ARCHAEOLOGY OF PRINCE’S TOWN (GHANA) BY EDWARD ADUM NYARKO (10239680) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN ARCHAEOLOGY. JULY 2013 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that, this thesis is the result of my own research work carried out in the Department of Archaeology, University of Ghana, under the supervision of Dr. Wazi Apoh. All relevant references cited in this work have been fully acknowledged. This work has not been presented in full or in part to any other institution for examination. I remain solely responsible for any shortcomings in this study. ……………………………........…. Edward Adum Nyarko (Student) …………………………........……. Dr. Wazi Apoh (Main Supervisor) ……………………………..…….. Dr. Clement Abass Apaak (Co-Supervisor) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my wife; Abigail, children; Edward (Jnr), Miracle, Unction and Nhyira Adum Nyarko. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I thank the Almighty God for His abundant grace and mercies upon my life and His divine protection that has brought me this far. I offer my special thanks and a deep sense of gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Wazi Apoh, for the interest he showed in my work, the directions he gave me as well as the constructive criticisms (I call academic harassments). Though they were harsh at times they indeed helped, shape my work to this extent. To Dr. Clement Abass Apaak who doubles as my advisor, I say a very big thank you for your interest in the supervision of this work. I would also want to thank all the lecturers of the Department of Archaeology and Heritage studies, who during my seminar presentations, critiqued my work and gave their inputs. I appreciate their constructive criticism since I found their rich experience in the subject extremely useful and valuable in the successful completion of this study. Mr. S. A. Nyarko, my father and my friend and sister, Mrs Aba Eyifa Dzidzienyo cannot be left out. I thank both of you for supporting me financially. May God replenish what you have spent on my work. I register my deepest and profound appreciation to Mr. Gideon Sarpong Agyare, Samuel Nkumbaan, Samuel Osei, Cosmos Logosu, David Abrampah, Siaw Appiah-Adu, Daniel Kumah, and other friends who have supported me in diverse ways to achieve this piece of work. I owe a great debt to Professor James Anquandah, Professor Boachie-Ansah, Professor Benjamin Kankpeyeng and Professor C.R. DeCorse for their encouragement, motivation and advice. I offer my special thanks and a deep sense of gratitude to all my respondents who parted information to me during my research. Without them I would not have come this far. Last but not the least, I thank my wife, Abigail, and my children, Edward (Jnr), Miracle, Aseda and Nhyira for their sacrifices, moral support and understanding. Although I denied you fatherly love several times, you will live to enjoy the fruits of your sacrifices. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT This Archaeological research was undertaken at the town of Kpokeso now called Prince’s Town on the coast of Ghana, West Africa. Prince’s Town grew to fame in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as a trading post and a port of great importance in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Traders of many European nations including the Brandenburg, Holland, Denmark, France, Portugal and England once maintained permanent trading establishments on the Gold coast and traded with the Africans at Kpokeso as well as traders from other parts of the Gold Coast. These historical circumstances place Prince’s Town in a unique situation thus shedding light on the transformations and continuities experienced by an African society in the early period of extensive European trade contacts. This thesis discusses a research that is focused on understanding the nature of contacts and interactions that existed between Africans and Europeans at Prince’s Town during the Trans-Atlantic trading era. It also seeks to assess the contribution of the fort to the understanding of contacts and interactions between Africans and Europeans as well as gather data that inform on how the presence of the Brandenburg and other Europeans affected the people of Prince’s Town and their culture. The research seeks to establish a chronology for the site of Prince’s Town through the use of the artifacts from the excavation. The Archaeological research has demonstrated that materials from excavations combined with documentary evidence and oral histories provide insights into interactions between Africans and Europeans through trade contact. The research also indicates that there is no clear stratigraphic distribution between the Brandenburg period, the Dutch period and the English. This may be due to the choice of sites. The presence of European materials in African contexts provides insights into the African and European interaction. It has also revealed that the people of Prince’s Town are Nzima and not Ahanta and that the encounters with the Europeans did not largely influence their indigenous religion as the people go to church and still practise indigenous religion. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT PAGES Declaration ................................................................................................................................. i Dedication .................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... v Table of contents ...................................................................................................................... vii List of Maps ............................................................................................................................ viii List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... viii List of Graphs ........................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER ONE: Introduction and Background Information ........................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Aims and Objectives ........................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Background Information ..................................................................................................... 2 1.3.1 Geology ............................................................................................................................ 2 1.3.2 Geography and Ecology ................................................................................................... 6 1.3.3 Climate ............................................................................................................................. 7 1.3.4 Vegetation ........................................................................................................................ 7 1.3.5 Population ........................................................................................................................ 8 1.3.6 Ethnic Groups .................................................................................................................. 8 1.3.7 Culture .............................................................................................................................. 9 1.3.8 Economic Activities ....................................................................................................... 10 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 Research Problem ........................................................................................................... 17 1.5 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 18 1.6 Research Method .............................................................................................................. 18 1.7 Significance of Research ................................................................................................... 22 1.8 Problems encountered ....................................................................................................... 22 1.9 Organization of chapters ................................................................................................... 23 CHAPTER TWO: Conceptual Framework and Settlement History of Kpokeso ........... 25 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 25 2.2 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 25 2.3 Settlement History of Kpokeso ......................................................................................... 29 2.4 The People of Kpokeso and their Encounters with Europeans ......................................... 33 2.5 Toponymy of Prince’s Town ............................................................................................ 38 2.6 Information on previous Historical and Archeological research done on European Contact sites in Coastal Areas of Ghana .............................................................................................. 39 CHAPTER THREE: Reconnaissance Survey and Ethnographic Studies at Prince’s Town ........................................................................................................................................ 48 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 48 3.2 Fort Gross Fredericksburg ................................................................................................ 49 3.3 Indigenous Politics ............................................................................................................ 55 3.4 Indigenous religion ........................................................................................................... 58 3.4.1 Bole Nwua – The Two Stones ....................................................................................... 58 3.5 Kundum Festival ............................................................................................................... 61 3.6 John Konny and his Material Heritage remains ................................................................ 63 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR: Archaeological Survey and Excavation ............................................. 70 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 70 4.2 Archaeological Sites ......................................................................................................... 71 4.3 Surface collection .............................................................................................................. 72 4.3.1 Summary of finds ........................................................................................................... 73 4.3.2 Field Mapping ................................................................................................................ 73 4.3.3 Excavation ...................................................................................................................... 75 4.4 Stratigraphic Profile .......................................................................................................... 76 4.4.1 Unit One ......................................................................................................................... 78 4.4.2 Unit Two ........................................................................................................................ 82 CHAPTER FIVE: Analysis of Excavated Materials from Prince’s Town ....................... 90 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 90 5.2 Local Pottery ..................................................................................................................... 90 5.2.1 Sherd Types ................................................................................................................... 90 5.2.2 Rim Forms ..................................................................................................................... 