i BIOCULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANT DIVERSITY IN THE AFADJATO COMMUNITY FOREST CONSERVATION AREA THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED BY DOGOR GILCHRIST FAITH K. (10328990) TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF M.PHIL BOTANY DEGREE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON. JULY, 2012 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i i DECLARATION I, the undersigned, Dogor Gilchrist Faith Kwaku., author of this thesis, do hereby declare that the work presented in this thesis “BIOCULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANT DIVERSITY IN THE AFADJATO COMMUNITY FOREST CONSERVATION AREA” was done entirely by me under the supervision of Prof. Alfred Oteng – Yeboah of the Botany Department, University of Ghana, Legon, from August, 2010 to July, 2012. This work has never been presented, either in part or in whole, for any degree of this University or elsewhere. ……………………………………………. DATE…………………………………… DOGOR GILCHRIST FAITH K. (STUDENT) ……………………………………………… DATE…………………………………… PROF. ALFRED OTENG – YEBOAH (SUPERVISOR) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i i i DEDICATION This work is first and foremost dedicated to Almighty God. „But by the grace of God I am what I am, and His grace toward me was not in vain‟ (1 Corinthians 15: 10). Secondly to my parents, Silvanus and Christiana Dogor. Thirdly, to my brothers, Emmanuel, Hopeson, Michael, Francis, Seth, and Isaac. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I owe my supervisor, Prof. Alfred Oteng – Yeboah and Dr. Alex Asase both from the department of botany, University of Ghana, gratitude for their patience, guidance and useful suggestions that led to the successful completion of this research work. I am also indebted to Mr. J.Y. Amponsah, the technician who assisted me in my plot inventory study in identifying most of the plant species present at the study site. My sincere thanks also go to Togbe Adabra IV, chief of Gbledi who hosted me throughout my field work and plot inventory study at the site. Madam Peace Mortty, Felix Agrobi, Jeoffrey Kumabia, Ben Dzumador, and Madam Fidelia Adzakpa who assisted me in various ways in collecting my data at Afadjato. Finally, I am grateful to all friends whose prayers, support and understanding saw me through this work. God bless you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENTS Content Page Title Page i Declaration ii Dedication iii Acknowledgement iv Table of Content v List of Figures xi List of Tables xiii Abstract xiv CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 History of Communities that Constitute the Study Area 3 1.3 Vegetation of the Study Area 4 1.4 Geology and Soils 5 1.5 Climate 6 1.6 Literature Review 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 1.7 Objectives of the Study 11 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 12 2.1 The Study Area 12 2.2 Methods 18 2.2.1 Ethnobotanical Study 18 2.2.2 Informant Consensus Factor (Fic) 19 2.2.3 Use Value 20 2.2.4 Fidelity (FL) 20 2.2.5 Plot Inventory 21 CHAPTER THREE 23 3.0 RESULTS 23 3.1.0 Ethnobotanical Study 23 3.1.1 Socio economic background of the respondents and traditional knowledge 23 3.1.2 The plant species used by the people 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 3.1.3 Use categories and plant parts used 54 3.1.4 Place of collection, Cultivation status and Plant parts used 55 3.2.0 Plant species present at the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area 57 3.3.0 Comparison of total mean number of individual plants in the Transects 73 3.3.1 The mean values of density and height of the herbs along/across the transects 74 3.3.2 The mean values of density, heights, and GBH of shrubs along/across the Transects 84 3.3.3 The mean values of density, heights, and GBH of trees along/across the Transects 96 3.4.0 The occurrence of plant species and their numbers at different Altitudes 109 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DISCUSSION 134 4.1 Useful Plant Families 134 4.2 Uses of plants 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 4.3 Places of collection, Cultivation status, and plant parts used 137 4.4 Informant Consensus Factor 138 4.5 Fidelity Level 139 4.6 Use Value (UV) 139 4.7 Plant species present at the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area 140 4.8 General comparison of numbers of individual plants in the three transects 141 4.9 The mean values of density, height, and GBH of trees along/across Transects 141 4.10 The mean values of density, height, and GBH of shrubs along/across transects 143 4.11 The mean values of density and heights of herbs along/across Transects 143 4.12 The occurrence of species and their numbers at different Altitudes 144 CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 145 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 5.1 Summary 145 5.2 Recommendations 147 REFERENCES 151 APPENDICES 168 Appendix 1a: The mean number of individual plants for the transects 168 Appendix 1b: ANOVA tables for the 25m x 25m plots 168 Appendix 1c: Post-Hoc ANOVA for the 25m x 25m plots 168 Appendix 2a: ANOVA tables for the 5m x 5m plots 169 Appendix 2b: Post-Hoc ANOVA for the 5m x 5m plots 169 Appendix 3a: ANOVA tables for the 1m x 1m plots 170 Appendix 3b: Post-Hoc ANOVA for the 1m x 1m plots 170 Appendix 4: Descriptive statistics for the transects studied 171 Appendix 5a: ANOVA for herbs occurring on the three transects 173 Appendix 5b: ANOVA for shrubs occurring on the three transects 173 Appendix 6: ANOVA for trees occurring on the three transects 174 Appendix 7: Altitude Study 175 Appendix 8a: ANOVA for differences in 25m x 25m plots within altitudes 176 Appendix 8b: ANOVA for differences in 5m x 5m plots within altitudes 176 Appendix 8c: ANOVA for differences in 1m x 1m plots within altitudes 176 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x Appendix 9: Plant Survey Questionnaire 177 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi List of Tables Table 3.1 List of the most commonly used plant species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area 26 Table 3.2 Informant Consensus Factor for commonly used plants of the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area 54 Table 3.3 Relationship among growth forms, collection location, Cultivation Status and Plant parts used in the Afadjato Forest Conservation Area 56 Table 3.4 Herbaceous species present at the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area 60 Table 3.5 Shrub species present at the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area 63 Table 3.6 Tree species present at the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area 68 Table 3.7 Descriptive Statistics for the occurrence of herbs, shrubs, and Tree species at the study site 73 Table 3.8 Herbs occurring along/across the transects 76 Table 3.9 Shrubs occurring along/across the transects 85 Table 3.10 Trees occurring along/across the transects 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii Table 3.11 Herbaceous species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes 112 Table 3.12 Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes 116 Table 3.13 Tree species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii i List of Figures Fig 1.1a Tourist Map of Ghana 14 Fig 1.1b The Afadjato Project Area near Hohoe 15 Fig 1.2 The Study Site (Afadjato) in the background and in the Foreground is the Afadjato Tourist Reception Office 16 Fig 1.3 A sketch of the line transect from the bottom to the peak of the mountain 17 Fig 3.1 The age classification of respondents from the communities Visited 24 Fig 3.2 Plant families with three or more species in the Afadjato Communities 52 Fig 3.3 Habits of plants used by the communities living around the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area 53 Fig 3.4 Families with the highest representation within the herbs, shrubs and trees 57 Fig 3.5 Number of trees versus GBH Classes 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiv Abstract The study was undertaken in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area between August 2010 and June 2011 with the following objectives: 1. To document and analyse the diversity of plants in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. 2. To undertake a quantitative ethnobotanical study of traditional knowledge and plant use among local people living in the study area. 3. To explore the relationship between plant diversity and use; and 4. To determine the conservation and ecotourism implications of the study on the future of Afadjato as a conservation and ecotourism site. The ethnobotanical information was collected through semi-structured questionnaire interviews administered to 133 informants (age range 40-80 years, mean age of 55 years). The interviews were conducted in the informant‟s homes thereby covering a total of 28 households out of the 159 households in the three communities studied. The questionnaire sought for information on age and gender of the respondents, which plant parts are harvested and used, where they are collected, and cultivation status of the plants. This data was analysed using the following parameters: Informant Consensus Factor (Fic), Use-Value (UV), and Fidelity Level (FL) of the species. Sampling points of 100 m apart from the bottom of the hill to the summit were established along three transects. At each point, plots measuring 25m x 25m, 5m x 5m, and 1m x 1m were demarcated giving 96 plots in all. Trees with Girth at Breast Height (GBH≥10cm) were identified, counted and heights determined in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xv the 25m x 25m plots. Shrubs with (GBH≥3cm) were recorded in the 5m x 5m plots, and herbs were recorded on the 1m x 1m plots. The data obtained was analysed using the following parameters: Density, Relative density, Frequency, and Relative frequency. Species diversity was expressed as Shannon diversity index and Shannon diversity index. A total of 166 plant species belonging to 53 families were identified as mostly used by the people in the following use-categories: Building (25.2%), Human food (23.3%), Household items (19.9%), Fuelwood (15.8%), and Medicine (15.8%). The plant families Fabaceae, Apocynaceae and Euphorbiaceae provided most of the plant parts used by the communities around the study site. Trees were the most widely used group. The stem was the plant part mostly used by the people. The Fic values of the present study ranged from (0.52-0.68) indicating that there was a high agreement in the use of plants in all the use-categories under consideration among users. Out of the 169 reported plants species, 99 of them had the highest fidelity level (FL) of 100%. The most important species according to their use-values was Khaya species (0.86). A total of 269 species (trees 100, shrubs 96, and herbs 73) were present in a total of 96 plots (25m x 25m (30), 5m x 5m (33), and 1m x 1m (33)) established along 3 transects. The Fabaceae family had the most represented species in the trees, shrubs and the herbs. The mean stand density of all the species present in the study site was 3.38 ±0.09. The Shannon diversity was lower in the herbs (0.81) than the shrubs (0.86) but decreased again in the trees (0.81). In a similar vein the Simpson‟s diversity for the herbs, shrubs, and trees was (-0.05), (3.48), and (1.06) respectively inferring University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xvi that the study site has relatively high plant species diversity. There was a decrease in diversity of herbs, shrubs and trees with altitude in all the three transects. This trend was also seen in the westwards to eastwards direction. Herbaceous species that occurred in all the 3 transects include: Griffonia simplicifolia, Phaulopsis parviflora and Smilax longiflora. Shrubs that occurred in all the 3 transects include: Byrsocarpus coccineus, Chromolaena odorata, Lophira lanceolata, Mallotus oppositifolia, Olax subcorpioides, Pterocarpus malbraedii, Sterculia tragacantha and Carpolobia lutea. It was observed that 65 tree species were relatively small and had a Girth at Breast Height of between 10cm-70cm. They included: Albizia sp, Argocoffeopsis rupestris, Securidaca longiflorum, and Sterculia sp. The range of tree species count per 25m x 25m plot was from 6 to 16 and the mean tree height recorded in this study was 19.12m. Twenty-two tree species occurred in all the 3 transects studied and included: Albizia spp, Baphia pubescens, Bridelia ferruginea, Cola spp, Crossopterix febrifuga, Dacleodes kleineana and Dialium guineense among others. It is suggested that the plant families Fabaceae, Apocynacece and Euphorbiaceae should be closely monitored to guarantee their sustainable use in the light of their intense utilization by the people of the study area. This monitoring exercise can provide insights for the development of policies and practice that may help to prevent comparable levels of forest loss and degradation elsewhere in the country through unsustainable use. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction and Literature Review 1.1 Introduction The forests of West and Central Africa probably originally covered a combined area of about 3 million km2 (Ellis & Ramankutty, 2008). However, the area relatively undisturbed and genuinely represnting wild forest is small. The remaining forest areas have been used for a range of ecosystem services such as provision of food, herbs for medicine, timber, fibre and fuel for a human population in excess of 200 million individuals. In fact, the whole of the West African forests particularly those in Ghana, are intimately linked with the lives and livelihoods of the local people (Tallis & Kareiva, 2006). This inevitably means that forest biodiversity is a popular and cheaper resource for the people and must never come under threat from forest loss, degradation and fragmentation. The local communities must never be deprived of their livelihoods. Biodiversity regions, particularly forests and landscape conservation sites in Ghana are little understood in terms of their use by the local people (Ekpe, 2002). Understanding how biodiversity responds to use by humans is clearly pivotal for conservation efforts in Ghana. Unfortunately, limited scientific work has been conducted on biodiversity in human-modified forest landscapes in Ghana (Ekpe, 2002). Ghana Government in conjunction with Non - Governmental Organizations are making conscious efforts to support Community Based University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Conservation Areas by enacting byelaws on the use of resources in these areas, but beside these, little work has been done to address the traditional environmental knowledge particularly knowledge about plant use and how this plant use affects their diversity in the landscape. The Afadjato landscape features prominently as an important tourist site primarily for its unique topography, cool climate and as the highest mountain in Ghana. The Afadjato landscape as a conservation area was identified and established in 1998 to check the degradation which was mainly through farm encroachments in the protected area, unsustainable felling and hauling of trees, wildfires and other human disturbances such as infrastructural development, unsustainable harvesting of economic/medicinal species especially in commercial quantities, unsustainable fuelwood collection and charcoal making in the area posing a serious threat to the ecological functions, socio-economic and cultural values of the forest. There is a dearth of information on how this degradation activity has affected and/or is affecting the conservation area so as to benefit from useful conservation and eco- tourism advice. It is within this context that the study was undertaken. The study site which is the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area in the Hohoe municipality of the Volta Region is considered a “3riority” area for plant conservation. It is hoped that the study will provide crucial information for the promotion of sound management policy that is aimed both at nature conservation and at improving the livelihood of the local communities within the conservation area and other national parks and forest reserves elsewhere. Specific research University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 question of the present study are: (1)Which plants are utilized by the community?, (2)Which plant parts are used and for what purpose?, (3)Where are the plants collected from?, (4) Which use-categories are most important?, (5) Which species should have conservation priority?, (6)What is their (ie. the species) relative importance for the local communities based on use-value index?, (7) How do factors such as species density in the site affect plant use?. 1.2 History of the Communities That Constitute the Study Area The communities that inhabit the Afadjato area are the Gbledi people. They are of the Ewe tribe and are believed to have come from Notsie in the then Togo (now the Republic of Togo). This migration was as a result of a Great Exodus of Ewes from Notsie during the rule of a cruel king called „.ing AgorNoli in the 1th Century (Dorm-Adzobou, 1999). During this migration, the Gbledi people moved along with Dawurotu (made up of Kpele Tutu and Akata people) who are still part of the Republic of Togo and Nkonya and Sabi Gabi people who are presently in Ghana. During their stay at Horlporme, their leader Togbe Vorxnu sent a delegation to their previous settlement at ANata and .pele Tutu to retrieve his wife‟s belongings. While waiting for the delegation, Nkonya and Sabi Gabi people moved further westwards under the leadership of family heads leaving the chief and the rest behind. When the messengers came back to enquire about the rest of the people, the chief replied “wogblemidi”, meaning “they have left us behind”. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Togbe Vorxnu, the messengers and the people who were left behind became known as the Gbledi people who have settled presently at the base of the Afadjato. According to Togbe Adabra VI, one of the chiefs of the area, the mountain resembles a yam mound and hence was named after a very popular yam cultivated in the area called “water yam‟ (Afad]e). The mountain was therefore called “Avad]eto” meaning yam 0ound 0ountain. This name, however, has been corrupted and has now become known as Afadjato. 1.3 Vegetation of the Study Area The vegetation cover of the mountain is dry semi-deciduous forest (Hall & Swaine, 1981) surrounded by savanna and savanna woodland (Ghana Wildlife Society, 1998). Dry semi-deciduous forest occupies the western slopes and the eastern slope which is very steep and rocky is dominated by savanna, tree steppe and grasses. The presence of several scattered, remnants of semi-deciduous forest tree species such as Lecaniodiscus cupanoides, Morus mesozygia, Baphia pubescens, Antiaris toxicaria, Monodora myristica and Cola mellinii is an indication that the area once supported moist semi-deciduous (rain) forest. However, this change of the area from moist semi-deciduous forest to dry semi- deciduous forest has been attributed to anthropogenic disturbances (farming, logging, burning etc) (Hall & Swaine, 1981). The forest generally is characterized by multi-layered structure. Grasses found in the understorey of the eastern slope includes Smilax kraussiana, Olyra latifolia, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Justicia flava, Pavetta corymbosa, Panicum phragmitoides, Thaumatococcus danielii, Leptaspis cochleata, Cyatula prostrata, Oplismenus boomenii, Setaria gayanus and Phaulopsis parviflora. Along the upper slopes of the mountain, closed canopy forest persists until within 20m of the crest. The forest vegetation is then quickly replaced by savanna and scrub towards the summit (G W S, 1998 ). 1.4 Geology and Soils Two major geological features are identified: the folded Precambrian rocks in the southern part and the west and eastern margin which stretched from the south- west to north-east and the level-bedded late Precambrian to early Paleozoic (Voltarian) rocks of the northern center, which lie on the Precambrian basement. Smaller areas of more recent sediments cover the extreme south-east and south- west corners (Hall & Swaine, 1981). The Dahomeyan rocks are also found from the basement of the mountain up to 400 m high (Ghana Geological Services Department, 1999). The landscape developed from Buem-Togo rocks consists of steep-sided ridges ranging in altitude from 300 m in the south of the hill to 800 m in the north, dominated by Tuart]ite‟s and sandstones, alternating with narrow valleys cut in the softer shales. The hill-slopes and small valleys on the ranges to the east of the Volta Lake bear Dry Semi-deciduous forest; the broader valley is usually covered by savanna. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 The soil consists of shallow brushy loamy sand to sandy loams on the steeper slopes. On the flanks and the summit are orange brown, silty clays with very few brash, pale yellowish brown shallow and brushy sandy loams to sandy clays on the upper to middle slopes, Pale-yellowish brown silty clay loams on the lower slopes and deep yellowish grey silty clay loams to silty clays on the valley bottoms (Ghana Geological Services Department, 1999). 1.5 Climate The climate is typically of the dry semi-deciduous type interspersed with the moist semi-deciduous type which is characterized by a single-peak of rainfall between April and October with the months of June, September and October having higher precipitations. The annual rainfall of the area ranges between 1650 mm to 1750 mm (Hohoe District Meteorological Services Department, 2000).The prevailing winds is north-south in direction. The average relative humidity is 90%. Temperature variations are rather slightly high; the mean monthly maximum in the hottest month (Feb-March) is 29oC - 31oC and the mean monthly minimum in the coldest month (Dec-Jan) is 19oC - 23oC. The mean temperature on the summit of the mountain may be 3-50C lower than those of the surrounding villages and communities. (Hohoe District Meteorological Services Department, 2000). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 1.6 Literature Revie w It is important to undertake both qualitative and quantitative analyses in the study of ethnobotanical knowledge and attempt to apply the findings of the results to the management and conservation of natural resources (Hanazaki et al., 2000; Diegues & Arruda, 2001; Fonseca-Kruel & Peixoto, 20 04). There has also been an increase in the number of reports on the use of plants in recent years (Savithramma et al., 2007; Pattanaik et al., 2008; Kosalge & Fursule, 2009; Namsa et al., 2009; Upadhyay et al., 2010). The reports from previous studies on use and knowledge of plants indicate that knowledge about local plants is concentrated in the older people signifying that this knowledge is diluted among younger people, probably due to greater influence of external information on this section of the population (Lima et al., 2000; Galeano, 2000; Hanazaki et al., 2000). Galeano (2000) noted that the knowledge of the Afro-American community surveyed had a significant risk of disappearing as their life-styles have been changing over the years, principally among the young people who do not show much interest in the forest nor agricultural activities. Others who have studied the use and knowledge of plants by people in a community and for which there is a body of knowledge included Begossi et al., (1993) in Buzios Island of Brazil; Phillips & Gentry (1993) in Tambopata of Peru; Rossato et al., (1999) in Atlantic Forest Coast of Espirito Santo State, Brazil; Zschocke et al., (2000) in Papua New Guinea; França (2001 ) in São Carlos; Almeida (2003) in Salvador. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 In Ghana, notable ethnobotanical studies have been done by; Adu –Tutu et al (1979); Annan (1980); Darko (1981); Addey (1982); Asamoah (1985); Abbiw (1989); Yidana (1994); and Wallace-Bruce (1995). These studies showed that strong anthropogenic pressure on the ecosystem have led to the loss of extensive forest areas, as well as to the loss of cultural traditions in the communities inhabiting those areas who must depend on the local natural resources for their livelyhood. It was however, accepted that studies concerning management of forest resources in the communities are important implementing strategies for socio-biodiversity conservation. Studies on habit and plant parts used in a community found that frequent use of a particular habit of plant (Tree, Shrubs, Herbs etc.) is the result of the abundance and more knowledge on the use of that habit of plant in their environment (Tabuti et al., 2003). Other works have also reported on the usefulness of trees and shrubs over the herbaceous plants, lianas and climbers (Berlin, 1992; Moerman, 1994; Pardo-de-Santayana et al., 2006). Also the most frequent plant parts cited as useful in a study can be influenced by the type of use-category under study (Ayyanar & Ignacimithu, 2005; Uniyal et al., 2006; Ragupathy et al., 2008; Giday et al., 2010). Studies on the most commonly used species (use-value) by Irulas tribal families in Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu, India, found that the most commonly used species in the community is the one that has the highest use-reports cited by the highest number of informants in many use-categories. In other words, a plant with highest use-value means that it has many uses and is recognized by all the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 informants as such (Ignacimithu et al., 2008; Ragupathy & Newmaster, 2009; Upadhyay et al., 2010). Elsewhere, Albuquerque et al., (2006) observed that widely used plants in the community are the ones most cited by the informants. This observation came from various transect studies conducted on forests at different elevations, and by identifying the most important plant families in the surveyed forest as well as detecting changes in the family composition of plants between different elevations and geographical positions. Other studies worth discussing include the structure and floristic composition studies of plant diversity in dry semi-deciduous forests of Mount Kinabalu in Borneo by Kitayama, (1992); Aiba & Kinayama, (1999); and Aiba et al., (2005). In Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi by Kessler et al., (2005). In Papua New Guinea Forest by Wright et al., (1997). In the Forest of Eastern Ghats, India by Reddy et al., (2008), and the Phytosociological Study of Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest of Boudh District, India by Sahu et al., (2007). Studies in Amazon forest by Ellis & Ramankutty (2008) found that the forest is intimately linked with the lives and livelihoods of local people, providing food, fuel, fibre and a range of ecosystem services for a population of 20 million. Elsewhere, an assessment was conducted on how biodiversity might fit into an increasingly multi-functional view of human-modified landscapes (Naidoo et al., 2006; Kareiva et al., 2007; Norris, 2008). Species diversity in the tropics varies from place to place. Compared to other tropical forest types, dry semi deciduous forests are among the most exploited and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 endangered ecosystems of the biosphere (Murphy & Lugo, 1986; Jansen, 1988; Gentry, 1992). Among the factors responsible for species composition, dispersion, and diversity along disturbance gradient in a dry semi-deciduous forest regime include: (1) Anthropogenic activities and edaphic factors (Ehrlich & Wilson, 1991; Bahuguna, 1999; Bhat et al., 2000). (2) Environmental factors e.g. rainfall, climate, temperature, sunlight, and wind intensity (Linder, 1991; Sheil, 1999). (3) Habitat destruction, excessive extraction of economic/medicinal species, pollution, species introduction and other human recurrent interventions (Pandey & Shukla, 1999; UNDP, 2001). (4) Destruction by lopping, burning, overgrazing and for cultivation (Jha & Singh, 1990). (5) Ecological requirements of these species, altitude and geographical positions (Aiba & Kitayama, 1999; Pandey & Shukla, 1999; Bhat et al., 2000). (6) Increasing rocky and steep nature of the landscape (Sundarapandia & Swamy, 1997). A nd (7) Shading effect of the trees over the shrubs and the herbs (Cody, 1986; Linder, 1991; Bhat et al., 2000). The disturbance created by these factors determines forest dynamics and tree diversity at the local and regional scales (Sumina, 1994; Burslem & Whitmore, 1999; Hubbel et al., 1999. The Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area is a dry semi-deciduous forest. This study which involves aspects of species diversity which are influenced by factors that control species composition, dispersion and diversity, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 the focus on the community‟s use categories of the resources and field observation has been found to be very significant. 1.7 Objective of the study The objective of the study is to document plant diversity and use by the people of Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area in order to provide some recommendations on the sustainable use of plant resources and promote sustainable ecotourism. The Specific Objectives are: 1. To document and analyse the diversity of plants in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. 2. To undertake a quantitative ethnobotanical study of traditional knowledge and plant use among local people living in the study area. 3. To explore the relationship between plant diversity and use; and 4. To determine the conservation and ecotourism implications of the study on the future of Afadjato as a conservation and ecotourism site. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 Chapter Two 2.0 Materials and methods 2.1 Study Area The study area is the Afadjato (Fig 1.2) which is located in the Hohoe district (Fig 1.1b) of Ghana (Fig 1.1a). It is the highest mountain in Ghana with the highest peak measuring 885 m above sea level (Ghana Geological Services Department, 1999). It lies within longitude 0o15‟E and 0o 5‟E and latitude o 5‟1 and o 15‟ N. The Hohoe district is bordered on the east by the Republic of Togo, on the west by Kpando district, on the north-west by Jasikan District and on the south by Ho District. The communities that formed the focus of the study are located at the foot of the mountain and they included: Gbledi, Chebi and Dzigbordi (Fig 1.1b). These three communities which constitute Gbledi Traditional Area occupy an area of ca.1172 km2. Recently, they have begun promoting the surrounding natural features of the mountain including biodiversity to develop the tourism sector. The mountain, however, remains at risk due to the pressures from farming, logging and bush burning. In 1998, the Gbledi Traditional Area and the Ghana Wildlife Society (GWS) established the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area, which became Ghana‟s first community-based reserve managed solely by the local people (GWS, 1998). Seven families from these three communities provided 12 km2 of land to the Ghana Wildlife Society to establish the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area, with the hope of protecting their forest and wildlife, increasing tourism University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 potential, and generating income (and on record these families now receive 50% of tourism revenues). The Ghana Government and the Government of the Netherlands provided funds towards the establishment of this project. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 Fig 1.3: A Sketch of the line transect from the bottom to the peak of the mountain University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 8 2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Ethnobotanical Study Ethnobotanical study was undertaken between August 2010 and March 2011 to document the knowledge of plants that were found and used in the Afadjato community Forest Conservation Area. Information was obtained through semi-structured, questionnaire (see appendix) (Viertler, 2002) administered to 90 people (within the age range of 40-80 years with the mean age of 55 years).The questionnaire were administered in the informant‟s homes thereby covering a total of 28 households out of 159 households in the three communities studied. The questionnaire sought information about age and gender of respondents, which plant parts are harvested and used, where they are collected, and cultivation status of the plants. There were both individual interviews and group interviews. Key informants (2 from each community) selected by the community members themselves (on the basis that they have a sound traditional knowledge of useful wild plants of the area) at my first meeting with them were interviewed in their homes. Special groups of people (mainly 8-charcoal producers, 8-local building contractors,8- people who produce household items for sale,10-foodstuff sellers etc.) were chosen from the three communities by indications of the community members themselves in a meeting in which the study proposal was presented. These people were interviewed on separate days at Gbledi (the traditional capital town) to determine information about plant University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 9 materials used in the various use-categories and from which sources they came. Thus bringing the total number of people interviewed for this study to 133. The local names of the plants were established by collecting samples of the plants and showing them to the informants who could confirm their identification and their mode of use. Three local specialists (one from each community) were chosen to participate in the plot inventory. These people also provided local names of the plants identified in the inventory studies as recommended by Martin (1995). The scientific names of the plants were determined by comparing with literature (Hawthorne & Gyakari, 2006) and this was supported by the technician during the plot inventory study. The choice of use-categories was modified from Galeano (2000). The ethnobotanical data collected was analyzed using the following parameters: 2.2.2 Informant Consensus Factor (Fic) The informant consensus factor (Fic) was used to see if there was agreement in the use of plants in the various use-categories between the plant users in the study area. The F ic was calculated using the following formula (Heinrich et al., 1998): Fic = Where N ur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular use-category and Nt refers to the number of taxa used for a particular use-category by all informants. The product of this factor ranges from 0 to 1. A high value (close to 1.0) indicates that relatively few University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 0 taxa are used by a large proportion of the informants. A low value indicates that the informants disagree on the taxa to be used within the category of use. 2.2.3 Use Value (UV) The relative importance of each plant species known locally to be used for Food, Fuelwood, Building, Medicine, or for making Household items is reported as use value (UV) and it was calculated using the following formula (Phillips et al., 1994): UV = Where UV is the use value of the species, U is the number of use-reports cited by each informant for a given plant species and n is the total number of informants interviewed for a given plant. The UV is helpful in determining the plants with the highest use (the most frequently indicated).UVs are high when there are many use-reports for a plant and low when there are few reports related to its use. 2.2.4 Fidelity To determine the most frequently used plant species for a particular use-category by the informants of the study area, fidelity level (FL) was calculated. The FL was calculated using the following formula (Friedmen et al., 1986): FL (%) = × 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 1 Where N p is the number of use-reports cited for a given plant species for a particular use- category and N is the total number of use-reports cited for any given species. Generally, high FLs are obtained for plants for which almost all use-reports refer to the same way of using it, whereas low FLs are obtained for plants that are used for many different purposes (Srithi et al., 2009). 2.2.5 Plot inventory A floristic inventory was undertaken at the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area between December 2010 and April 2011 to provide the basis of determining a detailed analysis of plant biodiversity patterns and the impact of local people on collecting useful plants at the study site for discussions about conservation priorities. Sampling points of 100 meters apart from the bottom of the hill to the summit were established along three transects. At each point, plots measuring 25m x 25m, 5m x 5m and 1m x 1m were demarcated. In all, a total of thirty 25m x 25m plots, thirty three 5m x 5m plots and thirty three 1m x 1m plots were studied. In the 25m x 25m plots, trees with GBH ≥10cm were identified, counted and heights determined. In the 5m x 5m plots, shrubs with GBH ≥ 3cm were recorded, and in the 1m x 1m plots, herbs and lianas were identified. The GBH measurements were done using the surveyors tape whiles the altitude and geographical positions of the plots was also determined using Global Positioning System (Garmin GPS 12). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 2 The density and frequency of the species occurring at the study site were calculated using the formulae: Density = Relative density ő x 100 Frequency = Relative freTuency ő x 100 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare plant diversity along transects and altitudes. The species diversity expressed as the Shannon diversity index Hƍ (0agurran 1988) and Simpsons Diversity index (Begossi et al., 2002) were calculated to evaluate the level of diversity of plant species at the study site and compare it with other plant diversity studies. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 3 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 RESULTS 3.1.0: Ethnobotanical Study This ethnobotanical study shows the inter-relationships between plants and people around the study area in the area of ecological, cultural and botanical dimensions, and is designed to analyze the relative importance of plants to the people by elaborating on the informant consensus factor, use-value, and fidelity levels of these plants. This will provide a basis of helping to preserve the environment and also help to reintegrate humans and their cultural diversity. 3.1.1: Socioeconomic Background of Respondents and Traditional Knowledge The respondents in the survey from Dzigbordi comprised of 5 males and 6 females, from Chebi were 30 males and 29 females while those from Gbledi were made of 29 males and 34 females. The age distribution of these respondents is presented in Fig 3.1. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 4 Fig 3.1: The age classification of respondents from the three communities. 3.1.2. The Plant Species Used by the People The study revealed 166 species of plants belonging to 53 families as those used by the communities living around the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. The list of species, with information on their local names, cultivation status and places of their collection are presented in Table 3.1 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 1 - 50 5 1 - 60 6 1 -70 7 1 -80 N u m b e r o f re sp o n d e n ts Age categories of respondents Dzi gb o rdi Ch e bi Gb le di University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 5 Out of the reported plant species, 109 of them had the highest fidelity levels of 100%. These species include Justicia flava , Phaulopsis falcisepala, Cyatula prostrata, Lannea acida, Lannea welwitchii , Annona senegalensis, Monodora myristica, Monodora ternuifolia, Alstonia boonei and Baissea multiflora among others (see Table 3.1). The maximum FL for the species indicated a 100% choice of the interviewed informants for use in the all the use-categories under consideration. The Use – Values (UV) were calculated for the 166 species belonging to 53 families that were cited during the 133 semi-structured interviews in order to determine the most important plants to the interviewees at the time of the survey. The plant that was cited most was the Khaya angolensis (seeTable 3.1). This species has the highest use-value (0.86) due to the highest number of use-reports indicated by the highest number of informants in the category of Food, Medicine but mainly for Building and Household items. Mesoneron bantamianus on the other hand had the lowest use-value and this may be due to the lowest number of use-reports indicated by the informants. Only the fruit of this plant is noted as edible by one informant (see Table 3.1). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 6 TABLE 3.1: LIST OF THE MOST C OMMONLY USED PLANT SPECIES IN THE AFADJATO COMMUNITY FOREST CONSERVATION AREA. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivation status : W - W ild, C-Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Acanthaceae Justicia flava D.N Gibson (Ligbetovi) 100 0.15 C G/Fm F, M Hb Shoot, Ba Young shoots are eaten as vegetable in soups. Bark decoction is used to treat diarrhoea in children. Phaulopsis falcisepala W illd (Ofemanini) 100 0.13 W Fo F Hb Le Young shoots are eaten as vegetable in soups. Amaranthaceae Cyatula prostrata (L.) Blume (TsofoȘganu) 100 0.15 W Fm/Fo B Hb Le, E Thatching farm huts. Entire plant is used as antiseptic. Anacardiaceae Lannea acida A. Rich (Kuntunkuri) 100 0.30 W Fm/Fo H, F Tr St, Le, Fr Timber for stools and carved objects. Leaves used as vegetable in soups. Alcoholic beverages. Lannea welwitchii A.Rich (Kumani ni) 100 0.30 W Fm/Fo H, F Tr St, Le W ood for making handles of tools e.g. Cutlass. Leaves edible in salads. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 7 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Pers. (Mampihege) 100 0.11 C G/Fm F, M Tr Fr Fruits are consumed directly. Alcoholic beverages. Leaves decoction is used to treat diarrhoea. Monodora myristica Blanco (Yiku) 100 0.68 W Fo/Fm H, M Tr St, Fr, Se Wood for making handles of tools e.g. Cutlass. Leaves edible in salads. Monodora ternuifolia Benth (Yiku) 100 0.68 W Fo/Fm H Tr St, Se Seeds are used for making beads. Wood for making handles of domestic tools. Uvaria chamae P.Beauv. (Gbanagbana) 66.67 0.06 W Fo/Fm F,H,M Li Fr, St, Ba, Rt Fruits are edible, stem for baskets and cane chairs , Leaves decoction for treatment of menstruation problems. Uvaria doeringii Diels (Agbana) 83.33 0.06 W Fo/Fm F,H,M Li Fr, Ba, Rt, St Fruits are edible, stem for baskets and cane chairs . Bark decoction is used to treat menstruation problems. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 8 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Annonaceae Uvaria globosa Hook .f. (Gbegangi) 66.67 0.06 W Fo/Fm F,H,M Li Ba, Fr,St Fruits are edible, stem for baskets and cane chairs. Apocynaceae Alstonia boonei De Wild. (Tomtom) 100 0.75 W Fo/Fm H,M Tr Ba, St, Rt Wood for making drums and coffins. Bark decoction is used for the treatment of s tomach pains, body pains, and malaria remedy. Baissea multiflora A.DC. (Agordati) 100 0.11 W Fo/Fm B Hb E Thatching temporary structures e.g farm sheds. Leaves decoction for treating Cardiovascular diseases. Funtumia africana Stapf (Okae) 56.94 0.58 W Fo/Fm B Tr St, Rt Timber for beams or planks of permanent structures Funtumia elastic Stapf (Funtum) 100 0.58 W Fo/Fm L,H Tr St Wood harvested for charcoal, fuel wood, tools handles e.g. Axe. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 9 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Apocynaceae Holarrhena florimbunda T.Durand & Schinz (Aforkpati) 100 0.63 W Fo/Fm L,H,M Tr St, Rt Wood for making tool handles e.g cutlass. Stem and root decoctions are mixed other substances to treat cardiovascular diseases, dysentery, Anaemia, and body pains. Rauvolfia vomitoria Wennberg (Dedemakpowoe) 100 0.24 W Fm L, H,M Tr St, Ba, Rt Fuel wood, charcoal Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Stapf. (Pepea) 100 0.24 W Fo/Fm H Sh St Wood for making bowls, plates, utensil etc. Landolfia dulcis (Sabine) Pichon (Obowe) 90.9 0.14 W Fo/Fm B,F Hb E,Fr Thatching temporary structures, edible fruits. Landolfia macranta (K.Schum.) Pichon (Pempem) 90.9 0.14 W Fo/Fm B,F Hb E,Fr Thatching temporary structures, edible fruits. Landolfia togolana (Hallier f.) Pichon (Pumpune) 90.9 0.14 W Fo/Fm B,F Hb E,Fr Thatching temporary structures, edible fruits. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 0 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland) Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Asclepiadaceae Asclepias speciosa Torr. 100 0.11 W Fo/Fm F Hb St Stems are used as chewing sticks. Asteraceae Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King &H.Rob. ( Acheampong) 100 0.24 W Fm B,M Sh E,Le Thatching farm huts and sheds, Leaves decoction for treating burns and cuts. Emilia coccinea G.Don 100 0.11 C G/Fm F Hb Le Eaten as a spinach or fresh in salads. Vernonia camporum M.E.Jones (Hosikonu) 100 0.11 W,C G/Fm F Hb Rt Fresh root is chewed for cough and heart related disease. Araceae Culcasia angolensis Welw.ex Schott (Toga) 100 0.09 W Fm B Hb E Thatching farm sheds and hats. Culcasia parviflora P.Beauv (Toga) 100 0.09 W Fo/Fm B Hb E Thatching farm sheds and huts. Araliaceae Cussonia barteri Seem (Kwabrofe) 100 0.27 W Fo/Fm B, H Tr St Wood for wall support (house posts, frames etc), hair combs. Bignoniaceae Newbouldia leavis (P.Beauv.) Seeman ex Bureau (Kpotiyia) 100 0.37 W Fo B Tr St,Br Timber for building permanent structures fuel wood, charcoal Bark decoction is used to treat epilepsy. Spathodia campanolata Pal. (Adatsigolo) 100 0.27 W Fo/Fm L,M Tr St,Ba Fuel wood, charcoal; bark decoction is used as appetizer. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 1 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland) Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Bombacaceae Adansonia digitata L. (Adidoti) 55.26 0.32 W Fo/Fm B, L, F Tr Fr, Se, Ba, Le Inner bark for ropes, fuel wood, Leaves used as vegetable, edible seeds. Bark decoction for stomach pains. Bombax buonopozense P. Beauv. (Okuo) 94.74 0.32 W Fo/Fm B,F Tr St, Le Timber for building permanent structures. Leaves as vegetables. Ceiba pentandra (DC.) Bakh. (Ewuti) 81.25 0.81 W Fo H,F Tr Fr,Ka,St Kapok used in stuffing local mattresses, fruits edible, Wood - ashes used as salt substitute in soups. Burseraceae Canarium schweinfurthii Engl.(Bediwonua) 100 0.26 W, C G/Fm F Sh Se,Fr Edible seeds and fruits eaten only when cooked. Dacleodes klaineana (Pierre) H.J.Lam (Adwea) 100 0.26 W Fo H Sh St Wood f or making domestic utensils e.g ladles, tapoli. Cecropiaceae Myrianthus arboreus Beauv.(Nyankuma-bere) 66 0.42 W Fo/Fm L, F, M Tr Fr, St, Le, Ba Fuel wood, charcoal, edible fruits vegetable in soups. Bark decoction is used to treat chest pains. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 2 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Combretaceae Combretum paniculatum Vent. (Aveto) 60 0.05 W Fo/Fm B, F, H, M Cl St, Le, Rt Ropes for building purposes, salt substitutes, baskets, cane chairs and table. L eaves decoction as a dewormer and root decoction as appetizer. Terminalia avicennioides Guill. & Perr. (Petni) 56.81 0.76 W, C G/Fm B, L, H Tr Tr Timber, fuelwood, making carved objects e.g mortar. Terminalia glaucescens Planch.ex Benth. (Ongo) 59.09 0.76 W, C G/Fm B, H Tr St Timber, making handles of tools e.g hoes. Terminalia macroptera Guill.& Perr ( Kwatiri) 61.18 0.76 W, C G/Fm B, H Tr St Wood for wall supports e .g frames. Terminalia superba Engl. & Diels (Kegblade) 61.18 0.76 W, C G/Fm B, H Tr St Wood for wall supports e .g house posts. Commelinaceae Byrsocarpus coccineus Schumach (Awennade) 100 0.45 W Fo/Fm L Tr St, E Wood harvested for charcoal, fuel wood. Palisota hirsuta K.Schum.ex C.B.Clarke. (Klugbogbo) 100 0.13 W Fo/Fm F Hb Le, St Leaves used as ingredient in palm-nut soups, stems chewed as a remedy for cough. Entire plants used as antiseptic. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 3 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Connaraceae Agalaea nitida Sol.ex Planch. (Apose) 100 0.17 W Fo/Fm B, M Sh St Timber for making local bridges. Cnestis feruginea Vahl ex DC. (Akitase) 100 0.26 W Fo/Fm B Sh St, Rt Thatching temporary structures. Root decoction is used to induce abortion. Costaceae Costus afer Ker-Gawl. (Eyra) 100 0.13 W Fo F Hb Le Eaten in palm-nut soups, leaves rubbed on children‟s feet to make them walk. Dichapetalaceae Dichapetalum madagascariense Poir (Folie) 100 0.45 W Fo/Fm H Tr St Wood for making bowls, plates utensils, cutlery etc. Ebenaceae Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F. White (Kusibiri) 100 0.26 C Fo/Fm H, F Sh Fr, St, Rt Wood for making handles of tools e.g Cutlass. Fruits edible. Root decoction is used to induce abortion. Diospyros madecassa H.Perrier (Kusibiri) 100 0.26 C Fo/Fm F, H Sh Fr, Rt, St Wood for making handles of tools. Fruits edible. Root decoction is used to induce abortion. Diospyros monbuttensis Gürke (Kusibiri) 100 0.26 C Fo/Fm F, H Sh Rt, Fr, St Wood for making handle of tools. Fruits edible. Root decoction is used to induce abortion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 4 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Euphorbiaceae Alcornea cordifolia (Schumach.) Müll.Arg (Avovlo ) 100 0.09 W Fo/Fm B, M Hb Ba, Le, Rt Binding material (ropes). Bark decoction for treating rashes, Root decoction is used to induce abortion. Bridelia ferruginea Benth. (Asaraba) 100 0.15 W Fo/Fm B, L, F, M Sh Ba, St, Fr Timber for house posts, frame, beams, fuel wood fruits edible. Margaritaria discoides (Baill.) Webster (Pepea ) 100 0.15 W Fo/Fm F, M Sh Fr, Rt, St Fruits are eaten; Stem is processed into wood-ashes and used as salt substitute in soups. Root decoction is used to induce abortion, Root decoction is used as analgesic. Mallotus oppositifolia (Geisel.) Muell. Arg. (Satadua) 75 0.22 W Fo/Fm B, L, M Sh St, Rt Light timber, fuel, charcoal. Macaranga barteri Muell. Arg (Yurodu) 68.92 0.61 W Fo/Fm B, L Tr St Timber, fuel wood, charcoal. Microdesmis puberula Hook.f. (Ofumai) 61.11 0.19 W Fo/Fm B, L, F Sh St, Ba, Se Timber, fuel wood, charcoal, edible seeds. Bark decoction is used for expulsion of worm. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 5 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus arboreus Sess è & Moc. Ex Baill (Kpavidetume) 80 0.10 W Fo/Fm B, F Hb Le, E Thatching farm hats and sheds , fuel, Leaves decoction for treating fever. Tragia aquapimensis L. (Dza) 100 0.24 W Fm L Sh St Wood harvested for charcoal, fuel wood. Tetrorchidium didymostemon (Baill.) Pax & K. Hoffm. (Aboagyedua) 100 0.36 W Fo/Fm L L St Wood harvested for charcoal, fuel wood. Uapaca togoensis Baill. (Kontannini) 95 0.26 W Fo/Fm B, L, F Sh St, Fr Timber, good charcoal, edible fruits. Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. ( Dedekude) 100 0.12 W Fo/Fm H, M Hb Se, St, Le Beads, baskets, cane chairs and tables, Leaves decoction for treating colds. Root decoction is used for expulsion of worms. Acacia kamerunensis Gandoger (Damalia) 47.50 0.36 C Fo B, L, H Tr Ba, St, Le Timber, fuelwood, handles of tools e.g Axes. Bark decoction for treating stomach pains, Afzelia africana Sm. ( Wokpa) 100 0.72 W Fo/Fm B, H Tr St, Se Timber, beads. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 6 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Root, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl-Climber. Cultivat ion status: W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Fabaceae Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) W.F. Wight (Aziwoe) 100 0.69 W Fo/Fm H Tr St, Se Wood for making domestic utensils and carved objects . Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth. (Toziwa) 100 0.69 W Fo/Fm H Tr St Wood for making domestic utensils and carved objects . Albizia zygia (DC.) J.F.Macbr. (Toziwa) 100 0.69 W Fo/Fm H Tr St Wood for making domestic utensils and carved objects . Anthotica sassandraensis L. (Totoro) 100 0.15 W Fo/Fm L Sr St Wood for charcoal, fuel . Baphia pubescens Hook. f. (Ezi ) 100 0.70 W Fo H Tr St Wood for making handles of tools e.g, hoe Berlinia occidentalis Keay (Kwatafombaboa) 100 0.24 W Fo B Sh St Timber for construction purposes. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 7 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Fabaceae Cassia siamea Lam.(Mal.) (Kulgo) 60 0.33 W Fo B,H,F Tr St, Le Timber for building bridges, poles, wood for stools, pestles, mortar, tables. Vegetables. Daniela olivera L.(Sopi) 100 0.22 W Fo H,F,M Sr St, Fr, Ba Wood for making handles for tools e.g hoe. Leaves are eaten during famine.Bark decoction is used in treating neurological disorder. Dialium guineense W illd. (Atortoe) 78.43 0.83 W Fo/Fm B , F, M Tr St, Fr, Le Timber, fruits edible.Wood for pestles, mortar, tapoli etc. Erythrophloem ivorense A. Chev. (Potrodom) 100 0.64 W Fo H Tr St Timber for making beds, chair, tables, stools. Griffonia simplicifolia Baillon (Kagya) 100 0.22 W Fo/Fm H Sh St Making baskets, cane chairs and tables. Hymenostegia afzelii (Oliver) Harms (Takorowa) 100 0.10 W Fo/Fm B, M Hb E, Ba Thatching of farm sheds and hut, bark decoction is used as antiseptic for treating wounds. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 8 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Fabaceae Leucaena glauca (Lam.) De Wit (Nalenga) 91.67 0.15 W,C Fo/Fm L, F, H Sh St, Se, Le Seeds for beads, wood for fuel, charcoal, and leaves are used for vegetable. Lonchocarpus sericeus (Poiret) Kunth 100 0.15 W Fo/Fm H, L, M Sh Ba, St Wood of drums, chairs, tables fuel, charcoal. Bark decoction is used to treat epilepsy. Millettia zechiana Harms (Amatike ) 68.92 0.64 W Fo/Fm B, H Tr St Timber of building, making tool handles. Parkia bicolor A. Chev (Dawadawa) 90.54 0.60 W Fo/Fm B, F, M Tr St, Le, Ba Wood for making handles of tools e.g. Hoe leaves used as vegetable in soups. Bark decoction for treating anaemia and body pains. Piptadesniastrum africanum ( Hook. f.)Brenan (Yewoye) 100 0.22 W Fo/Fm H Sh Le, St, Rt Wood for making hands of tools eg Hoe, rashes, root decoction is used to induce abortion. Pterocarpus malbraedii Harms (Hote) 100 0.22 W Fo/Fm F,M Sr Fr, Rt, Ba, Le Edible fruits, decoction is used to induce abortion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 9 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Fabaceae Tamarindus indica L. (Tamarind) 66.67 0.28 W G/Fm F,L Tr Fr, Le, St Edible fruits, leaves used as vegetable in salads. Stems used for fuel and charcoal. Flacourtiaceae Homalium letestui Pellegr. (Nankoroma) 67.86 0.25 W Fo/Fm F,L Tr Fr,St Edible fruits, fuelwood. Lamiaceae Hoslandia opposita Vahl (Asifuaka) 100 0.12 W Fo/Fm F Hb Fr, Rt Edible fruits, powdered root are used as antiseptic. Mesona bantamianus Vahl (Anoka) 100 0.09 W Fo/Fm F,M Hb Fr, Le Edible fruits, Leaves decoction for treating fever. Lauraceae Persea americana Miller (Paya) 100 0.30 C G/Fm F Tr Fr, Fruits are consumed directly. Lecythidaceae Napoleonaea vogelii Hook.& Planch. (Obua) 100 0.22 W Fo/Fm L Sh St Fuel wood, charcoal. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 0 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Liliaceae Smilax kraussiana W illd. (Klamatsu) 100 0.15 W Fo/Fm F, B, M Sh Tu Fr, St, Se, Rt Tubers are eaten as famine food, stem are used as a rope, used in sweet beverages. Boiled roots are used to treat urinating problems. Maranthaceae Hypselodelphys violacea (Ridl.) (Babadua) 80 0.09 W Fo B, H Hb St For tying poles fixed in building, making lid of rice- bins Thaumatococcus daniellii (Benn.) Benth. (aklamakpa) 100 0.15 W Fo/Fm F Hb Se Seeds are used as a sweetener in pap, tea or mashed „kenkey‟. Meliaceae Khaya angolensis ( Desr.) A. Juss. (Mahogany) 100 0.86 W Fo/Fm B Tr St Timber for building permanent structures. Khaya grandifoliola C.DC. (Kruba) 100 0.86 W Fo/Fm B, M Tr St, Ba, Rt Timber for building permanent structures, Root decoction is used for treating delivery complications. Bark decoction is used in treating neurological disorders. Trichilia heudeloti (Thon.) J.J De Wilde (Tandro) 86 0.51 W Fo/Fm B, L Tr St, Rt Timber, fuel wood, charcoal. Root decoction is used to induce abortion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 1 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Part used Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Meliaceae Trichilia monadelpha (Thon.) J.J De Wilde (Tandro) Trichilia puriana (Thon.) J.J De Wilde (Tandro) 86 86 0.51 0.51 W W Fo/Fm Fo/Fm B, L B, L Tr Tr St, Rt St, Rt Timber, fuel wood, charcoal. Timber, fuel wood, charcoal. Root decoction is used to cause abortion. Trichilia patens (Thon.) J.J De Wilde (Tandro) 82 0.51 W Fo/Fm B,L Tr St Timber. Leaves added to palm wine and Akpeteshie and taken to increase potency. Menispermaceae Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii (Stapf) Diels 85.71 0.13 C G/Fm B,F Hb St, Le Binding materials, roots eaten boiled. Triclisia lanceolata Oliv. 100 0.12 W Fm B,M Hb E Thatching of farm sheds and hats. Leaf decoction is used as analgesic. Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria Leschenault (Loko) 65.38 0.69 W Fo/Fm B, H Tr St Timber for building permanent houses, making handles of tools. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 2 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part used Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category Brackets (% ) Moraceae Ficus asperifolia Desf. Ex Pers. (Tsatsaflala) 62.65 0.73 W Fo/Fm B, L, M Tr St, Fig, Rt Timber, fuel, charcoal, Edible figs. Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg (Odum) 57.43 0.82 W Fo/Fm B, H, M Tr St. Ba, Le Wood for building local bridges, household Furniture and stools. Young leaves eaten as vegetable. Stems are boiled in porridge and given to babies to aid Baby development, Bark decoction is used for treating dermatological cases. Morus mesozygia Stapf (Odzimtsui) 63.54 0.79 C Fo/Fm B, L Tr St, Se Timber, fuel wood, charcoal, edible seeds. Trilepisium madagascariense DC. (Dzekluzi) 100 0.31 W Fo/Fm H, M Tr Le, St Timber for drums, handles of domestic utensils. Stem decoction for treating liver problems. Myristicaceae Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb. (Kpornugbordeti) 51.28 0.67 W Fo B, L, F St, Fr Fr, Le, Timber, fuel, fruits used as spices. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 3 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Myrtaceae Eugenia calophylloides DC. (Pepre) 100 0.22 W Fo F, H Sh St Spices in soups, for brooms. Ochnaceae Lophira alata Banks ex Gaertn. (Kaku) 100 0.26 W Fo B Sh St Hard wood for building local bridges. Lophira lanceolata Banks ex Gaertn. (Azobe) 100 0.26 W Fo B, M, F Sh St, Le, Ba Hard wood for building local bridges, the leaves are used as flavours in soups. Bark decoction is used to treat backache Ouratea flava (A. St- Hil.) Engl. (Opunini) 75 0.24 W Fo B, L Sh St Timber, Fuel. Olacaceae Olax subscorpioidea Oliv. (Ahoohendedua ) 100 0.10 W Fo/Fm F Hb Le, Fr Spices in soups. Passifloraceae Adenia lobata (Jacq.) Engl. (Akpeka) 100 0.10 W Fo/Fm B Hb St Binding materials in building. Piperaceae Piper guineense Thonn (Atinkale) 100 0.15 W,C Fo/Fm F, M Hb Fr, Le Eaten as vegetable. Poaceae Andropogon gayanus Kunth. (Fugbe) 90 0.12 W Fo/Fm L, B Hb St, Le Thatching farm huts and sheds. Fuel. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 4 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Poaceae Olyra latifolia L. (Mumagbe) 90 0.13 W Fo B, F Hb St, Le Thatching farm sheds edible leaves. Olyra subcoides L. (Mumogbe) 90 0.13 W Fo B, F Hb St, Le Thatching farm huts, edible leaves. Oplismensus boomenii (L.) Pal. Cv. (Kogbe ) 90 0.13 W Fm B, F Hb St, Le Thatching, edible leaves. Panicum fragmitoides Schultes. (Afla) 100 0.13 W Fo/Fm H Hb St Making brooms, baskets. Setaria gayanus Stapf & C. Hubb. (Wotowoto ) 100 0.10 W Fo/Fm B Hb E, Le Thatching farm sheds. Polygalaceae Carpolobia lutea G.Don (Otwewa) 100 0.19 W Fo/Fm F, H Sh St, Fr Edible fruits, wood for making bowls plates, utensils, cutlery etc. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 5 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Polygalaceae Securidaca longiflorum Fres. (Kpaliga) 65.79 0.31 W Fo/Fm L, H, M Tr St, Le, Rt Fuelwood, charcoal, wood for making handle of tools Powdered root tips are inhaled to treat catarrh. Rubiaceae Argocoffeopsis rupestris (Hiem.) Robbrect (Aduba) 100 0.19 W Fo F Sh St Fruits used for alcoholic and non alcoholic beverages. Chassalia kolly (Schumach.) Hepper. 100 0.19 W Fm L Sh St Fuelwood. Crossopterix febrifuga Fenzl (Pakyisie) 100 0.19 W Fo/Fm L, M Sh St, Le Fuelwood, charcoal, leaf decoction used to treat cough. Morinda lucida Benth. (Venamakpa ) 100 0.19 W Fo L Sh St Fuelwood, charcoal. Nauclea latifolia ( de Wild.) (Nyimoke ) 66.67 0.40 W Fo B, H Tr Ba, St, Rt Good timber for building permanent structures, drums stools etc. Bark decoction is used to treat stomach Pains. Root decoction is used to induce abortion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 6 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Rubiaceae Pavetta corymbosa (SC.) F.N.Williams (Kronko) 100 0.19 W Fo/Fm L, F Sh St, Le Fuelwood, charcoal, leaves used as vegetable in soups. Psychotria calva Hiem (Aposin) 72.22 0.19 W Fo B, L Sh St Timber, fuelwood, charcoal Psychotria subobliqua Hiem (Aponsin) 72.22 0.19 W Fo/Fm L, B Sh St Timber, fuelwood, charcoal Rothmannia longiflora Salisb. ( samankube) 100 0.24 W Fo/Fm L Sh St Fuelwood, charcoal Stem decoction is used as analgesic. Rutaceae Clausena anisata (Willd.) M Roemer (Eyira) 100 0.17 W Fo/Fm F, B, M Sh Fr, St, Le Timber, Edible Fruits.Sten decoction is used to treat body pains. Zanthoxylum leprieurii Guill. & Perr . (Exedza) 56.67 0.54 W Fo/Fm B, L Tr St, Se, Le Timber, fuelwood, charcoal. Seeds used as spices in soups. Leaf decoction is used as appetizer. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 7 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Sapindaceae Allophylus africanus (L.) Räusch. (Kotamenyati ) 100 0.19 W Fo/Fm H, M Sh St, Fr Wood for making carved objects e.g stools fruit decoction is used as a dewormer. Blighia sapida Konig (Akye) 100 0.72 W Fo/Fm H Tr St Wood for making handles of tools e.g knife. Cardiospermum grandiflorum Swartz (Tooto) 100 0.12 C G/Fm F, M Hb Le, Rt Leafy vegetable. Root decoction is used as appetizer. Deinbollia pinnata (Poir.) Schum. & Thonn. (Potoke) 100 0.27 W Fo/Fm H, M Tr St, Se, Rt Timber for building permanent structure edible seeds. Dried roots are used to cure asthma. Lecaniodiscus cupanioides Planch. ex Benth. (Dwindwera) 61.22 0.81 W Fo/Fm B, L, F Tr Se, St Timber, fuelwood, charcoal, edible oils are extracted from their seeds. Pancovia floribunda Pellegr. (Aflato) 96.43 0.25 W Fm B, F Tr St, Fr Timber, Edible fruits Paullinia pinnata Linn. (Tsiotsi) 100 0.06 W Fo/Fm F, M Li St, Le, Rt Used in alcoholic beverages, stomach pains, cuts, leaf decoction is used to induce abortion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 8 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Sapotaceae Chrysophylum giganteum A. Chev. (Alasaa) 100 0.36 C G/Fm H, F Tr St, Fr Timber for making pestle, mortar etc, edible fruits. Malacantha alnifolia Pierre. (Efoe) 100 0.19 W Fm L, M Sh St, Ba Fuelwood, charcoal. Bark decoction is used in treating cardiovascular diseases.. Manilkara multinervis Adams (Berekunkum) 100 0.28 W Fo/Fm H, F Tr St, Fr Wood for making domestic utensils and carved objects e.g ladles mortars. Edible fruits. Mimusops elongi L. (Mal.) 100 0.22 W Fo H Sh St, Wood for making domestic utensils and carved objects e.g ladles mortars. Pachystela brevipes Pierre ex Radlk. (Aframdua) 100 0.17 W Fo/Fm H Sh St Wood for making domestic utensils and carved objects e.g ladles mortars. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 9 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Sterculiaceae Cola gigantea A. Chev. (Agawuti) 67.95 0.66 W Fo/Fm H, L, M Tr St, Le Wood for fuelwood, charcoal, making tool handles, rashes, body pains. Cola mellinii K. Schum. (Esele) 67.95 0.66 W Fo/Fm H, L, M Tr St, Le Good timber for house post, frames, beams for permanent structures (mud house) Rashes, body pains. Nesogordonia papaverifera A.Chev. (Adanta) 100 0.48 W Fo B Tr St Timber for roofing houses and making carved objects . Pterigota macrocarpa K.Schum. (Kyereye) 100 0.17 W Fm H Sh St Wood for making tool handles eg. Cutlass. Sterculia oblonga Mast. (Ohaa) 47.5 0.33 W Fo/Fm B, H Tr St Timber for roofing house and making carved objects. Sterculia rhinopetala K.Schum. (Wawabima) 47.5 0.33 W Fo/Fm B, H Tr St Timber for roofing house and making carved objects. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 0 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Sterculiaceae Sterculia tragacantha Lindl. (Sofo) 45 0.33 W Fo/Fm B, F, M, H Tr St, Le, Timber for roofing houses, making carved objects Young leaves are used as vegetables in soups. Shoot decoction used as a dewormer. Triplochiton scleroxylum K.Schum. (Wawa) 87 0.82 W Fo/Fm B, H Tr St Timber for house posts , frames, doors, and beams. Wood for stools and handles of tools. Tiliaceae Christiana africana DC. (Asesedua) 55.56 0.19 W Fo/Fm B, L, F Sh St, Le Timber for building bridges, frames, beams doors. Wood for fuelwood and charcoal. Young leaves eaten as vegetable. Grewia pubescens (Vahl.ex DC.) Baill. (Yualega) 83.33 0.15 W Fo/Fm B, H, F Sh St, Tw, Le Twigs with chewed ends used as paint-brushes. Timber for building purposes. Vegetable. Ulmaceae Celtis mildbraedii Engl. (Tadzoe) 54.35 0.78 W Fo/Fm B, L, F Tr St, Fr Timber, fuelwood, charcoal edible fruits. Celtis zenkeri Engl. (Sia ) 55.56 0.78 W Fo B, L, F Tr St Timber, fuelwood, charcoal. Umbelliferae Centella asiastica (L.) (Gatigati) 100 0.19 W Fo F Hb Le Vegetable in soups. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 1 Table 3.1 (Cont.) List of the Most Commonly used Plant Species in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (Use- Categories: F-Human food, L-Fuelwood, B-Building, H-Household items. Parts used: Le-Leaves, Se-Seed, St-Stem, Fl- Flowers, Rt-Ro.ot, Tu-Tubers, E-Entire plant, Ba-Bark, Fi-Fig, Tw-Twig. Habit: Tr-Tree, Sh-Shrub, Hb-Herb, Li-Lianas, Cl- Climber. Cultivation status : W - Wild, C -Cultivated. Collection location: G-Garden, Fo-Forest reserve, Fm-Farmland). Species , Fidelity Use Cultivation Places of Use Habit Part Uses Family Local name in Level Value Status Collection category used Brackets (% ) Verbenaceae Vitex doniana Schum. & Thonn. (Eforti) 91.84 0.81 W,C G/Fm H, F Tr St, Shoot Timber for making domestic utensils and carved objects ; young leaf shoot is eaten as vegetable. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 2 Fig 3.2: Plant families with three or more species in the Afadjato Communities. Out of the 53 families of plants listed by the respondents from the Afadjato Communities, the most predominant families in terms of number of species used included Fabaceae, Apocynaceae and Euphorbiaceae (Fig 3.2) Plant families with 1 and 2 species are, however, not represented in the Fig 3.2 above. 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 Fabaceae Apocynaceae Euphorbiaceae Meliaceae Poaceae Rubiaceae Sterculiaceae Sapi ndaceae Annonaceae Combretaceae Sapotaceae Bombacaceae Ebenaceae Lamiaceae Ochnaceae U lmaceae Acanthaceae Anacardiaceae Asteraceae Araceae Bignomi aceae Burseraceae Commelinaceae Connaraceae Maranthaceae Menisperaceae Polygalaceae Rutaceae Ti liaceae n u m b er o f s p ec ie s Families University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 3 Fig. 3.3: Habit of plants used by Communities living around the Afadjato Conservation area. In terms of the habit of the plants, trees were the most dominant (44%), followed by shrubs (30%), herbs (23%), lianas (2%) and climbers (1%) (Fig 3.3). Tr e e s 4 4 % Sh r u b s 3 0 % He r b s 2 3 % Lian as 2 % Climb e r s 1 % University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 4 3.1.3 Use Categories and Plant Parts Used The use category for Building involved the use of many plants (with 25.20%), followed by Human Food (23.3%), Household items (19.9%) and Medicine (15.8%) (Table 3.2). There was high agreement among the respondents in the use of plants for Building, showing a use report of 80 (0.68 Fic), followed by Human food with a Nur of 74 (0.52 Fic), Household items with Nur of 63 (0.66Fic) and Fuelwood and Medicinal uses both having a use report of 50 (0.55 Fic) each (Table 3.2). The generally high Fic values observed in all the use-categories gives an indication that the degree of knowledge shared by the users in the study area regarding plants use is high. Table 3.2: Informant Consensus Factor for Commonly Used Plants of the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. (A taxon may be reported in more than one use category) Use Category Number of use reports (Nur) % all Species Number of taxa (Nt) Informant Consensus factor (Fic) Building (B) 80 25.20 26 0.68 Household items(H) 63 19.90 22 0.66 Human Food (F) 74 23.30 36 0.52 Fuelwood (L) 50 15.80 23 0.55 Medicinal use (M) 50 15.80 23 0.55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 5 3.1.4. Place of Collection, Cultivation Status and Plant Parts Used The collection location of plant species were categorized into three areas, mainly; forest (protected area), home garden and farmlands. From the analysis presented in Table 3.3, it can be seen that 47.3% of trees were collected from the farmland, 45.1% from the forest and 50% from the Gardens. Additionally, 26% of shrubs were collected from the farmland, 29.6% from forest and 6.3% from the Gardens. In the herbaceous category, 23.7% were collected from the farmland, 21.8% from the forest and 43.3% from the gardens. The Lianas were collected from two sources namely; farmland (3.1%) and forest (2.8%) whilst the climbers were collected in only forest (0.70%). Considering the cultivation status, 44 % of the tree species were collected from the wild whiles 47.7% were cultivated. From the shrubs 29% were wild species whilst 26.3% were cultivated, 23% of the herbs were wild species whilst 26.3% were cultivated. All the Lianas and the Climbers reported in the study were collected from the wild (Table 3.3). Among the different plant parts used, the stem (53.4%) of trees was the most frequently used by the people in the Community for building, making household items and for fuelwood (Table 3.3). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 6 Table 3.3: Relationships among Growth Forms, Collection Location, Cultivation Status and Plant Parts Used In the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area (W-Wild, C-Cultivated, St-Stem, Le-Leaves, Fr-Fruits, Se-Seed, Sh-Shrubs, Rt-Roots, Ba-Bark, Tu-Tubers, E-Eintire plant, Tw-Twig, Fi-Fig). The numbers indicated are in percentages. Growth Form Collection location Cultivation status Plant parts used Farmland Forest Garden W C St Le Fr Se Sh Rt Ba Tu E Tu Fi Trees 47.3 45.1 50 44 47.70 53.4 37.7 35.7 46.7 100 38.2 43.5 - - - 100 Shrubs 26 29.6 6.3 29 26.30 33.6 20.8 38.1 33.3 - 29.4 30.4 100 14.3 100 - Herbs 23.7 21.8 43.3 23 26.30 9.2 37.7 19 20 - 20.6 13.1 - 78.6 - - Lianas 3.1 2.8 - 2.6 - 3.1 1.9 7.1 - - 8.8 13.1 - 7.1 - - Climbers - 0.7 - 0.6 - 0.8 1.9 - - - 2.9 - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 7 3.2.0 Plant Species Present a t the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area A total of 73 species of herbs belonging to 34 families, 96 species of shrubs belonging to 34 families and 100 species of trees belonging to 32 families were present in the plots demarcated and studied along three transects in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area (Tables 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6). About 34.7% of the families were common to the three plant habits under study (Tables 3.4, 3. 5 and 3.6). Fig 3.4: Families with the highest representation of species within the herbs, shrubs, and trees 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 N u m b e r o f sp e ci e s Family T o tal s p ec ie s He r b s Sh r u b s T re es University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 8 Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees belonging to each family were enumerated to determine the most abundant families on the landscape. Of the plant families listed in the study, Fabaceae, Sterculiaceae, Apocynaceae, Meliaceae, and Poaceae were found to be the dominant families within the herbs groups, while Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Rubiaceae were the most dominant within the shrubs group, and Fabaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, and Apocynaceae the most dominant within the trees group. There were some form of relationship between knowledge, use and diversity as these families listed here as the most dominant in the plot inventory were the same families listed as the most dominant in the ethnobotanical study on the communities around the study site. Fabaceae contributed the greatest number of species under the herbs shrubs and the trees (Fig 3.4). Families with one or two species are however not represented in this figure. The figure 3.5 below shows the distribution of the stems of the trees enumerated in the survey by GBH classes. It was observed that 65 tree species were relatively small (GBH range of between 10-70cm) (Fig 3.5). They included: Albizia sp, Argocoffeopsis rupestris, Securidaca longiflorum, and Sterculia sp (Table 3.6). Also 18 tree species were found to be of relatively medium size (GBH range of between 71-120cm) (Fig 3.5). These included: Cassia siamea, Cola mellinii, Ficus sur, Holarrhena floribunda, Crossopterix febrifuga and Dichapetalum madagascariense (Table 3.6). There were 17 relatively large tree species (GBH range of above 120cm) (Fig 3.5). These included Alstonia boonei, Antiaris toxicaria, Ceiba pentandra, Dacleodes kleineana, Erythrophloem suaveolus, and Macaranga barteri (Table 3. 6). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 9 Fig 3.5: Number of tree species in the different GBH Classes The Table 3.4 below shows the distribution by height and densities of herbs listed in the study. The tallest herb species were Palisota hirsuta and Thaumatococcus danielii with mean height of 1.0 m each. Others with height of above 0.5 m include: Dioscoreophullum cumminsii, Justicia flava, Lophira lanceolata, Melinis minutiflora, Piper guineense, and Uvaria globosa. GBH Classes (cm) 0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 N u m b er o f t re e sp ec ie s University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 0 About 80% of the herbs show trends towards shorter stature (0.2m-0.5m) an indication of shading effect by the trees. The predominant herb species in the landscape are Andropogon gayanus (1.96), Melinis minutiflora (0.75), Smilax krauseana (0.54), Thaumatococcus danielii (0.33), Olyra latifolia (0.27), Chromolaena odorata (0.21) and Heteropogon contortus (0.18). The Psychotria calva (0.03) is the most scarsely seen herb on the landscape. Table 3.4: Herbaceous Species Present At the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. Species Family Density Relative density (%) Freq Relative freq (%) Mean Height(m) Acasia kamerunensis Fabaceae 0.09 1.01 0.06 1.33 0.30 Adenia lobata Passifloraceae 0.09 1.01 0.06 1.33 0.40 Andropogon gayanus Poaceae 1.96 22.00 0.15 3.33 0.40 Annona senegalensis Annonaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.40 Baissea multiflora Apocynaceae 0.06 0.67 0.06 1.33 0.20 Centella asiastica Umbelliferae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.20 Chassala koli Polemoniaceae 0.06 0.67 0.06 1.33 0.20 Chromolaena odorata Lamiaceae 0.21 2.36 0.21 4.67 0.30 Culcasia angolensis Araceae 0.06 0.67 0.06 1.33 0.20 Culcasia parviflora Araceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.20 Cyatula prostrate Amaranthaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.40 Dioscorea smilacifolia Dichapetalaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.30 Dioscoreophyllum cumminisii Menispermaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.60 Emelia coccinea Asteraceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.40 Heteropogon contortus Poaceae 0.18 2.02 0.06 1.33 0.20 Hoslundia opposita Lamiaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1 Table 3.4(Cont.): Herbaceous Species Present At the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area . Species Family Density Relative density (%) Freq Relative freq (%) Mean Height(m) Hypselodelphys violacea Maranthaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.40 Justicia flava Acanthaceae 0.06 0.67 0.06 1.33 0.60 Landolfia dulcis Apocynaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.40 Landolfia micrantha Apocynaceae 0.09 1.01 0.09 2.00 0.40 Leptaspis cochleata Poaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.40 Lophira lanceolata Ochnaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.60 Melinis minutiflora Poaceae 0.75 8.42 0.06 1.33 0.60 Olax subscorpioides Olacaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.60 Olyra latifolia Paceae 0.27 3.03 0.06 1.33 0.80 Oplismenus boomenii Poaceae 0.09 1.01 0.06 1.33 0.20 Palisota hirsute Commelinaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 1.00 Panicum fragmitoides Poaceae 0.3 3.37 0.03 0.67 0.40 Phaylopsis parviflora Acanthaceae 0.3 3.37 0.18 4.00 0.50 Piper guineense Piperaceae 0.06 0.67 0.06 1.33 0.60 Psychotria calva Rubiaceae 0.02 0.22 0.06 1.33 0.40 Psychotria subobliqua Rubiaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.40 Scleria speciosa Cyperaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.60 Securidaca longiflorum Polygalaceae 0.27 3.03 0.06 1.33 0.40 Setaria gayanus Poaceae 0.09 1.01 0.09 2.00 0.20 Smilax krauseana Liliaceae 0.54 6.06 0.18 4.00 0.40 Thaumatococcus danielii Maranthaceae 0.33 3.70 0.12 2.67 1.00 Tragia a kuapimensis Euphorbiaceae 0.15 1.68 0.12 2.67 0.20 Triclisia lanceolata Menispermaceae 0.06 0.67 0.06 1.33 0.50 Uvaria doeringii Annonaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.20 Uvaria globosa Annonaceae 0.03 0.34 0.03 0.67 0.60 Vernonia camporum Asteraceae 0.06 0.67 0.03 0.67 0.30 Total 8.91 100.00 4.50 100.00 31.00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 2 Table 3.5 below shows the distribution by height, GBH, density, and frequency of occureance of the shrub species on the landscape. The tallest shrub species are Triplochiton scleroxylum (6.0m), Rothmania longiflora (4.1m) and Pterigota macrocarpa (4.1m). About 55% of the shrub species are of height of 3.0m and above, an indication of good regeneration and adaptability. Crossopterix febrifuga, however, is the shortest shrub species recorded in the study. The most abunbant and the most sparcely distributed shrub on the landscape is Byrsocarpus coccineus, it has a density of (0.050) and relative frequency of (4.29%). Other species of high occurrence includes Palisota hursuta, Lophira lanceolata and Panicum fragmitoides.The readily seen species on the landscape have density of (1.0) and relative frequency of (0.33%). Among them include Agalea nitida, Alcornia cordifolia, and Asclepia speciosa. The relatively high density (0.718) of the entire shrub species present on the landscape gives an indication of good vegetation recovery. This assertion is also supported by the high GBH measurements (gbh of between 2.0 - 4.4cm) for the various shrub species (Table 3.5). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 3 Table 3.5: Shrub species present at Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area Species Family Density Relative Density (%) Freq Relative Freq (%) Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Abrus precatorius Fabaceae 0.002 0.34 0.06 0.66 3.90 3.70 Acasia kamerunensis Fabaceae 0.002 0.34 0.06 0.66 3.20 3.10 Afzelia Africana Fabaceae 0.002 0.34 0.06 0.66 2.90 3.00 Agalea nitida Connaraceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.60 3.00 Albizia adianthifolia Fabaceae 0.012 1.69 0.27 2.97 2.90 3.20 Albizia ferruginea Fabaceae 0.002 0.34 0.06 0.66 3.10 3.00 Albizia zygia Fabaceae 0.005 0.67 0.09 0.99 3.20 3.90 Alcornia cordifolia Euphorbiaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.90 3.20 Alstonia boonei Apocynaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.20 4.20 Asclepia speciosa Asclepiadaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.80 3.20 Baphia nitida Fabaceae 0.004 0.51 0.09 0.99 3.50 3.00 Baphia pubescens Fabaceae 0.016 2.19 0.33 3.63 3.00 3.40 Blighia unjugata Sapindaceae 0.002 0.34 0.06 0.66 3.10 3.00 Byrsocarpus coccineus Commelinaceae 0.050 6.91 0.39 4.29 2.90 3.00 Cadiospermum grandifolium Sapindaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.60 3.50 Carpolobia lutea Polygalaceae 0.005 0.67 0.12 1.32 3.10 3.30 Celtis mildbraedii Ulmaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.80 3.00 Celtis zenkeri Ulmaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.10 3.20 Chassala koli Polemoniaceae 0.008 1.18 0.18 1.98 2.60 3.50 Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae 0.007 1.01 0.09 0.99 2.60 3.00 Chrysophylum giganteum Sapotaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.90 3.00 Clausena anisata Rutaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.80 3.80 Cnestis febrifuga Connaraceae 0.008 1.18 0.12 1.32 3.40 3.30 Cola gigantean Sterculiaceae 0.006 0.84 0.15 1.65 3.10 3.20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 4 Table 3.5 (Cont.): Shrub species present at Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area . Species Family Density Relative Density (%) Freq Relative Freq (%) Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Cola Mellinii Sterculiaceae 0.016 2.19 0.33 3.63 3.00 3.00 Costus afer Costaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.20 3.80 Crossopterix febrifuga Rubiaceae 0.011 1.52 0.06 0.66 2.10 3.00 Daniellia olivera Fabaceae 0.030 4.22 0.24 2.64 2.50 3.00 Deinbollia pinnata Sapindaceae 0.004 0.51 0.09 0.99 3.40 3.30 Dialium guineense Fabaceae 0.022 3.04 0.33 3.63 3.10 3.00 Dichapetalum madagascariense Dichapetalaceae 0.017 2.36 0.33 3.63 2.90 3.00 Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii Dioscoreaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.30 3.00 Diospyros mobitensis Ebenaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.90 3.00 Diospyros abyssinica Ebenaceae 0.005 0.67 0.12 1.32 2.90 3.00 Erythrophloem suaveolus Fabaceae 0.002 0.34 0.03 0.33 2.70 3.00 Eugenia calophylloides Myrtaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.10 3.40 Ficus exasperate Moraceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.30 3.00 Griffonia simplicifolia Fabaceae 0.012 1.69 0.30 3.30 3.10 3.10 Holarrhena florimbunda Apocynaceae 0.013 1.85 0.15 1.65 4.40 3.10 Hoslundia oppositifolia Lamiaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.20 3.10 Hymenostegia afzelii Fabaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.80 3.10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 5 Table 3.5 (Cont.): Shrub species present at Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area Species Family Density Relative Density (%) Freq Relative Freq (%) Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Khaya ivorensis Meliaceae 0.005 0.67 0.03 0.33 2.80 3.00 Landolfia macranta Apocynaceae 0.004 0.51 0.03 0.33 2.80 3.00 Landolfia africana Apocynaceae 0.004 0.51 0.09 0.99 3.20 3.40 Landolfia togolana Apocynaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.60 3.00 Lannea acida Anacardiaceae 0.002 0.34 0.06 0.66 3.10 3.00 Lecaniodiscus cupanoides Sapindaceae 0.033 4.55 0.45 4.95 3.10 3.30 Leucaena glauca Fabaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.60 3.30 Lonchocarpus sericeus Fabaceae 0.004 0.51 0.09 0.99 3.30 3.40 Lophira Ianceolata Ochnaceae 0.042 5.90 0.21 2.31 2.60 3.00 Macaranga barteri Euphorbiaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.10 4.20 Mallotus oppositiflia Euphorbiaceae 0.004 0.51 0.09 0.99 3.10 3.30 Microdesmis puberula Euphorbiaceae 0.006 0.84 0.06 0.66 3.00 3.00 Milicia excels Moraceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.40 3.50 Millettia zechiana Fabaceae 0.013 1.85 0.27 2.97 3.10 3.30 Monodora ternuifolia Annonaceae 0.007 1.01 0.18 1.98 3.10 3.40 Monodora myristica Annonaceae 0.012 1.69 0.09 0.99 2.90 4.40 Napoleona vogelii Lecythidaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.80 3.00 Nesogordonia papaverifera Sterculiaceae 0.019 2.70 0.21 2.31 3.20 3.20 Newbouldia laevis Bignoniaceae 0.007 1.01 0.18 1.98 2.70 3.10 Olax subcorpioides Olacaceae 0.011 1.52 0.12 1.32 2.80 3.30 Olyra latifolia Poaceae 0.002 0.34 0.06 0.66 2.80 3.40 Olyra subcoides Poaceae 0.008 1.18 0.06 0.66 2.90 3.00 Paulinia pinnata Sapindaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.40 3.40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 6 Table 3.5 (Cont.): Shrub species present at Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area . Species Family Density Relative Density (%) Freq Relative Freq (%) Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Pavetta corymbosa Rubiaceae 0.012 1.69 0.09 0.99 3.20 3.20 Phyllanthus arboreus Euphorbiaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.00 3.00 Piptadesniastrum africanum Fabaceae 0.002 0.34 0.06 0.66 3.70 3.60 Psychotria calva Rubiaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.80 3.30 Pterigota macrocarpa Sterculiaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 4.10 3.40 Pterocapus mildbraedii Fabaceae 0.009 1.35 0.09 0.99 2.40 3.00 Rothmania longiflora Rubiaceae 0.007 1.01 0.15 1.65 4.10 3.60 Securidaca crossopterix Polygalaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.30 3.00 Securidaca longiflora Polygalaceae 0.012 1.69 0.12 1.32 2.60 3.00 Smilax krauseana Liliaceae 0.016 2.19 0.09 0.99 2.60 3.00 Sterculia oblonga Sterculiaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.60 3.00 Sterculia tragacantha Sterculiaceae 0.006 0.84 0.09 0.99 3.40 3.40 Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Apocynaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.40 3.00 Terminalia superba Combretaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.20 3.00 Thaumatococcus danielii Maranthaceae 0.018 2.53 0.03 0.33 3.20 3 .00 Tragia aquapimensis Euphorbiaceae 0.002 0.34 0.06 0.66 3.00 3.20 Trichilia monadelpha Meliaceae 0.004 0.51 0.09 0.99 2.60 2.00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 7 Table 3.5 (Cont.): Shrub species present at Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area Species Family Density Relative Density (%) Freq Relative Freq (%) Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Trichilia puriana Meliaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.80 3.00 Trilepisium madagascariense Moraceae 0.012 1.69 0.09 0.99 3.10 3.00 Triplochiton scleroxylum Sterculiaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 6.00 4.10 Uapaca togoensis Euphorbiaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 2.90 3.00 Uvaria chamae Annonaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.00 3.30 Uvaria doeringii Annonaceae 0.001 0.17 0.03 0.33 3.00 3.80 Vernonia camporum Asteraceae 0.008 1.18 0.09 0.99 2.40 3.00 Total 0.718 100.00 9.18 1.00 294.70 305.40 Table 3.6 below shows the distribution by height, GBH, and density of the trees on the landscape. The tallest tree is Morus mesozygia (73.8m) and the shortest tree is Crossopterix febrifuga (2.7m). However the short height seen in most of the trees confirms the regeneration of the forest. Khaya angolensis is the most abundant and the most widely distributed on the landscape. It has a density of (5.3) and relative frequency of occurrence of (0.32%). Other trees of high density and distribution are Cola mellinii, Bridelia ferruginea, and Albizia adianthifolia. The sparsely distributed trees are those that have a density of (0.0001) and relative frequency of occurrence of (0.30%) among them include Acacia kamerunensis, Afzelia africana and Anthotica sassandraensis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 8 Table 3.6: Tree Species Present At the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area Species Family Density Relative Density (%) Freq Relative Freq (%) Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Acacia kamerunensis Fabaceae 0.0001 0.28 0.03 0.32 10.50 29.50 Afzelia Africana Fabaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 12.00 35.00 Albizia adianthifolia Fabaceae 0.0024 4.26 0.63 6.05 18.70 54.60 Albizia ferruginea Fabaceae 0.0004 0.76 0.20 1.91 22.40 71.30 Albizia zygia Fabaceae 0.0006 1.14 0.17 1.59 26.20 71.80 Allophylus africanus Sapindaceae 0.0003 0.57 0.03 0.32 14.00 21.00 Alstonia boonei Apocynaceae 0.0004 0.76 0.13 1.27 23.00 177.00 Amphimas pterocarpoides Fabaceae 0.0002 0.38 0.07 0.64 31.00 44.50 Anthotica sassandraensis Fabaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 9.00 38.00 Annona senegalensis Annonaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.03 0.32 32.00 23.00 Antiaris toxicaria Moraceae 0.0003 0.57 0.13 1.27 42.10 185.40 Argocoffeopsis rupestris Rubiaceae 0.0006 1.04 0.23 2.23 15.00 39.60 Azadiracta indica Meliaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 12.00 27.00 Baphia nitida Fabaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 9.00 28.50 Baphia pubescens Fabaceae 0.0006 1.14 0.23 2.23 14.00 32.30 Berlinia occidentalis Fabaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 11.00 45.00 Blighia sapida Sapindaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 32.50 130.00 Bombax buonopozenze Bombacaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 16.00 48.00 Bridelia ferruginea Fabaceae 0.0026 4.54 0.13 1.27 21.00 13.00 Canarium schweinfurthii Burseraceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 11.00 23.00 Cassia siamea Fabaceae 0.0007 1.33 0.03 0.32 23.00 65.00 Cassia sieberianus Fabaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.03 0.32 49.00 82.00 Ceiba pentandra Bombacaceae 0.0013 2.27 0.40 3.82 26.20 162.30 Celtis malbraedi Ulmaceae 0.0003 0.47 0.07 0.64 34.50 112.50 Celtis zenkeri Ulmaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 22.00 56.00 Christiana Africana Tiliaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 28.10 53.50 Cola gigantean Sterculiaceae 0.0004 0.66 0.13 1.27 14.00 46.00 Cola mellinii Sterculiaceae 0.0042 7.48 0.60 5.73 17.00 177.00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 9 Table 3.6 (Cont.): Tree Species Present At the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area Species Family Density Relative Density (%) Freq Relative Freq (%) Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Combretum paniculatum Combretaceae 0.0013 2.37 0.07 0.64 6.50 50.60 Crossopterix febrifuga Rubiaceae 0.0042 7.48 0.27 2.55 2.70 22.20 Cussonia barteri Araliaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 13.00 11.40 Dacleodes kleineana Burseraceae 0.0004 0.76 0.13 1.27 32.00 110.40 Danielia olivera Fabaceae 0.0014 2.46 0.20 1.91 11.90 65.00 Dialium guineense Fabaceae 0.0004 0.76 0.13 1.27 12.30 40.00 Dichapetalum magagascariense Dichapetalaceae 0.0004 0.66 0.13 1.27 18.50 45.50 Diospyros mobitensis Ebenaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 8.00 27.00 Erythrophloem suaveolus Fabaceae 0.0006 1.04 0.17 1.59 37.70 28.00 Eugenia calophylloides Myrtaceae 0.0002 0.38 0.07 0.64 21.00 36.00 Ficus asperifolia Moraceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 32.00 91.00 Ficus exasperate Moraceae 0.0004 0.66 0.10 0.96 19.20 51.30 Ficus sur Moraceae 0.0004 0.76 0.10 0.96 14.80 56.40 Funtumia Africana Apocynaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 18.00 53.00 Funtumia elastic Apocynaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 13.50 41.00 Grewia pubescens Tiliaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 26.00 50.00 Holarrhena floribunda Apocynaceae 0.0005 0.95 0.13 1.27 13.90 59.70 Homalium letestui Flacourtiaceae 0.0002 0.38 0.10 0.96 13.50 42.30 Khaya angolensis Meliaceae 5.3333 0.09 0.03 0.32 8.50 25.00 Khaya anthotica Meliaceae 0.0003 0.47 0.13 1.27 22.10 75.00 Khaya grandifolia Meliaceae 0.0003 0.57 0.07 0.64 44.80 20.40 Khaya ivorensis Meliaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.07 0.64 30.00 125.00 Lannea welwitschi Anacardiaceae 0.0002 0.38 0.10 0.96 7.20 35.50 Lecaniodiscus cupanoides Sapindaceae 0.0026 4.54 0.47 4.46 19.20 37.00 Lonchocarpus sericeus Fabaceae 0.0003 0.47 0.07 0.64 12.00 26.50 Lophira lanceolata Ochnaceae 0.0043 7.58 0.13 1.27 9.50 45.80 Macaranga barteri Euphorbiaceae 0.0005 0.85 0.17 1.59 18.30 30.80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 0 Table 3.6 (Cont.): Tree Species Present At the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. Species Family Density Relative Density (%) Freq Relative Freq (%) Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Macaranga microphyla Euphorbiaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.03 0.32 21.00 62.00 Magaritaria discoides Euphorbiaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 11.90 27.50 Malacantha alnifolia Sapotaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 7.20 26.00 Mesona bantamianus Lamiaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 12.00 15.00 Milicia excels Moraceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 37.50 131.00 Millettia zechiana Fabaceae 0.0013 2.27 0.23 2.23 24.70 34.00 Mimusops elongi Sapotaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 20.00 73.00 Monodora myristica Annonaceae 0.0002 0.38 0.10 0.96 20.40 46.70 Monodora ternuifolia Annonaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 14.40 42.50 Morus mesozygia Moraceae 0.0004 0.66 0.10 0.96 73.80 58.90 Myrianthus arboreus Cecropiaceae 0.0003 0.57 0.07 0.64 15.50 71.50 Napoleona vogelii Lecythidaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 7.00 34.00 Nauclea latifolia Rubiaceae 0.0007 1.23 0.13 1.27 4.00 11.70 Nesogordonia papaverifera Sterculiaceae 0.0006 1.04 0.20 1.91 23.50 54.80 Newbouldia laevis