University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS AND DIPLOMACY AN ANALYSIS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC INTEGRATION OF NIGERIAN MIGRANTS IN GHANA QUAYE, DEBORAH HILARY (10701483) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS OF ARTS IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS DEGREE LEGON DECEMBER 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of an original research undertaken by me under the supervision of Dr. Amanda Coffie and that no part of it has been submitted elsewhere for any other purpose. Further, references to the work of other persons or bodies have been duly acknowledged. ………………………………... QUAYE DEBORAH HILARY DR. AMANDA COFFIE (STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR) DATE: 25TH SEPTEMBER, 2020 DATE: 28TH SEPTEMBER, 2020 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to Almighty God and my parents. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My sincere gratitude first of all goes to the Almighty God for bringing me this far in my education. Thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Amanda Coffie for the support and guidance towards this work. I also express my sincere appreciation to my parents for always believing in me. God richly bless them and replenish all that they lost in making this step in my life possible. Special thanks goes to my guardian, Prof. Joseph Ghartey Ampiah for being a pillar of support to my education. I appreciate the love and support of a special person, Rexford Akrong, God bless him so much for his time, ideas and contribution towards this write up. He is a great part of this success story. I am grateful to my friends who encouraged, helped and inspired me to be the best that I can be especially Nana Yaw, Edward and Rashida. I am grateful to the lecturers at Legon Center for International Affairs and Diplomacy, University of Ghana, Legon and my entire class particularly Roy, Kyeadee, Safoa and Sandra who inspired me in one way or the other. My deepest gratitude goes to the Superintendent of Immigration, Mr. Simon Asare (Head of International Relations and Cooperation) and Chief Inspector of Immigration, Mr. George Obeng for their time and attention during the collection of the data for the study. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AMA- Accra Metropolitan Assembly AU- African Union ECOWAS- Economic Community of West Africa States ESA- Edo State Association EU- European Union GIS- Ghana Immigration Service GIPC- Ghana Investment Promotion Center GoG- Government of Ghana GSS- Ghana Statistical Service IDPs- Internally Displaced Persons ILO- International Labour Organisation IMSCM- Inter-Ministerial Committee on Migration IOM- International Organisation for Migration JLMP- Joint Labour Migration Programme NCBA- Nigerian Committee of Brothers’ Association NHIS- National Health Insurance Scheme NMP- National Migration Policy iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh NWA- Nigerian Women Association OECD- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development RECs- Regional Economic Communities SAP- Structural Adjustment Programme UN- United Nations UNCTAD- United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UN, DESA- United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNHCR- United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .................................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................ ix ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background .......................................................................................................................1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem ....................................................................................6 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................7 1.4 Objectives of the study .......................................................................................................7 1.5 Scope of Study ...................................................................................................................7 1.6 Rationale of the Study ........................................................................................................8 1.7 Thesis Argument................................................................................................................8 1.8 Conceptual framework .......................................................................................................8 1.9 Literature Review ............................................................................................................ 12 1.10 Conceptual definitions ................................................................................................... 19 1.11 Sources of Data .............................................................................................................. 20 1.12 Research Methodology .................................................................................................. 21 1.13 In-depth Interviews ........................................................................................................ 22 1.14 Qualitative Analysis ....................................................................................................... 22 1.15 Target Population and Sampling .................................................................................... 23 1.16 Ethical Consideration ..................................................................................................... 24 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.17 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................. 24 1.18 Arrangement of Chapters ............................................................................................... 24 CHAPTER TWO................................................................................................................................. 25 OVERVIEW OF MIGRATION AND TRENDS IN MIGRANT INTEGRATION IN GHANA ...... 25 2.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 25 2.1 Overview of Migration .................................................................................................... 26 2.1.1 Trends of Migration and Integration in Africa ............................................................... 26 2.1.2 Migration policies for Africa ......................................................................................... 32 2.1.3 Trends of Migration and Integration in Ghana ............................................................... 36 2.1.4 Migration policies for immigrants in Ghana .................................................................. 41 2.2 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER THREE............................................................................................................................. 43 SOCIO-ECONOMIC INTEGRATION OF NIGERIAN MIGRANTS IN GHANA......................... 43 3.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 43 3.1 Nigerian Migration and Integration in Ghana ................................................................... 43 3.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT FACILITATE INTEGRATION OF NIGERIAN MIGRANTS IN GHANA ................................................................................ 48 3.3 HOW THE EXISTING MIGRATION POLICIES HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC INTEGRATION OF NIGERIAN MIGRANTS IN GHANA ........ 59 3.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 620 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................. 631 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................... 631 4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 631 4.1 Summary of Findings ..................................................................................................... 631 4.2 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 664 4.3 Recommendations.......................................................................................................... 686 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................... 69 APPENDIX 1……………………………………………………………………………………………..82 APPENDIX 2……………………………………………………………………………………………..83 APPENDIX 3……………………………………………………………………………………………..83 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Livelihood Strategies of Nigerian Migrants Table 3.2: Asset Ownership and Investment in Ghana by Nigerian Migrants ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Migration to Ghana from post-independence era to recent times has been mainly dominated by Nigerians. Factors such as economic opportunities, peace and stability in Ghana as well as the free movement ECOWAS Protocol are among the key determinants of Nigerian migration to Ghana. Since this era, Ghana has experienced migration and integration of Nigerians in the country. While this protocol helps these migrants to move to Ghana, it does not explicitly tackle the issues they face in their effort at integrating in Ghana. The study adopts integration as a conceptual framework in explaining the social and economic factors that facilitate integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. The study indicates that social networks, access to education, housing and labour market are among the socio-economic factors that facilitate integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. The study employs a qualitative research method and relies on both primary and secondary data to draw conclusions. Nigerians face some challenges in the social and economic aspects of their integration process in Ghana. The Government of Ghana on her part has enacted policies that facilitate the integration of these migrants, however, these policies have not yielded all the expected outcomes. To achieve self-sufficiency for its members and promote their socio-economic integration in Ghana, recommendations are therefore made for ECOWAS to have a partnership agreement with Ghana to subsidize school fees for international students from countries in the ECOWAS community. Also, it is important for the GoG to broaden the constitution to allow foreign nationals the right to acquire and develop lands in Ghana to address the challenges Nigerians have with housing which impede their socio-economic integration. Additionally, the trading and investment sector of Ghana must be reconstructed to position the country in a way that will benefit from Nigerians who are engaged in businesses in Ghana. x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background In this era of rapid globalization, migration has become a dynamic phenomenon with respect to a number of factors contributing to the movement of large numbers of people across several geographical paths. Owing to globalization and technological revolution, travel and communication over long distances have been made easier and have influenced the trends and patterns of migration (Castells, 1996). Globally, it has been noted that south-south migration flows; migration among developing countries, is continually growing as compared with south-north migration flows; migration from developing countries to developed countries. The reason for this south-north migration flow is because developed countries are strengthening their immigration and border regulations which makes it difficult for people from developing countries to freely move to developed countries (Léonard, 2010). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN, DESA) indicated that the total number of international migrants born in developing countries and resided in other countries in the Global South at mid-year 2019 are 271.6 million, while at mid-year 2019, international migrants born in the South who resided in countries in the Global North was at a percentage of 3.5% of the total population (UN, DESA, 2019). Throughout the migration history, Africa has experienced both voluntary and forced migratory movements, which have been contributing factors to its current demographic landscape (Hope, 2008). African migration is becoming a more complex and diverse development with more people on the move to several destinations both within Africa and to other countries around the world (Flahaux and De Haas, 2016). In some African countries such as South Africa and Ghana there exist simultaneous movement of people in, out, and through the country. The trend of net migration in Africa showed huge numbers of movement of people which far exceeded the global average, 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh particularly, in Sub-Sahara Africa (Naudé, 2010). The rate of intra-Africa emigration (movement within African countries) is about 52% which is lower than movement to Europe (59%) and Asia (54.7%) (UNCTAD, 2018). Countries in Sub-Sahara Africa represent the largest intra-continental or south-south movement of people in the world with a figure close to 65%. Adepoju and Van der Wiel (2010) note that although migration from developing countries to developed countries is much highlighted in the migration literature, migration within developing countries is relatively popular in Africa. According to Adepoju and Van der Wiel (2010), cross border migration is said to dominate within Africa, particularly, West Africa where close to 90% of intra-African migration took place within the same sub-region. This is because movement in some parts of Africa is often not limited by any form of boundaries such as rigid border regulations. Likewise, the 1979 ECOWAS Protocol on free movement of persons, the right of establishment and residence has contributed to the development of migration within West Africa. However, in Africa, cross-border migration is an important livelihood and coping strategy to factors that contribute to migration such as decline in political, socio-economic and environmental conditions, insecurity, armed conflicts and poverty (Gibney, 2015). Migration in Ghana occurs in many forms including internal migration, immigration, transit migration, and emigration (Awumbila et al., 2011). Migration in the 1960s was mainly within the boundaries of Ghana by different groups of people moving into other areas for security, new settlements, and fertile lands for farming (Anarfi et al., 2003). Meanwhile a few people, mostly students and professionals moved out of the country to the United Kingdom and other English speaking countries (Anarfi et al., 2000), movement to Ghana became common during the colonial era. For instance, Peil (1974:368) states that in the nineteenth century, migrant workers came into the country to work in the mines, cocoa farms, and railways. In the past years, Ghana experienced 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a reversal shift in migration where the number of persons who entered the country (immigrants) far exceeded the number that left (emigrants) (Awumbila et al., 2008). This was mainly due to the strengthening of ties among West African countries through the ECOWAS protocol on free movement of West African citizens. For instance, Adepoju (2002) found that until the 1960s, the nature of Ghana's economy, which was relatively prosperous, attracted thousands of immigrants from other West African countries, particularly Nigeria, Togo and Burkina Faso into the country. Nigerians were found to be the most populous West African immigrant nationals in Ghana. According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2010), about 400,000 Nigerians were present in Ghana as at 2010. While migration of Nigerians to different parts of the world is not new, it has been found that Nigerian migrants largely move to destinations where they can adjust rapidly (Bosiakoh, 2009). As such, Ghana has become a popular destination for Nigerian migrants owing to common colonial heritage, socio-cultural similarities such as language and commercial ties with Ghana. As they moved to Ghana, many of them took over positions in trade and commerce in the country at the expense of the Ghanaian citizens (Peil, 1974: 368). Furthermore, Peil (1974:368) argues that the Ghanaian markets were controlled by Nigerian migrants (particularly the Yoruba and Hausa) in Ghana; almost 40 percent of the female traders in the Kumasi market were Nigerians. According to Skinner (1963:310), the indigenous sector of the diamond-mining enterprise, the waterfront stores at Winneba, and the Fadama motor-parts market in Accra were all taken over by Nigerians. Hill (1970) has observed that much of the migration to Ghana prior to the 1970s was economically motivated because most of these migrants came to the rural areas and engaged in farming, fishing, and trading. Since I960, Ghana has experienced migration and integration of Nigerians in the country. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In migration, the process of integration plays an essential role in the success or failure of migrants in their destination country. Integration has become both a main policy goal for the resettlement of refugees and other migrants and an issue of major public debate. Integration is seen as a long- term process through which immigrants participate fully and equally in the different aspects of their new society (Gray & Elliott 2001a:20). Migrants are said to have successfully integrated when they have been well received in their new societies, have accumulated capital, have been well-placed to contribute to the development of both their host countries and country of origin and have acquired new knowledge and skills (Huddleston et al., 2013). On the other hand, they fail to integrate in their new societies when they are resisted and not accepted in the various aspects of the destination country. In the integration process of migrants in the destination country, the first step is towards socio-economic integration. Huddleston et al. (2013) note that some of the measures of socio-economic integration is access to food, housing, health care, education, employment, flow of remittances, and protection of rights among others. Once a migrant gets to the country of resettlement, there is an expectation to secure accommodation and a meaningful job for immediate sustenance while they seek more sustainable opportunities. Some countries, organizations and international actors play a role in the integration process of migrants. According to Heckmann (2008), some countries help immigrants to speed up their integration process, most especially in the economic and social aspects of their lives. Sweden, for instance, help migrants to socially integrate by offering internship programmes and language classes for new immigrants and help them to quickly acquire accommodation. The Treaty of Lisbon in 2007 gives European institutions such as the European Union (EU) the mandate to provide incentives and support for the action of Member States in promoting the economic integration of third-country nationals (Scipioni & Urso, 2017). Similarly, with the call made by the United Nations (UN) on the 2030 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sustainable Development Goal to “leave no one behind-including migrants”, migrant integration has gained prominence on the global agenda (UN, 2019). For example, the IOM has put in place policies and strategies to help migrants better integrate into new societies which will promote their social, economic and cultural inclusion within existing legal frameworks in countries of destination. In the same way, in Africa, the African Union (AU) has adopted some legal policy instruments such as the African Common Position and Migration Policy Framework which highlight important features of national, sub-regional and regional migration and successful integration (AU, 2018). Particularly, the Migration Policy Framework calls on member states to enact policies to protect and promote migrants’ human rights, including promoting the integration of migrants in host societies in order to foster mutual acceptance. Furthermore, one of the objectives of the ECOWAS Protocol on free movement, right of residence and establishment from the West African viewpoint is to protect the rights of migrants in West Africa by formulating an active integration policy for migrants from ECOWAS Member States and combat exclusion and xenophobia (ECOWAS, 2018). This is to remove all obstacles that impede the integration process of migrants. Additionally, in 2016, a National Policy on Migration and an implementation plan was formally launched in Ghana with support from the IOM which expansively addresses key migration issues faced by immigrants in Ghana such as irregular migration, labour migration, refugee issues, human trafficking, migrant smuggling, readmission, reintegration of Ghanaian migrants and border management. These measures put in place facilitate movement into Ghana. It is, therefore, important to analyze how Nigerian migrants move into Ghana and become accepted, full and equal participants in the social and economic sector. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem Since the adoption of the ECOWAS protocol on free movement, residence and establishment in 1979, Nigerian migration to Ghana has significantly increased. However, with this increase in migration to Ghana where these migrants have moved and resided in Ghana, they experience some challenges which hinder their integration process. This is because the protocol does not explicitly tackle and manage specific issues which relates to their integration. The challenges in integration are experienced by both the host communities and migrants (Whitaker, 2015). When the host society does not easily accept immigrants, it tends to resist them in terms of accommodating them, hence, they become burdens to both the government and the citizens (Derluyn et al., 2013). Likewise, the National Migration Policy for Ghana does not expansively deal with the integration of other nationals in Ghana making it difficult for immigrants to better integrate in Ghana. Due to this discrepancy, Nigerian migrants who are trying to survive and integrate in Ghana by engaging in businesses and trading activities face attacks from Ghanaians because they are seen to be competing with them for jobs, access to social amenities and resources which impede their socio-economic integration. Therefore, this has necessitated an investigation of their socio-economic integration for a more comprehensive understanding of the integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. There have been a number of studies on integration of migrants such as Badwi et al., 2018), Heath and Li (2017), Duncan and Trejo (2018).These studies focused on integration of migrants from developing countries to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries such as the U.S.A, Norway and the Netherlands. However, little is known on the socio- economic integration of migrants from developing countries like Nigeria to other developing countries in the West African sub-region. Following this gap in knowledge, this study seeks to 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh focus generally on Nigerians and their socio-economic integration in Ghana from post- independence 1960 to 2019. 1.3 Research Questions 1. What are the trends of Nigerian migration to Ghana? 2. What are the socio-economic factors and migration policies that facilitate integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana? 3. How have the existing Ghanaian migration polices and legal texts contributed to the socio- economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana? 1.4 Objectives of the study The general aim of the study was to analyze the socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. The specific objectives are; 1. To analyze the trends of Nigerian Migration to Ghana. 2. To ascertain the socio-economic factors and migration policies that facilitate integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. 3. To discuss how the existing Ghanaian migration policies and legal texts have contributed to the socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. 1.5 Scope of Study The study was carried out in the Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA), the regional and administrative capital of the Republic of Ghana. This is because it is occupied with a vast population of Nigerian migrants compared to other regions (GSS, 2013). Over 21.0% of ECOWAS nationals dwell in the Greater Accra region who are mainly Nigerians. The AMA hosts the largest 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh proportion of these immigrants (GSS, 2013 & 2014). The AMA has to its credit a number of establishments such as manufacturing industries, oil companies, financial institutions, telecommunication, tourism, education, health institutions among others. The presence of these infrastructure present opportunities which attract both indigenes and foreigners to transact various businesses (GSS, 2013). Also, this study was situated within the period of post-independence 1960 to 2019 to be able to make a better analysis of the trends of Nigerian migration to Ghana. 1.6 Rationale of the Study This study hopes to contribute to research by adding to the existing body of literature on south-south migration and integration of immigrants. The study unearths the experiences, integration processes and activities of Nigerian migrants and the effects of their activities in Ghana and the general effects of immigrants in Ghana. Additionally, the study provides information to assist policy makers to enact policies which are geared towards improving the integration of Nigerian migrants. This is to reduce the negative repercussions of their presence and activities in Ghana. 1.7 Thesis Argument The study contends that Nigerian migrants in Ghana experience socio-economic challenges that impede their efforts at integrating into the Ghanaian society. 1.8 Conceptual framework The study adopted integration as a conceptual framework. The concept of “integration” was derived from the Latin word “integer” which means whole. This concept is hotly debated, 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh because there is no single, generally accepted definition, theory or model of immigrant integration as asserted by Castles et al. (2002). Integration is “individualized, contested and contextual‟ which means that, the values, views of the individuals concerned vary from country to country (Robinson, 1998:118). Integration has been defined by several authors in various ways such as “the process of settlement, interaction with the host society, and social change that follows immigration”, however, this study was guided by Gray and Elliott’s (2001a:20) definition of integration because it was recognized as a very suitable definition of integration. Gray & Elliott define integration as a long-term process through which immigrants participate fully and equally in the various aspects of their new society. One main feature of the concept of integration is that it is presented as a straight-line process. Many immigrant integration studies assume a more or less linear path along which the minority group is expected to change almost completely while the majority is thought to remain the same. The concept of integration is said to be a “two way process” which Favell (2016) criticizes as involving not only the host society and migrants but also many actors, agencies, logics and rationalities (Sigona, 2005:118). Another critic of this concept is that it is seen as vague, differing in clarity; diverse words such as “assimilation”, “incorporation” “adaptation”, and “accommodation” are sometimes used by authors to mean the term integration in the process of receiving immigrants in the host society (Lindo, 2005). While in general, integration is more of an action of incorporation of a group into a bigger society. However, owing to the synonymous nature of these ideas, European researchers continue to treat “integration” and “assimilation” as the same and equal. Regardless of the critics of this concept, the concept remains appropriate for the present study because it can be observed that Nigerians in Ghana have access to the labour market and some 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh social services like education and transport. Based on this, it is an indication that Nigerians are in the process of integrating in Ghana. In examining the policies that ease integration of migrants, it is imperative to refer to the social and economic factors which facilitate integration. In the quest for migrants to be part of a new society, they may face certain difficulties such as accessing the labour market, housing and health care services (Potes, 1997). These challenges are as a result of the fact that most states in the Global South hosting migrants are poverty stricken where there is inadequate infrastructural development and resources for social services among others. It is in this light that Kibreab (1989) argues that these countries are not able to establish policies, legal frameworks and institutions that would allow the absorption and integration of thousands of migrants into their societies because they are underdeveloped and lack the resources to do so. In the work of Ager and Strang (2008): “Understanding Integration: A Conceptual Framework”, the authors identified possible indicators highlighting a number of key areas of activity which indicates a successful integration. From their fieldwork and other literature, Ager and Strang generated four key domains or elements that are essential to any integration phase namely; employment, housing, education and health. Concerning the concept of integration of refugees and immigrants, several works have been carried out till date. Pointing particularly to the works of Penninx, the conceptual model of integration is divided in four broad dimensions namely; cultural, social, economic, and political integration but for the purpose of this study, the economic and social aspects of the concept of integration will be discussed. 1.8.1 Economic Integration 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Most economic integration studies are based on the idea of level of skills, salaries, occupational distribution and degree of participation of immigrants in the labor market of the country of settlement. Economic integration and the status of migrants are associated with an unvarying form of entry into the labor market. Most importantly, migrants have the choice of entering the labour market, remaining independent rather than relying on the destination state for assistance. Most of the immigrants engage in petty businesses and what is “self-employment with the help of preexisting ethnic networks”. Certain variables of human capital have a significant effect on employment opportunities. Networks support also determines their likelihood of entering into some form of regular employment. Economic integration is therefore a needed precondition for successful integration. Most researchers concentrated on how the level of skills, wages and occupation were the primary factor of integration. In measuring the successful economic integration of migrants, the first step is to compare the previous occupation of immigrants in their country of origin to their current occupation in the country of settlement (Hosseini-Kaladjahi, 1997). If it is comparatively the same, then integration has taken place. Secondly, if immigrants enjoy parallel socio-economic status and standard of living same as the local citizens in the host country, this can be considered an effective socio-economic integration of migrants (Zimmermann et al., 2000). 1.8.2 Social integration Social integration is termed as “fitting together all components to constitute a whole society” (Parsons & Smelser 2005). From the above definition, for social integration to take place, all people of the community, citizens and immigrants alike must coexist in unity which will bring about equality in all domains of the society. Most governments and other state actors strive to build an enabling and well-functioning community in which all members are involved and equally 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh treated. In order for migrants to fit well in the society, they should be empowered to access the parts of the society they wish to engage in. The idea of social integration has helped to throw more light on social structure and people’s behavior. In understanding people’s behavior, social integration is described as “a structural or affective interconnection with others and with social institutions. The concept embraces patterns of social interaction, involvement and relationship attitudes. A society that has been successfully integrated allows immigrants to enjoy freedom, rights, security and safety. 1.9 Literature Review Some scholarly works have been done in recent times on integration. However, most of these works have not focused on the socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. It is in line with this that some of these works have been reviewed to indicate how they contributed significantly to the topic under study, and also identified research gaps which this study attempted to fill. 1.9.1 Migrant Integration in Developed Countries Nyamwange (2014) in her study, “An Analysis of the Demographic and Socioeconomic characteristics of African Immigrants in U.S.A” asserts that, African immigrants are among the fastest growing groups in the U.S.A. This growth is usually as a result of the desire to pursue University education, reunite with family, in search of better economic opportunities and escape from political instability in the country of origin (Arthur, 2000). Nyamwange (2014) notes that, the mode of entry of these African immigrants is mainly through the Diversity Program popularly known as the American visa lottery. This author further argues that African immigrants are overrepresented in the Diversity Program because most of these African immigrants move from 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Africa due to political conflicts, civil strife, and social fragmentation which has dominated the African scenery. Furthermore, Nyamwange (2014) posits that African immigrants are among the most educated group in the U.S with a minimum of a Bachelor’s Degree and also the most employed group compared to the overall U.S born citizen adult. This means that African migrants have well integrated into the education and employment sector of the U.S.A. but this notwithstanding, they are the group that are likely to live in poverty than the U.S born citizen. Nyamwange (2014) further explains this by sayin that although African born immigrants are more educated and employed, there is a problem of disparity in revenue and socio-economic status among U.S born citizens and other immigrant groups. This means that, African immigrants and other migrant groups earn low incomes from the work they do. The author concludes that although African immigrants may be working, they earn low incomes because they cannot or do not want to be unemployed so they embrace any form of work even if it pays less. It can be said although these African migrants have achieved socio-economic integration in the U.S.A, it is of a certain level. Badwi (2016) adds to the literature on migrant integration in developing countries by conducting a study titled, “Integration of Ghanaian Immigrants in the Bergen Labour Market”. From her study, she found out that Ghanaians in Norway have successfully integrated into the Norwegian labour market. This is mainly due to knowledge of the Norwegian language and social networks as the important facilitating factors that helped them to get employed in Bergen. The author assumed that immigrants’ level of fluency in the Norwegian language would more likely influence access to qualifying jobs while migrants who are not fluent in the Norwegian language would be more likely to experience difficulties finding jobs. The connection between labour market integration and immigrants’ contribution at home is influenced by their ability to a secure 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh job, earn and save money and the urge to send income back to the origin country. Also, sending monies back home is a factor of successful integration in Bergen, thus getting an appropriate job and meeting expectations at home were the most important criteria for informants to feel successfully integrated in Bergen. Hence, in this study having an appropriate job is seen as one medium through which successful integration is measured. 1.9.2 Migrant Integration in Developing Countries In the work of Chowdhury et al. (2012), “Internal Migration and the Socioeconomic Status of Migrants: A study in Sylhet City, Bangladesh”, the authors consider migration as one of the strategies of development especially in the rural areas which is also an important way out of poverty. They establish that factors associated with internal migration is usually poverty, unemployment, natural disasters which are termed as the push factors which drives migrants from their home community while high wages, better opportunities are indicators of pull factors which attracts them to new environments. The reason for choosing to settle in Sylhet City is as a result of various factors but mainly for employment opportunities. Also, the proximity factor is another reason because Sylhet City is closer to their native places hence travelling from their place of origin to the city is easy and affordable in terms of transportation and the cost of living is reasonable for poor migrants. Chowdhury et al. (2012) measured the economic status index of migrants in terms of household income, expenditure, savings, land possession and non-productive assets. They singled out income as a central variable to determine economic status because it is an indicator of integration. Their study shows that prior to migration, these migrants earned less income but after migrating to Sylhet city, there has been an upward mobility in their income. Furthermore, they argue that the other 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh indicators of economic status have also improved after migration. Therefore, it can be said that these migrants integrate better in their new environment; Sylhet City than their home community especially in terms of their economic lives. Although this study centers on the socio-economic status of migrants in developing country Bangladesh, it also focuses on internal migration, but the current study seeks to study international migration which is Nigerian migration to Ghana. 