91 5.2.3 Surface Colour ............................................................................................................... 92 5.2.4 Inclusions ....................................................................................................................... 92 5.2.5 Surface Treatment .......................................................................................................... 93 5.2.6 Decorations on Potsherds ............................................................................................... 96 5.2.7 Vessel Forms .................................................................................................................. 97 5.2.7.1 Jar Forms ..................................................................................................................... 97 5.2.7.2. Bowl Forms .............................................................................................................. 100 5.3 Makers Mark ................................................................................................................... 103 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 European Glass Bottles ................................................................................................... 104 5.5 European ceramics .......................................................................................................... 106 5.6 Smoking pipes ................................................................................................................. 111 5.7 Molluscs shell ................................................................................................................. 112 5.8 Iron artifacts ..................................................................................................................... 114 5.9 Beads ............................................................................................................................... 115 5.10 Oil Palm Nut ................................................................................................................. 116 5.11 Grave Markers (Stones) ................................................................................................. 116 CHAPTER SIX: Discussion and Conclusion .................................................................... 118 6.1 Discussion: European Interaction at Prince’s Town ....................................................... 118 6.2 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 128 Reference .............................................................................................................................. 130 Appendix ............................................................................................................................... 137 Questionnaire ........................................................................................................................ 137 LIST OF MAPS PAGES Map 1 Map Research Area ....................................................................................................... 3 Map 2 Map of Ahanta West showing Prince’s Town in relation to Axim, Akwida and Takoradi .................................................................................................................................... 4 Map 3 Map of the coast of Ghana showing Fort Gross Fredericksburg and other Forts and Castles ....................................................................................................................................... 5 Map 4 Ahanta States and other States ................................................................................................. 56  Map 5 Map showing Nzima speaking areas of Ahanta ......................................................... 124  viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES PAGES Table 1 Summary of finds from test excavations of Prince’s Town, 2012 .............................. 74 Table 2 The distribution of Sherd type across Units ............................................................... 91 Table 3 The distribution of Rim Forms across Units ............................................................... 91 Table 4 The distribution of Surface colour across Units ......................................................... 92 Table 5 The distribution of Temper of Potsherds .................................................................... 93 Table 6 The distribution of Surface Treatment across Units ................................................... 94 Table 7 The distribution of decorations of Potsherds .............................................................. 96 Table 8 Trade Ceramics from Prince’s Town ........................................................................ 110 LIST OF GRAPH PAGES Graph 1 Graphical Summary of Finds from Prince’s Town, 2012 .......................................... 75 LIST OF FIGURES PAGES Figure 1 Photo of River Nyala ................................................................................................ 10 Figure 2 Photo of the estuary of Rivers Nyala and Kpane ..................................................... 11 Figure 3 Photo of a farmer being transported to his village on the River Nyala .................... 12 Figure 4 Photo of the Whin / Ehonle Lagoon ......................................................................... 15 Figure 5 Photo of the front view of the fort as it stands today ................................................ 51 Figure 6 Photo of the interior of one of the guest room .......................................................... 52 Figure 7 Photo of the south bastion ........................................................................................ 52 Figure 8 Photo of the entrance of one of the dungeons beneath the South Bastion ............... 53 Figure 9 Interior photo of the dungeon beneath the South Bastion ........................................ 53 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 10 Photo of one of the three ventilations of the dungeon ............................................ 54 Figure 11 Photo of part of the store house beneath the governor’s residence ........................ 54 Figure 12 Photo of the Bole nwua .......................................................................................... 60 Figure 13 Photo of the walled Bole nwua ............................................................................... 60 Figure 14 A sketch of John Konny’s wall .............................................................................. 65 Figure 15 Photo of stones from John Konny’s wall ............................................................... 66 Figure 16 A sketch of the floor plan of the Mansion of John Konny’s .................................. 64 Figure 17 Photo of the internal part and flight of stairs of the remains of John Konny’s mansion ................................................................................................................................... 68 Figure 18 Photo of the exterior of the surviving part of John Konny’s mansion ................... 68 Figure 19 Photo of the foundations of John Konny’s mansion being quarried and sold to people for building houses. Note groups of cracked rocks on display for sale on the compound ................................................................................................................................ 69 Figure 20 Photo of the ruined foundations of the old chief’s palace ...................................... 72 Figure 21 Photo of Test pit at sterile level .............................................................................. 77 Figure 22 Photo of libation ritual and re-interment of exhumed remains ............................... 77 Figure 23 Photo of Unit 1 ....................................................................................................... 78 Figure 24 Photo of a cluster of smooth pebble like stones in Unit 1 ...................................... 79 Figure 25 Profile of the North Wall of Unit 1 ........................................................................ 80 Figure 26 Profile of the East Wall of Unit 1 ........................................................................... 81 Figure 27 Photo of the sterile level of Unit 1 .......................................................................... 82 Figure 28 Photo of exposed stones ......................................................................................... 83 Figure 29 Photo of skeletal remains in Unit 2 ........................................................................ 84 Figure 30 Close up photo of the exposed skeletal remains ..................................................... 85 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 31 Photo of second skeletal remains ........................................................................... 86 Figure 32 Photo showing the stratified walls and sterile level of the excavated Unit 2 .......... 87 Figure 33 Profile of East Wall of Unit 2 .................................................................................. 87 Figure 34 Photo of old refuse dump site ................................................................................. 89 Figure 35 Jar form 1a .............................................................................................................. 98 Figure 36 Jar Form 1b ............................................................................................................. 99 Figure 37 Jar Form 2a ........................................................................................................... 100 Figure 38 Bowl Form 1a ....................................................................................................... 100 Figure 39 Bowl Form 1b ....................................................................................................... 101 Figure 40 Bowl Form 1c ....................................................................................................... 102 Figure 41 Bowl Form 2a ....................................................................................................... 102 Figure 42 Bowl Form 2b ....................................................................................................... 103 Figure 43a Photos of special decorations or makers mark ................................................... 103 Figure 43b Photos of special decorations or makers mark ................................................... 104 Figure 43c Photos of special decorations or makers mark ................................................... 104 Figure 44 Seals or trademarks ............................................................................................... 105 Figure 45 Delftware with hand painted floral motifs ............................................................ 106 Figure 46 Hand painted floral decorated White ware ........................................................... 107 Figure 47 Blue transfer Printed Pearlware ............................................................................ 107 Figure 48 Pearlware plates .................................................................................................... 108 Figure 49 Undecorated light Creamware plates .................................................................... 108 Figure 50 Photo of English transfer printed Pearlware ......................................................... 109 Figure 51 Floral painted Chinese Porcelain .......................................................................... 109 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii Figure 52 Stoneware ............................................................................................................. 109 Figure 53 Stems of European smoking Pipes ....................................................................... 112 Figure 54 Gastropoda ............................................................................................................ 113 Figure 55 Bivalvia ................................................................................................................. 113 Figure 56 Metal objects ........................................................................................................ 114 Figure 57 Photo of Carnelian beads ...................................................................................... 115 Figure 58 Photo of Venetian millifiori beads ....................................................................... 116 Figure 59 Grave Markers of European burials ..................................................................... 117 Figure 60 Pebble Stones arrangements ................................................................................. 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1.0 Introduction My research seeks to investigate African-European interactions at Prince’s Town in the Ahanta West District of the Western Region of Ghana. It focuses on the ancient African settlement of Kpokeso located at Prince’s Town 4⁰ 47’ 41.10’’ N and 2⁰ 08’ 02.90’’ W (See Map I). Prince’s Town is located in the Ahanta West District of the Western Region of Ghana about 5 kilometers east of Fort St. Antonio. Prince’s Town lies between Axim which is to the west and Takoradi which is to the east of the town. Prince’s Town (see Map 2), also known by its local name of Kpokeso (Pokeso, Pocqueso) or Bokaso, is best known as the site of the elegant Brandenburg-built Fort Gross Fredericksburg. This fort was constructed in 1683 (Welman, 1930:20). As one of the few surviving German forts in Ghana, the history surrounding the establishment of Fort Gross Fredericksburg is worth noting. Frederick William, Prince-Elector of Brandenburg is said to have registered a chartered company by name Brandenburg African Company in 1682 (Welman, 1930:16), for the purpose of carrying on trade at free ports on the Guinea Coast of Africa. The charter of the company gave it a monopoly of trade with the Ahanta people and also forbade any trade in slaves. 1.2 Aims and Objectives This research seeks to understand the nature of contacts and interactions that existed between Africans and Europeans at Kpokeso, which later came to be known as Prince’s Town. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahanta_West_District http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Region_(Ghana) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axim http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takoradi 2 The objective is to gather data that would inform on how the presence of the Brandenburg and other Europeans affected the people of Prince’s Town and their culture. The study was also undertaken to provide artifacts from excavations to establish a chronology for the site of Prince’s Town as well as to assess the contribution of the fort to the understanding of contacts and interactions between Africans and Europeans. 1.3 Background Information 1.3.1 Geology According to Dickson and Benneh (1970:7), the area stretching from Agogo in the Ashanti Region through to Akim (Eastern Region) to about the middle portion of the Ankobra (Western Region) belong to the Tarkwaian formation of the Precambrian era. Since Prince’s Town is located within this belt, it would be appropriate to place it within the Tarkwaian formation. Kesse (1985:27) and Wills (1962:54) both describe the Tarkwaian system to be of shallow water continental origin derived from the Birimian and associated granitoids. The Tarkwaian formation consists of poorly sorted coarse, immature sediments of schist, sandstones, quartzite and phyllites (Dickson & Benneh 1970:8; Kesse 1985:27). A few patches of land within the area covered by the formation consist of plutonic or volcanic rocks. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Map 1 Map of Research Area, Prince’s Town (Google earth image, 2013) River Nyala River Kpane Ehonle / Whin Lagoon University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Map 2 Map of Ahanta West showing Prince’s Town in relation to Axim, Akwida and Takoradi (Google earth image, 2014) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Map 3 Map of the coast of Ghana showing Fort Gross Fredericksburg and other Forts and Castles. (Source: S.K. Osei, 2014) Fort Gross Fredericksburg University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1.3.2 Geography and Ecology The research site is located in Ghana’s west coast which is noted as a nature lover’s paradise. The area is full of hills, valleys, evergreen forests, bamboo forests, conservation areas, protected wetlands, forested islands, lakes, lagoons, ponds, swamps, beaches, coves, bays, rocky peninsulas, rock formations, monkey and bird sanctuaries. In the region with the highest rainfall in Ghana, lush greenery constantly meets the eye. The area is home to Cape Three Points Forest Reserve; the last remaining coastal rainforest in West Africa. Spectacular tropical plants abound. It includes more than 800 species of plants, such as various kinds of ferns, lilies and Vosccia cuspidata, the floating grass of the Amansuri wetlands. Many of the plant species can be used for medicinal purposes (http://www.ghanawestcoast.com/gwc/ecology.php). Different species of animals also abound in the research area. There are more than 48 mammal species present. The animals include several species of monkeys like the spot-nosed monkey and campbell’s monkey. There are also over 200 different bird species (including the spot breasted ibis and crowned eagle). There is also a wide variety of fish and shellfish, including swordfish, tuna, cassava fish, kingfish, barracuda and shrimps (http://www.ghanawestcoast.com). During the months of August to March, Ghana’s west coast hosts three species of marine turtles: olive ridley, leatherback, and green turtles. The peak turtle nesting season is from October to December. Dolphins and whales (including the humpback and sperm whales) are occasionally seen between October and February (http://www.ghanawestcoast.com). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://www.ghanawestcoast.com/gwc/ecology.php http://www.ghanawestcoast.com/ 7 1.3.3 Climate The climate of an area refers to the long-term prevalent weather conditions of an area determined by latitude and altitude among other things (Dickson & Benneh, 1970). It is therefore necessary to examine the elements of the weather (rainfall patterns, temperature, humidity, etc,). Prince’s Town is found within the South-Western Equatorial Climatic Zone of Ghana. Temperatures are very high, with little variation from year to year. The highest mean monthly temperature is 34°C which is recorded between March and April, while the lowest mean temperature of 20°C is experienced in August. The range of daily temperature is approximately double the annual range being 5 o C or 6 o C due to the modifying influence of the sea breeze (Dickson & Benneh 1970:26; Wills 1962:17). Relative humidity is very high averaging between 75% to 85% in the rainy season and 70% to 80% in the dry season. Prince’s Town is located within the wettest region in Ghana. It experiences a double maxima rainfall. This abundant rainfall supports agrarian activities in the District. However, due to the high number of third class roads in the district, accessibility to most parts of the district is thwarted during the rainy season (http://www.ahantawest.ghanadistricts.gov.gh). The annual rainfall is about 1900mm, and on the average no month is less than 25mm (Dickson & Benneh 1970:28). Rain falls at almost all times of the day and night in April, May and July. In June, there is a distinct preponderance of rain in the day-time and in September and October, rain is commonest around dawn and noon (Wills 1962:16). 1.3.4 Vegetation The District falls largely within the High Rain Forest Vegetation Zone, capturing several hectares of rubber plantation. To a large extent, this contributes significantly to reducing the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://www.ahantawest.ghanadistricts.gov.gh/ 8 problem of global warming, since a chunk of carbon dioxide emissions by the automobiles are absorbed. Due to human activities, all the forest except Cape Three Points Forest Reserve, which occupies an area of 51.02 square kilometers, has been reduced to secondary forest (http://www.ahantawest.ghanadistricts.gov.gh). 1.3.5 Population The growth of trade in gold, slaves and agriculture may have contributed to the high population density of Prince’s Town. At present, the population of Prince’s Town is about five thousand two hundred (2010 Census data, Ahanta West District Assembly). The primary factors that make groups interact is trade, availability of raw materials, endowment of natural resources, and militaristic prowess amongst others. There are about twelve villages under Prince’s Town. These villages are, Nmudrokani, Ahinazo, Sao, Asubeya, Enebasuaso, Mpenyiasa, Sinamao, Adrazo, Nkwantanan, Aketekye, Apomedre, Kodwo Azua, Asomabo, Abie nnsemanu, Domeabra, Asuboye, Silimawu, Adalazo, Alimasuazo. Some of these villages are along the River Nyala which serves as main source of food supply and transportation to the hinterland and the coast. 1.3.6 Ethnic Groups From the ethnographic survey conducted, one can say that the ethnic composition of Prince’s Town is not made up of only Nzima speaking people. There are various ethnic groups from all over the country. They include the Ahanta, Fante, Evalue, Wassa, Aowin, Sefwi, Asante, and Guan. Other ethnic groups include the Ga Adangme, Ga and Ewe. There are some Malian traders who come there occasionally to trade goods they bring from Mali and return University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://www.ahantawest.ghanadistricts.gov.gh/ 9 home when they have made good money. They have built their stores and accommodation facility and a make shift mosque which they use anytime they visit the place. The diverse ethnic groups encourage intermarriages among the various ethnic groups. Other public servants like teachers, nurses and medical assistants have also been posted there because of their vocations. Some are also living there because of trading activities although trading is not vibrant as it used to be during the era of the Brandenburgers 1.3.7 Culture Ghana’s west coast has a very rich cultural heritage, stemming from its ethnic and European influences. The main ethnic influences emanate from the Ahanta, Nzima, Evalue and Fante ethnic groups, while the European influences are mainly from the Portuguese, Dutch, British and Brandenburg-Prussians. The culture of the area is manifested in the traditional rites and practices, music and dance, cuisine, religion, chieftaincy system, and livelihood activities. In the later part of September or early part of October the people of Prince’s Town celebrate their week-long Kundum festival. They are the last community that celebrates the Kundum Festival. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 1.3.8 Economic Activities The main economic activity in the area is farming, fishing and trading. Prince’s Town is located within the wettest region in Ghana. The abundant rainfall in the area supports agrarian activities in the District. It also facilitates the cultivation of rubber on several hectares of plantation. To an extent, this contributes significantly to reducing the problem of global warming. There are other crops that are grown on commercial basis as well. These include oil palm, coconut, and cocoa. There are also numerous smallholder farms, nurturing crops such as corn, cassava, sugarcane, pineapple, tomatoes and pepper. Figure 1 Photo of River Nyala (Photo by E. A. Nyarko, 2013). According to the oral accounts collected, the confluence of the two rivers (Nyala and Kpane) and the estuary used to be narrow in times past. It measured about fifty feet wide. However, due to erosion and over flooding, it is now wider (Figure 1 and 2). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 River Nyala is important to the people of Prince’s town. This is because it is the main source of fishing for the people and the lands at the banks of the river is extensively used for farming. There are other villages beyond the banks of River Nyala and Prince’s Town serves as a port where the inhabitants of those villages embark on the Oman ferry to their destinations and disembark at Prince’s Town to do business. The port (Ahonle) at Prince’s Town connects to these settlements, Dokwabo, Kodwo Azua Ahonle, Agyeneso Ahonle, Sawu Ahonle, Abie Nnsemanu, Domeabra Ahonle, Asuboye Ahonle, Silimowu Ahonle, Adalazo Ahonle, and Animasuazo Ahonle. Figure 2 Photo of the estuary of Rivers Nyala and Kpane. (Photo by E. A. Nyarko, 2013). Canoes are the mode of transportation on the river for both fishing and transportation of farmers and traders (Figure 3). There is a special big canoe owned by the ‘Oman’ (state), which ferries the travelers to and fro their destinations along the coastline. This Oman canoe has been University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 in existence from ancient times until present. The operator of the canoe starts work at 6:00 am in the morning and closes at 6:00 pm or 7:00 pm in the evening depending on the weather condition. The oral traditions suggest that the river served as a means of transporting lumber downstream for milling in the past. This corroborates Justesen’s (2005:202, 271) statement that Prince’s Town had fine wood and an excellent sawn mill where small timbers and fine planks can be sawn and obtained. This assertion is further confirmed by Duncan (2001) who indicates that in 1912, The Payne and Hingle Timber Company established a timber shipping firm at Prince’s Town behind the River Nyala. Figure 3 Photo of a farmer being transported to his village on the River Nyala (Photo by E. A. Nyarko, 2013). The company built quarters for the workers and the place was named Payne Suazo. He indicates that the lumbers were arranged from upstream and they floated downstream. However University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 during the First World War in 1914, the company had to be closed down because the expatriates who constituted most of the technical workers had to return home. On the eastern side of Prince’s Town is the Whin or Ehonle Lagoon (Figure 4). The lagoon is a deity to the people of Prince’s Town just as River Densu, Ankobra, Birim, Pra among others are deities to the people who live on their banks. There is a mythology surrounding the coming into existence of the Ehonle lagoon. Most of the people believe the myth surrounding this lagoon and would not accept any scientific explanation of the formation of the lagoon. The oral accounts indicate that one Osahene Eti who was the head of the Ntwea family of Aloakpoke was a mighty warrior who triumphed in battles as he moved from one village to the next. However when he got to Kekam a town in the eastern part of Nzima, he met strong resistance from the people. As a result he ran out of water. He sent his sister by name Asane Mushia to go and fetch him a bottle of water from the stream called Honle which is in the town of Apremdo, in Ahantaland. He asked her to use the beach route and not to stop anywhere on her return. On her way back home, she was so exhausted and could not continue the journey so she rested a little bit at a place. This place happened to be Prince’s Town. She lay down to rest for a while but fell asleep with the bottle of water lying beside her. She woke up in the morning in a pool of water and found her bottle empty and floating on the water. She continued her journey home and reported the incident to her brother. The legend continues that the pool of water continued enlarging until it became a lagoon. Shortly after that, a hunter from Prince’s Town chanced upon this water body and quickly reported it to the then chief called Nana Ndama Kundumua I. The town folks accompanied the chief to the place to ascertain the truth. According to the legend, three days later, the god of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 Ehonle possessed a boy who could not speak for three days. A traditional priest was consulted and the necessary rites were performed to enable the boy to speak. When he began speaking, (still possessed by the gods) he said “I am known as Nana Honle. I came from Apremdo and have come to dwell amongst you. If you chiefs and people accept me, I will be your guide, defender and protector in all times. I will be the earthly father and mother to all your sons and daughters of this town”. The deity left the boy after that and the people of Prince’s Town accepted to live with the deity. It is believed that the rains have contributed in the enlargement of the Whin or Ehonle lagoon to its present state. Around the Ehonle lagoon are groves in which monkeys inhibit. It is forbidden to kill these monkeys. The town people claim the monkeys are the children of Nana Honle and that the deity has forbidden them from killing any of the monkeys. The tradition claims that these monkeys have helped the people of Prince’s Town in their battles with their enemies. During one of such battles, the monkeys are believed to have helped them to defeat the people of Abecroe in 1712. It is said that during that war, the god of the lagoon, ordered the monkeys to fetch and throw the oyster shells from the lagoon at their enemies. It is for these reasons that the god of the lagoon has instructed that none of the monkeys should be killed nor harmed. Notably, these monkeys are not harmful. They are friendly and come to people’s homes at certain times of the day. The lagoon also provides (Akpose) oysters, lobsters, and many kinds of fishes for consumption. The lagoon forbids any one to sell any kind of fish from it. The fish are for consumption and the lobsters are prepared specifically for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 visitors. This is often done to demonstrate love towards one another and to have a continuous supply of fish in the lagoon. One thing that astounds me most about this lagoon is that, it is salty. However, its immediate banks produce good fresh drinking water for both cooking and washing. The oral accounts collected indicated that one can dig a hole about a foot deep at the banks, and get fresh water. The Whin or Ehonle lagoon is revered by all the indigenes and it has become their deity. Figure 4 Photo of the Whin or Ehonle Lagoon (Photo by E. A. Nyarko, 2013). The water bodies serve as a source of food supply for the people. According to information gleaned from the ethnographic studies, fishing is done on commercial basis from the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 sea (Atlantic Ocean) and the River Nyala. The catches are sent to the market at Agona Nkwanta for sale. Another economic activity that the people of the area engage in is farming. The soils found in this area are the forest oxysols type (Dickson & Benneh 1970:36-37). The colour of these soils range from brown to orange. They are made up of sandy soils which are porous and well-drained due to the heavy and abundant rainfall in the area. This leads to a high degree of leaching resulting in serious reduction in the quantities of calcium, magnesium, and other nutrients that the soils hold. The leaching makes the soils rather acidic. Because of their acidity, they can only support tree crops such as rubber, oil palm, and coconut (Dickson & Benneh 1970:36-37). This is why the Ghana Rubber Estate Limited and private rubber estates are located in this area. There is also an abundance of oil palm and coconut in and around the Nzima area as well as Prince’s Town. Most of the crops cultivated at Prince’s Town include rubber, oil palm, coconut, rice, cassava, maize, plantain, and vegetables. Cultivation of these crops is done by shifting cultivation, which normally uses the slash and burn method. Though cocoa is grown in the area it is not done on plantation basis. Other economic activities in the area include trading and processing of agricultural produce for sale. People also engage in trades like hairdressing, dressmaking, carpentry and block-making among others. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 1.4 Research Problem The Guinea Coast became the ancient “shopping street” of many European countries. Notable amongst them were the Portuguese who first arrived around 1471 in the Gold Coast. Other Europeans include the French, Dutch, English, Danes, Swedes, and Brandenburgers. To fulfill their purposes of trading on the Guinea coast, many trade posts, fortified or not, were built. Within three centuries, more than sixty castles, forts and lodges were built along a stretch of coast that is less than 500km long (Van Dantzig 1980:vii). Oliver Davies (1956) conducted a number of sporadic surface reconnaissance surveys in Nzimaland, but his interest was into Pleistocene and Holocene studies. Subsequent investigations of European trade posts along the coast of Ghana has been the focus of most historical archaeologists like Posnansky (1976), Anquandah (1993, 1997, 1999a & 1999b), DeCorse (2001), Boachie-Ansah (2008), Freeman (2008), Gyam (2008) and Kumah (2012). Information and knowledge gathered from these investigations provide insights into the life ways of Europeans in these castles, forts and lodges, but little is known about the African communities that existed before the inception or intensification of the interactions. The trans-Atlantic Trade led to the building of these fortifications which subsequently brought about contact and interactions. Prince’s Town is mentioned by van Dantzig (1980:39) to have been an important smuggling station on the coast for a long time. He also mentions that the Brandenburg company officials who were stationed there, traded with ships from all nations. This suggests that there was exchange of different cultural and material values. It is probable that these material and cultural remains have left their imprints in the archaeological record. To be able to investigate the nature and character of African-European relations University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 (contact and interaction) at Prince’s Town, the researcher decided to undertake an archaeological survey and excavations at Prince’s Town to provide material evidence to complement archival records regarding African-European interactions. 1.5 Research Questions This research has been guided by a number of research questions. They include the following: 1. What is the settlement history of Prince’s Town? 2. What are the past material cultural manifestations of Prince’s Town? 3. What are the stories, tales, folklore’s and memories about the presence of Europeans in Prince’s Town? 4. What was the nature of the trade that existed between the Europeans and the indigenes? 5. Who were the main people involved in the trade? 6. What were the major attractions that led to the European rivalries at Prince’s Town? 7. What are the extant tangible relics of the past? 1.6 Research Method This research employed a multi-disciplinary approach in examining and collecting data to address the research questions. The research methods included examination of documentary and oral records, ethnographic studies, archaeological field survey, excavation and post excavation analysis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 Documentary records: Documentary literature that proved useful to this research included materials on both methodological and theoretical expositions on African-European interactions. In relation to the methods, books by Fagan (1999) and Schiffer (1982) were used. Articles by Silliman (2005), DeCorse, (1998), Cusick (1998), Gamble (1993) and Shortman and Urban (1992) served as a guide towards the understanding of the conceptual framework informing this study. These sources were consulted at the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies Library and the Balme Library in the University of Ghana, Legon. The researcher obtained archival data from the Public Records Administration and Archives Department (PRAAD) in Accra concerning the Ahanta Traditional Area. These records informed me on aspects of the history that the oral accounts and histories did not capture. They included: the Ahanta Memorandum ADM 11/1703, Petition against Lands Bill 1895 ADM 5/3/10. The Gold Coast Protectorate Report of the Proceedings of the Deputation from the Kings and Chiefs of the Western Province of the Gold Coast and the Akan traditions of Origin 5/8. Oral tradition: Oral tradition is very important in African archaeology, because it fills the gaps in documentary sources and archaeological data. Vansina (1985:27) defines oral traditions as verbal messages which are reported statements from the past beyond the present generation. His definition specifies that the message must be oral statements spoken, sung, or called out on musical instruments. He distinguishes such sources from written messages and all other sources except oral history. He explains further that there must be transmission by word of mouth over at least a generation. Oral tradition plays a vital role in reconstruction of the past of any group of people. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 It must be indicated that, in collecting oral traditions of any people, one would have to be very critical. This is because just as in written sources, there are bound to be distortions as a result of personal sentiments. The use of oral tradition as a source helps to correct other perspectives just as much as other perspectives correct them (Vansina, 1985:199). Against this background, oral traditions were collected from a cross-section of the public, including the Chiefs, elders and youth of Prince’s Town. The results of the interviews revealed that the people of Prince’s Town were aware of their involvement in the building of the fort and its usage and see the fort as their legacy. I was informed that it was the people of Kpokeso who provided the timber for the construction of the first fort as well as labour whilst the remaining materials were imported from Konigsberg, Germany. This information is confirmed in a book compiled by Welman, (1930:17:22). They indicated that during wars the men took their wives and children for safe keeping in the fort and the men went to the battle field. This information is also confirmed by Welman, (1930:21). It is also known that local people served as brokers for the commandants of the fort. Mention is made of John Konny who was a broker for the Brandenburgers and a merchant who later became a ruler. A cabussier called Kwamina Appree alias Apkolley Kpanyinli of Axim (Daaku, 1970:132; Gyam, 2008:40; and Welman, 1930:35) through whom John Konny waged war against the people of Axim is also well remembered. Reconnaissance Survey and Ethnographic Studies: Ethnographic research was conducted at Prince’s Town from 25 th November to 29 th December 2012, and from 18 th March to 21 st March 2013 to complement documentary sources, oral accounts and archaeological data. Ethnography has to do with the study of the contemporary life ways of a people. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 Ethnographic studies concerning the indigenous ideology and economic activities of Prince’s Town were undertaken as well. Archaeological field survey: Surface survey was carried out at the site of the ancient African settlement at Prince’s Town by walking within the site. People still live at this site presently. The site covered was 90 x 120 m in area. Surface finds were collected. The survey was restricted to the old African settlement but did not include the African settlement at places such as the Manfro hill and at the foothills of Manfro hill, where the Fort Gross Fredericksburg is situated. Excavation: Most part of the old African settlement is covered by the sea due to climatic changes and the construction of the Tema and Takoradi Harbours in the 1920’s. The area left along the shoreline has become sandy as a result of wave actions by the sea. The sandy nature of the area coupled with fishing activities did not allow for total gridding of the area. Some selected areas with surface configuration of artifacts on the site were selected for excavation. A total of three (3) units were opened. Post Excavation Analysis: Archaeological materials, such as pottery, glass bottles, stems of smoking pipes, ceramics, and metals were analyzed with the assistance of technical and teaching staff of the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies at the University of Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 1.7 Significance of Research The results of this work are multifaceted. It is expected that the findings will add to and complement the already existing knowledge on the archaeology of the Nzima area. It will also broaden the scope of understanding on the archaeology of African-European interactions and trade in Ghana, especially in the Western Region and help identify who the people of Prince’s Town are. The findings could serve as data for comparative studies in other parts of the country in general. 1.8 Problems encountered Some problems were encountered during the research period. Notable among them was the fact that the archival documents on early interactions with the Europeans at Prince’s Town from the 15 th century are difficult to come by at the Public Records and Archives Administration Department (PRAAD). Most of the early documents were in German language and are not available in Ghana. Secondly, there has never been any archaeological research at Prince’s Town. The youth who were ignorant of the discipline and were not well informed by the interim seven member committee mediating between the rival chiefs considered the excavations as a probe for gold rather than for cultural materials. Most people speculated that the researcher had come to prospect for gold. Just as the principal researcher started drawing the soil profile of the test pit, some of the youth from the community who had returned from a funeral came to the site and asked the team to stop work. The principal researcher who had then started drawing the soil University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 profile in the pit was nearly covered with sand when the angry mob backfilled the unit and marched the team to the palace. It took two days to resolve the issue and for work to resume. Thirdly, best areas for excavations were not permitted by the individuals who claimed their ancestors were buried there. Those who were ready to allow the team excavate their piece of land were demanding a fee of one hundred and fifty (150.00) cedis and a bottle of schnapps for a 2m x 2m unit. As part of their demand they would supervise the dig and collect any jewelry or beads they deemed important to the family. Unit 2 and 3 were monitored by family representatives. Other probable places that could have been excavated had been disturbed and in other circumstances, the sea had disturbed or covered the area. The sea had swallowed an ancient refuse dump and some of the artifacts had been washed ashore whilst some were probably buried by the sea sand. Some other artifacts were trapped in the rocks where the refuse dump used to be in the sea. The south-western part of Ghana is noted for cloudiness and heavy rainfall throughout the year. Many times it was cloudy and photography was difficult during the period of the research. 1.9 Organization of chapters Chapter One is introductory and provides the background information to the study area. Chapter Two is divided into two parts; conceptual framework and settlement history. The conceptual framework discusses contact studies and how trade brought different cultures into contact which resulted in the exchange of cultures and cultural materials. The settlement history examines Prince’s Town from diverse perspectives. It combines information collected from different sources which include documentary, archival, oral traditional and ethnographic sources. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 Chapter Three examines the Cultural heritage and life ways of the people of Prince’s Town through a reconnaissance survey and ethnographic studies conducted in the town. It also discusses the historical significance of these findings. Chapter Four provides details on the archaeological reconnaissance survey conducted at Prince’s Town and the finds that that was recovered from the survey. The artifacts recovered from the archaeological survey would help to provide a better understanding of African- European contact and interactions at Prince’s Town and the Gold Coast. Chapter Five focuses on the analysis of the excavated material remains from the sites. Chapter Six ends the work with a discussion of the European Interactions at Prince’s Town University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 CHAPTER TWO Conceptual Framework and Settlement History of Kpokeso 2.1 Introduction This chapter is divided into two parts: conceptual framework and settlement history. The conceptual framework discusses contact studies and how trade brought different cultures into contact which resulted in the exchange of cultures and cultural materials. The settlement history examines Prince’s Town from diverse perspectives. It combines information collected from different sources which include documentary, archival, oral traditional and ethnographic sources. 2.2 Conceptual Framework This research is based on the premise that, no human society has ever existed for any significant period of time in isolation from others. As a result of this, cultures always interact with one another. The effect of this interaction is generally characterized under the rubric of acculturation, assimilation, and amalgamation amongst others. Contact, or culture contact studies stands as a general term used by archaeologists to refer to groups of people coming into or staying in contact for days, years, decades, centuries, or even millennia (Silliman, 2005:58). In its broadest usage, this contact can range from amicable to hostile, extensive to minor, long term to short duration, or ancient to recent, and it may include a variety of elements such as exchange, integration, slavery, colonialism, imperialism, and creation of Diaspora communities (Silliman, 2005:58). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 James Cusick (1998: 4) defined culture contact as “a predisposition for groups to interact with “outsiders”- a necessity created through human diversity, settlement pattern, and desire for people to exchange- and to control the interaction”. Contact has been pervasive through every aspect of human interactions, from the trans-Saharan trade era during the first millennium A.D. which brought both technological and cultural innovations to African societies. The trade brought metal goods, cloth, and beads to West Africa from the north while the forest and savanna provided gold, salt, and slaves (DeCorse, 1998). DeCorse (1998) argues that in West African Studies, the stress is on the north-south connections (European – African interactions) and the trans-Saharan-trade but east-west links were also important. He maintains that at the coast, movement through the rivers and lagoons between the Volta River and the Niger Delta facilitated an indigenous exchange system that complemented later European maritime trade. DeCorse maintains that ethno-historical studies also reveal a web of trade connections. This is especially seen throughout the interior hinterland where iron, salt, beads, and exotic imports circulated throughout the West African interior centuries before the advent of the Europeans on the coast. This attests to the fact that contact is endemic to human existence. Therefore he states that as we consider the transformations in West Africa during the period of European expansion, we must understand and recognize that linkages between the Islamic polities of the savanna and Sahel and the societies in the southern forest remain fundamental in culture contact (DeCorse 1998). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 The European arrival on the West African coast in the late fifteen century began the sustained economic and cultural interactions that culminated with the partition of Africa into colonies in the late nineteenth century (DeCorse, 1998). Among the primary factors that make groups interact is trade, availability of raw materials, endowment of natural resources, and militaristic prowess amongst others. Trade is usually a catalyst that facilitates these interactions. However, contact in such cases is not difficult to explain since it is the natural outcome of the inherently human proclivity to move about, which inevitably results in encountering the other (Cusick, 1998). What requires explanation and investigation is why, in any specific setting, contact was continued and allowed to develop into a relationship of sustained interaction (Schortman and Urban, 1992). The pivot around which the trans-Saharan-Trade and the trans-Atlantic-Trade evolved was trade. Gold was the primary objective during the fifteen and sixteenth centuries, but other commodities, including ivory, pepper, redwood, and hides became increasingly important (DeCorse, 1998:360). Trade is therefore most likely to emerge at places that have abundant supply of resources like gold, ivory, salt, kola and slaves. This accounted for the conglomeration of people at such places resulting in population expansion, urbanism and state formation. Powerful militaristic kingdoms like Great Accra, Akwamu, Denkyira, Asante, and Akyem emerged in the peak of the gold and slave trade (Kea, 1982:86). DeCorse (1998) suggests that it was trade that brought the Europeans and their activities took place within this arena. Schortman and Urban (1992) also suggest that it is the competition for these resources that creates a platform that draws people into cross-cultural contact and interaction, which is then structured by a variety of historic, demographic, and socio-political factors. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 Prince’s Town in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries served as a good place for interaction because it had a good bay that the interloper ships and vessels could anchor and trade without the other known companies seeing them. Goods traded at this place were about 20% cheaper than those at the other trading posts and therefore attracted many people to the place (Welman, 1930:48). The town was located within the Asante-Aowin trade route to the coast, which was within a good area for getting gold (Daaku, 1970:129). The Wassa and Asante always brought good gold to be sold there and slaves were available there as well. There was good fresh water for all arriving ships, as well as firewood and excellent sawn mill where large and small timber and fine planks can be sawn and obtained. These endowments at Kpokeso attracted the Europeans to interact with the people. Anytime social groups come into contact, there is some kind of interaction and there is bound to be exchange of ideas, materials and values. While some may be influenced to change aspects of their culture because of the presence of the other group, others decide to continue with their cultural values. However, contact with Europeans increased the indigenous taste for exotic wine and liquor such as gin, brandy and rum. Before the arrival of the Europeans on the Gold Coast, the African had alcoholic beverages like palm wine. Rum for instance, was used to pay rent for lands by the Portuguese in Cacheu in Upper Guinea (Buah; 1977:30). Drinks were demanded for several social occasions, such as child-naming ceremonies, marriages, annual festivals and funerals. Daaku suggests that European contact and interaction as a result of the trans-Atlantic triangular trade not only increased the volume of trade but diversified it. The pre-existing northern trade with the coast was mainly based on salt, which was carried to far places in the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 interior, where it was short in supply. One of the most important items of trade between the Gold Coast and its neighbours which the Europeans capitalized on was cotton cloth. He suggests that Akan traders bought cotton cloths and other articles, which were likely to have been paid for in salt as well as gold and kolanuts and the long established trade in cotton between the Gold Coast and its neighbours created a ready market demand which the Portuguese attempted to satisfy. They brought well-known cloth from North Africa but acted as carriers in the local West African trade. Cloths, leopard skins, and beads were obtained from Benin and Whydah and carried to the Gold Coast. Beads were another important item of trade that the Europeans brought to the Gold Coast from other West African countries. The Portuguese brought in beads known as 'Coris' from Benin. These beads were described in 1601 as being made of blue, green, and black stones obtained from the River Forcades; and later places like the Cameroon and Whydah became associated with the manufacture of these beads (Daaku; 1970: 7). The people of the Gold Coast put finishing touches to the imported beads which gave them a local character. This research sought to investigate aspects of the cultural values of the people of Prince’s Town. The ensuing section reveals how Kpokeso or Prince’s Town came about. It also reveals that migration, contact with various groups and trade led to its growth as an important town connected with the trans-Atlantic trade. 2.3 Settlement History of Kpokeso According to the oral history, the people of Prince’s Town were part of the larger Akan (Aowins). They emigrated from the Kong region and within the region around the Nzi-Comoe University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 River in the northern part of Cote D’ivoire. They emigrated as a result of an alleged invasion of their belief systems and clashes by the Mande on horses. The persistent harassment and torments by these Mande people, made the people leave the area under the leadership of their king called Ano Asaman. They trekked through the forest into Ghana. This group comprised the Twifo, Aowin and Asekyere (Adanse) people. They used to be one group of people. The forest was so thick and dense that it became inaccessible for the Mande horse riders and their horses. The Aowins under the leadership of Ano Asaman, directed their journey towards the southern part of the Boudouku forest whilst the Twifo and Asekyere (Adanse) took to the Eastern part of the Bondouku forest. The Aowin migrants arrived at Takyiman where they settled for some years. Because the people of Takyiman were a dominant group, there were clashes between these two groups. The chief of the Aowin migrant group, together with his people continued their journey down south until they arrived at a place in present day Sefwi called Ahwiahwia near present day Goaso. Years later, clashes and confrontations with other social groups made it necessary for the group to continue their journey in search for a place where they would not have to clash with any group. Some members of the migrant group indicated that they were tired of wandering without a definite destination so they were comfortable at Ahwiahwia and so settled there. This remnant group of Aowin people named themselves Sefwi. By this time their leader Ano Asaman had died and had been succeeded by Kaku Aku. The larger migrant group of the Aowin under the leadership of Kaku Aku continued with their migration further southwards. At last the migrant group arrived at the end of the forest and settled on one of the promontories. They claimed that the place was the source of the forest University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 through which they had travelled all the way from Takyiman. They named the place Kpokeso which in the Aowin or Nzima language means the source of the forest. The oral tradition has it that, the group was large and after travelling for several years, the people were tired so a greater number of the people decided to stay at Kpokesu. Kaku Aku continued and settled the remaining Aowin people along the coast of Beyin and Grand Bassar in Cote D’ivoire. Kaku Aku was succeeded by Awuabeng. The exact date they arrived at Kpokeso is not known but some people guess it was around 1473. Another school of thought by Duncan (2001) suggests that the people of Kpokeso or Prince’s Town migrated from the old Ghana Empire after its demise in the 1600’s. He suggests that the erstwhile Ghana Empire comprised many tribes of which the Akan was one. He claims the fall of the Ghana Empire brought about tribal differences; inter tribal wars, indiscipline, civil strife, low morals and non existence of loyalty. This necessitated the southern migration of some groups in search of newer dwelling places. Duncan (2001) indicates that out of these migrant tribes emerged the people of present day Prince’s Town. They found their way to Takyiman after the demise of the old Ghana Empire and wandered for years until they finally reached Kpokeso. Duncan (2001) suggests that, the second generation of the people of Kpokeso (Prince’s Town), were among the aborigines who settled first at Takyiman. As a group of people with their custom, traditional authority as well as belief systems, they encountered some difficulties living among the bigger groups of the immigrants from old Ghana empire and had to move southwards under the leadership of their king Busumle Akotia. This group of people first settled at Jukwa around Cape Coast for three months. In trying to find a comfortable and peaceful place, they moved westward, passing through Elmina and stopped at Takoradi where the people settled for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 about two years. Not too comfortable there, they moved further on until in the 1680’s they reached Kpokeso. The people chose this place as their final home because of the beautiful scenery of the Nyala River, and the sea. Duncan suggests that upon arrival, Busumle the king found newly ruined and burnt houses which indicated a recent war. The war he asserts was in 1682 and this was between the kingdom of Adom (Welman 1930:19). Meyerowitz (1950) also has a different migration story of the Nzima of which Kpokeso ia a part. She suggests that the Nzima (N’Zi-mba) migrated from beyond Kankyeabo in the northern part of present day Cote D’ivoire and first settled at Takyiman. They later moved and settled west of the Evalue people located between Cape Three Points and the border of Cote D’ivoire. She suggests they founded Axim (Essim or Atsin) among other places which became the capital of their state (Meyerowitz, 1950:84, 85). Meyerowitz (1950:84) suggests that information given her by an old Nzima man when she was collecting oral traditions indicates that the Akyerekyere (Asekyere) people who immigrated into the Gold Coast about the same time, as the Nzima people, remember the Nzima people and their great chief Ano Asaman who were their neighbours at Cote D’ivoire. Meyerowitz notes that Nzima claim they are Anyi people and got their name from the coast. She suggests further that the Anyi-Nzima had their original home along the N’zi River to which they derived their name. She is of the view that this is often the case in this part of Africa. The N’zi runs parallel to the Comoe or Komo Kumbu River, from which the Kumbu (Akwamu), living along its banks, emigrated shortly afterwards into the Gold Coast. According to the traditions collected by Delafosse (1908:61-63) among the Nzima (Nzima) in present day Cote D’Ivoire, it was Ano Asaman who brought the Nzima south and set University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 up a fairly large kingdom over all the Akan peoples in the Gold Coast. Delafosse indicates that there is no evidence for this, but there may be some truth in it in so far as Ano Asaman dominated some of the Akan when he conquered some parts of the northern Cote D’Ivoire. He suggests that the Nzima entered the country at the end of the 15 th century and at the beginning of the 16 th century. However Delafosse indicates that Kaku Aku is the last successor of Ano Asaman and in whose reign the break-up of the Nzima kingdom took place. To be able to ascertain where these people really emigrated from, there is the need for an extensive archaeological research to be done at Takyiman, the Kong region and wherever they alleged they emigrated from. A comparative analysis of the various material culture recovered from these homelands will help to ascertain where they indeed emigrated from. The reason being that, prototypes of material culture recovered from such settlements will bear affinities to those from their homelands. But for now, one may conjecture that the people of Kpokeso or Princes Town are not autochthonous people but migrants. 2.4 The People of Kpokeso and their Encounters with Europeans At one time or another, nine European countries, or their International chartered companies, kept fortified stations in West Africa, the motive being to protect and expand the trade of each country and to exclude competitors (Lawrence, 1963:25). Within three centuries, the various Europeans had established over sixty castles, forts and lodges along the coasts of the Gold Coast (van Dantzig, 1980:vii). These structures, built by various European nations to protect their trade on the Guinea Coast are still today one of Ghana’s most striking features. If some of them could be regarded as important individual monuments, the whole chain of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 buildings, whether intact or ruined, or merely known as sites, could be seen as a collective historical monument unique in the world (van Dantzig, 1980:vii). The European expansion into the Gold Coast, now Ghana, was mainly due to the quantity and quality of gold that was exported from this area which became known as the Gold Coast. Van Dantzig, suggests that gold from Africa and probably from the Gold Coast was already known to the Europeans before the fifteenth century. He argues that considerable quantities of this gold had crossed the Mediterranean from North Africa (van Dantzig, 1980:1). From the fifteenth century onwards the Gold Coast was the scene of busy competition for trade between many European nations. The Portuguese built Fort St. Anthony at Axim in 1515 and in 1642 it was taken over by the Dutch (Welman, 1930:14). The Dutch established themselves at Sekondi about 1640 and at Butre in 1644. The English erected a fort at Dixcove in 1691-1697. The French, the Swedes, the Danes, and Dutch and the English had been at Takoradi before it was taken from the English by Dutch in1664 (Welman, 1930:14). From the 1681 onwards, Frederick William the Great Elector of Brandenburg established trade and colonization in West Africa in this region of the Gold Coast. The Great Elector of Brandenburg realized the importance of sea power, which brought wealth and influence to the kindred Dutch and English, and decided to pursue oversea trade (Welman, 1930:15). On 16 th May 1681, Captain Blonck succeeded on arriving at Cape Three Points in the country of Axim. In 1682, the second expedition started for the Gold Coast under the command of Major Otto Friedrich von der Groeben. It consisted of two ships, Churprintz, with thirty-two guns and a crew of sixty, and the Morian, with twelve guns and a crew of forty (Welman, 1930:15, 16). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 They were instructed to go to Cape three Points and anchor after they got to the Guinea Coast (Welman, 1930:17). The connection of Brandenburg-Prussia with the Gold Coast only lasted for forty years. However, during that time, the Brandenburgers built two forts. One was named Gross Fredericksburg and was located on Manfro hill above the populous village of Kpokeso or Prince’s Town. The second was named Fort Dorethea which was located at Akwida. A lodge which was named Fort Sophie Louise was located at the middle point of Cape Three Points, near a village called Takrama (Klama) which no longer exists (Welman, 1930:14). Welman (1930:19) indicates that on 27 th December 1682, the two frigates anchored off Cape Three Points, near Accoda (Akwida), where they found excellent anchorage. Von der Groeben was so attracted by the place that he was inclined to lay out a fort here but some Dutch men appeared there and the natives seemed to have entered into some agreement with them so von der Groeben decided to adhere strictly to his instructions and look for the three Caboceers; Pregate, Sophonie and Apany (Welman, 1930:19). The frigates moved to the next village presently called Prince’s Town and anchored near a hill called Manfro on a promontory which was later selected as the best site for the building of the fort. On their arrival they saw burnt huts and other signs that were suggestive of recent fighting. It was later learnt that two of the said Caboceers had lost their lives in a war with the Kingdom of Adom (Welman, 1930:19). The survivor, Apany had fled inland but the news of the Brandenburg brought him back and Major von der Groeben made a fresh treaty with him again with the successors of the other two deceased (Welman, 1930:19). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 On 1 st January 1683, Captain de Voss brought the Great Electoral Brandenburg flag from the ship, and made the soldiers hoist it amidst the firing of five canons for the onset of the New Year. On 5 th January a treaty was signed with the names of the three (3) cabussiers (caboceers) with whom the former treaty was made. This time, fourteen names including that of the survivor Apany, are appended to the treaty under the general head of the Cabussier (Welman, 1930:20). The names are Brombire, Erhi, Aussi, Among, Etong, Lessi, Casparo, Eguri, Sacing, Mana, Nache, Assassa, Ennu, and Apany. They undertook to serve and assist the Commandant and his garrison, not to do business with any but the Brandenburg ships and Fort and not to give permission to any other nations to establish themselves in the neighbourhood (Welman, 1930:20). Construction of a small fort was done with the assistance of the Africans under the directives of the two engineers who came from Brandenburg. This is because almost all the building materials for the construction of the fort had been shipped to the Gold Coast from Konigsberg, and the plan for the Fort had also been designed from Brandenburg (Welman, 1930:21). By February 1684, the building of Fort Gross Fredericksburg was completed. It was very solidly constructed of stone and the principal buildings inside the fort were also built of stones. It was square in shape with four bastions at each corner. By 1692, 1693, 1694, the Brandenburg African Company did well in trading. It had seventeen (17) ships with two hundred and thirty (230) guns. But from the year 1697, its prosperity began to decline, owing partly to quarrels among the partners and partly to the dishonesty of certain employees. In addition, four (4) of the merchant vessels fell into the hand of the French in 1697 (Welman, 1930:32). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 Attempts were made to open up new sources of gain by sending out miners to mine for gold, but without much success. The Company fell more into decay and was finally no longer able to equip any ships of their own. This was the period when the European nations were fully occupied with war in Europe, where the English, Dutch and Prussians were fighting as allies. As a result of the war, their colony on the Gold Coast became weak and, the Company was therefore forced to depend on interlopers for its trade goods (Daaku, 1970:129). There has been a lot of debate among scholars as to the exact amount of gold that was produced and exported from the Gold Coast from the 15 th to 16 th centuries. In the period 1490- 1560, for example, nearly 1000kg of gold was exported from Elmina to enrich the Portuguese crown, and by the early 16 th century, Portuguese-Gold Coast trade provided about 10% of the world's known gold supplies (Anquandah, 1999:14). It is also estimated by Sergeant (1996: 90) that “in the 16 th century, Gold Coast produced about 35% of the world's gold”. This probably was the reason why over the three centuries of European contact, trade posts of such magnitude were established or constructed on Ghana's coast. The Brandenburg African Company after a while wound up. By the 1 st of January 1700, the garrison of Gross Fredericksburg consisted of one lieutenant, two surgeons, three non- commissioned officers, four lance corporals, one drummer and thirty marines. No reinforcements or relief came from Europe all this time. At last when reinforcement arrived in 1708, there were only seven (7) soldiers left fit for duty. This was during the war of the Spanish Succession with the great sacrifices it entailed on Prussia for twelve (12) years, and the colony was for a long period left to itself (Welman, 1930:33). The commandant had to call up natives for guard duties, in order to just barely hold the forts. This made it possible to hold the fort until the conclusion of peace. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 I suggest that it was as a result of this internal weakness of the Brandenburg administration that empowered John Konny a local merchant to take up the administration and running of Fort Gross Fredericksburg. From about 1711 to 1725, the Fort Gross Fredericksburg was under the leadership of John Konny, who was an Ahanta merchant and chief. He took oversight duties of the fort and withheld the Dutch who claimed they had purchased the property from the Brandenburg for about fourteen (14) years. Eventually, the Dutch brought in a superior army that forced him out of the town and he sought refuge in Kumasi where he is said to be the founder of the suburbs called Mmbrom, Kumasi Nzima, and Kwadaso all in the Ashanti Region. 