International Journal of Lifelong Education
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Lifelong education trajectories and futures in
Ghana: issues of policy, ideology and practice
Michael Tagoe, David Addae & Delali Amuzu
To cite this article: Michael Tagoe, David Addae & Delali Amuzu (2022) Lifelong education
trajectories and futures in Ghana: issues of policy, ideology and practice, International Journal
of Lifelong Education, 41:3, 327-342, DOI: 10.1080/02601370.2022.2072011
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Published online: 16 May 2022.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LIFELONG EDUCATION 
2022, VOL. 41, NO. 3, 327–342 
https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370.2022.2072011
Lifelong education trajectories and futures in Ghana: issues of 
policy, ideology and practice
Michael Tagoea, David Addae a,b and Delali Amuzu a
aDepartment of Adult Education and Human Resource Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana; bDepartment of 
Adult, Community and Continuing Education, University of South Africa, Sunnyside, Pretoria
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS 
This paper examined lifelong education and learning trajectories and Lifelong learning; policy; 
issues of policy, ideology and practice that have underpinned the imple- developing countries; 
mentation of adult literacy and adult learning education strategies within ideology; practice
a lifelong learning perspective in Ghana. Using documentary analysis, the 
paper noted that although the concept of lifelong education/learning has 
been used in some national development documents and educational 
policies, Ghana has no national policy on lifelong learning. The paper 
found that multilateral and bilateral organisations have influenced the 
direction and strategies captured in the national development documents 
and educational policies. The paper found that recommendations from 
International Conferences on Adult Education have often had very little 
influence on these national policy texts. For Ghana to be able to provide 
opportunities for lifelong learning for all there is the need for a vision of 
lifelong learning that is situated in the present and looks into the future. 
Ghana must work towards building a culture of lifelong learning. 
Policymakers need to understand that lifelong learning cannot be 
achieved when there are no clear-cut policies on adult literacy and adult 
learning and education, which are all critical components of lifelong 
learning. The learning needs of the youth and adults have to be given 
recognition in national development documents and educational 
policies.
Introduction
Lifelong education has been around for centuries in many parts of the world including Africa 
(Omolewa, 2002). In several countries, lifelong education has been used synonymously with 
continuing education and adult education. This conflation has allowed lifelong education to face 
twists and turns and has morphed into forms and descriptions. Over the years, adult educators have 
tried to give distinctiveness to the concept of lifelong education and lifelong learning at interna-
tional conferences dubbed ‘CONFINTEA’ (International Conferences on Adult Education). One of 
the significant observations from these conferences was the segmentation of formal schooling and 
the critical role that lifelong education could play in the democratisation of education.
Since the 1990s, the trajectory from lifelong education to lifelong learning as a global education 
development agenda has become pronounced at various international conferences such as the 
World Conference on Education for All (WCEFA) in Jomtien, Thailand, and the CONFINTEA V 
Hamburg meeting (UNESCO, 1997). At CONFINTEA VI held in Brazil in 2009, lifelong learning 
was identified as critical to ‘addressing global educational issues and challenges’ (UNESCO, 2009, p. 
CONTACT Michael Tagoe mtagoe@ug.edu.gh Department of Adult Education and Human Resource Studies, University 
of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
© 2022 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 
328 M. TAGOE ET AL.
37). In September 2015, member states attending the United Nations Sustainable Development 
Summit in New York adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The objective is to 
mobilise all efforts to reduce poverty, exclusion and inequalities and ensure that no one is left 
behind (United Nations, 2015). Specifically, Goal 4 is to ‘ensure inclusive and equitable quality 
education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030’ (UNESCO, 2015a). 
Achieving the SDG Goal 4 agenda requires a sound lifelong learning policy framework and 
strategies for efficient implementation (UNESCO, 2015a) of adult literacy, youth and adult learning.
What this means for developing countries is that they have to mainstream lifelong learning into 
their education system. In Ghana, the legislative framework that lays the foundation for lifelong 
education/lifelong learning is the 1992 Constitution. The 1992 Constitution guarantees equal 
educational opportunities for all Ghanaians and recognises education as a fundamental human 
right (Republic of Ghana, 1992). Article 25, Section (1) of the 1992 Constitution stipulates that 
‘Basic education shall be free, compulsory and available to all’. In addition, secondary education and 
higher education are to be accessible to all Ghanaians. The Constitution also made provision for 
functional literacy and lifelong education (Republic of Ghana, 1992). Indeed, what is significant 
about these provisions is that they guarantee all Ghanaians the opportunity to develop themselves 
through continuous learning. However, very little information is provided on the strategies to 
achieve lifelong education in Ghana.
Other national documents, such as the Education Act (778) (2008), called for a system of non- 
formal functional and lifelong educational programmes and the establishment of open colleges and 
lifelong educational colleges for skills training and formal education, with very little in terms of 
strategies and implementation (Republic of Ghana, 2008). Similarly, the Education Strategic Plan 
(2010–2020) advocated for the need to ‘improve the quality of learning and teaching, and to 
promote the culture of lifelong learning at all levels and for all ages’ (Republic of Ghana, 2009, p. 