Bignomiaceae 0.0007 1.23 0.20 1.91 17.10 35.50 Olax subscorpioides Olacaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 6.30 19.50 Olyra latifolia Poaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.03 0.32 6.70 21.00 Ouratea flava Ochnaceae 0.0004 0.66 0.10 0.96 3.00 20.00 Pachystela brevipes Sapotaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 17.50 39.00 Parkia bicolour Fabaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 63.50 285.00 Pavetta corymbosa Rubiaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.03 0.32 20.00 22.00 Pycnanthus angolensis Myrtaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 21.00 42.00 Rauwolfia vomitoria Apocynaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 22.60 44.00 Rothmania longiflora Rubiaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 33.00 56.00 Securidaca longiflora Polygalaceae 0.0074 13.16 0.23 2.23 3.70 20.30 Sterculia oblonga Sterculiaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 17.40 39.50 Sterculia rhinopetalum Sterculiaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 9.20 33.00 Sterculia tragacantha Sterculiaceae 0.0014 2.56 0.27 2.55 26.50 47.40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 1 Table 3.6 (Cont.): Tree Species Present At the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area Species Family Density Relative Density (%) Freq Relative Freq (%) Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Apocynaceae 0.0003 0.57 0.07 0.64 11.50 37.00 Tamarindus indica Fabaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 4.20 45.00 Terminalia avicennioides Combretaceae 0.0002 0.38 0.07 0.64 5.00 59.00 Terminalia glaucocescens Combretaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.07 0.64 23.00 77.50 Terminalia microptera Combretaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 13.00 38.00 Terminalia superb Combretaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 30.00 111.50 Tetrochidium didymostemon Euphorbiaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 9.50 67.00 Trema orientalis Ulmaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 7.50 20.00 Trichilia heudeloti Meliaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 6.50 35.00 Trichilia monadelpha Meliaceae 0.0002 0.38 0.07 0.64 15.50 62.00 Trichilia puriana Meliaceae 0.0002 0.38 0.03 0.32 10.50 47.00 Trichilia roka Meliaceae 0.0001 0.19 0.03 0.32 9.00 69.00 Trilepisium madagascariense Moraceae 0.0006 1.04 0.13 1.27 22.10 60.00 Triplochiton scleroxylum Sterculiaceae 0.0002 0.28 0.07 0.64 47.50 316.00 Vitex doniana Verbenaceae 0.0005 0.95 0.23 2.23 21.90 65.20 Zanthoxylum leprieuri Rutaceae 0.0003 0.47 0.13 1.27 21.00 53.50 The table 3.7 below shows the descriptive statistics of the occurrence of the plant species at the study site. :hen the density is considered, Simpson‟s diversity index was lower in the herbs (-0.05) than in the shrubs (3.48), but this figure in the shrubs are also higher than the trees (1.06). This similar trend is also seen in the Shannon diversity index. It was lower in the herbs University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 2 (0.81) than the shrubs (0.86) and the shrubs are also higher than the trees (0.81) (see Table 3.7). The mean Shannon and Simpson diversity for the herbs, shrubs and the trees are 0.83 and 2.48 respectively. The mean stand density of all the species present in the study area is 3.38 ± 0.09 Table 3.4. In terms of height, the Simpsons Diversity indicated the highest height in the trees (0.01m) followed by shrubs (0.01m) and the lowest in the herbs (-0.02m) (Table 3.7). In a similar way, the Shannon J indicated the highest height in the trees (1.00m) followed by the shrubs (1.00m) and the lowest in the herbs (0.98m) (Table 3.7).The mean tree height for this study is 19.12m Table 3.7. The range of tree species count per 25m x 25m plot is 7 to a maximum of 15 (Appendix 1a). )or the GBH measurements, Simpson‟s Diversity was higher in the trees (0.02cm) than the shrubs (0.01cm). Similarly, Shannon J results indicated that trees have higher GBH (1.00cm) than the shrubs (0.95cm) (see Table 3.7) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 3 Table 3.7: Descriptive Statistics for the occurence of the herbs, shrubs, and tree species at the study site. Sample Herbs Shrubs Trees Density Height (m) Density Height (m) GBH (cm) Density Height/m GBH (cm) Mean 10.12 ±0.25 0.42 ±0.17 0.007 ±0.01 3.04 ±0.53 3.15 ±0.43 0.001 ±0.01 19.12 ±12.32 58.18 ±49.65 Variance 0.06 0.03 0 0.28 0.17 0 151.72 2465.49 Standard error 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.04 0 1.23 4.97 Minimum 0.02 0.02 0.01 2.10 2 0 2.70 11.40 Maximum 1.96 1 0.05 6 4.40 0.01 73.80 316 Confidence interval 0.01 0.01 0 0.06 0.03 0 29.74 488.24 Shannon J 0.81 0.98 0.86 1.00 0.95 0.81 1.00 1.00 Simpson D -0.05 -0.02 3.48 0.01 0.01 1.06 0.01 0.02 3.3.0 Comparison of total mean number of individual plants in the transects The mean number of individual trees in the 25m x 25m plots in the three transects laid was 11.00±5.23 (Appendix 1a). There was a significant difference (F2, 27 =13.49, P<0.001) ( Appendix 1b), in the mean number of individual plants between the transects. There was a significant difference in the number of individuals between transects 1 and 2 (P<0.003) and transects 1 and 3 (P<0.001). However, the difference between transects 2 and 3 was not significant (P>0.05) (Appendix 1c). Transect 1 recorded the highest University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 4 number of individuals (15.80±5.57), followed by transect 2 (10.20±2.35) and transect 3 (7.00±2.75). The mean number of individuals per transect for the entire transects was 9.36±5.08 in the 5m x 5m (Appendix 1a). There was a significant difference (F2, 30 = 3.36, P < 0.05 ) (Appendix 2a) in the mean number of individual plants between the transects. There was a significant difference in the number of individuals between transects 1 and 2 (P < 0.016). Those of transects 1 and 3 (P > 0.353) and 2 and 3 (P > 0.116) were however not significantly different (Appendix 2b). The mean number of individuals per transect for the entire transects was 8.06±5.68 in the 1m x 1m (Appendix 1a). There was a significant difference (F2, 30 = 10.38, P < 0.001) (Appendix 3a) in the mean number of individual plants between the transects. There was a significant difference in the number of individuals between transects 1 and 2 (P < 0.001) and 1 and 3 (P<0.013) however the difference between transects 2 and 3 was not significant (P > 0.069) (Appendix 3b). 3.3.1 The mean values of density and height of the herbs along/across the transects The mean density of the herbs in transects 1, 2, and 3 was (0.24±0.15), (0.19±0.21) and (0.52±1.15) respectively (Appendix 4 and Table 3.8). The mean heights of the herbs in transects 1, 2, and 3 was (0.41±0.13), (0.43±0.18), and (0.42±0.18) respectively. However, there was no significant difference in the density (F 2, 91 = 2.43, P > 0.09) and heights (F 2, 91 = 0.22, P > 0.80 ) (Appendix 5a) of the herbs between the three transect. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 5 Herb species that occurred in only transect 1 includes: Adenia lobata, Culcasia angolensis, Cyathula prostrata, Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii and Hypselodelphys violacea among others Table 3.8. Herb species perculiar to only transect 2 includes: Annona senegalensis, Baissea multiflora and Chassala koli among others. Herb species perculiar to only transect 3 includes: Andropogon gayanus, Centella asiastica, and Cardiospermum longiflorum. Also there are some herb species that occurred in all the 3 transects. They include: Phaulopsis parviflora and Smilax longiflora. Table 3.8. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 6 Table 3.8: Herbs occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Abrus precatorius 0.36 0.09 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.50 - - - Acacia kamerunensis - - - 0.27 0.18 0.30 - - - Adenia lobata 0.27 0.18 0.40 - - - - - - Albizia adianthifolia - - - 0.09 0.09 0.30 0.18 0.18 0.30 Albizia zygia - - - 0.18 0.18 0.60 - - - Andropogon gayanus - - - - - - 5.90 0.45 0.40 Annona senegalensis - - - 0.09 0.09 0.40 - - - Antiaris toxicaria 0.27 0.27 0.40 0.36 0.27 0.50 0.09 0.09 0.40 Baissea multiflora - - - 0.18 0.18 0.20 - - - Baphia pubescens - - - 0.09 0.09 0.30 - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 7 Table 3.8 (Cont.): Herbs occurring along the transects Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Species Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Blighia sapida - - - 0.18 0.18 0.30 0.09 0.09 0.20 Byrsocarpus coccineus - - - 0.36 0.27 0.40 0.09 0.09 0.20 Cardiospermum longiflorum - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 0.40 Centella asiastica - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 0.20 Chassala koli - - - 0.18 0.18 0.20 - - - Chromolaena odorata 0.36 0.36 0.20 0.27 0.27 0.30 - - - Cola mellinii - - - 0.09 0.09 0.50 - - - Culcasia angolensis 0.18 0.18 0.40 - - - - - - Culcasia parviflora - - - 0.09 0.09 0.20 - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 8 Table 3.8 (Cont.): Herbs occurring along the transects Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Species Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Cyatula prostrata 0.09 0.09 0.40 - - - - - - Danielia olivera - - - - - - 0.18 0.09 0.30 Dialium guineense - - - - - - 0.63 0.27 0.40 Dichapetalum barteri - - - 0.09 0.09 0.40 - - - Dioscorea smilacifolia - - - 0.09 0.09 0.30 - - - Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii 0.09 0.09 0.60 - - - - - - Diospyros abyssinica - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 0.40 Emelia coccinea - - - 0.09 0.09 0.40 - - - Eugenia calophylloides - - - 0.09 0.09 0.40 - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 9 Table 3.8 (Cont.): Herbs occurring along the transects Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Species Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Griffonnia simplicifolia 0.18 0.18 0.50 0.27 0.27 0.30 0.09 0.09 0.30 Grewia carpinifolia - - - 0.09 0.09 0.30 - - - Heteropogon contortus - - - - - - 0.54 0.18 0.20 Hoslundia opposite - - - 0.09 0.09 0.40 - - - Justicia flava - - - 0.18 0.18 0.60 - - - Landolfia dulcis - - - 0.09 0.09 0.60 - - - Landolfia micrantha - - - 0.27 0.27 0.40 - - - Lecaniodiscus cupanoides - - - 0.09 0.09 0.50 - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 0 Table 3.8 (Cont.): Herbs occurring along the transects Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Species Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Leptaspis cochleata 0.09 0.09 0.40 - - - - - - Lophira lanceolata - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 0.60 Melinis minutiflora - - - 1.09 0.09 0.60 1.18 0.09 0.40 Millettia zechiana 0.18 0.18 0.50 - - - 0.09 0.09 0.40 Nesogordonia papaverifera 0.09 0.09 0.30 0.27 0.27 0.60 - - - Newbouldia laevis - - - 0.09 0.09 0.40 - - - Olax subscorpioides - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 0.60 Olyra latifolia - - - - - - 0.81 0.18 0.80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 1 Table 3.8 (Cont.): Herbs occurring along the transects Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Species Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Oplismenus boomenii 0.27 0.18 0.20 - - - - - - Pachystela brevipes - - - 0.09 0.09 0.60 - - - Pancovia florimbunda - - - 0.09 0.09 0.50 - - - Pancovia turbinate - - - 0.18 0.18 0.50 - - - Panicum fragmitoides - - - 0.90 0.09 0.40 0.81 0.18 0.40 Paulinia pinnata - - - 0.09 0.09 0.60 - - - Pavetta corymbosa - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 0.30 Phaulopsis parviflora 0.72 0.27 0.50 0.09 0.09 0.50 0.09 0.09 0.50 Piper guineense 0.18 0.18 0.60 - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 2 Table 3.8 (Cont): Herbs occurring along the transects Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Species Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Psychotria calva - - - 0.18 0.18 0.30 - - - Psychotria subobliqua - - - 0.09 0.09 0.40 - - - Setaria gayanus 0.27 0.27 0.20 - - - - - - Smilax krauseana 0.45 0.27 0.40 0.09 0.09 0.40 1.09 0.18 0.90 Spathodia campanolata - - - 0.09 0.09 0.30 - - - Sterculia tragacantha - - - 0.09 0.09 0.30 - - - Thaumatococcus danielii 0.27 0.27 0.60 0.72 0.09 1.00 - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 3 Table 3.8 (Cont.): Herbs occurring along the transects Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Species Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Tragia aquapimensis 0.36 0.27 0.30 0.09 0.09 0.20 - - - Trichilia monadelpha - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 0.30 Uvaria doeringii - - - 0.09 0.09 0.20 - - - Uvaria globosa - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 0.60 Vernonia camporum - - - - - - 0.18 0.09 0.30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 4 3.3.2 The mean values of density, height and GBH of shrubs along/across the transects The mean density of the shrubs in transects 1, 2, and 3 was (0.23±0.29), (0.31±0.34) and (0.46±0.72) respectively (Appendix 4 and Table 3.20). The mean heights of shrubs within transect 1, 2, and 3 was (3.06±0.62), (2.98±0.34), and (2.91±0.51) respectively. The mean GBH of shrubs for transects 1, 2, and 3 was (3.26±0.41), (3.27±0.46) and (3.00±0.38) respectively (Appendix 4). There was no significant difference in the density (F 2, 159 = 2.92, P > 0.06) and heights (F 2, 159 = 1.12, P > 0.33) of the shrubs between the three transects. (Appendix 5b). Shrub species that occurred in only transect 1 includes: Celtis mildbraedii, Chrysophyllum giganteum, Diospyros monbuttensis, Eugenia calophyloides and Ficus exasperata among others Table 3.9. Shrub species perculiar to only transect 2 includes: Agalaea nitida, Asclepias speciosa, Baphia pubescens, Blighia unjuculata, and Celtis zenkeri among others. Shrub species perculiar to only transect 3 includes: Adansonia digitata, Albizia ferruginia, Alcornia cordifolia, Cardiospermum grandifolium and Crossopterix febrifuga among others. Also there are some Shrubs species that occurred in all the 3 transects. They include Byrsocarpus coccineus and Carpolobia lutea among others Table 3.9. . University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 5 Table 3.9: Shrubs occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Abrus precatorius - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.20 3.10 0.09 0.09 2.90 3.70 Acacia kamerunensis 0.09 0.09 3.00 3.10 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.00 - - - - Adansonia digitata - - - - - - - - 0.18 0.09 2.40 3.60 Afzelia Africana - - - - 0.09 0.09 2.60 2.80 0.09 0.09 3.30 3.20 Agalea nitida - - - - 0.09 0.09 2.60 2.60 - - - - Albizia adianthifolia 0.09 0.09 3.00 3.10 0.36 0.36 3.10 3.50 0.45 0.36 2.70 2.90 Albizia ferruginea - - - - - - - - 0.18 0.18 3.10 3.00 Albizia zygia 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.20 - - - - 0.27 0.18 3.20 4.60 Alcornia cordifolia - - - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 2.90 3.20 Alstonia boonei 0.09 0.09 4.00 4.20 - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 6 Table 3.9 (Cont.): Shrubs occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Antiaris toxicaria 0.36 0.27 3.00 3.10 1.18 0.45 3.00 3.20 0.09 0.09 3.10 2.80 Asclepia speciosa - - - - 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.20 - - - - Baphia nitida - - - - 0.27 0.27 3.50 2.60 - - - - Baphia pubescens 0.36 0.27 3.00 3.30 0.63 0.54 3.00 3.30 0.18 0.18 3.00 2.90 Blighia unjuculata - - - - 0.18 0.18 3.10 2.90 - - - - Byrsocarpus coccineus 0.54 0.36 3.00 3.40 0.36 0.36 3.10 3.40 2.81 0.45 2.90 2.70 Cadiospermum grandifolium - - - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.60 3.50 Carpolobia lutea 0.09 0.09 3.20 3.40 0.18 0.18 2.90 3.00 0.09 0.09 3.10 2.50 Celtis mildbraedii 0.09 0.09 3.00 3.20 - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 7 Table 3.9 (Cont.): Shrubs occurring along the transects SPECIES Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Celtis zenkeri - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.00 3.80 - - - - Chassala koli 0.36 0.27 2.80 3.20 0.27 0.27 2.60 3.50 - - - - Chromolaena odorata 0.09 0.09 2.60 3.00 0.18 0.09 2.90 2.80 0.27 0.09 2.40 3.00 Chrysophylum giganteum 0.09 0.09 2.90 3.00 - - - - - - - - Clausena anisata - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.80 4.20 - - - - Cnestis febrifuga 0.09 0.09 3.60 3.60 0.54 0.27 3.20 2.90 - - - - Cola gigantean - - - - 0.36 0.36 3.10 3.10 0.09 0.09 2.8 3.40 Cola Mellinii 0.36 0.18 3.20 3.50 0.54 0.54 2.80 3.00 0.27 0.27 3.00 3.00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 8 Table 3.9 (Cont.): Shrubs occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Costus afer - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.20 3.80 - - - - Crossopterix febrifuga - - - - - - - - 0.81 0.18 2.40 2.60 Deinbollia pinnata - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.60 4.20 0.18 0.18 3.10 3.10 Dialium guineense 0.72 0.45 2.90 3.30 0.54 0.36 3.10 3.30 0.36 0.18 3.10 2.70 Dichapetalum madagascariense 0.27 0.27 3.00 3.90 0.54 0.54 3.00 3.10 0.45 0.18 2.90 2.70 Dioscorea smilacifolia - - - - 0.09 0.09 2.30 2.80 - - - - Diospyros monbuttensis 0.09 0.09 2.90 3.00 - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 9 Table 3.9 (Cont.): Shrubs occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Diospyros abyssinica 0.18 0.18 3.20 3.50 0.18 0.18 2.80 2.70 - - - - Erythrophloem suaveolus - - - - - - - - 0.18 0.09 2.70 2.90 Eugenia calophyloides 0.09 0.09 3.10 3.00 - - - - - - - - Griffonia simplicifolia 0.18 0.18 2.50 3.00 0.45 0.45 3.70 3.30 0.27 0.27 3.00 3.00 Holarrhena florimbunda 0.27 0.09 2.50 3.00 0.45 0.27 3.10 3.70 0.27 0.09 3.20 2.70 Hoslundia oppositifolia - - - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.20 3.10 Hymenostegia afzelii 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.00 - - - - - - - - Hypselodelphys violaca - - - - 0.09 0.09 2.40 2.80 - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 0 Table 3.9 (Cont.): Shrubs occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Khaya anthotica 0.27 0.09 3.40 3.40 0.09 0.09 2.80 2.90 0.09 0.09 3.50 2.70 Khaya ivorensis - - - - 0.36 0.09 2.80 2.90 - - - - Landolfia macranta 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.00 - - - - - - - - Landolfia Africana - - - - 0.27 0.27 3.20 3.40 - - - - Landolfia togolana - - - - - - - - 0.27 0.09 2.60 3.00 Lannea acida - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.20 3.60 0.09 0.09 2.90 2.80 Lecaniodiscus cupanoides 1.36 0.54 2.90 3.00 0.45 0.45 3.10 3.30 0.63 0.36 2.10 2.90 Leucaena gluca - - - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.60 3.30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 1 Table 3.9 (Cont.): Shrubs occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Lonchocarpus sericeus 0.09 0.09 3.20 3.30 0.09 0.09 3.60 3.80 0.09 0.09 3.20 3.10 Lophira Ianceolata 0.09 0.09 3.00 4.00 0.09 0.09 3.20 4.20 3.00 0.45 2.60 2.80 Macaranga barteri - - - - 0.09 0.09 2.20 2.80 - - - - Mallotus oppositiflia 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.00 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.00 0.09 0.09 3.10 3.30 Microdesmis puberula 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.20 0.36 0.09 3.20 3.10 - - - - Milicia excelsa - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.60 4.20 - - - - Millettia zechiana 0.36 0.27 2.80 3.00 0.36 0.27 2.70 2.70 0.27 0.27 2.80 3.30 Monodora ternuifolia 0.18 0.18 3.30 4.10 0.36 0.36 3.10 3.40 - - - - Monodora myristica 0.09 0.09 3.10 3.00 0.81 0.18 2.90 4.40 - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 2 Table 3.9 (Cont.): Shrubs occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Napoleona vogelii - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.20 4.20 - - - - Nesogordonia papaverifera 0.36 0.27 2.90 3.00 1.09 0.36 3.10 3.60 - - - - Newbouldia laevis 0.18 0.18 3.40 3.10 0.36 0.36 2.40 3.20 - - - - Olax subcorpioides 0.18 0.09 3.00 3.40 0.09 0.09 3.00 3.60 0.54 0.18 2.60 3.20 Olyra latifolia - - - - 0.18 0.18 2.50 3.00 - - - - Olyra subcoides - - - - - - - - 0.63 0.18 2.90 2.60 Pachystela brevipes - - - - 0.18 0.18 2.90 3.20 - - - - Palisota hirsuta 1.45 0.09 2.40 3.00 1.81 0.18 2.90 3.20 - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 3 Table 3.9 (Cont.): Shrubs occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Pancovia turbinata - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.10 2.60 - - - - Panicum fragmitoides - - - - - - - - 2.90 0.09 2.40 2.60 Paulinia pinnata - - - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.40 3.40 Pavetta corymbosa 0.54 0.18 3.20 3.20 0.36 0.09 3.20 3.20 - - - - Phyllanthus arboreus 0.09 0.09 3.00 3.00 - - - - - - - - Piptadesniastrum africanum 0.09 0.09 4.60 4.00 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.20 - - - - Pterigota macrocarpa 0.09 0.09 4.10 3.40 - - - - - - - - Pterocapus malbraedii 0.09 0.09 2.50 2.40 0.09 0.09 3.00 3.00 0.54 0.09 2.10 3.00 Rothmania longiflora - - - - 0.18 0.18 3.00 3.60 0.36 0.27 4.80 2.90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 4 Table 3.9 (Cont.): Shrubs occurring along the transects Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Species Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Securidaca crossopterix - - - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 1.80 3.00 Securidaca longiflora 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.80 0.09 0.09 3.00 4.00 0.72 0.18 2.40 2.60 Smilax krauseana - - - - - - - - 1.18 0.27 2.60 2.60 Sterculia oblonga - - - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.60 2.90 Sterculia tragacantha 0.09 0.09 4.00 4.20 0.27 0.27 3.30 3.70 0.09 0.09 2.80 2.60 Tabernaemontana pachysiphon - - - - 0.09 0.09 2.40 3.00 - - - - Terminalia superba - - - - - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.20 2.80 Thaumatococcus danielii - - - - 1.36 0.09 2.30 2.60 - - - - Tragia aquapimensis - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.00 3.40 0.09 0.09 3.60 3.50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 5 Table 3.9 (Cont.): Shrubs occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Trilepisium madagascariense - - - - 0.81 0.18 3.10 3.00 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.00 Trichilia monadelpha - - - - 0.09 0.09 3.40 2.90 0.18 0.18 1.90 2.70 Trichilia puriana 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.00 - - - - - - - - Triplochiton scleroxylum 0.09 0.09 6.00 4.10 - - - - - - - - Uapaca togoensis 0.09 0.09 2.90 2.50 - - - - - - - - Uvaria chamae 0.09 0.09 3.00 3.30 - - - - - - - - Uvaria doeringii - - - - 0.09 0.09 2.80 3.40 - - - - Vernonia camporum 0.63 0.27 2.20 2.70 - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 6 3.3.3 The mean values of density, height and DBH of trees along/across the transects The mean density of trees in the transects 1, 2, and 3 was (0.57±1.07), (0.43±0.66) and (1.01E+00 ±2.12E+00) respectively (Appendix 4 and Table 3. 10). The mean heights of trees in the transects 1, 2, and 3 was (18.31±12.68), (21.00±10.33) and (1.71E+01±2.03E+01) respectively (Appendix 4 and Table 3.10). The mean GBH of trees in the transects 1, 2, and 3 was (62.62±61.68), (62.27±40.31) and (5.44E+01±5.01E+01) respectively (Appendix 4 and Table 3.10).There was no significant difference in the density (F 2, 168 = 2.89, P > 0.06 ), heights (F 2, 168 = 0.96, P > 0.39 ) and GBH (F 2, 168 = 0.33, P > 0.72 ) of the trees between the three transects (Appendix 6). More trees occurred in transect 1 (82) than transect 2 (52) and transect 3 (39). The unique tree species (that is tree species found in only one transect but not in others) also show similar patterns with transect 1 recording the highest (33), transects 2 and 3 with (9 species each) (Figure 3.7) A total of 22 species of trees, however, occurred in all the three transects Figure 3.7. They include Albizia adianthifolia, Baphia pubescens, Bridelia ferruginea, Cola mellinii, Crossopterix febrifuga, Dacleodes kleineana and Dilium guineense among others. (Table 3.10). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 7 Table 3.10: Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Acacia kamerunensis 0.20 0.10 10.50 29.50 - - - - - - - - Afzelia africana - - - - 0.10 0.10 12.00 35.00 - - - - Albizia adianthifolia 1.80 0.70 12.90 43.80 1.60 0.70 27.80 61.17 1.00 0.50 15.50 58.40 Albizia ferruginea 0.20 0.20 27.00 99.50 0.40 0.30 17.70 43.00 0.10 0.10 16.00 20.00 Albizia zygia 0.20 0.10 35.50 91.00 0.70 0.20 30.00 81.00 0.20 0.20 13.00 43.50 Allophylus africanus - - - - - - - - 0.50 0.10 11.00 21.00 Alstonia boonei 0.20 0.20 18.30 143.30 - - - - 0.50 0.20 27.50 210.00 Amphimas pterocarpoides 0.30 0.20 31.00 44.50 - - - - - - - - Annona senegalensis - - - - - - - - 0.20 0.10 4.20 19.00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 8 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Anthotica sassandraensis 0.10 0.10 9.00 38.00 - - - - - - - - Antiaris toxicaria 0.40 0.30 43.20 250.70 - - - - 0.10 0.10 41.00 120.00 Argocoffeopsis rupestris 0.80 0.50 10.40 42.70 0.20 0.20 19.50 36.50 - - - - Azadiracta indica - - - - - - - - 0.10 0.10 12.00 27.00 Baphia nitida - - - - - - - - 0.10 0.10 8.00 25.00 Baphia pubescens 0.70 0.50 11.90 31.60 0.10 0.10 18.00 33.30 0.30 0.10 12.00 32.00 Berlinia pubescens 0.10 0.10 20.00 45.00 - - - - - - - - Blighia sapida 0.20 0.20 32.50 130.00 - - - - - - - - Bombax buonopozenze - - - - 0.10 0.10 16.00 48.00 - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 9 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Bridelia ferruginea 1.50 0.10 13.00 12.00 1.50 0.10 8.00 12.00 1.70 0.20 4.00 14.00 Canarium schweinfurthii 0.10 0.10 11.00 23.00 - - - - - - - - Cassia siamea - - - - 1.30 0.10 23.00 65.00 - - - - Casia sieberianus 0.20 0.10 49.00 82.00 - - - - - - - - Ceiba pentandra 0.90 0.60 26.40 162.30 1.00 0.40 35.00 118.00 0.40 0.20 26.00 - Celtis mildbraedii 0.40 0.20 34.50 112.50 - - - - - - - - Celtis zenkeri 0.10 0.10 22.00 56.00 - - - - - - - - Christiana africana 0.20 0.20 28.10 53.50 - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 0 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Cola gigantean 0.40 0.20 9.90 33.00 0.10 0.10 11.00 35.00 0.10 0.10 21.00 70.00 Cola mellinii 3.70 0.80 14.80 308.40 2.80 0.70 16.10 43.10 1.30 0.30 19.00 44.70 Combretum paniculatum 1.40 0.10 8.90 50.60 1.00 0.10 8.00 49.00 - - - - Crossopterix febrifuga 0.70 0.10 8.00 13.00 0.70 0.10 7.00 13.00 6.30 0.60 6.70 40.70 Cussonia barteri - - - - - - - - 0.10 0.10 7.00 42.00 Dacleodes kleineana 0.30 0.20 40.00 113.30 0.10 0.10 21.00 82.00 0.30 0.10 35.00 136.00 Danielia olivera 0.10 0.10 14.00 85.00 - - - - 2.40 0.50 9.80 45.00 Dialium guineense 0.30 0.20 7.00 31.80 0.30 0.10 14.00 65.00 0.10 0.10 16.00 23.00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 1 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Dichapetalum madagascariense 0.20 0.20 18.50 42.00 0.40 0.20 17.50 49.00 - - - - Diospyros monbitensis 0.1 0.1 8 27 - - - - - - - - Erythrophloem suaveolus 0.20 0.10 33.50 100.50 0.20 0.20 46.50 167.00 0.60 0.20 33.00 136.50 Eugenia calophilata - - - - - - - - 0.30 0.20 4.50 32.00 Ficus asperifolia 0.10 0.10 32.00 91.00 - - - - - - - - Ficus exasperata 0.50 0.20 15.40 42.50 0.10 0.10 23.00 60.00 - - - - Ficus sur 0.40 0.20 10.00 57.30 0.30 0.20 19.50 55.50 - - - - Funtumia africana - - - - 0.10 0.10 18.00 53.00 - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 2 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Funtumia elastic a 0.10 0.10 9.00 29.00 - - - - - - - - Grewia pubescens 0.10 0.10 26.00 50.00 - - - - - - - - Holarrhena florimbunda 0.10 0.10 27.00 70.00 0.10 0.10 19.00 70.00 0.70 0.20 14.60 39.00 Homalium letestui - - - - 0.30 0.30 13.50 42.30 - - - - Khaya angolensis 0.10 0.10 8.50 25.00 - - - - - - - - Khaya anthotica 0.10 0.10 15.50 30.00 0.30 0.30 28.70 120.00 - - - - Khaya grandifolia 0.50 0.20 44.80 20.40 - - - - - - - - Khaya ivorensis - - - - 0.20 0.20 30.00 125.00 - - - - Lannea welwitschi 0.10 0.10 9.10 25.00 0.10 0.10 42.00 166.00 0.10 0.10 5.20 46.00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 3 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Lecaniodiscus cupanoides 3.20 0.60 26.10 36.40 1.00 0.70 13.60 45.70 0.50 0.10 18.00 29.00 Lonchocarpus cereseus 0.10 0.10 17.00 25.00 - - - - 0.30 0.10 7.00 28.00 Lophira lanceolata - - - - - - - - 7.90 0.40 9.50 45.80 Macaranga barteri 0.50 0.30 18.30 30.80 0.30 0.20 21.00 84.50 - - - - Macaranga microphyla - - - - 0.20 0.10 21.00 62.00 - - - - Magaritaria discoides 0.10 0.10 8.70 17.00 0.10 0.10 15.00 38.00 - - - - Malacantha alnifolia 0.10 0.10 7.20 26.00 - - - - - - - - Mesoneron bantamianus - - - - - - - - 0.10 0.10 6.00 15.00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 4 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Milicia excelsa 0.10 0.10 30.00 45.00 0.10 0.10 45.00 217.00 - - - - Millettia zechiana 1.50 0.50 36.00 34.20 0.50 0.10 25.00 49.00 0.30 0.10 13.00 19.00 Mimusops elongi 0.10 0.10 17.00 31.00 - - - - 0.10 0.10 23.00 115.00 Monodora myristica 0.10 0.10 38.00 80.00 0.10 0.10 21.00 42.00 0.10 0.10 4.00 18.00 Monodora ternuifolia 0.20 0.20 14.40 42.50 - - - - - - - - Morus mesozygia 0.50 0.20 24.60 47.80 - - - - 0.10 0.10 123.00 70.00 Myrianthus arboreus 0.10 0.10 12.00 97.00 0.40 0.10 19.00 46.00 - - - - Napoleona vogelii 0.10 0.10 7.00 34.00 - - - - - - - - Nauclea latifolia 0.30 0.10 2.30 9.00 0.30 0.10 6.00 9.00 0.60 0.20 3.60 15.50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 5 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Nesogordonia papaverifera 0.70 0.30 22.20 65.30 0.30 0.30 24.70 44.30 - - - - Newbouldia laevis 0.90 0.30 17.10 35.50 0.30 0.30 19.70 42.70 - - - - Olax subscorpioides 0.20 0.20 6.30 19.50 - - - - - - - - Olyra latifolia 0.20 0.10 6.70 21.00 - - - - - - - - Ouratea cocleensis 0.20 0.10 4.00 20.00 0.20 0.10 4.00 20.00 0.20 0.10 4.00 20.00 Pachystela brevipes 0.20 0.20 17.50 39.00 - - - - - - - - Parkia bicolour 0.10 0.10 62.50 285.00 - - - - - - - - Pavetta corymbosa 0.20 0.10 6.50 22.00 - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 6 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Pterocarcus santalenoides 0.20 0.10 11.50 49.00 - - - - - - - - Pycnanthus angolensis - - - - 0.10 0.10 21.00 42.00 - - - - Rauwolfia vomitoria 0.10 0.10 9.20 28.00 0.10 0.10 36.00 60.00 - - - - Rothmania longiflora - - - - 0.10 0.10 33.00 56.00 - - - - Securidaca longiflora 2.40 0.20 4.50 29.00 2.30 0.10 4.00 10.00 9.10 0.40 4.50 21.80 Sterculia oblonga 0.10 0.10 8.80 31.00 0.10 0.10 26.00 48.00 - - - - Sterculia rhinopetala 0.10 0.10 9.20 33.00 - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 7 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Sterculia tragacantha 1.70 0.30 11.50 34.30 0.70 0.40 30.50 77.80 0.20 0.10 11.00 30.00 Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 0.10 0.10 8.00 32.00 0.40 0.10 15.00 42.00 - - - - Tamarindus indica 0.10 0.10 5.00 45.00 0.10 0.10 5.00 45.00 - - - - Terminalia avicennioides 0.20 0.10 11.00 59.00 0.20 0.10 11.00 59.00 - - - - Terminalia glaucescens - - - - - - - - 0.30 0.20 29.00 77.50 Terminalia microptera 0.10 0.10 13.00 38.00 - - - - - - - - Terminalia superba 0.10 0.10 46.00 172.00 0.10 0.10 14.00 51.00 - - - - Tetrochidium didymostemon 0.10 0.10 9.50 67.00 - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 8 Table 3.10 (Cont.): Tree species occurring along the transects Species Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3 Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Density Freq Mean Height (m) Mean GBH (cm) Trema orientalis 0.10 0.10 7.50 20.00 - - - - - - - - Trichilia heudeloti 0.10 0.10 6.50 35.00 - - - - - - - - Trichilia monadelpha 0.10 0.10 9.00 75.00 0.20 0.10 22.00 49.00 - - - - Trichilia puriana 0.30 0.10 10.50 47.00 - - - - - - - - Trichilia roka 0.10 0.10 9.00 69.00 - - - - - - - - Trilepisium madagascariense 0.90 0.30 19.00 52.90 0.10 0.10 42.00 123.00 - - - - Triplochiton scleroxylum 0.20 0.20 47.50 316.00 - - - - - - - - Vitex doniana 0.20 0.20 23.50 63.50 0.50 0.30 28.00 80.00 0.20 0.20 14.10 52.00 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 9 3.4.0 The occurrence of species and their numbers at different altitudes The highest mean number of individual species was recorded in altitude 288m (16.00±7.80) with the least recorded in altitude 716m (6.00±0.00) in the 25m x 25m plots (Appendix 7). The ANOVA indicated that there was no significant difference in the means among the various altitudes. (F9, 20 = 0.78, P> 0.64) (Appendix 8a). This result seems to suggest a decreasing number of individual species as the altitude increases. The variation in the number of individual species is also wider in lower altitudes than in the higher altitudes. For instance, the largest variations were experienced in altitudes 288m (16.00±7.80), 326m (12.40±3.15), and 379m (12.30±6.51) whilst that of the altitude 716m (6.00±0.00) was the lowest (Appendix 7). The highest mean number of individual species in the 5m x 5m plots was recorded in altitude 288m (15.00±8.88). The mean for this particular altitude also registered the most widely varied responses as indicated in the standard deviation of 8.88. The least number of individuals was recorded at altitude 755m (4.00±1.00 (Appendix 7). The ANOVA indicated that there was no significant difference in the means among the various altitudes. (F10, 22 = 1.68, P> 0.15) (Appendix 8 b). The results suggest that as the altitude increases, the number of individual species decreases resulting in a lower variation in means recorded for the higher altitude plots (Appendix 7). The highest mean number of individual species in the 1m x 1m plots was recorded in altitude 288m (13.00±11.53). The mean for this particular altitude also registered the most widely varied species as indicated in the standard deviation. The least number of individuals was recorded at altitude 755m (3.30±1.53) (Appendix 7). The ANOVA University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 0 indicated that there was no significant difference in the means among the various altitudes. (F10, 22 = 0.79, P> 0.64) (Appendix 8 c).The results suggest that as the altitude increases, the number of individual species decreases (Appendix 7). The most frequently occurring herbs in the lower altitudes included Acacia kamerunensis, Antiaris toxicaria, Landolfia macranta, Mallotus oppositifolia, Paullinia pinnata, and Phaulopsis parviflora. In the middle belt , Byrsocarpus coccineus, Phaulopsis parviflora, Smilax krauseana, and Tragia aquapimensis are found, and in the upper altitudes, Andropogon gayanus, Byrsocarpus coccineus, Chromolaena odorata, Justicia flava, panicum fragmitoides, and Securidaca longiflora are the most dominant herbs (Table 3.11).The most dominant shrub species in the lower altitudes include Afzelia Africana, Albizia sp, Cola gigantea, Cola mellinii, Deinbolia pinnata, Dialium guineense, Griffonia simplicifolia, Olax subscorpioides, Rothmania longiflora, Carpolobia lutea, Trilepisium madagascariense, Lecaniodiscus cupanoides, and Millettia zechiana. In the middle altitudes, Albizia sp, Baphia sp, Crossopterix febrifuga, Byrsocarpus coccineus, Landolfia sp, Lophira lanceolata, Rothmania longiflora, Nesogordonia papaverifera, and Cola mellinii are commonly found. In the upper altitudes however, Byrsocarpus coccineus Crossopterix febrifuga, Daniela olivera, Holarrhena florimbunda, Lophira lanceolata, Securidaca longiflora, Vernonia camparum, and Sterculia tragacantha are the dominant shrubs (Table 3.12). The most common trees found in the lower altitudes include Albizia sp, Alstonia boonei, Argocoffeopsis rupestris, Ceiba pentandra, Cola mellinii, Cola gigantea, Ficus sur, Khaya sp, Lecaniodiscus cupanoides, Nesogordonia papaverifera, and Macaranga barteri. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 1 In the middle altitudes, the trees found included Antiaris toxicaria, Argocoffeopsis rupestris, Baphia pubescens, Cola mellinii, Crossopterix febrifuga, Dacleodes kleineana, Daniela olivera, Dialium guineense, Lophira lanceolata, Newbouldia laevis, Pachystela brevipes, and Millettia zechiana.The following species are also very common in the upper altitudes: Albizia adianthifolia, Cola mellinii, Crossopterix febrifuga, Daniela olivera, Securidaca longiflora, Sterculia tragacantha, Vitex doniana, Combretum paniculata, Lecaniodiscus cupanoides, and Lophira lanceolata (Table 3.13). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 2 Table 3.11: Herbaceous species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes Species 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m Den Freq 326m Den Freq 379m Den Freq 413m Den Freq 449m Den Freq 472m Den Freq 573m Den Freq 615m Den Freq 705m Den Freq 716m Den Freq 755m Den Freq Acacia kamerunensis 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Adenia lobata - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.0 0.3 - - - - - - Baissea multiflora 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 - Andropogon gayanus - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.0 0.3 3.6 0.3 1.3 0.3 2.6 0.3 2.6 0.3 Annona senegalensis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 Centella asiastica - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Chassala koli - - - - 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Chromolaena odorata - - - - - - - - - - 0.6 0.3 - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 0.6 33 Culcasia angolensis - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Culcasia parviflora - - - - 0.6 0.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cyantula prostrata - 0.33 0.33 Dioscorea Smilacifolia 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Dioscoreophyllum cumminisii - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 3 Table 3.11 (Cont.): Herbaceous species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 472m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Species Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Fre q Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Fre q Den Freq Den Emelia coccinea - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Heteropogon contortus - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.6 0.3 - - - - 1.3 0.3 - - Hoslundia opposita - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - Hypselodelphys violacea - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Justicia flava - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 - - Landolfia dulsis 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Landolfia micrantha 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Leptaspis cochleata - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - Lophira lanceolata - - - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - Melinis minutiflora - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.3 Olax subscorpioides 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Olyra latifolia - - 0.3 0.3 - - 2.6 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 4 Table 3.11 (Cont.): Herbaceous species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 472m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Species Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Fre q Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Fre q Den Freq Den Oplismenus boomenii - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.0 0.3 - - - - - - Palisota hirsuta - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - Panicum fragmitoides - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.0 0.3 5.3 0.6 Paulinia pinnata 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Phaylopsis parviflora 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - 1.0 0.3 1.0 0.3 - - 0.3 0.3 - - Piper guineense 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Psychotria calva - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - Psychotria subobliqua - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - 0.6 0.3 - - - - - - - - Scleria speciosa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - Securidaca longiflorum - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.6 0.3 - - 0.3 0.33 Setaria gayanus - - - - - - - - - - 1.0 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 5 Table 3.11 (Cont.): Herbaceous species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Species 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 472m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Fre q Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Fre q Den Freq Den Freq Smilax krauseana 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - 2.0 0.3 2.0 0.3 - - 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.3 - - - - Thaumatococcus danielii - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.6 0.6 - - - - - - - - Triclisia lanceolata - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - 1.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - - - Uvaria doeringii - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - 0.3 0.3 - - - - - - - - Uvaria globosa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Vernonia camporum - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.6 0.3 - - - - Abrus precatoria 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - Acacia kamerunensis - - - - - - - - 0.03 0.03 - - - - - - - - - - - - Adansonia digitata - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 6 Table 3.12: Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes Species Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Afzelia Africana 0,01 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Agalea nitida 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Albizia adianthifolia - - 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 - - Albizia ferruginea 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - Albizia zygia 0.03 0.06 - - - - - - 0.03 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - Alcornia cordifolia 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Alstonia boonei 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Antiaris toxicaria - - 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.09 0.03 - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - Asclepia speciosa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 Baphia nitida - - 0.03 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 7 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Species Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Baphia pubescens - - 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - Blighia unjugata - - 0.01 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Byrsocarpus coccineus - - - - 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.01 3.2 0.04 - - 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 Cadiospermum grandifolium 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Carpolobia lutea - - - - 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - Celtis mildbraedii 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - Celtis zenkeri - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - Chassala koli - - - - 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 8 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Species Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Chromolaena odorata - - - - - - - - - - 0.04 0.01 - - 0.04 0.01 - - - - 0.03 0.01 Chrysophyllum giganteum - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - Cnestis febrifuga 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cola gigantean 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - Cola Mellinii 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 133. 3 33.3 0.04 0.01 - - - - - - Costus afer - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - Crossopterix febrifuga - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - 0.08 0.01 0.05 0.03 - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 9 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Species Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Daniellia olivera - - - - - - - - 0.03 0.01 - - 0.08 0.01 0.08 0.01 - - 0.09 0.03 0.04 0.03 Deinbollia pinnata 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - Dialium guineense - - 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.01 - - 0.04 0.03 - - - - - - Dichapetalum madagascariense 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - Dioscorea smilacifolia - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Diospyros monbuttensis - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Diospyros abyssinica - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - Erythrophloem suaveolus - - - - - - 0.03 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 0 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Species Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Eugenia calophylloides - - - - 0.0 1 0.0 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ficus exasperata - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - -- Griffonia simplicifolia 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - -- Holarrhena florimbunda - - - - - - - - 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.01 Hoslundia oppositifolia 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hymenostegia afzelii - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 1 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Species Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Hypselodelphys violaca - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - Khaya anthotica 0.06 0.04 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Khaya ivorensis 0.05 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Landolfia macranta - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - -- Landolfia africana - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - 0.03 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - -- Landolfia togolana - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - -- Lannea acida - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - -- Lecaniodiscus cupanoides 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.08 0.03 - Leucaena gluca 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 2 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Species Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Lonchocarpus coccineus 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - -- Lophira Ianceolata - - - - - - - - 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.01 - - - - 2.4 0.01 0.12 0.03 0.01 0.01 Macaranga barteri - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - -- Mallotus oppositiflia 0.03 0.03 - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Microdesmis puberula - - 0.06 0.03 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- Milicia excelsa - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - -- Millettia zechiana 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.01 - Monodora ternuifolia - ˗ ˗ - - - - - - - 0.03 0.03 - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - Monodora myristica - - - - - - - - 0.12 0.03 - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 3 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Species Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Napoleona vogelii - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - Nesogordonia papaverifera 0.01 0.01 - - 0.03 0.03 - - 0.14 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 - - - - - - - Newbouldia laevis - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 - - 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - Olax subcorpioides 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - Olyra latifolia - - 0.06 0.01 - - 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - Olyra subcoides - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Pachystela brevipes - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - Palisota hirsuta - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - Pancovia turbinata - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - Panicum fragmitoides - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.08 0.01 - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 4 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Species Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Paulinia pinnata 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Pavetta corymbosa - - 05 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.01 - Phyllanthus arboreus - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - -- Piptadesniastrum africana 0.91 0.01 - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - -- Psychotria calva - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Pterigota macrocarpa - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - Pterocapus malbraedii - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.09 0.04 - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 5 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Species Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Rothmania longiflora 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - Securidaca crosspterix - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - Securidaca longiflorum - - - - - - - - - - 0.04 0.01 - - - - 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 Smilax krauseana - - - - - - - - 0.04 0.01 0.09 0.01 - - 0.04 0.01 - - - - - - Sterculia oblonga 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sterculia tragacantha 0.01 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 6 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Species Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Terminalia super ba 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Thaumatococcus danielii - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.6 0.01 - - - - - - - - Tragia aquapimensis 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - Trichilia monadelpha 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Trichilia puriana - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Trilepisium madagascariense 0.11 0.01 - - 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Triplochiton scleroxylum - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 7 Table 3.12 (Cont.): Shrub species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes . Plots 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a 10b 10c 11a 11b 11c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 572m 573m 615m 705m 716m 755m Species Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Uapaca togoensis - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Uvaria chamae 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Uvaria doeringii - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - Vernonia camporum - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.01 0.01 - - 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.01 - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 8 Table 3. 13: Tree species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes Species 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a10b10c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 472m 573m 615m 705m 716m Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Acacia kamerunensis 0.042 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Afzelia Africana - - - - - - 0.002 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - Albizia adianthifolia - - 0.42 0.0016 0.001 0.0016 0.006 0.001 - - 0.8 0.0016 0 0.0005 0.0016 0.0005 0.0042 0.001 0.0042 0.0005 Albizia ferruginea - - 0.0042 0.001 0.0042 0.0005 - - 0.002 0.0005 - - - - 0.0042 0.0005 - - - Albizia zygia 0.021 0.0005 0.32 0.001 - - - - - - - - - - 0.0042 0.0005 - - - Allophylus africanus - 0.001 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Alstonia boonei 0.001 0.001 0.0021 0.0005 0.0042 0.001 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Amphimas pterocarpoides - - 0.0021 0.0005 - - - - - - - - 0 0.0005 - - - - - Annona senegalensis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0042 0.0005 Anthotica sassandraensis - - - - - - - - - - 0.002 0.0005 - - - - - - - Antiaris toxicaria 0.021 0.0005 - - 0.0021 0.0005 0.002 0.0005 0.004 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - Argocoffeopsis rupestris 0.064 0.0005 0.0021 0.0005 0.0042 0.0005 0.004 0.001 0.004 0.001 - - - - - - - - - Azadiracta indica - - 5.3 33.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Baphia nitida 0.021 0.0005 5.3 33.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Baphia pubescens 0.021 0.0005 0.021 0.0005 10.7 33.3 0.006 0.001 - Berlinia pubescens - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0021 0.0005 - - - Canarium schweinfurthii - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 0.0005 - - - - - Casia siamea 0.069 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Casia sieberianus 0.042 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ceiba pentandra 0.016 0.0016 0.026 0.001 0.032 0.001 0.002 0.0005 0.004 0.0005 - - 0.02 0.0005 0.0021 0.0005 - - - Celtis mildbraedii - - 0.0021 0.0005 - - - - 0.004 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - Celtis zenkeri - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 0.0005 - - - - - Christiana Africana - - - - 0.0021 0.0005 - - 0.002 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 9 Combretum paniculatum - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 2 0.0 0 0 5 - Crossopterix febrifuga - - - - - - - - 0.0 3 7 0.0 0 5 0.0 6 4 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 6 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 4 8 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 9 6 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 3 7 0.0 0 05 Cussonia barteri 0. 0 4 2 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Dacleodes kleineana - - - - - - 0.0 0 6 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 0 6 0.0 0 1 - - 0 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - Danielia olivera - - - - - - - - 0.0 0 4 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 0 6 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 4 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 4 8 0.0 0 1 0.0 0 6 4 0.0 0 0 5 - Dialium guineense - - 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - 0.0 0 4 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 0 4 0.0 0 0 5 - - 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - - Ficus sur 0. 0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 0 4 2 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - - - 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - - Funtumia africana 0. 0 0 2 1 0.0 0 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Funtumia elastica 0. 0 2 0 1 0.0 0 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Grewia pubescens - - - - - - - - 0.0 0 2 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - - Table 3. 13: Tree species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a10b10c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 472m 573m 615m 705m 716m Species Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 0 Table 3. 13 (Cont.): Tree species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a10b 10c 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 472m 573m 615m 705m 716m - - - - - - - - - Species Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Holarrhena florimbunda - - - - 0.0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - 0.0 0 4 0.0 0 1 - - - - - - 0.0 0 6 4 0.0 0 0 5 - - Homalium letestui - - 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - 0.0 0 2 0.0 0 0 5 - - 0 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - Khaya anthotica 0. 0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 0 2 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - Khaya grandifolia 0. 0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - - - 0 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - Khaya ivorensis - - 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - 0.0 0 2 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Macaranga barteri 0. 0 0 2 1 0.0 0 1 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - 0 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - Macaranga microphyla - - - - 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - 0 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - Magaritaria discoides - - - - 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - 0.0 0 2 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - Malacantha alnifolia - - - - - - 0.0 0 2 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 1 Mesoneron bantamianus 0. 0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Milicia excelsa 0. 0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Millettia zechiana - - 0.0 0 6 4 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 0.0 8 0.0 0 1 0.0 0 4 0.0 0 0 5 - - 0 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - Mimusops elongi - - 0.0 0 2 1 0.0 0 0 5 - - 0.0 0 2 0.0 0 0 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - Monodora ternuifolia - - - - 5.3 33.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Morus mesozygia 0.0021 0.0005 - - - - - - - - 0.004 0.000 5 - - - - - - - - Myrianthus arboreus - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.02 0.000 5 - - - - - - Newbouldia laevis - - - - - - 0.002 0.0005 0.006 0.001 0.026 0.001 0.01 0.000 5 - - - - - - Olax subscorpioides - - - - - - 0.002 0.0005 - 0.002 0.000 5 - - - - - - - - Olyra latifolia - - 0.0042 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ouratea cocleensis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.004 2 0.0005 - Table 3. 13 (Cont.): Tree species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes 326m 379m 413m 449m 472m 573m 615m 705m 716m 288m Species 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a10b10c Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 2 Table 3. 13 (Cont.): Tree species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes 326m 379m 413m 449m 472m 573m 615m 705m 716m 288m 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a10b10c Species Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Pachystela brevipes - - - - - - - - 0.002 0.0005 0.002 0.0005 0 0.0005 - - - - - - Parkia bicolour - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 0.0005 - - - - - - Pavetta corymbosa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0042 0.0005 - - - - Pterocarpus santalenoides - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0042 0.0005 - - - - Pycnanthus angolensis 0.0021 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Rauwolfia vomitoria - - - - 0.0021 0.0005 0.002 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - Securidaca longiflora - - - - - - - - - - 0.069 0.0005 0.05 0.0005 0.0021 0.0005 0.13 0.0005 0.076 0.0005 Sterculia oblonga - - - - - - 0.004 0.001 - - - - - - - - - - - - Sterculia rhinopetalum - - - - - - 0.002 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - Sterculia tragacantha - - 0.021 0.0016 - - - - - - 0.058 0.0005 0 0.0005 0.037 0.001 - - - - Tabernaemontana pachysiphon - - 0.026 0.001 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Tamarindus indica - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0021 0.0005 - - Terminalia avicennioides - - - - - - - - 0.004 0.0005 - - - - - - 0.0042 0.0005 - - Terminalia glaucoscens - - - - - - 0.002 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - Terminalia microptera - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0021 0.0005 - - - - Terminalia superba - - - - - 0.0021 0.0005 0.002 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - Trema orientalis 0.0021 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Trichilia monadelpha - - 0.0021 0.0005 - - 0.006 0.001 - - - - - - - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 3 - Table 3. 13 (Cont.): Tree species occurring on the horizontal plots at similar altitudes 288m 326m 379m 413m 449m 472m 573m 615m 705m 716m 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 10a10b10c Species Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Den Freq Trilepisium madagascariense 32 0.0005 - - 0.0042 0.0005 - - 0.002 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - Triplochiton scleroxylum - - - - 0.0021 0.0005 - - 0.002 0.0005 - - - - - - - - - - Vitex doniana - - - - 0.0021 0.0005 0.002 0.0005 0.004 0.0005 - - 0 0.0005 - - 0.0021 0.0005 - - Zanthoxylum leprieuri - - 0.0021 0.0005 - - - - 0.002 0.0005 - - 0 0.0005 - - - - - - University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 4 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DISCUSSION 4.1 Useful Plant Families In this study, the dominant families listed as useful in the category of food, building, making household items, fuelwood and for medicine by the Afadjato Communities include Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, and Euphorbiaceae (Fig 3.2). This trend is similar to a study in the Kade forest of Ghana where Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, and Euphorbiaceae were reported as the most dominant families for the same uses (Lawson et al., 1970). The Fabaceae family in addition to having the most useful species in the use-categories under study has again been linked to other minor uses as ornamental and ritualistic by some few informants. As such this family has great importance for the community in this study, indicating the need for further studies on the use and management of the species of this family (Albuquerque & Lucena; 2005). In relation to habits of the species reported as useful, trees were the most represented in the five use categories under study, followed by shrubs, herbs, lianas and climbers (Fig 3.3). This trend was also seen in the works of Albuquerque & Lucena, 2005; Stepp & Moerman, 2001. According to Moerman (1994), a tree having a high number of distinct parts (wood, bark, leaves, fruits, seeds, roots etc) is more likely to have more uses than stems and herbs that may not have some of these parts pronounced. Crepalpi & Peixoto (2008) also found trees to be the most represented in the similar use-categories in their study in the Quilombola community, though the position of the shrubs and herbs was University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 5 reversed. The high percentage of the uses of trees in the study justifies the undertaking of projects to increase native tree forest cover in the community. Results from the plant use-value shows that species that had low UVs were mentioned by a few interviewees for a few uses whiles those with high values were cited by large numbers of participants for various uses. A similar situation was seen in a study involving Afro-descendants in Colombia (Galeano, 2000) and another one involving the inhabitants of a community in semi-arid north eastern Brazil (Ferraz et al., 2006). This trend is an indication that ethnobotanical knowledge among interviewees was quite diffused with each informant having his/her owns set of known useful plants and it strengthens the idea that the Gbledi people have added to the formation of knowledge about useful plants in Ghana. However, there may be differences in the UV of the species, when there is only one event, according to Rossato et al. (1999), and when several interviews were directed to the same informant, according to Phillips & Gentry (1993). When several events are carried out with the same informant, the UV of the species tends to be more homogenous. The low number of Lianas (2%) and climbers (1%) cited by the interviewees coupled with their use-values and fidelity values calls for an inventory into their socio-economic and ecological aspects so as to counterbalance the general lack of information of these plant lifeforms. The UV indicates which plants are most known and used by the interviewees, and can aid specific studies about the use, management and conservation of the most important plant species. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 6 4.2 Uses of Plants In this study, the end use-categories with the highest number of citation of plant species are in the order Building, Human food, Household items, fuelwood and Medicine. This trend is evident in the fact that trees were the life form category most cited and within the trees, timber species were cited most. Also the plant part most cited was stems. Most of the buildings in the communities around the study site were of „atakpame‟ type (local building) made of wooden frame structures and covered with, mud and roofed with thatch. As such knowledge about timber species used for building purposes is high. However, the knowledge about traditional medicinal practices is gradually eroding as was evident in the lowest number of species cited in the medicinal use category. In the works of Hanazaki et al. (2000), Lima et al. (2000), and França (2001) (the latter being undertaken with the Quilombolas in the Cairuçu Environmental Protection Area in Rio de Janeiro State) the category of Medicinal use and then Food had the greatest numbers of species cited. This is followed by Fuelwood and Building. In work of Fonseca-Kruel & Peixoto (2004), however, these species positions were reversed with Medicinal use and Fuelwood category having the highest citation of species. Generally, Fic of local knowledge for the use of a plant in a particular use-category depends on the availability of the plant species in the study area (Rajakumar & Shivanna, 2009). In the present study, Fic of species obtained for the various use-categories is in agreement with the previous studies among the Quilombolas in the Cairuçu Environmental Protection Area in Rio de Janeiro State in Brazil. The generally high F ic values for species observed in all the use-categories give an indication that the degree of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 7 knowledge shared by the users in the study area regarding plant use is high (Rokaya et al., 2010). 4.3 Places of collection, cultivation status and plant parts used The Gbledi people tell stories of contact with Akpini (Kpando people) and Gbi (Hohoe people) when they came down from Notsie in the Republic of Togo to their present settlement in Ghana and they affirm that they have learned many things from them. Most of the species reported as useful by the informants are cultivated species. This means that the Gbledi people still hold in high esteem the traditional knowledge regarding plant usage even as they migrated from Notsie to their present settlement around the study site. The generally high percentage of wild species reported as useful by the informants is viewed as indicating that the Gbledi people introduced a lot of native plants and their uses into their culture. This same high percentage of wild species reported as useful may also be related to the high diversity of the forest biome where the community is established (Almeida, 2003). According to Hanazaki et al. (2000), the diversity of knowledge about plants and their uses is influenced by diversity in the local environment, but could gradually be lost when plant resources become depleted (Shanley & Rosa, 2004), with globalization and development, traditional plant uses may be substituted with synthetic products (Case et al, 2005). A similar observation to this study in terms of plant parts used was made by Zschocke et al., (2000); Lima et al., (2000); Begossi et al., (1993); and Hanazaki et al., (2000). The high percentage for the use of stems raises concern about the local conservation of plant University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 8 species. The harvesting of leaves and other aerial plant structures can affect energy investment and reproductive success of the plant, but does not remove the individual plant or its descendants from the population. Among the strategies Zschocke et al. (2000) has proposed for conserving plants is the use of more easily replaced leaves and twigs instead of stems and barks. 4.4 Informant Consensus Factor (Fic) In order to use the informant consensus factor (Fic) plant uses were classified into 5 use categories, The Fic values in this study ranged from 0.52 to 0.68. In the present study, building category had the highest Fic of 0.68 and it is in agreement with the previous studies among a neighboring indigenous communities in Tamil Nadu, India where household items had the highest Fic of 1.00 among the Irulas in Thanjavur district (Ragupathy & Newmaster, 2009), fuelwood had the highest F ic of 0.92 among the Malaser tribals in Coinbatore district (Ragupahty et al, 2008) and 0.923 among the Paliyar tribals in Theni district (Pandikumar et al, 2011). The least agreement between the informants was observed in the human food categories with Fic 0.52 (see Table 3.2). It was found that building category utilized the most plants with 25.20% of all the species mentioned by the informants. This is in agreement with the study of Andrade – Cetto (2009). Human food category had the lowest Fic of 0.52 but this use – category ranks second in the number of use – reports (61) and first in number of taxa (36) attributed to this category. This may be due to lack of communication among informants in the study area regarding the use of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 9 food plants as a result of people of different tribes and cultures who settle there to farm (Rokaya et al, 2010), globalization and amalgamation of cultures (case et al, 2005). 4.5 Fidelity level (Fl) This involves the analysis of the use - categories with major agreements to highlight the most important plants mentioned by the informants in the study area. Out of the reported plants, 99 species had the highest fidelity level of 100%, most of which were used in a single use – category with multiple informants. The maximum Fl for these 99 species listed in Table 3.1 indicated the 100% choice of the interviewed informants for use in a specific use – category and this could be an indication of abundance of such species on the landscape and high knowledge on its use (Ragupathy et al., 2008; Ali – Shtayeh et al., 2000). 4.6 Use Value K. angolensis (0.86) K. anthotheca (0.86) and K. grandifoliola (0.86) were the most common timber species of trees reported by the largest number of informants of the study area. These species were reported as useful in all the use – categories under study but mainly recognised by the informants as timber for building purposes. Khaya species were the most abundant on the landscape. In his study of the Useful Plants of Ghana, Abbiw (1990) recognised the Khaya species as one of the most important timber species used for building purposes and also for making furniture in Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 0 In general scarce availability of the plants in the study area leads them to low UV (Hudaib et al, 2008, Rokaya et al. 2010). 