2.5 Toponymy of Prince’s Town Before the arrival of the Brandenburgers to the Gold Coast in 1681, the present day Prince’s Town was known as Kpokeso. Kpokeso means the source of the forest. After the encounters with the Brandenburgers and the signing of various treaties, the Africans placed themselves under the suzerainty and protection of the Elector of Brandenburg. The Great Elector of Brandenburg Frederick William was also referred to as the Prince. From 1681-1683 upon completion of the fort at Kpokeso, it was named after the Great Elector. The name of the fort was Gross Fredericksburg. Kpokeso became a Brandenburg colony and was often referred to by the Brandenburgers in their correspondences and transactions as the Prinze Terre in deutsch or the Prince’s Town. From then Kpokeso has been known as prince’s Town. However, some people still refer to the town as Kpokeso. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 2.6 Information on previous Historical and Archeological research done on European Contact sites in Coastal Areas of Ghana Van Dantzig’s contribution to our understanding of the Ghanaian Dutch interactions in the Gold Coast cannot be ignored. He gives us a picture of how early Europeans (the Portuguese and Dutch) tried to explore the lower reaches of big rivers like the Volta, Pra, and Ankobra for gold. However, little success was made on each river except the Ankobra. The reason for this endeavor was to control the gold trade and avoid the troublesome African middlemen (van Dantzig, 1973). The venture into the hinterland to obtain or operate gold mines was as a result of growing competition from other Europeans which brought about decline in the supply of the gold. These Europeans were however resisted by the Africans. Bossman (1709:73) indicates that the Africans kept unauthorized persons away from their mines as if that were sacred places. Although van Dantzig’s work is of great importance to the understanding and interactions that exists between Africans and Europeans in the Ahanta region, it lacks oral traditions and archaeological data to re-enforce and buttress most of the claims he curled from archival records. His focus was on mainly materials written by Europeans which were eurocentric in nature whilst giving little attention to the Africans. Samuel Gyam (2008) carried out archaeological investigation at the Dutch Fort of St. Anthony in Axim, where the Ankobra River enters the sea. His objective was to investigate the two-way interactions between African and Europeans (Gyam, 2008: 53). He noted that the fort played an important role in the interactions between Africans and Europeans. It served as a principal maritime outlet for the Ankobra goldfields. Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 centuries, the St. Anthony fort functioned as a level-2 port (Kea, 1982: 79). Kea defines level-2 port as a sub-regional trade center or major port. He refers to urban settlements where trading towns, marketing activities, and the collection and distribution of commodities, money, merchant capital and the like exist. Gyam (2008) excavated three trenches: two at the fort, and the third in the local community. The materials collected, included glass bottles, European smoking pipes, local pottery, roof tiles, European ceramics, Portuguese and Dutch bricks, cowries, glass beads, cannon balls, local smoking pipes, slate pencil, kaolin, iron implements and molluscs. All of these suggest items of trade involved in the trans-atlantic trade. The presence of molluscs in the archaeological data suggests subsistence among the Africans and Europeans. It was confirmed in the oral account collected that, the local people regarded this estuarine and marine food as their favourite and it was during such a hunting occasion that they encountered their “friends”, the Portuguese (Gyam, 2008:131). Excavations have revealed the use of local pottery concurrently with imported ceramics in both the fort and the community. Gyam suggests that the local pottery was used to complement the imported ones due to the quantity recovered in the excavations. The evidence of a slate pencil, suggests western education (Gyam, 2008: 133). The Portuguese known to be Roman Catholics probably started some form of formal education in the fort. It is one of the legacies that Axim inherited from the Europeans. This legacy of education, Gyam suggests, was clear evidence that reflected African and European contacts (Gyam, 2008:131) Daniel Kumah in his thesis entitled “Archaeological survey of African-Dutch Interactions at Awudua-Dada in Western Region, Ghana”, claims Awudua Dada is the only place in the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 history of Ghana where the Europeans built an inland trade post. However, the Portuguese built a trade post at Awurozo around the confluence of River Duma and the Ankobra and named it Fort Duma in 1623. During the Aowin earthquake on 18 th December 1636, Fort Duma collapsed. Kumah (2013) suggests that the reason for building the trade post was to control the gold trade because of the quality and quantity of gold produced in the area between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries on the coast of Axim. Kumah indicates that the Dutch in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries exchanged gold with imports such as Schnapps, guns, and ceramics. This is evident in the availability and presence of glass bottles in the archaeological record. Kumah suggests that these bottles were used as receptacles for commodities such as alcohol, oil, syrups, toilet water, olives, medicine and tuna during the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries (c.f. DeCorse, 2001:159). He indicates that judging from the large number of alcoholic beverage containers and fragments of drinking glasses and a tumbler, drinking was probably an important leisure pastime of both the natives and the Dutch. The recovery of large quantities of alcoholic beverage bottles suggests that European liquor was in high demand by the local people and that it constituted an important export item to the area. The abundance of liquor bottles and some case bottle seals in the archaeological assemblage is also suggestive of the fact that European liquor was an important exchange item at Awudua. According to Kumah, Anquandah (1982) argues that the presence of smoking pipes is suggestive that, tobacco and the culture of smoking tobacco through pipes were introduced to the Guinea Coast by early European traders in the first quarter of the seventeenth century (Anquandah, 1982: 11). This assertion is based on the fact that trade and social interactions University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 between the coastal communities and various European traders began in earnest and were brisk and vibrant during this period. The recovery of ceramics though not many is suggestive that the people of Awudua preferred the use of local pottery to European ceramics but both were used concurrently. The recovery of faunal remains of both domesticated and undomesticated animal species at Awudua suggests animal husbandry and hunting constituted important vocations of the people in the past. The presence of grasscutter, bones and snail shells also suggests that the Awudua people subsisted on these animals. Evidence of Kola nuts is suggestive of its subsequent exports to the Saharan, Sahelian and other northern states through the trans-saharan-trade. Kola nuts were one of the articles of trade sought for during the Trans-Saharan-Trade (Buah, 1974). He suggests that there is continuity in the life-ways of the people. There is no evidence of architectural, marital, educational and subsistence influence from the Dutch in the area. DeCorse has been researching in coastal part of Ghana over the past fifteen years. He has concentrated on the transformations that occurred within the context of expanding European trade and the entrance of West Africa into the emerging Atlantic system (DeCorse, 1987 a, 1987b, 1988, 1989, 1992a, 1992b, 1998, 2001). The focus of much of his work has been at the site of Elmina and other African settlements that were directly associated with the European trade entrepots on the coast founded between the late fifteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The objective or focus of DeCorse’s research was the African settlement of Elmina which was more about the everyday life of the Elmina people. He maintains that the majority of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 population left no written records, and documentary sources that outline the town’s history and tell the story of the individuals who lived there were written by Europeans. DeCorse indicates how the people viewed the world and notes that; “physical traces do, however, provide insights into both change and continuity in how the Elmina people ordered their lives and conceptualized the world” (DeCorse, 2001:10). Trade lists and archaeological data of the fifteenth century through to the nineteenth century document a dramatic increase in the amount and variety of imported goods that attest to European Industrial Revolution and Elmina’s inclusion in a world economy. DeCorse indicates that there was extensive change in subsistence strategies and in house construction, as well as in other classes of material culture that point to transformations in African patterns of consumption, behaviour, and beliefs. The artifact inventories dating from the pre-European contact period through the early post-contact era are dramatically different from those of the later seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. DeCorse suggests that apart from the limited quantity of European trade materials, the earlier sites are characterized by stone beads, occasional fragments of slag and iron, lithics, and ceramics. The pottery is characteristically fragmentary and eroded, and is quite distinct in form and decoration from later ceramics (DeCorse, 2001:116-123). He indicates that Classic black smudged, carinated vessels common on interior Akan sites only appear in the nineteenth century. DeCorse concludes by suggesting that, the archaeological evidence from Elmina indicates change in settlement patterns and craft production in the centuries following European contact. A pattern of small, dispersed settlements characterized the coast from AD 500 to 1700. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 In the following centuries, coastal settlements associated with European trading enclaves increased in size and became production centers. These changes in settlement size and artifact inventory only hint at the sociopolitical transformations that occurred. Coastal towns, such as Elmina and Cape Coast, emerged as independent states (DeCorse, 2001:38-47). Based on these data it is possible to say that there were substantial changes in coastal Ghana as a consequence of the expanding Atlantic world. It must be noted that unlike Prince’s Town, Elmina had a long interaction and relationship with various European nations spanning over 500 years (1400's -1900's). In view of this, the documentary evidence, oral traditions, ethnographic enquiries and the archaeological record may vary. At Prince’s Town, the presence of the Europeans was short. The Dutch stayed longer for about 147 years, the English who were the last of the Europeans lived there for 85 years whilst the Brandenburgers who constructed the fort lived there for about 42 years. The Brandenburgers were the first to settle at Prince’s Town from 1683 to 1725 and built Fort Gross Fredericksburg at Prince’s Town, Fort Dorothea at Akwida, a redoubt at Takoradi and a lodge which was called Fort Sophie Louise on the middle point of Cape Three Points near a village called Takrama which does not exist now. However, from 1717 to 1725, the protection of the Colony was handed over to an African by name John Konny. After the demise of Frederick William the Great Elector in