12), whilst the Education Strategic Plan (2018–2030) espouses the ambition of transforming Ghana 
into a ‘learning nation’. What is missing in these expressions is how to use lifelong learning as an 
‘organizing principle’ to transform Ghana’s education system (Walters et al., 2014). Promoting 
lifelong learning for all must be anchored in a holistic overarching national lifelong learning policy 
with clear guidelines for implementation across sectors (Walters et al., 2014). Such a policy must 
delineate synergy between formal, non-formal and informal education.
Unfortunately, ‘few countries in Africa have comprehensive policy frameworks for promoting 
lifelong learning, and actions to promote a holistic vision of lifelong’, whilst actions to implement a 
holistic vision of lifelong learning are weak (Walters et al., 2014). Both the UNESCO Institute for 
Lifelong Learning (UIL; 2020) and the International Labour Organisation [ILO] (2019) have noted 
that even in countries that have policies there is the lack of workable strategies for implementation 
due to resistance to change among the main stakeholders in the traditional system of education. 
Consequently, UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL; 2020) has called for a culture of 
lifelong learning for the future.
The objective of this paper is to find out how international and internal contexts have shaped the 
formulation or otherwise of a holistic lifelong learning policy in Ghana. This paper examines efforts 
made by governments to mainstream lifelong education/learning in national development docu-
ments and educational policies and the future of lifelong learning in Ghana.
Ghana’s socio-economic and political context
Ghana’s socio-economic and political trajectory started in the 1960s after gaining independence 
from Britain. With a strong economy, the country laid a concrete foundation in education, health 
and infrastructure. However, rapid economic decline in the 1970s and 1980s due to inappropriate 
internal economic policies led to an economic downturn with a deleterious effect on all sectors of 
the economy. During the 1970s and the 1980s, poverty increased, learning outcomes among school 
children declined, whilst the rate of illiteracy rose. In the mid-1980s, the economy began a steady 
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LIFELONG EDUCATION 329
growth path through stabilisation and structural adjustment policies of the International Monetary 
Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. These policies led to reforms in the major sectors such as health 
and education. The 1990s marked a turning point for Ghana as it embarked on a new democratic 
path after 11 years of military rule.
Since the introduction of constitutional rule in Ghana, the country has witnessed stable eco-
nomic and political growth under the two major ruling parties, the National Democratic Congress 
(NDC) and the New Patriotic Party (NPP). Between these two political parties, various poverty 
reduction strategies have been implemented and various growth-oriented and sectoral reforms have 
made Ghana one of the fastest-growing economies in Africa. Poverty reduction strategies pursued 
by governments consolidated growth and poverty reduction between 1998 and 2012 (Ghana 
Statistical Service, 2017). In 2013, Ghana attained middle-income status (Ghana Statistical 
Service, 2017).
Despite these significant achievements, poverty reduction has been fluctuating. Poverty is still 
high in the rural areas and the three northern regions (Northern, Upper West and Upper West) and 
the Volta Region, among certain socio-economic groups such as women and those in the informal 
sector (Republic of Ghana, 2014; Cooke et al., 2016). Extreme poverty and inequality have also risen 
with economic growth revealing spatial inequities between the wealthiest and the poorest regions, 
and rural and urban areas. Statistics show that the number of people living in extreme poverty 
increased from 2.2 million in 2013 to 2.4 million in 2017 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2017). Poverty 
in the rural areas and poorest regions is driven by a lack of infrastructure and a low level of human 
capital (Ghana Statistical Service, 2017; World Bank, 2020).
One of the strategies adopted by governments to improve the human capital of the country is 
improvement in access to education at all levels of the education system and poverty reduction. In 
1996, the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) was initiated in Ghana to improve 
access to primary education (Akyeampong, 2009). In 2002, a Presidential Education Review 
Committee was constituted and tasked to identify challenges facing Ghana’s educational system 
and make recommendations to the government. In their recommendations, the Committee noted 
that:
The educational system must provide opportunities at both formal and informal levels for individuals to 
improve their competencies to meet the demands of the changing times. It should provide individuals with 
skills which will enable them continue to search for new knowledge in order to update themselves 
(Government of Ghana, 2002, p. 61).
The Committee called on the government ‘to promote the culture of lifelong learning for all citizens 
who will continue to develop their intellectual capacities, technical skills and their abilities, to enable 
them to cope with technological and other changes in the global world’ (Government of Ghana, 
2002, p. 61). The recommendations of the Education Review Committee resulted in the passing of 
the Education Act (778) in 2008.
This Act was very significant in realising the vision of lifelong learning in Ghana. It made 
significant changes to basic education, secondary, technical and vocational education and tertiary 
education. Distance learning programmes were to be provided at each level of education where 
appropriate (Republic of Ghana, 2008). Furthermore, the Act indicated that there shall ‘be a system 
of non-formal functional and lifelong educational programmes’ (Republic of Ghana, 2008, p. 4). 
The Ministry of Education and the District Assemblies were tasked to establish open colleges or 
community colleges at the district level. The open colleges and lifelong educational colleges were to 
provide ‘avenues for skills training and formal education as determined by the Minister of 
Education’ (Republic of Ghana, 2008, p. 4) through a legislative instrument.