4.7 Plant species present at the Afadjato Community Forest conservation Area A total of 269 species of herbs, shrubs and trees representing a total of 100 families were found in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area. Out of the families recorded, Fabaceae, Sterculiaceae, Apocynaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae were the most dominant families in the three habits studied. In fact, Fabaceae family has the most represented species in the three habits. This similar trend of families was reported in the Kade forest of Ghana where Fabaceae, Sterculiaceae and Apocynaceae have the highest representation of species in the herbs, shrubs and the tree categories (Lawson et al., 1970). Elsewhere, Fabaceae, Euphorbiacece and Rubiaceae are the dominant families in almost all types of forests except the mangrove (Padalia et al., 2004). Greater number of the trees are of small size, GBH >70cm. This presumably reflects “creaming” of the forest by exploitation and a boost in recruitment (Okali & Ola-Adams, 1987). The Simpson‟s diversity and Shannon diversity was lower in the herbs than the shrubs but decrease in a gain in the trees suggesting a trend consistent with the observation by Ashton, (1981) and Bormann & Likens (1981) that tree diversity tends to be low at the early stages of succession, and increases subsequently, before decreasing as the final stages of forest succession are approached. The mean Shannon and Simpson‟s diversity values were high. These values infer that the conservation area has high species diverse systems (Murali et al., 1996). The mean stand density of 3.38 ±0.087 of all the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 1 species present in the conservation area is well within the range of 3.00±0.056 – 4.61 ±0.063 reported in the tropics (Murali et al., 1996; Sundarapandian & swamy, 1997 Ghate et al., 1998). In the dry semi-deciduous forest elsewhere, the range of tree species count per 25m x 25m plot is 20 to a maximum of 223 (Parthasarathy & Sethi, 1997). In the present analysis the range of tree species count per 25m x 25m plot is 6 to a maximum of 16 for dry semi-deciduous forest at the study site. The mean tree height (19.119m) record in this study gives an indication of good regeneration and adaptability. 4.8 General comparison of number of individual plants in the 3 transects The generally high number of trees (11.00 ±5.233) for the entire transects suggest their tolerance to biotic pressure and wide ecological amplitude (Pandey & Shukla, 1999). The low number of shrubs (9.36±5.079) and herbs (8.06±5.684) gives an indication of shading effect by the trees in the conservation area. The shade from the trees reduces the light intensity reaching the understory resulting in the simplification and low diversity of the shrubs and the herbs (Bhat et al., 2000). 4.9 The mean values of diversity, height & GBH of trees along /across transects. The density, height and GBH values for the tree species in this study revealed that tree species are more abundant in the Western side of the mountain where the transects 1 and 2 were laid and diminishes eastwards where transect 3 was laid ( Linder, 2003). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 2 This trend of species is also seen from the base of the mountain and gradually towards northwards (Linder, 2003). The factors accounting for this may be: 1) Differences in the contemporary environmental conditions of which, rainfall and topography emerged as significant. Clearly, rainfall reliability contributes to explaining west-east geography effect, whiles the emergence of topographic heterogeneity is consistent with the topography effect in the west (Linder, 1991). 2) Excessive extraction of economic/medicinal species is occurring at the eastern side which is closer to Wote Township and not covered by any conservation measures. 3) The Eastern side is very rocky and steep which does not promote growth of more species. 4) The sunlight and wind intensity is higher in the eastern side which is directly facing the sun while the western portions are shaded. 5) Geographical positions and climatic changes can also be a factor for variations in density, height and GBH of trees from base towards the north (summit) of mountains (Linder, 1991). The more unique tree species occurring in transect 1 than transects 2 and 3 reflects high utilization pressure (Bhat et al., 2000). Transect 2 and 3 are closer to Dzigbordi and Wote communities than transect 1 to Gbledi community as such human recurrent interventions for collection of fuelwood and minor forest products may have changed the habitat fitness for many tree species (Pandey & Shukla, 1999). Also tree species that are restricted to a particular transect may reflect the particular ecological requirements of these species (Pandey & Shukla, 1999). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 3 The (22) tree species that occurred in all the three transects suggest their tolerance to biotic pressure and wide ecological amplitude. (Bhat et al., 2000). 4.10 The mean density, height and GBH of shrubs along /across the transects The shrubs density increased across the transects, from West to East as the trees density decreased. This situation is as a result of the reduction of shady effect by the trees (Bhat et al., 200; Linder, 1991). Other factors accounting for this observation includes: 1) Increasing rocky and steep nature of the mountain from West to East. 2) Increasing disturbance intensity from West to East. 3) Excessive extraction of economic /Medicinal species increases from West to East. The observed decrease in heights of the shrubs across the transects may be attributed to soil properties and increasing rocky and steepness of the mountain from west to east (Pandey & shukla, 1999). The tendency of the shrubs towards shorter heights and medium GBH may be due to edaphic factors (Pandey & Shukla, 1999), and anthropogenic pressures (Bhat et al., 2000) 4.11 The mean values of density and heights of the herbs along/across the transects Transect 3, dominated by herbs and shrubs with few and small trees are an indication of the eastern portion being savannah. This portion is strongly affected by rocky soils, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 4 steep elevations and human disturbance. In a similar finding, Linder (1991) observed that herb species were found to be the most dominant in environments under human disturbance. The shorter and medium stature of the herbs may be due to anthropogenic pressures (Bhat et al., 2000), soil property, humidity and canopy structure (Cody, 1986). 4.12 The Occurrence of species and their numbers at different attitudes This study revealed a decrease in the number of herbs, shrubs and trees with high elevation in all the three transects. This observation is in accordance with the results obtained by Aiba & Kitayama, (1999) and Kitayama (1992) in the mountains of Kinabalu in Borneo and Tailor & Regal (1978 ), Lawlor (1983) Due & Polis, 1986, Polis, 1986 and mountains of the Baja California Peninsula of Mexico. This trend is due to climatic and geographical parameters (Polis, 1986), Altitude and human disturbance (Aiba & Kitayama , 1999), Topography, soil, and environmental factors (Sundarapandia & Swamy, 1997). The observed variations in the number of individual species (see the standard deviations of the species in the various altitudes in Appendix 7) is also wider in lower altitudes and gets more stabilised resulting in lower variation in means for the higher altitudes. This trend may be due to species tolerance to a particular ecological amplitude (Bhat et al., 2000), Topography, soil and climatic factors as one moves up the mountain (Sundarapandia & Swamy, 1997). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 5 CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 SUMMARY  A total of 166 plant species belonging to 53 families were revealed through the ethnobotanical studies as useful by the informants in the Afadjato Community.  A total of 269 species comprising 100 tree species, 96 shrub species and 73 herb species were present in a total of 96 plots studied.  The present studies revealed that accurate medicinal knowledge of plants were held by only a few individuals in these communities accounting for the medicinal use-category having the lowest number of citations of species.  Many of the forest species important to the community (particularly those for building, household items, fuelwood and medicine) are harvested from the reserve site especially the eastern side of the mountain that is not directly under the wildlife.  The three most abundant families of plants in the Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Area were: Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, and Euphorbiaceae. The species belonging to these families have great importance value for the community. An indication of a direct relation between use and diversity  The building category had the highest number of species reported as used.  The results confirm that there is a positive correlation between use-value, use- reports and number of informants citing a species that probably can be stated as a general rule: The higher the number of informants citing a species, the more University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 6 widespread the use-report and the higher the use-value of the species to the community under study. That is, those versatile plants with several uses are generally more familiar to people than those with only one use. Regarding the plant parts used; the stem was the part most used.  Trees formed the source from which most specimens were collected at the study site.  Greater number of the tree species reported as useful are of smaller stature.  The socio-economic aspects of the climbers and lianas collection and use have hardly been addressed by the respondents in this study. The species contributing to this category are the least distributed on the landscape.  The eastern side of the mountain is the most disturbed and has completely turned into savanna and is extending to the reserve area. If action is not taken to turn the whole of the western and eastern side into a biological reserve, the whole area will become savanna and species diversity will decline.  The trees and shrubs are more abundant in the western side of the mountain and diminishes eastwards. The herb species however shows a reverse trend.  The species biodiversity was high at the base of the mountain but shows a steady decline towards the top.  The variability in rainfall and the distinct hilly terrains of the three sites where the three transects were laid has resulted in more unique species occurring in transect 3 than transect 2 and transect 1. However, some species show tolerance to biotic pressure and wide ecological amplitude and so occurred in all the places where trasects were laid. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 7  The tree species diversity was observed to decrease with increasing girth class. It has become clear that there is the need to protect and promote biodiversity especially trees which happen to be the most prominent with respect to other plant habits such as shrubs, herbs lianas, climbers etc. From the ethnobotanical study, the trees were the most cited, exploited and used in all the use-categories mentioned. 5.2 RECOMMENDATION  A detailed study of the ethnomedicinal traditions of these communities is required since there is a risk that medicinal species may be lost together with the traditional knowledge on them.  The Gbledi community members, however, still have a high level of ethnobotanical knowledge concentrated principally on wild species growing in the forest area, and this knowledge can be utilized in the management and conservation programs of the forest.  A pilot study on the three most dominant families: Fabaceae, Apocynaceae and Euphorbiaceae, is recommended regarding the management of their component species.  People in the community should be encouraged to use gas instead of fuelwood which depletes the forest.  In terms of the species used for building, it would be necessary to institute areas of sustainably managed forests near the community. The initiative taken by the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 8 Youth Employment Secretariat to go into afforestation, especially Teak and Bamboo farming in the area is a step in the right direction.  Further inventory is recommended for climbers and lianas to augment the information on them.  There is the need to make available to the visitor centre of such sites books that enable visitors to identify plants in general (Mori et al., 1997, 2002), trees, vegetation types (Granville & Sastre, 1991) and the publication of useful guides to the plants and books about nature. All these will enhance the visitors experience and thereby help to promote an appreciation for wilderness areas.  Steps should be taken by the Ghana Wildlife Society to incorporate the eastern side of the mountain (which is currently not covered by conservation measures) into the conservation area.  Any use should be allowed with great caution, starting on very limited scale. However, harvesting of fruits and other aerial plant parts should be strongly favoured over the stem and the whole plant. Any whole plant removal should be planned and monitored very closely, to the scale of individual trees (as with logging).  Plant removal or similar extreme disturbance should not be allowed to areas that are heavily disturbed (particularly the Eastern side) which is hilly, rocky and steep slopes with small and short trees. Such already disturbed areas should be given the chance to regenerate and recover.  Efforts should be made to find new species in the study area and must be named accordingly. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 9  There is a need for a detailed monitoring of the conservation area while it remains exploited. Checks on the human disturbance should be ongoing and patrols by park guards need to be intensified so as to arrest incursions before they go out of hand.  According to reserve regulations by the Ghana Wildlife Society, communities around the landscape are allowed to collect and use plants from the reserve site so as to promote traditional plant knowledge and use of forest species and also for the people not to feel that they have lost their benefits. However, these activities should be monitored so as to maintain appropriate levels of sustainable use; in doing this, the exploited areas should be monitored to check the levels of damage and amount of plant materials extracted.  There is a call for the individual conservation planting for the trees. They are outstanding, first economically, as the source of many products essential to communities under study such as raw materials, timber, fuel, food and medicine. Therefore they are prone to decimation from harvesting. Second, they are prominent environmentally, as forests help to stabilize the environment by fixing carbon dioxide, by preventing soil erosion and by lowering the water table. Third, trees are dominant economically as they determine a wealth of interactions with other life forms in the community. Since forest tree species inevitably sustain reduction in numbers from human exploitation, safeguarding their genetic resources is the key to their conservation. The in situ conservation will be the best method for this purpose (Hanazaki et al., 2000). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 5 0  There is the need to raise public awareness about the importance of plant diversity (ALL MUST KNOW) through schools and colleges , policy briefs, exploiting the media to stimulate debate and reach everybody with the message University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 5 2 Of Plants by Local People in Tropical Forests? Interciencia 30(8): 506- 511. 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University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 6 8 APPENDIX 1 Appendix 1a: The mean number of individuals of plants per the transects 25m x 25m 5m x 5m 1m x 1m Transect Mean (SE) Transect Mean (SE) Transect Mean (SE) 1 15.80±5.57 1 7.00±3.38 1 3.45±1.29 2 10.20±2.35 2 12.18±4.36 2 12.18±4.36 3 7.00±2.75 3 8.91±6.09 3 8.55±6.36 Total 11.00±5.23 Total 9.36±5.08 Total 8.06±5.68 Appendix 1b: ANOVA results for difference in mean number of individuals per plot for transects used for the 25m x 25m plot study Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 396.80 2 198.40 13.49 .001 Within Groups 397.20 27 14.71 Total 794.00 29 Appendix 1c: Post-Hoc ANOVA results (I) Transect (J) Transect Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound 1 2 5.60 * 1.72 .003 2.08 9.12 3 8.80 * 1.72 .001 5.28 12.32 2 1 -5.60* 1.72 .003 -9.12 -2.08 3 3.20 1.72 .073 -.32 6.72 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 6 9 APPENDIX 2 Appendix 2a: ANOVA results for difference in mean number of Individuals per plot for transects used for the 5m x 5m plot study Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 151.09 2 75.55 3.36 .05 Within Groups 674.55 30 22.49 Total 825.64 32 Appendix 2b: Post-Hoc ANOVA results for the 5m x 5m plots among the transects (I) Transect (J) Transect Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound 1 2 -5.18 * 2.02 .02 -9.31 -1.05 3 -1.91 2.02 .35 -6.04 2.22 2 1 5.18 * 2.02 .02 1.05 9.31 3 3.27 2.02 .12 -.86 7.40 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 0 APPENDIX 3 Appendix 3a: ANOVA results for difference in mean number of individuals per plot for transects used for the 1m x 1m plot Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 422.79 2 211.39 10.38 .001 Within Groups 611.09 30 20.37 Total 1033.88 32 Appendix 3b: Post-Hoc ANOVA Results of Number of Individuals per Plot For Transects Used For the 1m X 1m Plot (I) Transect (J) Transect Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound 1 2 -8.73* 1.92 .001 -12.66 -4.80 3 -5.09 * 1.92 .013 -9.02 -1.16 2 1 8.73* 1.92 .001 4.80 12.66 3 3.64 1.92 .069 -.29 7.57 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 1 APPENDIX 4 Appendix 4: Descriptive Statistics For the Transects Studied Transect Summary statistics Density Height/m GBH/cm Herbs 1 N 21 21 Mean (SE) 0.24±0.15 0.41±0.13 Std. Error of Mean 0.03 0.03 2 N 47 47 Mean (SE) 0.19±0.21 0.43±0.18 Std. Error of Mean 0.03 0.03 3 N 26 26 Mean (SE) 0.52±1.15 0.42±0.18 Std. Error of Mean 0.23 0.04 Total N 94 94 Mean (SE) 0.30±0.63 0.42±0.17 Std. Error of Mean 0.07 0.02 Shrubs 1 N 51 51 51 Mean (SE) 0.23±0.29 3.06±0.62 3.26±0.41 Std. Error of Mean 0.04 0.09 0.06 2 N 63 63 63 Mean (SE) 0.31±0.34 2.98±0.34 3.27±0.46 Std. Error of Mean 0.04 0.04 0.06 3 N 48 48 48 Mean (SE) 0.46±0.72 2.91±0.51 3.00±0.38 Std. Error of Mean 0.10 0.07 0.05 Total N 162 162 162 Mean (SE) 0.33±0.48 2.985±0.50 3.19±0.43 Std. Error of Mean 0.04 0.40 0.03 Trees 1 N 82 82 82 Mean (SE) 0.43±0.66 18.31±12.68 62.62±61.68 Std. Error of Mean 0.07 1.40 6.81 2 N 52 52 52 Mean (SE) 0.57±1.07 21.00±10.33 62.27±40.31 Std. Error of Mean 0.15 1.43 5.59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 2 APPENDIX 4 (Cont.) Appendix 4: Descriptive Statistics For the Transects Studied Transect Summary statistics Density Height/m GBH/cm 3 N 37 37 37 Mean (SE) 1.01E+00± 2.12E+00 1.71E+01± 2.03E+01 5.44E+01± 5.01E+01 Std. Error of Mean 3.48E-01 3.34E+00 8.24E+00 Total N 171 171 171 Mean (SE) 0.60±1.24 18.86±14.09 60.72±53.32 Std. Error of Mean 0.10 1.08 4.08 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 3 APPENDIX 5 Appendix 5a: Anova for herbs occurring on the three transects Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Density * Transect Between Groups (Combined) 1.89 2 .95 2.43 .09 Within Groups 35.47 91 .39 Total 37.37 93 Mean Height * Transect Between Groups (Combined) .01 2 .01 0.22 .80 Within Groups 2.58 91 .03 Total 2.59 93 Appendix 5b: Anova for shrubs occurring on the three transects Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. density * Transect Between Groups (Combined) 1.30 2 .65 2.92 .06 Within Groups 35.44 159 .22 Total 36.74 161 Mean Height * Transect Between Groups (Combined) .55 2 .27 1.12 .33 Within Groups 39.003 159 .25 Total 39.55 161 Mean GBH * Transect Between Groups (Combined) 2.27 2 1.14 6.45 .002 Within Groups 27.98 159 .18 Total 30.25 161 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 4 Appendix 6 Appendix 6 : Anova for trees occurring on the three transects Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Density * Transect Between Groups (Combined) 8.74 2 4.37 2.89 .06 Within Groups 254.44 168 1.51 Total 263.18 170 Height * Transect Between Groups (Combined) 379.94 2 189.97 .96 .39 Within Groups 33349.25 168 198.51 Total 33729.19 170 GBH * Transect Between Groups (Combined) 1914.37 2 957.19 .33 .72 Within Groups 481476.51 168 2865.93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 5 Appendix 7 Appendix 7: Altitude Study 25m x 25m 5m x 5m 1m x 1m Altitude Mean(SE) Altitude Mean(SE) Altitude Mean M/S+0.0 0,288m 16.00±7.8 0 M/S +0 .00,288m 15.00±8.8 8 M/S+0. 00,288 m 13.00±11.5 3 M/S +0.0 0,326m 12.40±3.1 5 M/S + 0.00,326m 13.30±3.7 9 M/S+0.0 0,326 m 10.30±5.86 M/S +0.0 0,379m 12.30±6.5 1 M/S + 0.00,379m 12.00±2.0 0 M/S+0.0 0,379 m 10.00±5.29 M/S +0.0 0,413m 12.00±5.2 0 M/S+0.0 0,413m 10.70±5.5 1 M/S+0.0 0,413 m 9.70±4.93 M/S +0.0 0,449m 12.00±9.1 7 M/S + 0.00,449m 10.30±3.7 9 M/S+0.0 0,449 m 9.30±6.51 M/S +0.0,472m 11.70±5.8 6 M/S + 0.00,472m 10.00±6.2 5 M/S+0.0 0,472 m 9.00±7.55 M/S +0.0 0,573m 10.70±0.5 7 M/S + 0.00,573m 9.00±6.08 M/S+0.0 0,573 m 9.00±6.08 M/S +0.0 0,615m 8.70±3.51 M/S + 0.00,615m 7.70±3.22 M/S+0.0 0,615 m 6.00±3.46 M/S +0. 00,705m 8.30±4.51 M/S + 0.00,705m 5.70±1.53 M/S+0.0 0,705 m 4.70±2.08 M/S +0.0 0,716m 6.00±0.00 M/S + 0.00,716m 5.30±1.53 M/S+0.0 0,716 m 4.30±2.31 Total 11.00±5.2 3 M/S + 0.00,755m 4.00±1.00 M/S+0.0 0,755 m 3.30±1.53 Total 9.40±5.80 Total 8.10±5.68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 6 APPENDIX 8 Appendix 8a: ANOVA results for differences in mean among altitudes of the 25m x 25m plot Between Groups 206.00 9 22.89 .78 .64 Within Groups 588.00 20 29.40 Total 794.00 29 Appendix 8b: ANOVA for mean differences in plots within altitudes of the 5m x 5m plots Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 357.64 10 35.76 1.68 .15 Within Groups 468.00 22 21.27 Total 825.64 32 Appendix 8c: Anova Results for Differences in Mean Number of Individuals in Altitudes of 1m X 1m Plots Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups (Combined) 273.88 10 27.39 .79 .64 Within Groups 760.00 22 34.55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 7 Total 1033.88 32 APPENDIX 9 Plant Survey Questionnaire PLANTS/TREES USED FOR FOOD, FUELWOOD, BUILDING, MEDICINE AND FOR MAKING HOUSEHOLD ITEMS SURVEY TI0EDATE …………………………………………. I1TER9IE:ER……………………………………… CO00U1IT<………………………………………… RES3O1DE1T……………………………………….. OCCU3ATIO1……………………………………….. GENDER M [ ] F [ ] A33RO;. AGE………………………………………… BACKGROUND (1) What plants do you use? (2) What local names do you have for these plants? (3) What do you use the plants mentioned above for? Food [ ] Fuelwood [ ] Household items [ ] Building [ ] Medicine [ ]. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 8 (4) Which plant parts do you use? Stem [ ] Fruit [ ] Seed [ ] Leaves [ ] Root [ ] Entire plant [ ] Flowers [ ] Tubers [ ] Bark [ ] Fig [ ] Twig [ ] Rhizome [ ] Bulbs [ ] Corms [ ]. (5) What specifically do you use these plant parts for? (6) Where do you collect these plants from? Farmland [ ] Home Gardens [ ] Reserve site [ ] ……………………………………………………………………………… Other important notes University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh