODC, West Africa: Organized crime and illicit markets, 2018). These criminal networks often operate across borders, making it difficult for traditional law enforcement approaches to effectively address the problem. The international community has attempted to address transnational security threats through a variety of mechanisms, such as the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) and the United Nations Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons (UN-GPA), (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2020). However, these efforts have been met with mixed success, highlighting the need for new and innovative approaches. One such approach that has gained attention in recent years is the use of community policing as a tool to combat transnational security threats. Community policing, which involves the police working in collaboration with community members, has been proposed as a way to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 address the root causes of crime and to build trust and cooperation between law enforcement and the community, (Community Policing Consortium, n.d.). Research has shown that community policing can be effective in reducing crime and improving community relations ( (Skogan, 2006); (Weisburd, 2017)). However, the application of community policing in the context of transnational security threats is still an under-researched area (Thakur, 2014). This literature review aims to explore the potential of community policing as a tool to address transnational security threats, with a focus on the challenges and opportunities presented by this approach. 1.9. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The methodological approach of this study attempts to explore the logic and challenges facing community policing in the study area(s). In effect, it attempts to answer the research objectives and add to existing literature on organised crime in Ghana in particular and West Africa in general. As such, the study explores a mixed descriptive design approach due to the epistemological nature of the study. As such the sequential transformative approach and concurrent transformative approach are used, (CRESWELL, 2009). According to (Ngulube & Romm, 2015) methodology integration in a study increases the validity and reliability in terms of maximising the knowledge yield of the study and defining the required principles in a methodological triangulation. The primary goal therefore of the qualitative descriptive approach is to address the comprehensive nature of descriptive variables in a study, (Lambert & Lamber, 2012). In addition, the study reviewed transnational organised criminal investigation and crime records from the divisional Statistics and Information Technology Unit (SITU) for the study, with which the findings are presented in the next chapter. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 1.10. STUDY POPULATION AND SAMPLE The study population focused on communities in the Upper East, Western, Eastern, Volta, Ashanti and Greater Accra Regions which adequately represents the demographic categories based on the study characteristics. The sampling frame therefore was a list of communities in the identified regions which have community policing initiatives. 1.11. COMMUNITY POLICING IN THE TARGET STUDY AREA 1.11.1. Greater Accra Region The Greater Accra Region has seven administrative areas covering five districts within an area size of 2,245 square kilometres, with a current population size of 5, 455, 692 according to the Ghana Statistical Service, (statsghana, 2022). The crime level index rose from 45.07 in 2016 to 47.18 in 2021 according to the Ghana Police Service Annual Report and Statista (GhanaPoliceService, ANNUAL CRIME STATISTICS, 2016) and (Sasu, 2022) . The Region was selected because Community Policing when introduced in Ghana in 2002 was piloted in Greater Accra. Again, as the capital town of the country, almost all the organised crime are prevalent in the Region. Figure 3. 1.1. Map of Greater Accra. Source: (Altan, Twumasi, & Shao, 2020) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 1.11.2. Western Region The Western Region of Ghana achieved a crime rate index of 48.52 as at the end of 2021, (Sasu, 2022). Regional data suggest that the region spawns a land size of 14,625.2 square kilometres, (WRCC, 2019), with a population size of 2,060,585 as at 2021, (statsghana, 2022) , which presents the same issues of effective policing in its districts and communities. The Region was selected because of fear of cross-border terrorism and the region shares border with Ivory Coast. Since is it a border region, it is believed that most of the organised crimes would be prevalent in the area. Figure 3. 2. Map of the western region of Ghana. Source: (WRCC, 2019) 1.11.3. Eastern Region The Eastern Region on the other hand has a total population of 2,925,653 as at the end of 2021, (statsghana, 2022), on a land size of 19,320 sq. km according to the (MOFA, Eastern Region(ER), n.d.). The region was selected because there are vital installations such as Akosombo Dam, Akuse Dam, Adomi Bridge and Kpong water treatment plant which may be University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 a target for terrorist. There is also the Volta Lake in the region which is used for fishing activities and these activities may attract organized crime such as child trafficking. Figure 3. 3. Map of the Eastern Region with its districts. Source: (Alhassan & Hadwen, 2017) 1.11.4. Upper East Region The Upper East Region which forms the fourth study area of the research has policing outreach made up of two (2) divisions, ten (10) districts and twenty (20) Police Stations, (GhanaPoliceService, UPPER EAST, 2022). The region covers a land area of 8,842 square kilometres with a population density of about 103 persons per each square kilometre, (MOFA, Upper East Region) Substantially, the Upper East recorded lower crimes as at 2021 amongst all the regions in Ghana according to studies on crime rate in Ghana, (Dziwornu, 2021). The predominantly rural region has a sizable population of about 1,301,221 million, ( (G. Domfe & Oduro, 2018) & (GSS, 2022). Studies suggest that crime has adverse impact on the community which ultimately impacts the quality of life. Theft dominated the region prior to the introduction of community policing in 2007. The region was selected because of the political instability and activities of terrorism in the Sahelian countries which put Ghana at risk. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 Since is it a border region, it is believed that most of the organised crimes would be prevalent in the area. Figure 3. 4. Map of the Upper East Region (Alhassan & Hadwen, 2017) 1.11.5. Volta Region The Volta region of Ghana has recorded one of the rapidly declining crime rates in the country according to the Ghana Police statistics, with a record decline of 31.3% in general, (Yakubu, 2019). The region has an area of a total land area of 20572-kilometre square, stretching from the coast of Gulf of Guinea and running through all the vegetational zones along Ghana, (MOFA, Volta Region, 2021). With a population size 1,659,040 as at 2021, effecting policing consist of six (6) Police Divisions, twenty-nine (22) Police Districts and fifty-six (56) Police Stations, (Statista, 2021), (GPS, 2022). The Region was chosen because of the recent recession attempt by the Trans Togoland people in Volta Region. Since is it a border region, it is believed that most of the organised crimes would be prevalent in the area. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 Figure 3. 5. Map of the Volta Region. Source: (Adadey, Ayee, Languon, Quansah, & Quaye, 2019) 1.11.6. Ashanti Region The Ashanti Region was chosen due to its present data on crime rate with a crime increase of 40.8% according to the public safety and crime report, (Ghartey, 2022). The region covers an approximate area of 24,390 sq.km which represents about 10.2% of the total land area of 276,000 sq.km of Ghana, (Owusu, Seth, Tagbor, & OFOSU, 2013), with a current population of 5,440,463 as at 2021 across the region according to the Ghana Statistical Service, (StatsGhana, 2021). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 Figure 3. 6. Map of the Ashanti Region. Source: (Mumuni, Yaa, & Oladele, 2013) Community Policing in the target areas Community security and safety have been at the pinnacle of safety needs of Community Neighbourhood Committee especially in low-income communities in Ghana. According to Atuguba and Addo, such low-income neighbourhoods solicit for security and more public police visibility, (Sowatey & Atuguba, 2020). The inability of effective use of policing in these communities causes a void. Atuguba and Addo again denoted that the inadequacy of policing which never fully displaced other forms of indigenous policing systems experienced in the post-colonial era and a general lack of backing from state structural adjustment programs unpin the reality of such void. This puts community policing initiatives on the edge as the bridge to cover the void discussed and whether or not the penetration strategies and the implementation of the community policing for security and crime prevention in the Greater Accra, Eastern, Volta, Western, Ashanti and Upper East Regions are confidently effective. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 1.12. Selection and Delineation of the Study Area(s) The study areas were selected based on the researcher’s objective analysis of legitimate areas concerned with organized crime. The study however did not consider computational analysis in selecting the study areas. 1.13. Nature of organized crime in the study areas Recent studies have shown that organized crime in the border areas of Ghana has prompted swift focus on policing efforts. Ishmael (2018) and Addo (2006) outlined goods smuggling, human trafficking, illegal arms trade, armed conflict, armed robbery and other illegal activities as the most prevalent forms of security threat along the borders of Ghana. The primary challenge outlined by Addo suggests that less policing effort along the borders creates porous pockets for perpetrators to infiltrate. Cross-border security threats prevalent along the Cote d’Ivoire-Ghana-Togo-Benin-Nigeria and Burkina Faso borders often experience criminal activities due to many factors including gangs involved in civil war, vehicle snatching and smuggling activities and other illicit activities, (Addo, 2006). According to Addo, the nature of crimes along border routes in Ghana, particularly along the border town of Aflao can be attributed to low standards of living, unemployment and related challenges. These factors, according to Addo, are the main metrics leading to organised crime. Prevalent among them is human trafficking, drug trafficking, smuggling, armed robbery, arms dealing and other related criminal activities, (Ishmael, 2016). 1.14. Sampling Frame The researcher selected the Ghana Police Service Regional/Divisional areas due to the occurrence of community policing initiative, the frequency rate of crime and its general population size. However, the population size of all the six regions makes it impossible to work with, as such, the selected sample served as a representation of the population. The researcher considered the following as the unit analysis focus which include the crime departments of each University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 regional/divisional command; community police assistants within each of the six regions under consideration; and other district stakeholders. 1.15. Sample Size of the Study A non-probability sampling method was adopted for this study due to the exploratory nature of the study and the undermined size of the study population. More precisely the researcher focused on purposive sampling and quota sampling. Non-probability sampling are nonrandomized techniques used in sampling. The researcher leverages on judgement based on ease of accessibility and characteristics of the respondents that does not extend beyond those characteristics, (Showkat & Parveen, 2017). 1.16. Data Collection The study data required for computing the analysis were collected from both primary and secondary sources from the target population. The primary data involved annual reports from the Ghana Police Service, documents and publications by the crime units of the Regional Commands and the Divisional Statistics and Information Technology Unit (SITU) of each Region. Secondary instruments of data collection for the study would be a mixed method of semi-structured questionnaires. The questionnaire consists of a succession of questions and necessary prompts required to gather information from the target population, (Abawi, 2017). The study also employed interviews consisting of personal contact that are administered by the researcher and digital correspondence-based questionnaires that are self-administered. According to (Creswell, 2011) interviews form the required medium for recording qualitative research data with one or more respondents. 1.17. Data Analyses Data collected by the researcher were analysed with the IBM SPSS Statistics V16.0. Descriptive Statistics. Demographic characteristics and frequency were analysed using principal component analysis and exploratory factor analysis to determine the causal factors of the population. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 1.8. Limitations of the study One limitation of this study was the issue of invalid questionnaires. Out of the 1200 questionnaires distributed, only 712 were returned, and of these, 382 were considered valid for analysis. This represents a response rate of approximately 32%. It is possible that the low response rate may have introduced bias into the study, as those who chose not to participate may have had different views or experiences than those who did. To mitigate the potential impact of invalid questionnaires on the study results, the study employed several qualitycontrol measures. The study conducted follow-up interviews with a sample of non-respondents to verify their views and experiences, and the researcher also adjusted sample size and analysis techniques to account for any potential bias introduced by invalid questionnaires. Despite these efforts, it is important to acknowledge that the low response rate and the issue of invalid questionnaires may have influenced the results of the study. Another limitation of the study was the reliance on self-report survey data, which may be subject to social desirability bias. This means that respondents may be more likely to report perceptions or behaviours that align with societal expectations or norms, rather than their true beliefs or actions (Smith, 2017). To mitigate this, efforts were made to ensure that the survey was conducted in a confidential and anonymous manner. The third limitation was the potential for sampling bias, as the study only surveyed individuals who reside in communities with community policing initiatives. This means that the findings may not be generalizable to communities without such initiatives. Additionally, the use of a convenience sample may also introduce bias, as the respondents were not randomly selected from the population. However, the use of purposive sampling and quota sampling approach were used to help mitigate some of these concerns. Finally, the fourth limitation was the potential for measurement error, as the survey relied on subjective perceptions and recollections of the respondents. This may be influenced by University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 individual experiences and biases, which could affect the accuracy of the results. To address this, the survey questions were carefully crafted to minimize ambiguity and maximize clarity. Overall, these limitations were taken into consideration when interpreting the findings of the study. Despite these limitations, the results of the study provide valuable insights into the perceptions and experiences of community policing initiatives in the target regions of Ghana and can inform future research and policy efforts in this area. 1.19. Arrangements of Chapters The study will be organized into four chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the research topic and it includes a literature review and methodology. Chapter 2 examines the transnational security threats and their prevalence in West Africa and Ghana. Chapter 3 examines the logic and objectives of using community policing to fight organized crime in West Africa and Ghana and evaluates the successes and challenges of community policing in Ghana. Finally, chapter 4 provides summary of the findings of the study, conclusion and recommendations for future research. CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF ORGANISED CRIME IN WEST AFRICA 2.1. Overview of organized crime in West Africa Organized crime is a complex and challenging phenomenon that poses a significant threat to the security, stability, and development of West Africa. It is defined as illegal activities that are planned and executed by a group or network of individuals who are motivated by financial gain or power. Organized crime encompasses a wide range of activities, including drug trafficking, human trafficking, money laundering, illegal arms trade, extortion, and corruption (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], (UNODC U. N., 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 In West Africa, organized crime is closely linked to the region's political, economic, and social challenges. The region's porous borders, weak governance, and high levels of poverty and unemployment provide fertile ground for criminal networks to thrive, (UNDP, 2016). Furthermore, the region's strategic location at the crossroads of Africa, Europe, and America makes it an attractive transit point for illicit goods and people, (UNODC U. N., 2019). Drug trafficking, human trafficking, illegal arms trade, extortion and corruption are prevalent forms of organized crime in West Africa. The region serves as a major transit point for drugs bound for Europe and North America, making it vulnerable to money laundering and corruption. Additionally, West Africa serves as a source, transit, and destination point for people trafficked for forced labour and sexual exploitation. The proliferation of small arms and light weapons also fuels conflicts and violence in the region. Criminal groups use threats and intimidation to extort money and other assets from businesses and individuals and use illicit proceeds to bribe officials and infiltrate institutions, undermining the rule of law and good governance, (UNODC U. N., 2019). The scale and scope of organized crime in West Africa is alarming and requires an integrated, multi-disciplinary response. The international community, regional organizations, and national governments must work together to address the root causes of organized crime and strengthen the capacities of law enforcement and judicial institutions to effectively combat it, (UNODC U. N., 2019). 2.1.1. The main forms and types of organized crime in West Africa Drug trafficking is one of the most significant forms of organized crime in West Africa. The region is both a transit point and a destination for illegal drugs, including cocaine, heroin, and cannabis, (UNODC U. N., 2019). Criminal networks take advantage of the region's weak border controls and corrupt officials to smuggle drugs into and through the region, (ICG, West Africa's security challenges, 2014). The proceeds from drug trafficking are then laundered University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 through the formal and informal financial sector, further fuelling corruption and undermining economic development, (UNDP, 2016). Human trafficking is another major form of organized crime in West Africa. The region is a source, transit, and destination for men, women, and children who are trafficked for forced labour and sexual exploitation, (UNODC U. N., 2019). Criminal networks often prey on vulnerable individuals, such as migrants and refugees, who are promised jobs or a better life but are then subjected to exploitation and abuse, (ICG, West Africa's security challenges, 2014). Illegal arms trafficking is also a major problem in West Africa. The region has a long history of armed conflict, which has led to the proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW) (UNDP, 2016). Criminal networks take advantage of the region's weak border controls and corrupt officials to smuggle weapons into the region (ICG, 2014). The availability of these weapons fuels conflict and crime, undermining stability and security (UNDP, 2016). 2.1.2. Scope and magnitude of organised crime in West Africa The scope and magnitude of organized crime in West Africa are difficult to quantify. However, it is clear that the problem is significant and has a detrimental impact on the security, stability, and development of the region (UNODC, 2019; UNDP, 2016; ICG, 2014). The illicit drug trade alone is estimated to generate billions of dollars in annual profits for criminal networks in the region (UNODC, 2019). Furthermore, the human cost of organized crime is staggering, as victims of human trafficking and drug abuse suffer unimaginable hardship and abuse (ICG, 2014). The problem of organized crime in West Africa is further compounded by the fact that criminal networks often have connections to political and economic elites, making it difficult to combat the problem through traditional law enforcement methods (UNDP, 2016). Furthermore, the lack University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 of capacity and resources of law enforcement agencies in the region makes it challenging to effectively combat organized crime (ICG, 2014). In order to effectively combat organized crime in West Africa, a comprehensive approach is needed that addresses the underlying political, economic, and social factors that fuel the problem (UNDP, 2016). This approach should include measures to strengthen governance and the rule of law, as well as efforts to improve economic and social conditions in the region. One key component of this approach is strengthening the capacity and resources of law enforcement agencies to effectively investigate and prosecute organized crime. This may include providing training and equipment, as well as increasing cross-border cooperation and information sharing among law enforcement agencies in the region (UNODC, 2019). Additionally, measures to combat corruption and improve transparency and accountability in the public sector are essential in undermining the ability of criminal networks to operate with impunity (UNDP, 2016). This may include implementing anti-corruption legislation and improving oversight mechanisms to ensure that public officials are held accountable for their actions. Another key component of this approach is addressing the underlying economic and social factors that fuel organized crime. This may include increasing access to education and employment opportunities, as well as providing support for vulnerable populations, such as refugees and migrants, who are at risk of being exploited by criminal networks (UNDP, 2016). Arguably it can be ascertained that the problem of organized crime in West Africa is not solely a domestic issue and requires international cooperation and support. This may include providing assistance to law enforcement agencies in the region, as well as addressing the demand for illicit goods and services in developed countries (UNODC, 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 2.2 Factors contributing to organized crime in West Africa 2.2.1. The main factors that contribute to the growth and spread of organized crime in the region Literature underpins that organized crime in West Africa is often complex and a constant problem driven by a variety of factors. One of the main drivers of organized crime in the region is poverty and economic inequality. According to a study by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), poverty and unemployment are key drivers of organized crime in West Africa, as they provide a ready pool of vulnerable individuals who are willing to engage in criminal activities in order to make a living, (UNODC, West Africa: Organized crime and illicit markets, 2018). Additionally, the lack of economic opportunities and weak governance in many West African countries also contribute to the growth of organized crime. Another key factor that contributes to the growth of organized crime in West Africa is the presence of organized criminal networks. These networks often have deep roots in the region and are able to take advantage of weak governance and the lack of economic opportunities to establish themselves and engage in criminal activities, (Oluwole, 2022). They also often have links to transnational criminal organizations, which provide them with access to resources and expertise that they would not otherwise have. 2.2.2. How the factors interact and reinforce each other The factors contributing to the growth of organized crime in West Africa often interact and reinforce each other in complex and dynamic ways. For example, poverty and economic inequality often lead to the development of organized criminal networks, which in turn are able to take advantage of weak governance and the lack of economic opportunities to establish themselves and engage in criminal activities. These criminal networks also often have links to transnational criminal organizations, which provide them with access to resources and expertise University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 that they would not otherwise have. This, in turn, helps to reinforce the growth of organized crime in the region, (Charbonneau, 2020). Additionally, the presence of organized criminal networks often creates a sense of insecurity and fear among the population, which can further reinforce poverty and economic inequality, as individuals and businesses are less likely to invest and engage in economic activities if they feel unsafe. This creates a cycle of poverty, inequality, and organized crime that is difficult to break, (Adebayo, 2019). 2.3 The impact of organized crime on West Africa 2.3.1. The impact of organized crime on the security, economic, political, and social development of West Africa Organized crime in West Africa poses a significant threat to the security and stability of the region. The illegal activities of criminal networks, such as drug trafficking, human trafficking, and arms trafficking, undermine the rule of law and threaten the safety and security of citizens. Additionally, organized crime can have a detrimental impact on economic development by distorting markets, hindering investment and trade, and diverting resources away from legitimate economic activities, ( (Onwudiwe, 2018); (Obokata, 2017)). The political impact of organized crime in West Africa is also significant, as criminal networks can corrupt government officials and undermine the legitimacy of state institutions ( (Onwudiwe, 2018); (Obokata, 2017)). Furthermore, the social impact of organized crime is also significant, as criminal activities can harm communities and individuals, and contribute to the erosion of social trust and cohesion. 2.3.1. Long-term consequences of organized crime for the region The long-term consequences of organized crime for West Africa are significant and farreaching. Prolonged exposure to criminal activities can lead to the erosion of state authority and the weakening of governance structures, which can in turn contribute to the emergence of fragile University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 and failed states, ( (Onwudiwe, 2018); (Obokata, 2017)). This can have a negative impact on economic development and poverty reduction, as well as on the ability of governments to provide basic services to their citizens. Additionally, organized crime can also contribute to the displacement of communities and the forced migration of individuals, which can lead to social disruption and human suffering. 2.4 Current responses to organized crime in West Africa 2.4.1. Current approaches and strategies used to combat organized crime in the region In recent years, the main approach used to combat organized crime in West Africa has been through law enforcement and criminal justice measures. This includes the use of police and military forces to disrupt criminal networks and arrest and prosecute suspects. This strategy focuses on dismantling criminal organizations and disrupting their activities through targeted arrests and seizures of assets. In addition to traditional law enforcement, many countries in the region have also implemented anti-money laundering and asset forfeiture laws to target the financial aspect of organized crime. These laws aim to disrupt the flow of illicit funds and to seize the proceeds of criminal activities. This strategy is intended to disrupt the financial infrastructure of criminal organizations and to deprive them of the resources needed to operate. Another approach used to combat organized crime in West Africa is through regional and international cooperation. Many countries in the region have signed agreements and established taskforces to share information, intelligence and to coordinate law enforcement efforts. Regional organizations such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) also play a role in promoting cooperation and coordination among member states. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 In addition to these traditional approaches, there have been some efforts to address the root causes of organized crime in West Africa through social and economic development programs. These programs aim to address the poverty, lack of education and employment opportunities that can make people vulnerable to recruitment by criminal organizations. However, these efforts are still limited and more needs to be done to address the underlying conditions that fuel organized crime in the region. Overall, the current approaches to combat organized crime in West Africa are primarily focused on law enforcement and criminal justice measures, regional and international cooperation, and limited social and economic development programs, (Sztompka, 2017). 2.4.2. Effectiveness and limitations to the current approaches The current approaches used to combat organized crime in West Africa, while they have had some successes, they have also been met with significant limitations. One of the major limitations is the lack of capacity and resources within law enforcement and criminal justice systems in the region. Many countries in the region have underfunded and understaffed police and judicial systems, which makes it difficult for them to effectively target and disrupt criminal networks. This can lead to a lack of investigations and arrests, and a lack of resources to prosecute and sentence those who are arrested, (Muggah & Akouete, 2019). Another limitation is the lack of cooperation and coordination between countries in the region. Organized crime groups often operate across borders, making it difficult for individual countries to effectively target them. This lack of cooperation and coordination can lead to an inability to share information and resources and can make it easier for criminal groups to evade law enforcement. In addition, corruption and a lack of political will also pose major challenges to the effectiveness of current responses. Corruption in the form of bribes and the infiltration of criminal networks into government institutions can undermine the rule of law and good University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 governance, while a lack of political will can lead to a lack of resources and attention being devoted to organized crime, (Coulibaly, 2020). Another limitation to the current approaches to combat organized crime in West Africa is the lack of comprehensive and holistic strategies. Many countries in the region tend to focus on law enforcement and criminal justice measures as the primary means of combating organized crime, without taking into account other factors such as poverty, unemployment, and lack of education and opportunities. This narrow focus on law enforcement alone does not address the underlying socio-economic conditions that can fuel organized crime and may lead to a reduction in crime in the short-term but not a sustainable solution in the long-term, (Muggah & Akouete, 2019). Tentatively, current responses to organized crime in West Africa are limited by a number of structural, institutional and political challenges. While traditional law enforcement and criminal justice measures are important, there is a need for a more comprehensive and integrated approach that addresses the underlying social and economic drivers of organized crime. 2.5 Conclusion In summary, chapter 2 of this study focuses on the issue of organized crime in West Africa, providing an overview of the problem, examining the factors that contribute to its growth and spread, and assessing the impact it has on the security, economic, political, and social development of the region. The chapter also reviews the current approaches and strategies used to combat organized crime in West Africa, evaluating their effectiveness and limitations. The next chapter will delve deeper into the case of community policing in Ghana as a potential solution to fighting organized crime in West Africa. It will examine the history and implementation of community policing in Ghana, as well as its effectiveness in addressing University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 organized crime in the country. The chapter will also explore the potential for adapting and implementing community policing in other West African countries as a means of combating organized crime in the region. CHAPTER THREE COMMUNITY POLICING AND ORGANISED CRIME IN GHANA 3.1. Community Policing in Ghana Community policing is a policing strategy that emphasizes the participation of community members in the identification and resolution of community problems, including crime and disorder. In Ghana, community policing has been implemented as a means of addressing organized crime and improving community-police relations. This approach shifts the traditional role of the police from being solely responsible for crime control to one that includes working in partnership with the community to identify and solve problems, (Nyawo, 2018). In 2007, the GPS officially adopted community policing as its official policing strategy and established the Community Policing Unit (CPU) to coordinate and oversee the implementation of community policing programs, (Owusu-Ansah & Osafo, 2016). The CPU works closely with local communities, community-based organizations, and other stakeholders to identify and address community problems, including organized crime, (Yeboah & Agyemang, 2020). Empirical studies have shown that community policing in Ghana has been effective in reducing crime and improving community-police relations. A study by (Boateng, 2015)) found that the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 implementation of community policing in the Ashanti Region of Ghana led to a significant reduction in the rate of crime, Similarly, (Mensah, 2018), supported that community policing in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana improved trust and cooperation between the police and the community. However, it is important to note tha