To reduce poverty, the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy document (GPRS1, 2003–2005) and 
the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS II 2006–2009) were implemented under 
President Agyekum Kufuor’s government that was in power in Ghana from 2000 to 2008. In line 
with the constitutional requirement that new governments outline their development agenda, the 
330 M. TAGOE ET AL.
NDC government introduced the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA I, 
2010–2013) and the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA II, 2014–2017). An 
election in 2016 ushered in another NPP government and the introduction of a medium-term 
national development policy framework for 2018–2021, An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and 
Equal Opportunity for All (First Step, 2018–2021). The document acknowledges international 
protocols, such the Africa Union Agenda 2063, Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris 
Climate Change Agreement, which the country is required to consider in national development 
policies and educational policies (Republic of Ghana, 2017).
Lifelong learning
Since 2000, lifelong learning has become a popular slogan in the activities of policymakers, 
researchers, and educational institutions around the globe. This increasing popularity is because 
of the realisation that lifelong learning can promote sustainable development. The precise 
definition of lifelong learning, like most concepts in education, has been influenced by its 
evolution (Aspin & Chapman, 2000; Schuetze, 2006; Schuetze & Casey, 2006) and ideological 
underpinnings (Lee & Friedrich, 2011; Lee & Jan, 2018). One cannot discuss the concept of 
‘lifelong learning’ without mention of its antecedent concept ‘lifelong education’ (Borg & Mayo, 
2005; Field, 2001).
Lifelong education gained prominence in the 1970s when the Faure Report (1972) was published 
by United Nations Scientific and Cultural Education (UNESCO) under the chairmanship of Edgar 
Faure. In the report, lifelong education was described as the ‘master concept for educational policies 
in the years to come for both developed and developing countries’ (Faure et al., 1972, p. 182). The 
definition of lifelong learning can be traced to the work of Dave (1975) who noted that:
Lifelong education is a comprehensive concept that includes formal, non-formal and informal learning 
extended throughout the lifespan of an individual to attain the fullest possible development in personal, 
social and professional life. (p. 43)
In the 1990s, the Delors Report was produced through UNESCO. Although the Delors Commission 
(1996) did not provide a comprehensive definition, it did provide a broad framework that has been 
insightful in our understanding of lifelong learning. Quoting the Delors Commission, Power and 
Maclean (2013) argue that lifelong learning implies ‘the acquisition of knowledge, skills and values 
throughout life, a continuous process of learning to know, to do, to live together and to be the ‘four 
pillars of education’ (p. 29).
Recently, the UNESCO Institute of Lifelong Learning (UIL) in their Technical Note posit that:
In essence, lifelong learning is rooted in the integration of learning and living, covering learning activities 
for people of all ages (children, young people, adults and the elderly, girls and boys, women and men) in all 
life-wide contexts (family, school, community, workplace and so on) and through a variety of modalities 
(formal, non-formal and informal) which together meet a wide range of learning needs and demands (UIL, 
2015, p. 2)
Other important sources of definition have come from the European Union and Organisation for 
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) who have become very influential in the 
promotion of lifelong learning policies, especially in the industrialised world. Their definition is 
often tied to employability and active citizenship, which are critical for building a dynamic knowl-
edge-based society. The European Commission initially defined lifelong learning as: ‘All purposeful 
learning activity, undertaken on an ongoing basis to improve knowledge, skills and competence’ 
(European Commission, 2000, p. 3).
Later, the definition was revised because of the strong emphasis on employment and labour 
market dimension to read: ‘All learning activity is undertaken throughout life, to improve knowl-
edge, skills and competences within a personal, civic, social and/or employment-related perspective’ 
(European Commission, 2001, p. 9).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LIFELONG EDUCATION 331
The breath of the current definition includes formal, non-formal and informal learning. It also 
focuses on personal fulfilment, active citizenship and employability, which are critical for building a 
dynamic knowledge-based society (European Commission, 2001). Power and Maclean (2013) have 
noted that the revised definition proposed by the EU has been the widely accepted definition among 
researchers and policymakers.
Beyond the definitions of UNESCO, the EU and the OECD, the World Bank that emerged as ‘a 
late-comer to the policy arena of lifelong learning . . . ’ (Lee & Jan, 2018, p. 385). According to the 
World Bank: ‘A lifelong learning framework encompasses learning throughout the life cycle, from 
early childhood to retirement. It includes formal, nonformal, and informal education and training’ 
(World Bank, 2003, p. 3).
In their two publications, Lifelong Learning in the Global Economy: Challenges for Developing 
Countries in 2003 and Education Strategy 2020 Learning for All: Investing in People’s Knowledge and 
Skills to Promote Development in 2011, the World Bank has been quite unequivocal about the 
relevance of lifelong learning as education for the knowledge-based economy. For the World Bank, 
developing countries need to prepare their workers for the 21st century so that they can adapt to 
‘continuously to changing opportunities and labour markets demands of the knowledge economy’ 
and that ‘lifelong learning is crucial for preparing workers to compete in the global economy’ 
(World Bank, 2003, p. xvii). In addition, developing countries need to ensure that their young 
people and adults have the right skills for the job market through youth and adult learning that 
provides a foundation for lifelong learning (World Bank, 2011).
Methodology
The study adopted the documentary analysis approach (Atkinson & Coffey, 2010; Bowen, 2009; 
Coffey, 2014; Field & Schemmann, 2017). The study selected the content-analytical approach to 
documents (Field & Schemmann, 2017) to be able to analyse the trajectories of lifelong education/ 
lifelong learning and its incorporation in national documents. The content-analytical approach was 
also adopted to understand what ideology and practices underpin national documents and educa-
tional policies. To analyse the official policy documents, the following questions provided the 
framework for the analysis: (1) What is the background context of the documents? (2) How is 
lifelong learning conceptualised in the documents? (3) What is the ideology on which lifelong 
learning is based? (4) Which similar words are used and what is the concept behind them? (5) 
Which audience is it addressed to? (Field & Schemmann, 2017). The next step was to decide on the 
parameters that would determine the inclusion and exclusion of documents about definitions and 
trajectories of lifelong education to lifelong learning. Databases such as Google Scholar, ERIC, 
JSTOR, Scopus (Elsevier), OECD iLibrary, and World Bank data sources were searched for articles 
that referred to lifelong education and learning.
The Google Scholar and local databases (National Development and Planning Commission, 
Ghana Statistical Service, EMIS of Ministry of Education) were further used to identify docu-
ments on educational policies and lifelong learning policies in Ghana. The search led to the 
identification of several articles on educational policies and lifelong learning in Ghana. By 
continually reading through the initially sampled documents, we identified 10 documents that 
met the selection criteria. However, these national policy documents did not capture the 
Millennium Development Goals and the Education for All Goals as did the Education Strategic 
Plans (ESP 2003–2015; ESP 2010–2020). Recently, the Education Strategic Plan (2018–2030) was 
formulated based on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The ESPs were selected 
because they encapsulate international goals and benchmarks. These documents reflect the 
significant influence and roles that multilateral and bilateral institutions have played in the 
development of education policies in Ghana. The documents selected included Education 
Strategic Plan (2003–2015), Ministry of Education, 2009), Education Sector Analysis and 
Education Strategic Plan (2018–2030).
332 M. TAGOE ET AL.
Education strategic plans and lifelong learning in Ghana
In analysing the policy environment of lifelong learning and the determination if Ghana has a 
lifelong learning policy, one adapted the framework of Youngman that identified three levels: (1) 
general economic and social policies; (2) education policies and strategies that support lifelong 
learning; and (3) specific policies that targeted particular aspects of lifelong learning (Youngman, 
2003). Although Youngman (2003) identifies the general economic and social policies as relevant, 
this article focuses more on the education policies and strategies that support lifelong learning and 
specific policies that target particular aspects of lifelong learning in Ghana.
Educational policies
The period from 2000 to 2008
At the beginning of the new millennium, two critical events occurred that influenced education 
policies globally: the Millennium Declaration that gave birth to the Millennium Development Goals 
(MDGs) and the World Education Forum that revised Education for All (EFA) Goals. At the Dakar 
Conference, the meeting noted that ‘starting from early childhood and extending throughout life, 
the learners of the twenty-first century will require access to high-quality educational opportunities 
that are responsive to their needs, equitable and gender-sensitive. These opportunities must neither 
exclude nor discriminate’ (UNESCO, 2000, p. 12). To achieve the MDGs and the EFA goals that 
were crucial to reducing poverty and ensuring learning throughout life, the Dakar Conference 
noted that resources should not be a barrier.
In 2002, the EFA Fast Track Initiative was launched between developed countries, multilateral 
and bilateral donors and UN agencies to ensure better-coordinated donor support to developing 
countries to meet the EFA goals and the MDGs (Allsop et al., 2010; Bermingham, 2011). To be 
eligible for FTI assistance a country had to have a Poverty Reduction Strategy in place and must 
have an education sector plan that is sector-wide (Allsop et al., 2010). Ghana was one of the 
countries in Africa that joined the Education for All movement, subscribing to the EFA Fast Track 
Initiative (FTI) guidelines and developing a long-term Education Strategic Plan to achieve a free, 
universal basic education in line with the EFA goals and the MDGs by 2015 (World Bank, 2010).
Education Strategic Plan (ESP) (2003-2015)
Ghana’s Education Strategic Plan (2003–2015) was an outcome of the EFA-FTI. The purpose of the 
ESP (2003–2015) was ‘to assist in the poverty reduction process through the development of a 
learning society, thereby enhancing Ghana’s human resource’ (Ministry of Education, Youth and 
Sports, [MOEYS] 2003, p. 13). The ESP was designed to provide ‘relevant education to all 
Ghanaians at all levels to enable them to acquire skills that will assist them to develop their 
potential, to be productive, to facilitate poverty reduction and to promote socio-economic growth 
and national development’ (MOEYS, 2003). The ESP was to allow Ghanaians to participate mean-
ingfully and successfully in the education process, and young people and adults, who have hitherto 
been excluded, to access new opportunities for educational development (MOEYS, 2003).
The Plan outlined policy directions, targets and strategies for the next 13 years. The ESP was 
described as a whole sector plan; that is, a sector-wide approach in which ‘every subsector and every 
area of focus within the education sector is and in which all internal and external development 
partners are invited to play a part’ (MOEYS, 2003, p. 11).