1.9.3 Migrant Integration in Africa Westmore (2015) in his study “International migration: The relationship with economic and policy factors in the home and destination country”, he argues that migrant integration in Africa has many drivers including duration (how long a migrant has lived in a destination country), socio-political environment, and the culture of the citizens of the destination country. Integration can be challenging due to varying culture of the host communities and the migrants including differences in the language, religion, values and lifestyle choices of the host community. Whitaker (2015) adds his voice to the argument by saying that over the years African countries have seen many migrants who face resistance from the destination community due to the inability of the destination community to comprehend some characteristics of the migrants such as their culture. Even though duration of stay in host nations can drive integration, this is not always the case. In some instances, forced migrants leave their countries whiles they are traumatized owing to the violent conflicts they have experienced. This trauma causes them to isolate; thus, regardless of how long they stay in the host communities, their successful integration is not assured. Derluyn et al. (2013) posit that most host countries do not have policies regarding rehabilitation services for victims of wars that can assist such victims to socialize and integrate; thus, abruptly reducing the effects of wars on these migrants, therefore their integration is based on distorted mindset- causing 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh them to be unable to properly adjust to their new environment. Based on the above argument by Derluyn et al. (2013) the AU posits that, an absence of regulations on migration can make migration detrimental to both migrants and host communities. It is therefore important to establish migration policies to protect migrants and host communities. In addressing this challenge, the African Union and its members have set migration policies that are geared towards regulating migration in the interest of both the host communities and the migrants. The AU highlights eight major migration policies that hover around migration governance, labour migration and education, diaspora engagement, border governance, forced displacement, irregular migration, internal migration, and migration and trade. Of these migration policies, labour migration, education and forced displacement have direct links to migrant integration in Africa. 1.9.4 Migrant Integration in West Africa Gagnon and Khoudour-Castéras (2012) in their work, “South-South Migration in West Africa: Addressing the Challenges of Immigrant Integration”, outline some challenges of immigrant integration. They hypothesize that an investigation into migrant experiences in West Africa demonstrates that despite the incidence of integrational migration, most governments neglect issues of integration, generating cost not only for immigrants and their families, but also for host countries. Despite the significant increase in South-South migration, many West African countries do not regard integration as a priority. The authors also add that, the lack of integration policies is often reinforced by both formal and hidden discriminatory practices. Low-skilled immigrants, in particular, are often accused for taking away the jobs of local citizens and applying downward pressure on their salaries and bargaining power. Foreigners then serve as prey to the destination country for their economic problems. In relation to this, Moustapha (2011) gives an 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh example of Côte d’Ivoire on how the escalation of nationalism, in this case, caused civil unrest and never-ending political crises through the contentious concept of “ivoirité’’. Yaro (2008) in his work, “Migration in West Africa: Patterns, issues and challenges” also mention that the paucity in the enforcement of the ECOWAS protocol on entry, residence and settlement poses a major migration and integration challenge. The author argues that Article 27 of the Protocol affirms a long-term objective to establish a community citizenship that could be automatically acquired by all nationals of Member States which is respected by signatory states but regularization of documents for the purpose of settlement and integration is absent. Also, he makes another claim that most migrants in countries in West Africa are confronted with the issue of inter-country constraints on money transfer, costly transactions and risky informal transactions which results in high cost involved in sending monies to their families back home. In addressing the challenges of immigrant integration, Gagnon and Khoudour-Castéras (2012) note that most West African countries have tried to protect migrants’ rights within another country’s’ borders against discriminatory practices by signing to the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families. Also, as a solution to the cost of transactions, Yaro (2008) notes that efforts are being made to reduce transaction cost albeit slowly. He further indicates that it is necessary to reduce and eventually eliminate the charges on domestic and foreign cash transfers for certain amount below a minimum threshold. Additionally, Yaro (2008) suggests that banks need to adapt their traditional way of doing things to modern realities. The focus of these works are on addressing the integration challenges faced by migrants in West Africa in general, however, the present study seeks to specifically analyse the case of Nigerian migrants in Ghana and their integration process. 1.9.5 Migrant Integration in Ghana 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Yendaw et al. (2019) throw more light on how to enhance the economic integration and livelihood of migrants in Ghana. In their work, “Analysis of livelihood activity amongst Itinerant West African migrant traders in the Accra Metropolitan Area”, found that a higher proportion of immigrants from Niger and Mali who came to Ghana integrated into the Ghanaian labour market as itinerant traders which supports the observation made by IOM (2015) and Yaro (2008) that intra-regional mobility in West Africa is usually dominated by North-South movement from landlocked Sahel West African countries such as Niger and Mali to more affluent West African coastal cities predominantly Ivory Coast, Ghana and Nigeria. In their study, Yendaw et al. (2019) posit that these migrants settle in urban towns such as Accra where itinerant commodity trading is commonly practiced as a prevalent livelihood activity especially in the global south with a significant customer base. These authors note that itinerant immigrants who were largely engaged in trading were mostly young unmarried males with no formal education at all. Some of the items they traded in were leather belts, foot wears, bags, herbal medicines, food products, electronics and accessories. Furthermore, Yendaw et al., (2019) postulate that by observing the status of these migrants, those who sold food products were more likely to have a deteriorated livelihood status as a measure of unsuccessful integration, while those who engaged in electronics were more likely to have improved living conditions. On this basis, it can be said that for itinerant West African migrants to enhance their economic integration, they should be more involved in the sale of durable goods such as electronics and accessories as it has an immense ability to secure them with improved livelihood and integration. Joining the discussion on enhancing the integration of migrants in Ghana, Thomas Antwi- Bosiakoh (2011) in his article “The Role of Migrant Associations in Adjustment, Integration and Social Development: The Case of Nigerian Migrant Associations in Accra, Ghana” argues that 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh migrant associations help migrants to adjust and integrate in their destination countries. The associations play expert surrogate roles to enhance member adjustment and integration into Ghana. He further postulates that such social networks bind Nigerian migrants together in their new destinations and serve as substitutes for family relationship bonds. Most migrants find the initial phases of their migration difficult especially when the requisite networks for participating in mainstream socio-economic activities in the country of settlement are not yet in place (Caglar, 2006). Owusu, 2000; Attah-Poku, 1996 & Okamura, 2014 agree with Caglar that migrants face integration problems, and for new arrivals, the problem is compounded by adjustment difficulties. Along these lines, migrant associations have been treated in functional terms. Although the focus of the work of Yendaw et al., (2019) is on West African migrants in general, this current study seeks to specifically analyze the case of Nigerian migrants and their integration in Ghana. 1.10 Conceptual definitions Migration: IOM (2019) defines migration as the movement of a person or group of persons away from their place of usual residence to another place. Nigerian Migrant: According to the Nigerian High Commissioner, a Nigerian migrant is a Nigerian citizen who has voluntarily moved from Nigeria (country of origin) and has lived in Ghana for more than a year. Host Country: According to Blomstrom et al. (1994), a host country is a country or community which accepts migrants into its society. Home Country/Country of origin: The country in which a person was born and raised (Schiller et al., (1992). 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Network of Nigerian Migrants: Friends and family relatives of Nigerian migrants who live in Ghana (Pojmann, 2007). Integration: The study adopts Gray and Elliott’s explanation of the term integration which is “a long-term process through which immigrants participate fully and equally in the various aspects of their destination society. Socio-economic integration: It relates to how migrants participate fully and equally in both the social and economic aspects of the host society (Portes, 1995). 1.11 Sources of Data The study employed both primary and secondary data to analyze the socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. According to Malhotra and Birks (2007), primary data are first-hand information gathered from field study or surveys conducted by the researcher with the aim of answering the research questions. Structured and semi-structured interview schedules were used to collect primary data through in-depth interviews with the Nigerian migrants. On the other hand, secondary data which is already available data from books, journal articles, publications and other relevant materials (Bernard et al., 2016) were reviewed to obtain information on the topic under study to complement the data gathered from the interviews. Through the conceptual framework of integration, this study combined both the primary and secondary data to analyze the data obtained to answer the research questions of the study and also provided a better understanding on the socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana with regards to the socio-economic factors and policies that facilitate their movement to Ghana to be able to make recommendations based on the findings of the study. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.12 Research Methodology This study was conducted using a qualitative research approach. A qualitative research approach is an inquiry of socially constructed realities and relationships between the researcher and what is being studied (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). Creswell (1998) adds that it is describing and interpreting a cultural and social group and also developing an in-depth analysis of single or multiple cases. Patton and Cochran (2002) clarify that, “qualitative research describes a phenomena which relates to understanding social life to generate words not numbers”. Bryman (2004) further states that this helps the researcher to compare information obtained and analyze the behaviour and attitudes of people to answer the research questions. Additionally, the qualitative research approach also helped to reveal in depth information on the experiences, perceptions, emotions, opinions and actions of the Nigerian respondents, which was very important in this research work for explaining the state of the integration process of migrants in Ghana. Despite these reasons for using the qualitative research method, it is argued to have some weaknesses. According to Koch and Harrington (1998), a commonly heard critic is that qualitative research is subjective, unreliable and subject to researcher bias. Plano et al., (2008) agrees that it is not a suitable method for making generalizations and predictions. However, qualitative method was useful for this study because it gave rich descriptive data which needed to be interpreted to provide a broader and a more credible understanding of the research problem (Tashakkori & Teddlier, 2010). 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.13 In-depth Interviews Three interview guides (structured and semi-structured) were prepared and used to collect data from twenty (20) Nigerian migrants, five (5) Ghanaians living in the Nigerian communities and two (2) state officials at the Ghana Immigration Service (GIS). The structured interview schedule was used to obtain information from the twenty Nigerians on the socio-economic factors and policies that facilitate their integration in Ghana. This enabled the researcher to obtain information in a face to face interaction with the Nigerian respondents to open ended questions of the interview guide. Also, the researcher interrogated the experiences, challenges and livelihood strategies adopted by the Nigerian migrants. The interview guide for the Ghanaians living in the same communities with the Nigerians also sought to ascertain the information provided by the Nigerians. Additionally, a semi-structured interview schedule was used to obtain information from two officials from the Ghana Immigration Service (GIS). This was targeted at obtaining information on how the Ghanaian migration policies have contributed to the integration of Nigerians in Ghana. These key officials were chosen because of their expertise in migration and also because they assist migrants to integrate in Ghana. 1.14 Qualitative Analysis In-depth interviews were audio recorded and hand written notes were also made by the researcher. The interviews were conducted in English language as it was a common language to the researcher and the respondents. The interviews were then coded and put into themes according to the conceptual framework and objectives of the study. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.15 Target Population and Sampling Based on the participant observations and informal conversations, the target population size was grouped into three main categories. The first category were Nigerians who had lived in Ghana for at least a year, have established themselves and are working in Accra. Thus the study did not include Nigerians who were born in Ghana or have naturalized to become citizens. This group was not included because they may not have any migration experience so may not be able to give the needed information to meet the objectives of the study. The second group were students who had completed their Secondary School education and Undergraduate Studies who came to Ghana to enroll in the University for further studies. The third group are Ghanaians living and working in the areas populated with Nigerians. Identifying Nigerian respondents in the whole of the study area (AMA) was going to be difficult so the major areas (Madina, Adenta, Osu, Lapaz and Circle Tip Toe Lane) in the AMA which are dominated by Nigerians were chosen for the study. These areas host a lot of Nigerians who live and have established themselves in businesses and trading activities, hence, the twenty Nigerians as well as the five Ghanaians who were selected for the study lived and worked in these major areas mentioned above. A non-random sampling technique which is the snow balling sampling technique was used to select the twenty Nigerian and five Ghanaian respondents. This technique was chosen because of the scattered nature of Nigerians in Accra. First of all, a random person was selected who then led the researcher to a Nigerian respondent who again led the researcher to another Nigerian until all twenty Nigerian and five Ghanaian respondents were interviewed. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.16 Ethical Consideration Ethical considerations were taken into account first by obtaining permission from the interviewees before recording their views and opinions on the subject matter. As Clarke (2009), notes that “informed consent is a mechanism for ensuring that people understand what it means to participate in a particular research study so they can decide in a conscious, deliberate way whether they want to participate.” The interview guide and questions were designed in such a way that the names of the respondents were not disclosed. An affirmation of the strict confidentiality which the data was held was explicitly indicated in the interview guide. Ethical considerations were also dealt with when the researcher briefed the interviewees on the objective of the research, their significance in the research process, and expectations from them. Therefore, based on this categorization, efforts were made by the researcher to sample migrants from each group. 1.17 Limitations of the Study The researcher encountered some challenges during the data collection process. Due to the rise of issues of Nigerians in the news, some of these Nigerians were in fear of being in the news if granted the interview. For this reason, they did not avail themselves within the stipulated time to be interviewed which prolonged the time used in collecting the data. Nonetheless, the researcher obtained the necessary information from them which was analysed to reach substantial findings, conclusions and recommendations. 1.18 Arrangement of Chapters The research was organized into four chapters. Chapter one looked at the introduction of the study, which covered the background to the study, statement of the problem, research questions 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and objectives, scope of the study, rationale of the research, thesis argument, conceptual framework, literature review, conceptual definitions, sources of data, research methodology, and arrangement of the study. Chapter two provided a discussion on migration and trends in Nigerian migrant integration in Ghana from 1960 (post-independence) to 2019. Chapter three was made up of an analysis of the socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana and chapter four presented the summary, conclusions and recommendations of the study. CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF MIGRATION AND TRENDS IN MIGRANT INTEGRATION IN GHANA 2.0 Introduction This chapter highlights migration and trends in migrant integration. The first part presents an overview of migration, trends in migration, migrant integration and policies for migration in Africa. The second part presents trends in migration and migrant integration in Ghana looking at immigration in Ghana, from its neighbours and migration policies and legal texts for immigrants in Ghana are also discussed. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1 Overview of Migration Migration is an old phenomenon which dates back to the earliest periods of human history. Migration has always been a global concern as emigration and immigration continuously provide many opportunities to migrants, societies and countries. The opportunities migration provides to states are geared towards development through remittance flow as the global flow of remittance from developed countries to low and middle income countries amounted to about $429 billion which is triple the global official development assistance (UN, 2017). However, migration has emerged as a critical policy challenge in matters concerning integration, displacement, safe migration and border management (World Migration Report, 2018). Recent data on global migration in 2015 indicates an estimate of over 244 million international migrants, an increase from an estimated 155 people in 2000. Internal migration, on the other hand, has also been on the rise as an estimated 740 million people have migrated within their own country of birth. Even though the persistent rise in migration levels appear to be problematic, some countries seek to increase their levels of immigration into their countries whiles other countries do not have documented policies which seeks to influence the level of migration. Global statistics on immigration policy show that 32% and 10% of European and Asian countries seek to raise the level of immigration into their country respectively, whiles 23% and 13% of other Asian and African countries seek to reduce the level of migration into their countries (UN, 2017). 2.1.1 Trends of Migration and Integration in Africa African migration has been ill-characterized as it has been perceived by many that it stems from poverty and warfare, more so, violent conflicts (Flahaux and De Haas, 2016). However, these perceptions are based on stereotypical ideas of Africa as a continent of poverty and conflict. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Further, these perceptions create the assumption that African migration is only towards the North (developed countries) which has been popularly termed as South-North migration. De Haas (2007) suggests that South-North migration is likely to persist and get out of hand; thus, a measure to curtail it involves enhancing African development through aid, trade and remittances. The perceptions that have been developed about African migration are not based on empirical evidence rather based on assumptions, selective observations or impressions of the media. Since 2000, there has been a surge in survey or interview-based studies on contemporary African migration (Bakewell & Jόnsson, 2011; Berriane & De Haas, 2012) and these studies have shed light on the diversity of African migration. Studies have shown that most African movements are not only geared towards the North, but also towards other African countries (Schoumaker et al., 2015; Sander & Maimbo, 2003). Flahaux and De Haas (2016) observed that African migrants are overwhelmingly located in African countries. Post-independence migration has been driven by increased urbanization and the continuous transfer of population from inland, marginal rural areas to agricultural areas with high land fertility, and towns and cities which are often located in coastal areas (Naab, et al., 2013). According to AU (2018), cross-border migration has been driven by deteriorating political, socio-economic and environmental conditions, as well as armed conflict, insecurity, environmental degradation and poverty have been significant root causes of mass migration and forced displacement in Africa and these constitute the major push factors for African migration. UNCTAD (2018) reports that 53% of international migrants from Africa reside on the continent. According to the report, the major destination African countries for African migrants are specific countries or clusters of countries including South Africa, Ivory Coast and Kenya with Johannesburg, Abidjan, and Nairobi as the major migration hubs. Also, four out of every five international migrant reside in Eastern, Western and Central Africa. Based on the significant 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh number of international African migrants in Africa, it is important to examine intra-Africa migration so as to be able to divorce it from the concept of global migration. Data on trends of African migration using a 20 year interval shows that intra-migration in Africa has increased since the 1960s. In 1960, 1980, and 2000, intra-continental migration stood at 6.2 million, 8 million, and 10.5 million respectively (Flahaux and De Haas, 2016). Between 2000 and 2017, African international migration grew at an average rate of 2.8% annually (UNCTAD, 2018). The increase in migration does not match with increase in population as the report shows that migration as a share of population decreased since 1990. This decline was at 2% in 2012, a figure below the global average of 3.4%. African migration can be disaggregated into intra-regional migration and inter-regional migration. According to the AU report (2016), intra-regional migration mainly takes place in West, East, and Southern African regions whiles inter-regional migration is mainly from West Africa to Southern Africa, from East/Horn of Africa to Southern Africa and from Central Africa to Southern Africa and West Africa. The report indicates that the majority of international African migrants in African countries are males (51%) whiles a high number of females (49%) have migrated within the region (Flahaux and De Haas, 2016). The authors report that majority of African migration is contained within Africa and mostly occur between neighbouring countries. Migration between neighbouring countries provides a platform for ease in integration since neighbours are more likely to have similarities in the socio-political environment of neighbouring countries. Over the last decade, increase in irregular migration has been a very noticeable trend in African migration (AU, 2018). Migrants use increasingly precarious routes, which render them vulnerable to abuse by smugglers and traffickers. Women and girls are particularly vulnerable to human trafficking, sexual and gender-based violence, and other risks. Moreover, countries often perceive 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh irregular migration from the angle of national security, which may lead to a generalisation that all refugees and migrants are a potential threat to national security. This perception about migrants as a potential threat to national security has amounted to the securitisation of migration, including the reinforcement of border control, without due respect for the human rights of migrants. Also, corruption and harassment at African borders continue to be a challenge which also undermines the human rights of migrants, even in regions which implement the protocol on free movement of persons. It is therefore important that policies that are aimed at managing migration uphold the human rights of all migrants. Another major challenge in Africa is displaced populations, inter alia triggered by conflict, terrorism, and climatic pressure. Majority of refugees in the world are hosted by Africa. African countries (Democratic Republic of Congo, Chad Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda) which are in the top ten (10) countries hosting displaced populations in the world, account for 21% of the world’s refugees. Africa’s displaced population stands at approximately 18.5 million, of which over 27% are refugees, and 67% are Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). These displaced populations require substantial resources to manage, provide for, and integrate into host communities. Situations of protracted displacement have emerged, whereby refugees or IDPs are displaced for prolonged period of time, without immediate prospects for durable solutions, which would allow them to return to their homes, integrate fully into host communities, or settle elsewhere. In recent times, calls for developing durable solutions for displaced populations in Africa have increased. Migrant integration in Africa has many drivers including duration (how long a migrant has lived in a destination country), socio-political environment, and the culture of the citizens of the destination country (Westmore, 2015). Integration can be challenging due to varying culture of the host communities and the migrants including differences in the language, religion, values and 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh lifestyle choices of the host community. Over the years, African countries have seen many migrants who face resistance from the destination community due to the inability of the destination community to comprehend some characteristics of the migrants such as their culture (Whitaker, 2015). Forced migrants such as refugees are not spared from these challenges. In their quest to escape volatile conditions, they do not get the opportunity to choose their destination countries; thus they have no predetermined expectations or preparedness while crossing international borders (Kisoon, 2015). Even though duration of stay in host nations can drive integration, this is not always the case. In some instances, forced migrants leave their countries whiles they are traumatized owing to the violent conflicts they have experienced. This trauma causes them to isolate; thus, regardless of how long they stay in the host communities, their successful integration is not assured. Derluyn et al. (2013) state that most host countries do not have policies regarding rehabilitation services for victims of wars that can assist such victims to socialize and integrate; thus, abruptly reducing the effects of wars on these migrants. On gendered integration of forced migrants, Derluyn et al. (2013) states that male refugees from Sierra Leone who were once militants and were coerced to murder close relatives cross borders to neighboring countries for refuge. When they did, they did not access rehabilitation or demobilization and disarmament facilities. Due to this, their integration was based on distorted mindset- causing them to be unable to properly adjust to their new environment. Adeyemi-Suenu (2014) reports that these ex-militants either form or join existing rebel groups to contribute their combat skills and expertise to escalating conflicts as it is in the case of the Niger-Delta militants in Nigeria. Regarding the integration of female forced migrants, Kholi et al. (2014) report a worse case. These authors argue that relative to male forced migrants, some female forced migrants face worse psychological trauma upon settling down in host countries because of mental and physical injuries they sustained from rape 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and torture during violent conflicts in their countries. Tankink (2013) provides an example of female South Sudanese migrants. In most cases, these forced migrants are victims of rape owing to the rampant gory activities during the prolonged violent conflict. Most of these rape victims hail from the Upper Nile State of South Sudan and resided in Akoka, Bailet, Fashoda, Longochuk, Maban, Maiwut, Malakal, Manyo, Melut, Luakpiny / Nasser, Panyikang, Renk and Ulang have fallen victims of rape by militants (Tankink, 2013). These human right violations, cause damages to the productive capacity of refugee women in host communities, due to injuries sustained from rape, such as damaged uterus (Benshoof, 2014). These experiences from rape discourages their successful integration in the host communities especially in the institution of marriage. Opportunities in the labour markets of host communities appear to be a major pull factor for migration in Africa (AU, 2018). Prior to migration, all migrants intend to enter the labour markets without assessing the existence of barriers that could limit their access to the labour market in destination countries (Creighton, 2013) and access to labour market is an indication of successful integration of migrants in their destination countries (Huddleston et al., 2013). However, this integration process can be contrary to the expectations of migrants since there are some limitations to employment for migrants in some countries including overwhelming labour markets, youth bulge and limited vacancies and government restrictions. Also, as stated by Menjivar and Lakhani (2016), some countries do not permit migrants to work with their visitor’s visa. This lack of permission usually cause migrants to work in the informal sectors of the host countries and even at the extreme, some migrants engage in criminal activities as a resolve to income generation for themselves and for their families. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1.2 Migration policies for Africa Absence of regulations on migration can make migration detrimental to both migrants and host communities. It is therefore important to establish migration policies to protect migrants and host communities. The African Union and its members have set migration policies that are geared towards regulating migration in the interest of both the host communities and the migrants (AU, 2018). The AU highlights eight major migration policies that hover around migration governance, labour migration and education, diaspora engagement, border governance, forced displacement, irregular migration, internal migration, and migration and trade. Of these migration policies, labour migration, education and forced displacement have direct links to migrant integration in Africa. Effective labour migration policies are beneficial to both countries of origin and destination countries. To countries of origin, labour migration can lead to economic growth and development through increased remittance flow and knowledge and skills transfer; whiles to host communities, labour migration can feed the labour market with skilled and knowledgeable labour force. Incomes earned through labour migration are used to cater for families of migrants in host communities. Even though there is a high incidence of unemployment and youth bulge in many African countries the AU, through the Joint Labour Migration Programme (JLMP), seeks to promote important areas of ensuring the free mobility of workers as a means of advancing regional integration and development. Vital areas of this programme include skills portability and the mutual recognition of qualifications, and the development of an African Qualifications Framework. Bringing regional skills together and enabled through mobility can address the challenge of high incidence of unemployment and youth bulge when labour is allocated in sectors where it is more productive and needed. Thus, there is the need to present Africa’s youth with appropriate opportunities and capacity to work in the necessary economic sectors. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For migrants to be able to successfully integrate into the labour sectors of African host communities, AU (2018) recommends that there are effective mechanisms that allow migrants to complain against their employers on the grounds of issues pertaining to sexual harassment in the workplace, and also have access to solutions to issues like unpaid wages and compensation for violations of labour rights, without fear of punishments. Also, there is the need for increasing feminization of labour migration through the promotion of gender-sensitive and non- discriminatory labour migration practices and policies. This is key to the protection of rights of migrant women. Further on discrimination, there is the urgent need for the promotion of respect for and the protection of the rights of labour migrants including the fight against xenophobia through activities such as civil education in African host communities. Policymakers must incorporate measures that ensure equal opportunities and equal access for labour migrants and nationals in the areas of employment, working conditions, remuneration, social security, education and geographical mobility. AU (2018) recommends policies that have to do with the facilitation of integration of all migrants in the labour market, education and training sectors. Also, labour policies should favor migrants by allowing them to participate in collective action through their active engagement in trade or labour unions. Moreover, migration policies should ensure appropriate conditions of service including the provision of social protection and social security benefits, particularly unemployment insurance, compensation for employment injury, long-term illness, death benefits, disability, parental leave, supplementary insurance schemes, and old age pension for all labour migrants, including women migrant workers, while working abroad and/or upon their return. On forced displacement, AU (2018) argues that the successful integration of migrants into host communities and their reintegration in their countries of origin promotes social stability and 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cohesion, mutual respect, and cultural acceptance. The integration of regular migrants requires that they have access to basic social services including education, employment, and health. Thus, the AU recommends policies that can ensure the integration and reintegration of displaced migrants. The policies suggest that children of long-term migrants should access education, training and economic opportunities that are equal to services accessed by nationals. Also, there must be the implementation of measures that ensure that the integration and the reintegration of migrant workers are encouraged by cultural and social acceptance and further ensures that the rights of migrants and their relatives are respected and protected. Further, integration policies must be gender sensitive and there should be the provision of services that are geared towards meeting the legal, psychological, socio-economic needs of returning migrants. These services can facilitate the reintegration of migrants and for a successful reintegration, these services are supposed to be provided before, during, and after the return of migrants. 1. The AU African Passport for Free Movement Also, the African Union Executive Council called for an issuance of an African passport in support of the AU’s policy on free movement of persons in Africa (AU, 2018). Following this, the Council also adopted The Migration Policy Framework and African Position on Migration and Development which committed African Union Member States to the free movement of people in Africa. Similarly, according to the AU (2018) Minimum Integration Programme, which “consists of different activities on which the Regional Economic Communities (RECs) and parties involved should agree upon to speed up and bring to a successful conclusion the process of regional and continental integration” which include free movement of persons in Africa was adopted by the AU Member States, RECs and the African Union. According to the AU, (2018), significant to the quest for free movement of persons in Africa is the African Union’s Agenda 2063. This document 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh captures the ambitious aspirations of the “Africa we want” which envisages an “integrated continent, politically united based on the ideals of pan-Africanism”. One of the target areas to be met by 2023 is the free movement of people within the RECs. Member States, and at the continental level by 2018 with a waiver of all visa requirements for intra-African travel. Consequently, Member States are urged to domesticate all protocols facilitating free movement of persons within the RECs. Some states including Benin, Ghana, Kenya, Mauritius, Rwanda, and Seychelles have already began implementing this policy by allowing all Africans visiting these countries to obtain visas on arrival for a stay up to thirty (30) days (Kidane, 2016). At the July 2016 African Union Summit in Kigali, the Assembly officially launched the common, electronic, biometric African passport (AU, 2018), which would facilitate the free movement of persons across Africa and this could increase labour and student mobility. This protocol will also increase migration in Africa, hence integration. 2. The ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement West African migration has been characterized as a way of life or a culture (Adepoju, 2000) and this culture dates back to the pre-colonial period owing to the fact that West Africans have migrated over the generations in response to demographic, political and economic factors. This culture prompted the need for a protocol to facilitate the free movement of West Africans within the region. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was formed in 1975 with the aim of accelerating economic and social development of Member States to improve the standards of living of ECOWAS citizens (ECOWAS Treaty, 1975). Also, the formation of the ECOWAS was on the basis of the belief that to promote harmonious economic development of Member States, it was required that there must be effective economic co-operation and integration mainly through a determined and concerted policy of self-reliance (Agyei and Clottey, 2007). 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to these authors, the ECOWAS protocol on free movement of persons, the right of residence and the right of establishment were enacted on the basis of the need for economic integration, which was affirmed by Article 27 of the ECOWAS Treaty, including free flow of people, goods and services. The Protocol started by guaranteeing the free entry of citizens from Member States without visa for ninety days and the removal of all barriers to migration in West Africa in 1980, and established the right of residence in 1986. Upon this all member states abolished visa requirement, which is a major requirement to access a country in which a person is not a citizen, and the only requirements which became valid was an international travel document and an international health certificate (Agyei and Clottey, 2007). Citizens of Member States now have the opportunity to work and undertake commercial activities within West Africa. However, regardless of the protocol, an immigrant can be denied entry into another West African state once the Member State considers the immigrant as inadmissible. Successful free movement of ECOWAS citizens encourage these citizens to integrate in their sister countries. This integration process is evident in their access to education, health, and the labour market. Also, ECOWAS citizens in host countries which are Member States successfully acquire assets and successfully integrate into the socio-cultural and the socio-political environment in member states due to their knowledge of and familiarity with the socio-cultural and socio-political environments in their sister countries. 2.1.3 Trends of Migration and Integration in Ghana 1. Immigrants in Ghana 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana’s economy is said to be the second largest in West Africa after Nigeria which has attracted many immigrants till date. Also the relative peace, security, and political stability in the country contributes to the reasons people move to Ghana (IOM, 2009). In West Africa, Ghana is often referred to as an oasis of peace, thus serving as a pull factor to many migrants from all over the world for diverse reasons. In addition to the economic incentives mentioned before, there were significant political incentives to immigrate to Ghana. Ghana was nominally independent as early as 1951, and adopted pan-Africanist political and immigration policies designed to attract other Africans to Ghana. Later, African presidents visited or lived in Ghana in the 1940s and 1950s, including those of Malawi, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Ghana became a hub for anti-colonial African leaders and dissidents even before it became fully independent itself. This opened the doors of Ghana to persons of African descent to come into the country. As they moved here, they were able to apply for citizenship and live in Ghana. Immigrants from other countries, such as the Middle East, particularly Lebanon, have a long history in Ghana. According to (Akyeampong, 2006 & Awumbila, et al, 2008), there are immigrants in Ghana who moved from Lebanon, China, Cuba and India. Many of them migrated to Ghana for economic advantages as Ghana is seen to be a good destination with a prosperous environment that promotes business. The Ghana Investment Promotion Center (GIPC, 2015) report shows that Italy, Britain, India, Lebanon, Nigeria, USA, British Virgin Islands, Germany and Korea were the top ten countries that have transacted business with Ghana over the years by investing in the country. By the beginning of this twenty first century, companies owned by Lebanese immigrants ranged from cosmetics and steel industries to broadcasting stations and one of the largest cellular phone networks in Ghana (Akyeampong, 2006). They had also become important actors in retail trade in Ghana. However, while people from other parts of the world are still migrating to Ghana for business purposes, there 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is ample evidence of International students from other countries who have migrated to Ghana to pursue Ghanaian tertiary education. These students form the majority of migrants who have been granted residents’ permits in Ghana with a total number of 12,978 international students recorded in 2017. Studies by Bosiakoh (2009), Anarfi et al., (2003) and Boateng, A., & Thompson, A. M. (2013) have clearly shown that people have migrated from other countries including countries in the West African sub-region to study in Ghana. According to Bosiakoh (2009), the Ghanaian tertiary education is preferred by other nationals because it is well-structured with a definite starting and end point. The final group of migrants in Ghana are tourists. Over the years there has been a tremendous growth in the number of tourists from across the world in Ghana, most of which are from other African countries (Konadu-Agyemang, 2001). Other migrants in Ghana are illegal migrants, trafficked or smuggled migrants and migrants who have voluntarily returned to Ghana from the diaspora (IOM, 2009). 2. Migration to Ghana from its Neighbours Migration within Ghana and from its neighbours dates back to pre-colonial times as migration during this time was mainly driven by trade (Adepoju, 2005). According to Anarfi et al., (2003), trade resulting from migration increased in the colonial era and this form of migration accounted for peace during the colonial era. Eades (1993: 107-139, 196 & 200) noted that most of the migrants to Ghana at that time was a sizeable number of self-employed traders who migrated mainly from West African countries such as Niger, Mali and Nigeria. As reported by Anarfi et al. (2000), this trade continued until the late 1960s and early 1970s when the Aliens Compliance Order and the Business Promotion Act 334, saw the repatriation of Nigerians from Ghana in the same way Ghanaians were repatriated from Nigeria. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana attracted many migrants in the late nineteenth century to the second half of the twentieth century due to the developments of gold mines and cocoa farms. These migrants were young male adults who were concentrated in Southern Ghana and mainly engaged in agriculture and mining (Amin, 1974). Further, Southern Ghana’s forest zone favours economic development than the Northern Savannah and this makes Southern Ghana more attractive to migrants (Mabogunje, 1972). This easy movement into Ghana can be attributed to the fact that Ghana is signatory to the ECOWAS (free movement and establishment) and the African Union (AU) protocols on immigration and labour immigration, therefore making it easy for people especially from other West African countries to move into Ghana and establish themselves here. Immigration in Ghana has continued to the present times and these migrants can be categorized into different types including refugees and asylum seekers, labour migrants, students, tourists and visitors (IOM, 2006). The UNHCR (2009) reported that in 2008, Ghana hosted the fourth-largest refugee population in West Africa as it hosted about 31,000 refugees and asylum seekers. The report indicates that most of these refugees were fleeing violent conflicts in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Ivory Coast. Statistics show that, the refugee population in Ghana rose from 11,721 in 2001 to 53,524 in 2005, later declined to 34,950 in 2007 and drastically within a short period to 18,206 in 2008 (UNHCR, 2009a). Currently, Ghana now hosts about 13,216 refugees (UNHCR, 2018). The majority of these refugees are Liberians and mostly reside in the Gomoa Budumburam camp, whiles other refugees can be found in the Krisan Camp. Likewise the country’s legal instruments on labour and industrial relations accommodate and regulate the activities of immigrants in the country, therefore allowing people to move into Ghana to engage in the labour sector. Regarding labour migrants, Quartey (2006) found that Ghana is a net immigration country with migrants from neighbouring countries including Togo, Burkina 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Faso, Nigeria and Ivory Coast. However, Nigeria is said to be the country with most of its nationals in Ghana. Most of them move to Ghana for business purposes. Furthermore, apart from Nigerians, immigrants from other countries in the region have also moved to Ghana from Burkina Faso and Mali who can be found in urban inner-city informal settlements (called Zongos) in Ghana. Most of these migrants work in the industry and service sectors of the economy; whiles only a small fraction of them are engaged in the agricultural sector of the Ghanaian economy. The stable political atmosphere experienced in Ghana over the years as compared to other countries in the sub-region is also a major factor that has made the country a preferred destination of labour migrants and investors from West Africa and beyond. This is as a result of the GIPC Act (865) which has been contributing to the promotion of investment as it seeks to create a viable environment for investment in the country. Migrants in Ghana tend to integrate in the country as they are able to access the various social services such as employment, health and education of the economy. For example, the OECD/ILO (2018) reports that in partner countries like Ghana, immigrants are able to access the labour market. This access to these services is an indication that these migrants have integrated into the Ghanaian economy. Further, Kyereko (2020) argues that migrants’ access to education is a key indicator of their integration. Labour immigrants form the most popular group of migrants who appear to have integrated in Ghana. The OECD/ILO (2018) report categorizes labour immigrants under migrants who travel to destination countries with the main aim to access the labour market. This group of people include people who are already employed and those who are actively looking for gainful employment. According to the report, though integration in the labour markets manifest among labour migrants in terms of their representation in the labour market from both the angles of quality and quantity, there are significant differences in employment and unemployment outcome for 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh women. The report indicates that male migrants have more access to the labour market than female migrants. 2.1.4 Migration policies for immigrants in Ghana The 1992 Constitution of Ghana empowers its institutions to implement laws such as the labour and immigration laws, and includes the obligation to respect the human rights and freedoms of all persons in Ghana, including foreign nationals, irrespective of their country of birth or legal status. From the mid-1990s, the legal architecture for immigration and investment was comprehensively restructured to allow for and encourage foreign talent and expertise into the country. The reform of the citizenship laws demonstrates the government of Ghana’s commitment to the creation of a society which is more welcoming to foreigners and investment. 1. The National Migration Policy While Ghana has had a number of laws and regulations regarding the employment and protection of immigrants and emigrants for many years, it was not until 2016 that the National Migration Policy (NMP) was adopted (Government of Ghana, 2015). The goal of the NMP is to promote the benefits and minimise the costs of internal and international migration through legal means with the rights and security of migrants well respected in order to ensure socio-economic development in Ghana’ (Government of Ghana, 2015, p. 1). The efforts to manage migration for development are led by an Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee on Migration (IMSCM), which was responsible for the formulation of the NMP. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The current National Migration Policy for Ghana does not explicitly state policies to ensure the integration of migrants. However, the policies on some of the indicators of integration can be used as proxies for integration policies for immigrants in Ghana. The NMP is said to have objectives targeted at managing immigration issues. It seeks to address challenges faced by immigrants by promoting peace, protecting the rights of migrants and host population, the mapping of migration patterns and the effects of migration on host populations and the environment. In lieu of this, the policy seeks to develop a framework which will facilitate the integration of migrants. These policies if implemented can ease the integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. Policies to address challenges immigrants encounter in Ghana include the implementation of the Programme of Action of the 2001 World Conference Against Racism and Xenophobia; the enforcement of non-discriminatory policies that are already in existence; the reduction of discrimination through increased government capacity building; grant migrants access to social services; raise awareness on non-discrimination and promotion of reciprocity of respect between migrants and host population. The policy on ensuring that migrants access social services is a step to promoting migrant integration because migrants will be empowered when they access social services like education and health and this can insulate them against discrimination in the long term. 2.2 Conclusion Unlike many developed countries, policies necessary to improve migrant integration in developing countries are lacking. The influx of Nigerian migrants in the Ghanaian society needs attention which should be geared towards enhancing the integration of Nigerian migrants to reduce the possible risks this influx is likely to pose on the economy of Ghana. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE SOCIO-ECONOMIC INTEGRATION OF NIGERIAN MIGRANTS IN GHANA 3.0 Introduction This chapter presents an analysis of the socio-economic integration of Nigerians in Ghana. In this chapter, the researcher categorizes information gathered into thematic areas. The various themes falls under the two sections of the concept of integration- which are, social and economic to determine the extent to which Nigerian migrants have integrated in Ghana. It further looks at the views of twenty Nigerian migrants and five Ghanaians living in the Nigerian community about the integration of these Nigerians into the Ghanaian society. The chapter finally presents how the existing Ghanaian migration policies have contributed to the socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. 3.1 Nigerian Migration and Integration in Ghana Intra-West African migration has its roots in the 15th Century. During this period and till date, Nigerian migration has been on the rise (Bosiakoh, 2009) and it continues to form part of international migration into Ghana (Twum-Baah, 2005). Nigerian migrants, in the 20th century, were the largest immigrant group from other British West African colonies in Ghana (Cardinall, 1931). Until the 1970s when Nigeria experienced an oil boom, Ghana had large numbers of 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nigerian migrants (Adepoju, 2005). During this same time, trade and commerce were dominated by foreigners (Peil 1974: 368) and the involvement of Nigerians in diamond mining, yam selling and butchering was intense. These migrants dominated and controlled major market places in Ghana in areas like Accra, Winneba and Kumasi; whiles other migrants occupied the majority of positions for skilled labour in the industry (Skinner, 1963:.310-320). Gould (1974) notes that the constant dominance of foreigners in Ghana became alarming and this caused citizens to mount pressure for increased participation in national affairs and opportunities at the expense of migrants. Consequently, Ghana’s economy approached crisis as there was increased unemployment and this crisis was attributed to the influx on migrants in the country (Adomako-Sarfoh, 2018). This led to the implementation of the Aliens Compliance Order in 1969 which saw the expatriation of Nigerian migrants among other migrants without residence permit from Ghana (Anarfi et al., 2000). However, over the past few decades, Ghana has witnessed an upsurge of Nigerian migrants. For instance, According to the 2010 population census, Nigerians make up to about 1.4% percent of the total population of Ghana (GSS, 2010) and this significant number of Nigerian migrants in Ghana can be attributed to population pressure in Nigeria (Adepoju, 2005). Major migration trends between Ghana and Nigeria center on labour or brain exchanges where most Ghanaian professionals migrated to Nigeria during economic downturns and vice versa (Anarfi et al., 2000). Bosiakoh (2009) notes that Nigerians are more likely to migrate to countries with similar socio- cultural, political and economic background as theirs, so that they can easily adjust to such cultures and integrate successfully. Also, like many migrants, Nigerians travel to Ghana with the hope of finding gainful employment, and or to associate with other people of their kind. Historical factors such as common colonial heritage and long standing trade and other commercial ties with Ghana, 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh language, general appearance, and socio-cultural similarities are a few of the reasons why Ghana has become a popular destination for Nigerian migrants. In many cases, it is expected that when migrants are able to fulfil their purpose of travel, they are more likely to integrate in their host communities. Nigerians in Ghana are currently in the process of integrating as there are some services they are able to easily access in the social and economic aspects of the Ghanaian society such as education, the labour market and housing. Notwithstanding, there are other aspects they have challenges accessing. Most of them engage in trading and businesses because they are able to access the informal sector of the labour market. This is mainly possible because of the help of social capital or networks which are available in Ghana at their time of arrival, hence these networks play a role in their integration process. Therefore, to better understand their integration process, the analyses will be done based on the social and economic elements of the concept of integration. 3.1.1 Education and Occupational Demand Education and skills of migrants are important factors which influence their pattern of occupation. Education is key for an active and successful integration of immigrants into their destination country since it influences certain critical decisions of migrants in the host country such as choosing an occupation. De Paolo and Brunello (2016) argue that education is a key driver of human capital development which has a significant effect on the probability of employment and on wages, thereby making education a key factor in the integration process of migrants. As a result, migrant’s socio-economic survival in the destination country is very much linked to their educational level. This corresponds with the findings of McGuinness et al. (2017) who indicates 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that skills mismatch may occur if levels of education are not linked to the requirements of jobs. Out of the twenty Nigerians who were interviewed, almost all of them (90 percent) have had formal education. The migrant share of the working-age population strongly suggests that Ghana has received higher proportions of higher educated immigrants over the past years. Of the 90 percent, majority (34 percent) had completed Senior High School education, 20 percent did not continue after attaining Junior Secondary School education, 24 percent had acquired some technical skills through vocational/technical education, 12 percent had completed tertiary education. Due to the level of education of majority of the Nigerian migrants and the qualifications they possess, most of them are unable to obtain employment in the mainstream sector; the formal sector because they do not possess the requisite qualifications, therefore, they engage in the informal sector (a part of the labour market) for jobs which matches their qualifications. This is consistent with OCED/ILO (2018) report which found that access to the labour market by migrants is low which could be attributed to the low level of formal education among migrants. 3.1.2 Livelihood Strategies of Nigerian Migrants in Ghana This section presents the various livelihood strategies or activities of Nigerian migrants in Accra. The study found out that most of the migrants are engaged in businesses which is mostly trading. This finding is in line with Van Dalen et al (2005) who noted that a key driver of migration is the expected economic benefits in the destination area. An active involvement in livelihood strategies that yield economic benefits implies achieving successful integration. The response from the Ghanaian respondents who lived in the same community with the Nigerians also affirmed this. The former indicated that most of the Nigerians in the community were traders who owned shops where they sold various items. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nigerian respondents were asked to specify the type of goods they traded and from their responses, it was identified that majority of them traded in home/electrical appliances (75 percent), 40 percent were into the sale of mobile phones and its accessories while 30 percent sold food items (provisions) and drinks. Other items sold were spare parts of motor/bicycles (15 percent) and cosmetics (10 percent). This finding corroborates with the findings of Yendaw et al. (2019) who found that most West African migrants engage in trading activities due to their inability to access the formal sector of the labour market of Ghana. Table 3.1 presents the type of trading activities engaged in by the twenty Nigerian respondents. Table 3.1 Livelihood Strategies of Nigerian Migrants in Ghana Type of Traded Goods Frequency Percent Home/electronic Appliances 15 75 Mobile phones and accessories 8 40 Provisions and Drinks 6 30 Spare parts 3 15 Cosmetics 2 10 Source: Field Data, 2019 3.1.3 Social and Family Relations Family relations has been found to be a major determinant of the decision of an individual to migrate or remain a migrant (Bijwaard & Van Doeselaar, 2014). Most (76 percent) of the respondents were single with no children, while 18 percent were married with children and the rest were single with children and some without children (6 percent). Some of the respondents who 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were married lived with their spouses and children in Ghana while others came to Ghana without their spouses and children. This finding is expected as household formation among most migrants mostly occurs in the destination countries (Adsera & Ferrer, 2014). Almost all the respondents had some sort of family relation and social relation (friends) in Ghana. These friends were not only Nigerians but some had Ghanaian friends. It was identified that some of the Nigerian respondents are even married to Ghanaians and have had children with them. Only one respondent said he had no Ghanaian friend because he does not mingle with Ghanaians. Those who had family members in Nigeria said they maintained close ties with them. “I have friends here in Ghana but my family members are in Nigeria. I hear from them from them often and sometimes send home money to help them cater for themselves”. 3.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT FACILITATE INTEGRATION OF NIGERIAN MIGRANTS IN GHANA 3.2.1 Social Capital/Network of Migrants in Ghana Social capital of Nigerian migrants in Ghana are friends and family who live in Ghana. Social capital or network plays a significant role in the lives of migrants. Mostly, social capital influences decisions of these migrants which ranges from the option to migrate to resilient or survival strategies in the destination country. Also, social network can be in the form of associations or group of people. According to some studies (Pojmann, 2007; López, et al., 2001), migrants create informal social networks in their settling process. To a large extent, these social networks give way to migrant associations. Migrant associations are therefore the formal manifestations of migrant social networks (López et al., 2001). This assertion is supported by 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Owusu (2000) who observed that migrants, soon after arriving at their destination, organize themselves into associational forms. In Ghana, there exist a number of Nigerian Associations. Bosiakoh (2011) gives some examples of these Nigerian associations as The Nigerian Women Association (NWA), The Nigerian Committee of Brothers’ Association (NCBA) and The Edo State Association (ESA). For new Nigerian migrants, the associations help integrate them into the Nigerian communities in Ghana such as Osu, Madina, Lapaz and Adenta and the general Ghanaian society. Chief Inspector George Obeng of the Ghana Immigration Service also noted that Nigerian Associations in Ghana influence decisions of members in Ghana. Those who already have friends and relatives in Ghana are assisted to settle regarding accommodation and employment among others. A Nigerian respondent gave an account of how he was assisted by his relative here in Ghana. This is what he had to say: “My uncle came to Ghana two years before I came. He helped me to come to Ghana to settle here. He owns a shop here at Madina where I am currently working as a shop attendant”. Another respondent of the study also emphasized the help he received from a friend in the form of accommodation as a great source of support to him. “It was my friend who provided accommodation for me when I arrived here in Ghana. I stayed with him in his apartment for almost a year before I got my own place. While I was staying with him, we worked on securing all my documents that enabled me to own this shop and sell in Accra. This support I received was very important to me because I knew nobody in Ghana apart from him and I had never been to Ghana before”. Those who have lived in Ghana for a long period of time that is more than a year said that as part of their integration process they have established a network of family and friends even though 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh some did not come with their families, they see themselves as a family. Due to the support they receive from family and friends, most of these Nigerians do not find it too difficult integrating in Ghana, hence these networks contribute significantly to their integration process in Ghana. Also, it was found that some of the Nigerians had Ghanaian friends who provide them with some assistance. With this, some of the Ghanaians were interviewed to confirm the above statement. This is what some Ghanaian respondents had to say: “We live with some of the Nigerians here in this neighborhood and sometimes we help them with certain things. For instance, sometimes they come to me to ask for directions to a particular place and I show them”. (Ghanaian Respondent 1) “I have lived in the same compound with a Nigerian man for some months now. Since he’s new here, he usually comes to me when he wants any kind of information regarding how and where to get something”. (Ghanaian Respondent 2) 3.2.2 Access to Housing and Healthcare Per the ECOWAS Protocol on free movement, it is acceptable for Nigerian migrants to move and reside in Ghana. (Awumbila et al., 2013). Housing and healthcare is a key component of the social integration of migrants. In fact countries with integration laws have been particular with healthcare and housing as measures to enhance migrant integration (Caneva, 2014). Migrants’ access to a safe, secure and affordable housing is important for their integration because it contributes to a successful integration. Lack of affordable housing is one of the challenges Nigerian migrants face in Ghana. Most of those interviewed said that housing in Accra is very expensive, because of this, most of them opt for houses with cheap or affordable rent and these houses are not 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in proper shape. This is consistent with the findings of Richter et al. (2017) who conducted a study on migrants and housing in Ghana and found that housing is a major constraint to migrants in urban areas. Some migrants reported that they lived in wooden structures because those ones are very affordable despite the discomfort it presents. Others revealed that because they could not afford the expensive accommodation in Accra, when they first arrived they had to live with some friends and relatives, work for a while until they were able to make some money to rent a place for themselves. This is what a Nigerian respondent said in relation to this: “It is not easy to get an affordable and comfortable house here because life here is expensive so everything including house rent is expensive. I live in a wooden structure because it is cheap to rent”. From a close observation made in a Nigerian community in Madina, it was revealed that the area is mostly made up of wooden structures like a slum area where the houses are very affordable. This choice of living conditions by Nigerian migrants could be attributed to the non-permanency nature of migration where migrants seek to amass wealth from destination countries to their countries of origin (GSS, 2014). Hence, migrants are likely to reside in temporal and cheap or substandard structures which are mostly located in zongos in the case of Ghana. This also indicates that most of those who lived in these areas have a low standard of living. In spite of this, there are some Nigerians who are able to afford the expensive rent and have rented block houses which are single rooms, self-contained and apartments but they lamented that they use up most of their earnings in paying for the expensive rent. This impedes on their economic integration. When asked to describe the kind of house he lives in this is what a Nigerian respondent had to say: “I live in a single room in Madina which is expensive and I have to use most of what I earn from the work I do to pay for the rent”. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Access to housing has been directly linked to migrants’ health as Richter et al. (2017) found that migrants in Ghana with unfavorable housing conditions experienced health problems that tend to be detrimental to their integration. Therefore, it is important for migrants to have access to quality healthcare in Ghana as the concept of integration states that for migrants to integrate into the society, they should enjoy a safe and healthy environment. In Ghana, there exist government and private health facilities. Most of these government hospitals, clinics and a few private hospitals operate on the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) which subsidizes the medical bills of patients whereas a large number of private hospitals and private clinics operate independent of the NHIS. From the interview conducted, it was realized that Nigerian migrants are not beneficiaries of the NHIS. When asked how they access medical care this is what some of them said: “When I am sick I go to the nearest clinic. Even though it is a private clinic, it is not so expensive so I am able to afford it”. “I usually go to the government hospital and I pay for the services because I am not on the government health scheme. Since it is a government hospital it is very affordable than the other ones”. 3.2.3 Relationship between Nigerians and Ghanaians For migrants to adapt and integrate quickly into the host country, their relationship with citizens has a role to play. The concept of integration indicates that for social integration to take place, all people of the community including immigrants must coexist in unity that will bring about equality in all domains of the society. Hostile attitudes and sentiments of Ghanaians towards migrants such as attacks impede on their efforts at integrating in the host country. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Respondents were asked to describe the kind of relationship that exists between them and Ghanaian citizens. The majority (82 percent) pointed out that they have a cordial relationship with Ghanaian citizens while 12 percent of the respondents described their relationship with Ghanaians to be hostile. The remaining 6 percent said they did not have any form of relationship with Ghanaians. This shows to a large extent that Ghanaians are hospitable towards Nigerian migrants in Ghana and this helps them to integrate in the Ghanaian society because they feel a sense of belonging and security. This is necessary because the concept of integration embraces patterns of social interaction, involvement and relationship attitudes. Moreover, it is important for migrants to have a cordial relationship with Ghanaian citizens to be able to mingle with them as this will help those willing to learn the Ghanaian languages. Language is a key measure of migrants’ integration process. It is a prerequisite for adjusting and becoming part of the host country (Penninx, 2005). The ability of a migrant to speak some of the major Ghanaian local languages such as Twi, Fanti and Ga, indicates their readiness and willingness to be full participants of the Ghanaian society according to the concept of integration. Also, the ability of Nigerians to speak any of the local languages makes it much easier to access some sectors in Ghana such as the labour market, transport and housing since the local languages are commonly spoken in these areas. In Ghana, ‘Twi’ is the most widely spoken language which is used in almost all informal sectors of Ghana’s economy. For instance, the language is popular in the transport sector and there is a relatively high likelihood that ‘Twi’ will be used by a driver or his conductor to communicate with their passengers regardless of the ethnicity or nationality of the passengers. Therefore, a migrant is forced to learn to understand and speak this language. Also, the study found that most of the Nigerians who had lived in Ghana for long and had socialised well with Ghanaians could express themselves fluently in ‘Twi’ which is the common language in 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana and could also understand it when spoken. This is evident in a study by Bosiakoh (2009) which identified that a Nigerian who had lived in Ghana for over 13 years could even rhyme in ‘Twi’, give a good formal speech in ‘Twi’ and also utter some proverbs in ‘Twi’. To ascertain this, this is what some respondents said when asked if they could speak any of the Ghanaian local languages: Additionally, it was identified that the Nigerian respondents who did not have any form of relationship with Ghanaians were not fluent with any of the Ghanaian local languages. This indicates that the ability of Nigerians to learn a Ghanaian language easier and faster is dependent on how they relate and socialise with Ghanaians. 3.2.4 Access to Education For migrants to fit well in the society, they are empowered to access the parts of the host society they wish to engage in, hence Nigerians migrate to Ghana to access education. According to Bosiakoh (2009), Nigerians prefer Ghanaian education because the education system in Ghana is well-structured, knowing when to begin and when to end. For this reason, most of the Nigerian respondents who came with their children said they came to Ghana for trade at the same time for their children to attend schools in Ghana. It was found out from the Nigerian respondents who had children that 80 percent of their children were enrolled in government schools in Ghana whereas 17 percent were enrolled in private schools. The remaining 3 percent of their children did not attend school at all. When asked if there were any challenges in accessing education in Ghana this is what some Nigerian parents said: 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “My children are able to successfully access school in Ghana without any challenges. They both attend a government school nearby”. “My child attends a private kindergarten but the only challenge we faced at the beginning was that the school charged higher fees when they got to know that he was a foreigner; the private schools here charge fees for foreigners a little bit higher than what the Ghanaians pay”. Those with children in the Senior High School said it was difficult to access the first class Secondary schools because by the time the computer placement is done for the Ghanaian students there is no vacancy for their wards so they have to seek admission in the middle class schools and sometimes do not get access to the government Senior High Schools at all so they have to opt for private Senior High Schools. This shows that although Nigerians are able to access education in Ghana they encounter some challenges which hinders their social integration. 3.2.5 Access to the Labour market, Employment and Wages Employment is an important component of the integration process of migrants which often promotes self-reliance (ILO, 2016). The ECOWAS Protocol on free movement, residence and establishment gives West African migrants the right to work in any West African country. For this reason, most Nigerians who have moved to Ghana are found to be working in the informal sector of the labour market. Permanent and full-time job for cash wages is uncommon among Nigerians in Ghana. This is because most of them do not possess the qualifications and experiences to work in the formal sector, therefore losing out on those job opportunities. Further, the low access of Nigerian migrants to the formal sector of the Ghanaian labour market could be due to the fact that the natives are equally qualified and have occupied positions that would have been available to 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh these migrants (ILO, 2016). Most of the respondents interviewed affirmed that they do not have the necessary requirements which allow them to work in the mainstream sector. Of the Nigerian migrants who were interviewed, 82 percent were engaged in trading which included the sale of electronics, mobile phones and its accessories. From this, it is confirmed that most Nigerians come to Ghana mainly for business. When asked why they come to Ghana to do business this is what some of them said: “Trading opportunities in Ghana generates a lot of profit so when we come here we also engage in it for survival. I sell electronics such as sound systems and speakers here because if you sell these things in Ghana people buy. “I came to Ghana to make a living so when I got here I realized most of the Nigerians here are into trading because it is very profitable so I also started selling phone accessories”. In Ghana, there are no restrictions in accessing the informal sector of the labour market which makes it easy for most migrants to engage in businesses here. With the help of already established networks, it makes it easy for the new comers to also access the labour market. The respondents noted that it was not difficult getting a place to do business especially those who have shops around the Madina market and Kwame Nkrumah Circle. The only challenge that restricts them in the labour market is the language barrier. To confirm this one of them said: “It is not difficult to enter the Ghanaian labour market once you’re well connected but the only problem is the language. If you can’t speak the ‘Twi’ it becomes difficult because some of the customers do not understand the pidgin and others too will not buy from you once they realise from your accent that you’re not a Ghanaian”. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The 12 percent of respondents who were graduates expressed their frustration as they find it almost impossible to find jobs in the formal sector that match their qualifications, hence they have no option but to also engage in trading to earn income. A Nigerian graduate respondent indicated that although trading does not match his qualifications, he generates substantial income from it which enables him to satisfy his basic needs. The other category of respondents who were Junior and Secondary School leavers revealed that they earn sufficient wages from their current trading and business activities which is much better than what they used to earn in the jobs they did back in Nigeria. This agrees with Chowdhury et al. (2012) who found that migrants integrate better in their new environment than their home community especially in terms of their economic lives. The concept of integration states that in measuring the successful economic integration of immigrants, it is imperative to make a comparison of their previous occupation and wages in their country of origin to their current occupation and wages in the country of settlement. Therefore, if there is disparity between the two where the latter is greater then economic integration has taken place. A respondent gave her view on this: “The business I do here fetches me enough money than the job I used to do back home as an office cleaner. Now I am able to make my own money and cater for all my needs” 3.2.6 Ownership of Assets and Investment in Ghana Asset ownership and investment is an economic undertone that motivates Nigerian migration to Ghana (Van Dalen et al., 2005). Since the ECOWAS Protocol on free movement of people gives Nigerians the right to establish themselves in any part of West Africa, Nigerians who migrate to Ghana have the right to own properties and assets and have investments by way of 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh establishing themselves. The study found that most of the Nigerians who had lived in Ghana for a significant number of years had assets and investments in Ghana. This is an indicator of successful integration of these Nigerians. For instance, 80 percent of the Nigerian traders who were interviewed said they owned the shops they operated. Further, 15 percent owned houses and lands while 45 percent had livestock. Those who had capital investments were 70 percent and 20 percent of the Nigerians said they did not own any asset or investment in Ghana. This is represented in table 3.2 below. Table 3.2 Ownership of Assets and Investment in Ghana by Nigerian Respondents Asset ownership/investment Frequency Percent None 4 20 Land and House 3 15 Shops 16 80 Investment 14 70 Livestock 9 45 Source: Field Survey, 2019 Ownership of land and houses was least represented in the table above because the Ghanaian constitution places restrictions on the activities of non-Ghanaians in the country such as owning land, hence the few Nigerians who owned lands and houses acquired them through some Ghanaians. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 HOW THE EXISTING GHANAIAN MIGRATION POLICIES HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC INTEGRATION OF NIGERIAN MIGRANTS IN GHANA Ghana is a signatory of the ECOWAS Protocol on free movement of people, residence and establishment and as such it implements this protocol where it allows other West African nationals into the country to live and establish themselves here. In this regard, a National Migration Policy is underway to address migration issues and help integrate migrants in Ghana. The National Migration Policy is said to have objectives which are friendly towards migrants in Ghana because of its underlining policy of managing immigration issues. However, it can be argued that Ghana does not have an explicit migration policy on the integration of other nationals in Ghana but it has in place several policy initiatives, institutional practices and legal texts to deal with other specific migration aspects such as immigration, emigration, labour migration and reintegration of Ghanaian migrants in Ghana. These initiatives are sponsored by various donors and implemented by different organisations such as the Ghana Immigration Service (GIS), the Ministry of Interior, Ghana and the National Identification Authority (NIA). Superintendent Simon Asare who is the Head of International Relations and Cooperation at the Ghana Immigration Service recounted that if migrants decide to move and settle in Ghana, the first most important step they have to undertake is to obtain a residence permit which allows a migrant to reside in Ghana. This is to be obtained with the help of GIS. According to Section 13 of the Immigration Act (Act 573), 2000, applications for a residence permit are to be submitted to the Director of Immigration after entry into Ghana. The residence permit is first granted for a maximum period of four years (Reg. 9.3) after which the migrant may subsequently apply for an extension for a further period not exceeding four years if the said migrant has satisfied the 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh necessary conditions (The Immigration Regulations 2001 (LI 1691), article 9(4). In a case where the migrant permit holder came into Ghana with his family, it is also required for them to get a residence permit (Reg. 9.5). This contributes to the integration of Nigerians in Ghana because it allows them to live and move freely in Ghana and also covered by the Ghanaian law system. Moreover, there are many benefits migrants present to their countries of settlement which includes complementing the labour force as noted by Asare (2012). Hence, the Labour Law, 2003 (Act 651) of Ghana allows migrants into its labour market to contribute to national development as it has been established by Bosiakoh (2009) that the main motivation that drives migrants to Ghana is for economic purposes. Also, the 1979 ECOWAS Protocol gives Nigerian migrants the right to employment in Ghana. To be able to work in Ghana, the potential worker has to obtain a work permit through the Ghana Immigration Service. This is enshrined in the Immigration Act (573), 2000 based on certain conditions stipulated in Section 27.3 of the Immigration Act (537), 2000. Also, the Labour Act 2003 of Ghana provides for equal treatment of migrants the same way as Ghanaian nationals. All foreigners or migrants benefit from all the obligations and rights from the labour legislation. This is evident in Article 1 of the Labour Act 2003. Superintendent Asare further stated that allowing migrants and other nationals to acquire a permit to work in Ghana is mainly to ease trade and investment in Ghana, therefore allowing them to integrate into the Ghanaian labour market. In effect, contributing to their economic integration in the country. Furthermore, the main challenges Nigerian migrants face in Ghana are not issues with legal integration such as obtaining a work and resident permit. The challenges are those that impede their social and economic integration such as access to some social services and employment issues. In an attempt to address these issues, the GoG has rolled-out some policies which also benefit Nigerian migrants living in Ghana and contributes to their integration process. It is believed 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh by the Government of Ghana that education is key to achieving self-sufficiency for all Ghanaians as well as migrants in Ghana. In 2017, the GoG in partnership with the Ministry of Education and the Ghana Education Service made secondary school education free in Ghana which gives everyone of secondary school going age living in Ghana with the necessary requirements the right to enjoy this free education policy. The National Migration Policy demands that migrants be granted access to social services such as education on the same level as that of Ghanaians. Their access to these social services can aid their integration into the country. As a result, Nigerian migrants in Ghana are not excluded from the Free Senior High School Policy. According to some Nigerian parents, this initiative by the current GoG has helped to ease their financial burden in seeing their wards through Basic and Secondary school in Ghana. Additionally, the Government of Ghana has begun a mass registration of foreign nationals living in Ghana through the National Identification Authority (NIA) which is in accordance with the NIA Act 2008, Act 750, L. I 2111. This exercise is currently on-going which is aimed at registering and issuing all foreign nationals with the mandatory non-citizen Ghana card. With this, all Nigerian nationals without the non-citizen card would be in breach of the Act and would be refused access to essential services in Ghana such as visas, bank transactions and residence permits. This policy contributes to the integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana because it will enable them to fully enjoy the services provided in Ghana, hence successful integration. The Ghana Investment Promotion Center Act, 2013 (865) is to provide for the Ghana Investment Promotion Centre as the agency of Government responsible for the encouragement and promotion of investments in Ghana, to provide for the creation of an attractive incentive framework and a transparent, predictable, and facilitating environment for investments in Ghana and for related matters. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to Chief Inspector George Obeng of the Ghana Immigration Service, foreigners may also benefit from the GIPC Act by giving firms with foreign participation a capital of 10,000 USD and above an automatic quota comprised of one to four foreign workers (depending on the amount of said capital). The Act stipulates investment requirements for (partially) foreign-owned enterprises and immigration quotas based on the lack of specific skills locally. The revision of the GIPC Act in 2013 expanded coverage to include mining and petroleum enterprises, increased foreign capital investment requirements, and expanded the list of reserved enterprises to include printing of telecommunications recharge scratch cards, production of stationery, retail of pharmaceutical products, and production and sale of sachet water (Nsiah, 2017). In addition to the quota arrangement mentioned above, the implementation of the Free Zone Act of 2002 (Act 504) provides for the establishment and regulation of import and export free zones, including provisions on the employment of foreign nationals in such zones. This has expanded the level of access and market participation of foreigners especially Nigerians in transacting businesses and huge investments in Ghana, consequently contributing to their economic integration in Ghana. 3.4 Conclusion This chapter has analyzed the data gathered on the integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana guided by the concept of integration. A host of social and economic challenges mitigates against the successful integration of Nigerian migrants into the Ghanaian society. Expensive housing facilities, education and employment issues are but a few of such challenges. It has also discussed the existing Ghanaian migration policies and legal texts and how they have contributed to achieving a successful socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4.0 Introduction This chapter summarises the findings of the study, concludes and proffers relevant recommendations based on the findings of the study. The study was carried out within the concept of integration which sets out among others to ascertain the socio-economic factors that facilitate integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. It argues that Nigerian migrants face challenges which impede their efforts at integrating in Ghana. Specifically, the objectives of the study were to analyze the trends of Nigerian migration to Ghana; to ascertain the socio-economic factors that facilitate the integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana; and to discuss how the existing Ghanaian migration policies have contributed to the socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. Integration as a concept was selected for the reason that it best explains the socio-economic integration process of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. In achieving the stated objectives, a qualitative method was used to conduct this study to ascertain the socio-economic factors that facilitates integration of Nigerians in Ghana and how the existing policies for migration in Ghana have contributed to the socio-economic integration of Nigerians in Ghana. 4.1 Summary of Findings The study has established that Nigerian migration to Ghana is based on three main pull factors which are economic, political (i.e. democratic peace and security) and historical factors. A combination of these three factors attract foreign nationals, notably Nigerian migrants to Ghana. The study found out that the majority of Nigerian respondents had attained some form of formal education but their educational qualifications were not too high to place them in jobs in the formal 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sector of the Ghanaian labour market. Owing to this challenge, most migrants end up in the informal economic sector of Ghana because accessing the informal sector is not difficult. As per the concept of integration, access to the labour market is a key measure of migrant integration. The study found out that Nigerians in Ghana do not find it difficult accessing the informal sector of the Ghanaian labour market due to already established social networks. These networks help new immigrants to access, participate and integrate in the labour market. Trading is the major means of livelihood and activity of migrants in the labour market and also the main reason for their migration to Ghana. It was revealed that nearly all Nigerians engaged in the sale of home and electrical appliances which is the top most purchased commodity in the Accra Metropolis, hence it can be said that most of these migrants have integrated in the informal sector of the labour market. On the integration process and socio-economic factors that contributes to the integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana, the study found out that social networks play a significant role. From the decision of these migrants to move to Ghana, the strategies they adopt and the activities and livelihood they engage in for survival are influenced by their friends and relatives who are already established in Ghana. Their friends and family members give them some sort of support when they come to Ghana by assisting them to gain employment which is mostly trading and also resolve accommodation issues. For this reason, most of the Nigerians who move to Ghana do not encounter a lot of challenges at their first attempt of integration, therefore these social networks facilitate their integration in Ghana. Further, the study found that social capital of Nigerians is not limited to only their relatives and Nigerian friends but also some Ghanaian citizens are considered as 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh friends and family as well who provide them with assistance. These Ghanaians are mostly neighbours who live in the same communities with these Nigerians. The study found out that education is one of the reasons Nigerians migrate to Ghana. It was revealed that some Nigerians came to Ghana to obtain tertiary education while some came with their children so that their children could enroll in schools in Ghana. The study also revealed that the Free Senior High School Policy has been beneficial to Nigerians in Ghana since a number of Nigerian parents with their wards in Senior High Schools acknowledged that it has reduced the burden of financing their wards in Senior High School, hence, contributing to their economic integration. The challenge most migrants face in integrating in the Ghanaian society is lack of affordable housing. The respondents who could afford the expensive rent in Accra lamented that they use up almost all of their profits in paying for these expensive house rents. In coping with this situation, they mentioned that they have to opt for houses with less expensive rent rates, however, these houses are not comfortable in standard. To a large extent, the expensive housing impedes on their successful socio-economic integration. The study found out that, most of the Nigerians are able to afford healthcare in Ghana although they are not beneficiaries of the NHIS. A possible explanation could be that most of them get medical care at small clinics and also claim they do not spend much on medical care because they seldom fall sick. Additionally, the study found out that the cordial relationship that exists between Nigerians and Ghanaians in Ghana facilitates the integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. The type of relationship that exists between Nigerians and Ghanaians affects the ability of migrants to speak 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and understand the local languages in Ghana. This relationship allows them to mingle with Ghanaians which improves on their ability to speak and understand the Ghanaian local languages. Although majority of the respondents are able to speak and understand ‘Twi’, based on the analyses of primary and secondary data, it was realized that those who do not have any form of relationship with Ghanaians are not fluent with the Ghanaian local languages. Also, most of the Nigerian migrants have been able to acquire assets in Ghana. It was found out that majority of the Nigerians owned the shops they operated in and around the various markets in the Capital, Accra. Other assets including livestock were accumulated by the Nigerian migrants. A greater number of them have not been able to acquire lands to develop because of the restrictions the laws of Ghana places on activities of non-citizens. In effect, the ability of Nigerians in Ghana to own assets and investments enables them to integrate well in Ghana 4.2 Conclusions In analyzing the socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana, this study concludes that the 1979 ECOWAS Protocol on free movement of persons, the right of establishment and residence has contributed to the development of migration within the West African sub-region. Ghana, which is relatively politically and economically stable, continues to attract thousands of immigrants from other West African countries, specifically Nigeria into the country. Nigerians are said to be the most populous West African immigrant nationals in Ghana. The majority of them move to Ghana mainly to engage in business and trading activities. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study, in general, indicates that factors such as economic opportunities peace and stability in Ghana as well as the free movement ECOWAS Protocol were among the key determinants of the increasing numbers of Nigerian migration to Ghana. They rely extensively on social networks in facilitating their migration to Ghana and also contributes to their socio-economic integration in Ghana. Also, due to the hospitality and reception they receive from some Ghanaians, a majority of them feel a sense of belonging in Ghana. They also feel safe and secure living and working in Ghana and do not feel like strangers in a foreign land. Comparing the gains or profit Nigerian migrants derive from the work they do here in Ghana, it was found out that it is much higher than the profit they made from the work they engaged in in their country of origin Nigeria. Therefore, it can be concluded that these migrants have economically integrated in Ghana better than in their home country. Additionally, the challenges these migrants encounter are mainly with their social integration whereby there are challenges with accessing affordable housing and also with education. Regarding this, it can be concluded that Nigerian migrants do not have much problem with their economic integration like they do with their social integration. This study concludes that the existing Ghanaian migration policies and legal texts adopted by the Government of Ghana which contributes to the socio-economic integration of Nigerians in Ghana are not enough. As a result, most of the Nigerian migrants have not fully achieved integration in the Ghanaian society and are in the process of integrating. The few policies in place such as the Free Senior High School Education have been beneficial to Nigerians in reducing the financial 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh burdens of parents. However, some migrants continue to struggle to achieve socio-economic integration because although there are substantial policies for migration which have been drafted like the National Migration Policy to manage the challenges these migrants face in Ghana to help them better integrate, they have not yielded the overall expected results. This is because the government has not fully implemented them to assist these migrants to successfully integrate. This supports the study’s argument that Nigerian migrants face challenges which impede their effort at socio-economic integration in Ghana. 4.3 Recommendations With the rapid growth of globalization, there will be a continuous increase in the flow of immigrants to Ghana especially from the West African sub-region mainly for the purpose of economic opportunities. Since most Nigerians are engaged in trading activities and businesses in Ghana as identified by the study, the country should see them as assets with benefits to present by smoothening their process of economic integration. These immigrants have the tendency of increasing the size of the Ghanaian economy through investment and trade related activities. Hence, for the country to fully benefit from them, policies must be formulated to position Ghana in a way that would fully exploit these benefits by restructuring the trade and investment sector so that immigrants with substantial capital can invest in the economy without any negative ramifications. In assisting Nigerian migrants to integrate in Ghana, the GoG should properly and effectively roll- out its current drafted policies on paper to add up to the few ones already in practice. This will 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh help Nigerian migrants in Ghana to fully integrate rather than leaving them on paper to rot. Also, the GoG should ensure that these policies are properly implemented to cater for the socio- economic needs of Nigerian migrants in Ghana. Social capital plays a significant role in the lives of Nigerian migrants because it is seen as the main factor that helps to integrate them in Ghana. Owing to the role of social capital in ensuring social and economic integration, these networks of individuals and groups should be empowered to engage in activities which will extensively facilitate integration of migrants in Ghana. For example, in addressing the language barrier as a challenge which impedes the socio-economic integration of Nigerian migrants in Ghana especially in the labour market, the various Nigerian Associations in Ghana have a role to play. These social networks should organize language classes and training for newcomers who want to learn the Ghanaian local languages especially ‘Twi’. This will further help them to integrate into the labour market. As suggested by the OECD/ILO (2018) report, if migrants are able to improve on their language skills, they will not be the only beneficiaries of this improved language skills, but it will also increase mutual learning and foster healthy relations between migrants and Ghanaian citizens. In effect, Ghanaian citizens should freely allow Nigerians to associate with them to enhance the frequency of communication in ‘Twi’ and the other Ghanaian languages, hence the ability to speak the languages in a short while. The study revealed that some Nigerian migrants come to Ghana to pursue higher education due to their trust in the Ghanaian education system. However, due to financial constraints, when these migrants come to Ghana, they have to work first to finance their education. To achieve self- sufficiency for its members and promote their socio-economic integration in Ghana, ECOWAS 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh should have a partnership agreement with Ghana to subsidize school fees for international students from countries in the ECOWAS community to increase Nigerian migrants’ access to the Ghanaian education system. 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Structural adjustment programmes and the international tourism trade in Ghana, 1983-99: Some socio-spatial implications. Tourism geographies, 3(2), 187-206. Léonard, S. (2010). EU border security and migration into the European Union: FRONTEX and securitisation through practices. European security, 19(2), 231-254. Menjívar, C., & Lakhani, S. M. (2016). Transformative effects of immigration law: Immigrants’ personal and social metamorphoses through regularization. American Journal of Sociology, 121(6), 1818-1855. Naab, F. Z., Dinye, R. D., & Kasanga, R. K. (2013). Urbanisation and its Impact on Agricultural Lands in Growing Cities in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Tamale in Ghana. Modern Social Science Journal 2(2), 256-287. Naudé, W. (2010). The determinants of migration from Sub-Saharan African countries. Journal of African Economies, 19(3), 330-356. Nyamwange, M. (2014). Analysis of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of African immigrants in USA. International journal of humanities and Social Science, 4(5), 43-49. Peil, M. (1974). Ghana's Aliens. International Migration Review, 8(3), 367-381. Penninx, R. (2005). Integration of migrants: Economic, social, cultural and political dimensions. The new demographic regime: Population challenges and policy responses, 5, 137-152. Pojmann, W. (2007). Organizing women migrants: The Filipino and Cape Verdean women’s associations in Rome. Migration Letters, 4(1), 29-39. Portes, A. (1997). Immigration theory for a new century: Some problems and opportunities. International migration review, 31(4), 799-825. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sigona, N. (2005). Refugee integration (s): policy and practice in the European Union. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 24(4), 115-122. Skinner, E. P. (1963). Strangers in West African Societies. Africa, 33(4), 307-320. Tankink, M. T. (2013). The silence of South-Sudanese women: social risks in talking about experiences of sexual violence. Culture, health & sexuality, 15(4), 391-403. Twum-Baah, K. A. (2005). Volume and characteristics of international Ghanaian migration. At home in the world, 55-77. Van Dalen, H. P., Groenewold, G., & Schoorl, J. J. (2005). Out of Africa: what drives the pressure to emigrate? Journal of Population Economics, 18(4), 741-778. Westmore, B. (2015). International migration: The relationship with economic and policy factors in the home and destination country. OECD Journal: Economic Studies, 2015(1), 101-122. Whitaker, B. E. (2015). Playing the immigration card: the politics of exclusion in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 53(3), 274-293. Yendaw, E., Tanle, A., & Kumi-Kyereme, A. (2019). Analysis of livelihood activity amongst itinerant West African migrant traders in the Accra metropolitan area. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 9(1), 11. C. INTERNET SOURCES Economic Community of West African States (1976) Treaty. ecowas.int/ecowas-laws/treaties/ (Accessed on 27th July, 2019) European Union policy framework for migrant integration- European Commission. (online) European Web Site on Integration. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu (Accessed on 11th June, 2019) 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana Statistical Service (2010). 2010 Population and Housing Census: National Report, GSS, Accra, Ghana. 277-79 www.ghanadistrict.com Global Migration Data Portal. (online) Migration data portal. Available at: https://migrationdataportal.org (Accessed on 11th June, 2019) Mastercard Center for Inclusive Growth. (online) The Center for Inclusive Growth. Available at: https://www.mastercardcenter.org (Accessed on 11th June, 2019) OECD/ILO (2018), How Immigrants Contribute to Ghana’s Economy. OECD Publishing: Paris. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264302037-en United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2009). Not Just numbers- An Educational Toolkit about Migration and Asylum in Europe. Retrieved on 27th July 2019 from https://www.unhcr.org/numbers-toolkit/NJN-MANUAL-EN.pdf D. OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS AND REPORTS Anarfi, J. K., Awusabo-Asare, K., & Nsowah-Nuamah, N. N. N. (2000). Push and pull factors of international migration. Country Report: Ghana. Eurostat Working Papers. Anarfi, J., Kwankye, S., Ababio, O. M., & Tiemoko, R. (2003). Migration from and to Ghana: A background paper. University of Sussex: DRC on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty. African Union (2018). Migration Policy Framework for Africa and Plan of Action (2018-2030). African Union Commission: Addis Ababa. Castles, S., Korac, M., Vasta, E., & Vertovec, S. (2002). Integration: Mapping the field. Home Office online report, 29(03), 115-118. Ghana Statistical Service (2013). 2010 Population and Housing Census Report: National Analytical Report. Accra: GSS. 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana Statistical Service (2014). 2010 Population and Housing Census Report: Migration in Ghana. Ghana Investment and Promotion Center (2015). Quarterly Report. Huddleston, T., Niessen, J., & Tjaden, J. D. (2013). Using EU indicators of immigrant integration. Final Report for Directorate-General for Home Affairs. Brussels: European Commission. International Organization for Migration (2006). World Migration Report 2006. Geneva: International Organization for Migration. International Organization for Migration (2009). World Migration Report 2009. Geneva: International Organization for Migration. International Organization for Migration (2015). World migration report: New partnerships to manage mobility. Switzerland: IOM. International Organization for Migration (2019). World Migration Report 2018. Geneva: International Organization for Migration. Quartey, P. (2006). Migration and Development: Challenges and Opportunities for Sending Countries. Ghana Country Case Study. A Report Prepared for the German Marshal Fund of the USA. Washington. Republic of Ghana (2016). National Migration Policy for Ghana. Ministry of Interior: Accra. Scipioni, M., and Urso, G., (2017). Migration Policy Indexes, JRC, Ispra, JRC109400. United Nations (1976). Treaty of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). United Nations Treaty Series, 1010 (1), 1-41. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2017). International Migration Report 2017: Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/404) 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019). International Migration Report 2019: Wall Chart (ST/ESA/SER/A/431). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2018). Global Trends Forced Displacement in 2018. Geneva: UNHCR United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2018). Economic Development in Africa Report: Migration for Structural Transformation. New York: United Nations Publications E. INTERVIEWS Interview with five Nigerian migrants at Madina on 11th June, 2019. Interview with three Nigerians at Adenta on 15th June, 2019. Interview with five Nigerians at Lapaz on 20th June, 2019. Interview with four Nigerians at Tip Toe Lane (Circle) on 26th July, 2019. Interview with three Nigerians at Osu on 2nd July, 2019. Interview with three Ghanaians in the Nigerian Community at Madina on 11th June, 2019. Interview with two Ghanaians in the Nigerian Community at Osu on 2nd July, 2019. Interview with Suprintendent Simon Asare, the Head of International Relations and Co-operation at the Ghana Immigration Service Head Quarters, Accra on 31st July, 2019. Interview with Chief Inspector George Obeng at the Ghana Immigration Service, Head Quarters, Accra on 31st July, 2019. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX: 1 NIGERIAN RESPONDENTS 1. What was your reason for moving to Ghana? 2. What is your highest level of education? 3. What is your marital status and how many children do you have? 4. If married with children, did you come to Ghana with your wife and children? 5. What do you do here in Ghana? 6. If it is business, can you please specify the type of business you do? 7. How did you get settled in Ghana and in the job you are doing? 8. How much do you earn from your current job? Is it higher than what you earned back in Nigeria? 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9. Did you receive any form of help in settling in Ghana? If yes how and by who? 10. Where do you live and how is your accommodation condition like? 11. Do you have any challenges with accommodation in Ghana? 12. How will you rate your rent payment? (as expensive, moderate or cheap). 13. Can you please describe the type of house you live in? 14. Are you on the NHIS? If no, how do you access healthcare service in Ghana? 15. Do you have Ghanaian friends? If Yes, describe your relationship with them? 16. Do Ghanaians assist you in any way? If Yes, please specify the type of assistance. 17. How do you feel living and working in Ghana? 18. Are you able to speak and understand any of the Ghanaian local languages? If No why? 19. Do you own any asset or have any investment in Ghana? If Yes please specify? APPENDIX 11: GHANAIAN RESPONDENTS 1. I believe there are some Nigerians living in this neighbourhood with you? 2. What type of relationship do you have with them? 3. Do they come to you for any assistance? If Yes, specify the type of assistance. 4. What is the main occupation or activity of these Nigerians? APPENDIX 111: SPECIALIZED AGENCY 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. What are the various Ghanaian migration policies and legal frameworks in place that facilitate integration of migrants in Ghana? 2. How are these policies and laws implemented in Ghana? 3. How do these policies and legal texts contribute to the socio-economic integration of Nigerians in Ghana? 85