The ESP identified four areas of focus, as follows:
(1) Equitable access to education
(2) Quality of education
(3) Educational management
(4) Science, Technology and TVET
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LIFELONG EDUCATION 333
In the ESP it explicitly stated that Ghana subscribes to the six Dakar EFA goals. The ESP paid 
attention to ‘provide pre-school education’; ‘provide fee-free tuition in pre-schools’; ‘provide access 
to free basic education’; ‘provide compulsory universal basic education (FCUBE)’; and ‘provide 
equitable educational opportunities, ensuring the full enrolment of hard-to-reach and out-of-school 
children by 2015’ (Ministry of Education, 2003, pp. 20–21). On the provision of conditions for 
universal functional literacy, the ESP was to ensure the development, validation and use of a 
national functional literacy test by 2006; and the literacy rate to improve by 3% points per year 
from 2008 to 2015 (Ministry of Education, 2003, p. 21). Since 1995, the government focus has been 
on primary education. This sub-sector of education was given top priority in the ESP with support 
from Development Partners (DPs). This allowed the government to access resources from the EFA- 
FTI to address challenges within the sector and accelerate the pace of achieving Universal Primary 
Education and gender equality (Allsop et al., 2010; Takyi-Amoako, 2012). One of the weakest points 
of the ESP was the little attention given to learning and life skills for out-of-school youth and adults 
(EFA Goal 3), although attention was given to expansion and improvement in post-basic education 
such as increasing Technical and Vocational institutions and tertiary education.
The period from 2009 to 2016
Ministry of education, 2009
The second ESP was prepared before the life-cycle of the earlier ESP (2003–2015) had expired. To 
sustain changes in education made so far in the sector, the ESP (2003–2015) was replaced with a 
new Ministry of Education, 2009). The new ESP was influenced by the 2007 New Education 
Reforms and the Education Act (778) (2008) that made basic education in Ghana 11 years, 
comprising two years of kindergarten, six years of primary school and three years of Junior High 
School (JHS). Also, a four-year Senior High School (SHS) system that offers General Courses (Arts, 
Business and Science) and Technical, Vocational and Agriculture options for entry into tertiary 
institutions or the job market. After JHS, students may choose to go into different streams at SHS, 
comprising General Education and Technical, Vocational and Agriculture and Training (TVET) or 
enter into an apprenticeship scheme with some support from the Government. Finally, there will be 
the provision for non-formal and lifelong learning.
The guiding principles of the ESP include:
(1) To eliminate gender and other disparities that arise from exclusion and poverty
(2) To cater for excluded children in mainstream schools whenever possible
(3) To improve the quality of learning and teaching, and to promote the culture of lifelong 
learning at all levels and for all ages
(4) To modernise and extend ICT, science education, technical and vocational education and 
training, and skills development at all levels
(5) To strengthen all forms of tertiary education
(6) To develop an effective, efficient and properly rewarded teaching service
(7) To devolve delivery and fiscal systems of 1st and 2nd cycle of education to District 
Assemblies
(8) To ensure periodic review of education grants and allowances
(9) To make efficient savings in the education system
(10) To strengthen monitoring and accountability in the education sector (Republic of Ghana, 
2009).
The ESP (2010–2020) focused on the achievement of Universal Basic Education through universal 
access to 11 years of quality basic education ‘with increased, affordable, equitable access to senior 
and tertiary education’ (Ministry of Education, 2009, p. 22). The first policy objective of ESP (2010– 
2020) called for an ‘equitable access to good-quality universal basic education, by improving 
334 M. TAGOE ET AL.
opportunities for all children in the first cycle of education at kindergarten, primary and junior high 
school levels’ (Ministry of Education, 2009, p. 25). The policy further advocated for the bridging of 
the gender gap in access to education. At the secondary level, the ESP called for an increase in 
‘equitable access to high-quality second cycle education that prepares young adults for the various 
options available within tertiary education and the workplace’ (Ministry of Education, 2009, p. 25). 
Compared to its predecessor, the ESP (2010–2020) made a bold pronouncement of non-formal 
education requesting for the provision of ‘opportunities for those outside the formal education 
system to have free access to meaningful high-quality education and training, whether through 
inclusive or complementary provision, approved or informal apprenticeships, distance education or 
technical and vocational skills development (TVSD)’ (Ministry of Education, 2009, p. 26). 
Expounding on this policy objective, the ESP called for the provision of universal functional 
literacy, equal opportunities for non-formal education and training for all out-of-youth children, 
young people and adults. In addition, there was a recognition of prior learning (whether formal or 
non-formal) as more Ghanaians have access to education and training opportunities.
The period from 2017 till now
Educational policies
This period is very significant because both the EFA goals and the MDGs have been replaced with 
the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals that came into force in 2016. The SDGs provide 
countries with the opportunity to offer inclusive and equitable quality education at all levels, i. 
e. pre-schooling, primary, secondary, tertiary, technical and vocational training and adult literacy. 
In 2018, the Government of Ghana introduced a new Education Strategic Plan (2018–2030).
Education Strategic Plan (2018–2030)
To keep pace with new reforms in the education sector, the new Education Strategic Plan (2018– 
2030) intends to make Ghana a learning nation and improve the quality of education for all 
Ghanaians (Ministry of Education, 2019a). The ESP has three main policy objectives. These are: 
i) improved equitable access to and participation in inclusive education at all levels; ii) improved 
quality of teaching and learning and STEM at all levels; and iii) sustainable and efficient manage-
ment, financing and accountability of education service delivery. The ESP is structured around 
seven programme areas, namely basic education; secondary education; tertiary education; non- 
formal education; TVET education; inclusive and special education; and education management 
(Ministry of Education, 2019a).
Achievements and challenges facing the education sector since 2003
Within 17 years (2003 to 2020), Ghana has made considerable progress in increasing access and 
participation at all levels of the education system. Programmes such as the Capitation Grant (which 
abolished school fees at the basic level), the School Feeding Programme (first implemented in 
deprived districts, but now a national programme) and the provision of school uniforms have all 
contributed to increased enrolment in primary schools in Ghana. Ghana’s enrolment figures at the 
basic education (including early childhood education) and secondary education levels have 
increased significantly. Gross Enrolment rates (GERs) have exceeded 100% for Kindergarten 
(KG) and primary, and over 85% for Junior High School in 2018 (Ministry of Education, 2018a, 
2018b). GER for secondary education is now over 50% because of the free Senior High School and 
Technical/Vocational policy introduced in 2017/18, which made secondary and technical and 
vocational education free for all students (Figure 1). Although there have been some increases in 
Net Enrolment Rates (NERs), these are much lower, indicating a significant number of over-aged 
children in school (Figure 2). The transition rate between JHS and SHS has also improved, reaching 
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LIFELONG EDUCATION 335
68% in 2016/17 due to the free SHS policy. For Technical, Vocational Education and Training 
(TVET), Special Education and Tertiary Education, one can speak of modest Gross enrolments 
(Ministry of Education, 2019a, 2019b).
On adult literacy, a World Bank-funded National Functional Literacy Programme from 1992 to 
2007 led to remarkable success in reducing the national illiteracy rate of 69% for Ghanaians aged 
15 years and above in 1989 to an estimated 52% in 1997 (World Bank, 2007). In 2000, the literacy 
rate for the country’s population of 15 years and above was 57.9%.
Despite these achievements, there are still inequalities and exclusion confronting Ghana’s 
education system. There is inequitable access to and participation in education at all levels 
between females and males. These inequalities are further reinforced by location, for example, 
rural and urban areas and rich and poor regions. Girls are always at a disadvantage in access to 
and participation at the primary, JHS, SHS and tertiary levels. Girls’ exclusion is ‘reinforced when 
different sources of inequality – poverty, gender, geography – interact with one other’ (Ministry 
of Education, 2018, p. 6). In terms of geographical location, there are over 450,000 children who 
are out of school (Ministry of Education, 2019a; UNICEF, 2019). These children are mostly from 
the poorest households and within the three northern regions (Ministry of Education, 2019a). 
One of the factors identified as keeping children out of school is the shortage of classrooms 
(Ministry of Education, 2019b). Males and females from poor households and the three poorest 
regions are more likely not to complete school due to the cost of financing their education, poor 
learning outcomes and teenage pregnancy. Evidence shows that out-of-school children of primary 
school age remains high at 19% and relatively lower in JHS at 7% and highest in SHS at 25% 
(Ghana Statistical Service, 2017). Another cohort that has been excluded in the education system 
is children with disability. Evidence shows that children with disabilities are not progressing 
through the education system. Children with disability lack facilities in basic and secondary 
school (Ministry of Education, 2019a).
Statistics on adult literacy in Ghana shows that despite the improvement in the literate rates, 
there are inequalities between males and females and between the youth and older Ghanaians. In 
2008, the Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 5 [GLSS 5] (2008) indicated that 31% of Ghanaians 
have never been to school. A further 17% attained a level below Basic Education Certificate 
Examination (BECE). About 39% of adults have obtained BECE and only 14% of the population 
had secondary or higher level qualitative (Ghana Statistical Service, 2008). In relation to gender, the 
GLSS 5 showed that more females (2.7 million) than males (1.4 million) have never had education, 
whilst fewer females have secondary or higher qualifications compared to males (Ghana Statistical 
Service, 2008). In the GLSS (Round 6), 19.7% of the adult population had never been to school while 
44.6% had attained a level below BECE. About 21% attained BECE, while only 14.7% had attained 
secondary education or a higher level qualification. In terms of gender, data showed that the 
proportion of females who have never been to school was 24.8% higher than that of the males 
(14.6%; Ghana Statistical Service, 2014).
In the GLSS (Round 7), 24.9% of the female population 15 years and above have never been to 
school, which was higher compared to 12.1% of males (Ghana Statistical Service, 2019). Between 
2010 and 2018, the number of females who are 15 years and above who are not literate has not 
improved (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014, 2019). Today, about 1.2 million Ghanaians, the majority 
of whom are women and in the three northern regions of Ghana, cannot read and write.
Statistics from the Ghana Living Standards Surveys reveal that a large number of Ghanaians who 
attended school did not complete basic education. This large cohort of Ghanaians may not have the 
requisite skills for the world of work in 21st century. It is confirmed by Baah-Boateng and Baffour- 
Awuah (2015) that:
the level of education and skills of the Ghanaian working-age population remains quite low, with eight of every 
10 having less than a secondary education. This does not seem to be enough to propel the country to economic 
transformation, and largely explains the high level of informal employment and vulnerable employment. (p. 6)
336 M. TAGOE ET AL.
Figure 1. Gross Enrolment Rates (2008–2018). Source: Ministry of education 2013, 2015, 2016, 2018
Another entrenched inequality is the way education is financed in Ghana. Since 1995, primary 
education received the largest share of education expenditure until 2015, when it was over-
taken by JHS, SHS and tertiary education (Ministry of Education, 2019a). The least funded 
education subsectors are TVET and non-formal education. This is due to the low recognition 
given to these two subsectors by policy-makers. Over the years, the TVET sector has suffered 
an image crisis over a public perception of being the refuge of students who are not 
academically endowed. Educational policies have failed to recognise adult literacy as an 
essential component of the foundation of lifelong learning. The United Nations in 2018 
noted that ‘ . . . literacy is crucial to the acquisition by every child, young person and adult 
of the essential life skills that will enable them to address challenges that they may face in life 
and represents an essential condition of lifelong learning’ (United Nations, 2018).
Ghana’s education is at the threshold of transformation as the government pursues policies and 
programmes to meet SDG 4. Addressing deep-seated inequities between females and males, rural 
and urban areas and between regions requires a holistic vision of learning throughout the life of 
their citizenry.
Issues of policy, ideology, and practice
Lifelong learning policy framework
Although there are some statements in national documents such as the 1992 Constitutions 
and educational policies such as the Education Act (778), the ESP (2010–2020) and the ESP 
(2018–2030) that highlight specific aspects of lifelong learning, Ghana has no policy per se on 
lifelong learning (Mikulec et al., 2019; Tagoe, 2011). Despite the call that countries should 
develop and implement ‘fully-costed policies, well-integrated plans and legislation for addres-
sing adult literacy, education for young people and adults, and lifelong learning’ (UNESCO, 
2009, p. 7), Ghana is yet to have such a fully costed holistic overarching lifelong policy 
(UNESCO (Ghana Office), 2014). In 2009, the need for a lifelong learning policy in Ghana 
was raised by participants of the 60th Annual New Year School,1 which was held at the 
University of Ghana in January 2009. At the meeting, one of the recommendations from the 
School was the: 
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LIFELONG EDUCATION 337
Figure 2. Net Enrolment Rates (2008–2018). Source: Ministry of education 2013, 2015, 2016, 2018
Need for a policy framework, which should provide a comprehensive, nationally consistent, yet flexible 
structure for all levels of education and training. The development of the policy should involve all stake-
holders, including ministries and departments, the private sector, universities, local and international non- 
governmental organisations (NGOs) and other providers of education. This policy should include vision, 
principles, areas of learning, assessment and certification and financing. (Annual New Year School 2009)
As noted earlier, there is a large number of Ghanaians who do not have higher qualifications and 
need alternative pathways to continue learning (Ghana Statistical Service, 2008, 2014, 2019). Adult 
learning and education can provide these individuals with opportunities for continuing training 
and professional development (UNESCO, 2015b). However, the acquisition of skills can become 
relevant to national development needs when it is anchored in a National Qualifications Framework 
and Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL).
Although Ghana has a National TVET Qualifications Framework (NTEVQF) and a Recognition 
of Prior Learning Policy, this is not encompassing enough because it focuses only on TVET 
qualifications (Baffour-Awuah, 2013). According to International Labour Organisation [ILO] 
(2019a), NQFs are evolving due to rapid technological, social and economic change. These changes 
have influenced the purposes and functions of frameworks. Unfortunately, Ghana’s NTEVQF is 
restricted to TVET employees leaving out Universities and other learners and workers outside the 
TVET space. There is the need for a National Qualifications Framework and Recognition of Prior 
Learning (RPL) that will be used to validate and accredit formal, non-formal and informal learning 
and learning outcomes across all the levels of the education system.
Issues of ideology
Issues of ideology have been associated with the concept of lifelong learning and its definitions. 
Some scholars have argued that lifelong learning, like education, is not neutral. Its trajectories have 
been shrouded in ideological underpinnings (Bagnall, 2000). Thus, any policy on lifelong learning 
must be situated in an ideology that is based on social justice, equality and inclusion. This type of 
ideology makes a radical departure from what Rubenson (2006) has described as the neoliberal 
economic policies of the Western countries and International Organisations such as the OECD, the 
EU and the World Bank that is oriented towards employability and driven by the human capital 
theory (Regmi, 2015a). For African Preece (2009, 2013) and Regmi (2015b) have argued that 
because Africa’s problems are diverse and complex, and include issues such as inequality and 
338 M. TAGOE ET AL.
exclusion at the core, a more inclusive approach to lifelong learning must be the ideology of 
countries in Africa. What this means is that African countries should have lifelong learning policies 
that are holistic and based on a humanistic vision. The humanistic model of lifelong learning as an 
ideology focuses on emancipation, inclusiveness, human dignity and social harmony (Choi & Kim, 
2018; Quane, 2011; Regmi, 2015a).
Developing a national lifelong learning is influenced by strong national ideologies. Ghana’s 
political space has been driven by two main political parties, the National Democratic Congress and 
the National Patriotic Party. These two political parties have led Ghana since the 1990s espousing 
two different ideologies. The NDC’s ideology is Social Democracy. The NDC party ‘believes in the 
equality and egalitarian treatment of all persons irrespective of their social, cultural, educational, 
religious and economic relations in a multi-party, multi-ethnic environment . . . and the protection 
of the underprivileged and the upliftment of the socially disadvantaged’ (NDC, 1992, p. 2). The NPP 
is a liberal democratic party with an ideology that seeks to ‘liberate the energies of the people for the 
growth of a property owning democracy . . . in order specifically to enrich life, property and liberty 
of each and every citizen’ (NPP Manifesto, 1996, p. 2). Education policies since the 1990s have been 
influenced by both national aspirations and International Organisations (IOs). Between 1990 and 
2000, government was able to get the World Bank to support adult literacy and basic education.
Since 2000, there has been a gradual recession in the support for adult literacy in Ghana and an 
upsurge in the funds allocated to basic and secondary education. Support to the budget by multi-
lateral and bilateral institutions based on their priorities has stifled other equally important 
subsectors, such as adult learning and education and adult literacy. A strong national ideology is 
crucial in the reduction of adult literacy and the promotion of adult learning and education.
Issues of practice
Allowing lifelong learning to have a transformative effect is when its implementation is felt by the 
children, youth and adults. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has called for a ‘joint 
responsibility, requiring the active engagement and support of governments, employers and work-
ers, as well as educational institutions’ (International Labour Organisation [ILO], 2019a, p. 30). This 
places issues of governance and coordination at the forefront of the practice of lifelong learning in 
Ghana (International Labour Organisation [ILO], 2019b). A lifelong learning policy alone will not 
ensure effective practice if inter-ministerial and inter-sectoral coordination and collaboration 
remain weak and fragmented. Several ministries are involved in the provision of education. They 
include the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection (MoGCSP), the Ministry of 
Employment and Labour Relations, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Food and 
Agriculture, the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, and the Ministry of 
Youth and Sports. There are also private institutions and non-governmental organisations.
For TVET, the Education Sector Performance Report (2018) indicated that ‘formal or institu-
tion-based technical and vocational education and training in Ghana is delivered under fifteen 
different ministries’ (p. 35) thus describing the delivery landscape as fragmented. A similar situation 
pertains to implementation of adult literacy and adult learning and education. There are so many 
actors that operate independent of each other. The Non-formal Division of the Ministry assigned 
with the coordination of non-formal education in Ghana is incapable of providing leadership 
because of inadequate financial support from government. Furthermore, adult learning and educa-
tion is implemented by both governmental and non-governmental organisations. The field of adult 
learning and education is diverse. Several programmes are implemented by both governmental and 
non-governmental organisations, universities and civil society organisations to ensure that 
Ghanaians have access to education and to learn continuously. There is a need for effective 
coordination and collaboration so that outcomes of programmes implemented can be captured 
in a national data system to monitor the progress towards achieving the SDG4. Collaboration and 
coordination will ensure that no one is left behind. Rather they will ensure effective participation by 
learners and inclusiveness.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LIFELONG EDUCATION 339
Conclusion
The paper has examined the place of a lifelong learning policy in Ghana’s national development 
documents and educational policies. It noticed that although lifelong learning has been identified as 
critical to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and as a new educational policy 
agenda for the 21st century (Regmi, 2015a), Ghana has no general framework policy on lifelong 
learning. However, different national documents such as the Constitution, the Education Act (778), 
and the ESP (2010–2020) mention lifelong education and lifelong learning but none of these 
documents provide strategies for the achievement of lifelong learning. A lifelong learning policy 
in Ghana should be able to ‘provide a unifying vision for education and training’ (Youngman, 2003, 
p. 197) and must be mainstreamed in national development documents and educational policies. 
Such a policy must cover formal, non-formal and informal learning.
Any lifelong learning policy must address the issues of ideology. Lifelong learning is a contested 
concept; therefore, it is not neutral. The UNESCO Institute of Lifelong Learning (UIL) has observed 
that ‘in a complex and fast-changing world, lifelong learning has become a philosophy, a conceptual 
framework and an organising principle of all forms of education’ (UIL, 2010, p. 5 cited in UIL, 
2017). For developing countries, the humanistic model has been suggested as the most suitable 
model to spur transformational development. The policy must be holistic and address issues of 
equity, exclusion, and discrimination. One of the challenges is the marginalisation of youth and 
adult learning and education (YALE) in national development documents. Special attention in any 
lifelong learning policy must ensure that non-formal education and learning and informal learning 
are core components of such policy. The new Recommendation on Adult Learning and Education’s 
(2015b) revised definition of adult learning and education must reflect in the position of the 
Government and institutions in Ghana regarding the promotion of adult learning and education 
for the youth and adults. The new Recommendation on Adult Learning and Education (2015b) 
must serve as the blueprint for the components of YALE in Ghana. In addition, any lifelong learning 
policy must recognise the change in the definition of literacy as a continuum of lifelong learning, 
which involves literacies such as media literacy, financial literacy, information literacy, civic literacy 
and scientific literacy. This position fits into what Torres (2002) and Hannemann (2015) have 
described as ‘lifelong literacy’.
Note
1. The Annual New Year School is a regular non-formal programme introduced in the 1950s and organised by 
the School of Continuing and Distance Education where Ghanaians meet to discuss issues of national 
concerns and make recommendations to Governments.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
ORCID
David Addae http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9479-6991
Delali Amuzu http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3904-3334
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