UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS AND DIPLOMACY (LECIAD) CONFLICT AND HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE MIDST OF POLITICAL INSTABILITY: THE CASE OF THE UNIVERSITÉ FÉLIX HOUPHOUËT-BOIGNY IN COTE D’IVOIRE BY LAARI, EDITH (10805173) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS AND DIPLOMACY JANUARY, 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I, Laari, Edith declares that this thesis is an original research conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Ken Ahorsu. Sources to which I am indebted are duly acknowledged in the references. I further declare that this work has never been submitted elsewhere for any other purpose. LAARI, EDITH DR. KEN AHORSU (STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR) DATE: …13/01/2022…… DATE: ……13/01/2022………….. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation to the Almighty God for seeing me through this programme. Also, to my family especially the Mr. Francis Laari , Georgina Amenyavia and the late Stella Portekey . University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to first of all, give thanks to the Almighty God for His immense grace and favour during this period of my post-graduate studies. I am also grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Ken Ahorsu for his supervisory role during my dissertation. Finally, I am grateful to all respondents from the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny and the Association of African Universities who took time to respond my interview guide. God richly bless you all! University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv LIST OF ACRONYMS AAU - Association of African Universities CMS - Church Missionary Society CSOs - Civil society organizations ECOMOG - Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group EFA - Education for All GCPEA - Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack HIPS - High Institute for Population Science MICS - Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey OAU - Organization of African Unity (OAU) UFHB - Université Félix Houphout-Boigny UN - United Nations UNAIDS - United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS UNDP - United Nations Development Programme UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF - The United Nations Children's Fund UNOCHA - United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs WWI - First World War WWII -. Second World War University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v ABSTRACT This research focuses on the impact of conflict on higher education in Africa using the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny in Cote D’Ivoire for analysis. There have been widespread of conflict with their devastating impacts on all facets of lives. Education is one sector which have suffered from prolong conflicts. For example, conflict had a detrimental effect on the academic calendar; Students have been of campuses for a long time; teaching and learning have stalled. Some students even abandon school to take part in the conflicts etc. Notwithstanding, there seems not to be much scholarly attention on the impact of conflicts on Higher Education. To contribute to the knowledge, the research study employed a qualitative methodological approach utilizing a personal interview technique. Using a purposive sample of eleven (11) participants made up of 6 teaching staffs, 4 student leaders and a Representative of the Association of African Universities (AAU). On the whole the study found out that both students and staff were deeply affected in many ways, psychologically and economically. Specifically, the study found out that, students were negatively affected as there was loss of skills and knowledge, loss of valuable learning, decline in enrolment, displacement of households and widening inequalities at the onset of the conflict. The findings show that higher education was largely affected in relation to the sources of funding which was not forthcoming despite the disproportionate low share that higher education receives from the annual education budget. The findings also reveal that infrastructure of the university was affected as some were badly damaged. Furthermore, the findings show that some students were found to be involved directly or indirectly in the activities of the rebel groups. It is therefore prudent therefore for all stakeholders to rise to protect higher education as its contribution to the building of society is very highly commendable. The study recommends the strict enforcement of the ECOWAS conflict prevention mechanisms so as to forestall future occurrence of civil wars among others. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................. iv ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... v CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 RESEARCH DESIGN .................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the Study .................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem ................................................................................. 3 1.3 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 4 1.4 Research Objectives ......................................................................................................... 4 1.5 Scope of the Study............................................................................................................ 5 1.6 Rationale of the Study ..................................................................................................... 5 1.7 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................... 6 1.8 Literature Review ............................................................................................................ 9 1.8.1 Côte d’Ivoire and Civil War .................................................................................. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 1.8.2 The Impact of Civil Wars on Education in Cote D’Ivoire ...................................... 12 8.3 Review of Scholarly Articles ......................................................................................... 13 1.9 Sources of Data Collection ............................................................................................. 17 1.10 Research Methodology ................................................................................................... 18 1.10.1 Sampling Technique .............................................................................................. 19 1.10.2 Data Collection Instrument ..................................................................................... 20 1.10.3 Techniques for Data Analysis ................................................................................ 21 1.11 Arrangement of Chapters ............................................................................................ 21 CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 22 AN OVERVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF CONFLICT ON HIGHER EDUCATION.................. 22 2.0 ` Introduction .................................................................................................................... 22 2.1 A Brief History of Education ......................................................................................... 22 2.2 Historical Background on Higher Education in Africa .................................................. 24 2.3 The Role of Higher Education ...................................................................................... 25 2.4.1 The Role of Education as Agent of Development .................................................. 27 2.4.2 The Role as an Agent of Africanization ................................................................ 28 2.4.3 The Role as an Agent of Nation Building ............................................................... 30 2.4.4 The role as Agent of National Development ......................................................... 30 2.5 Education and Conflict Nexus ....................................................................................... 34 2.6 Development-Security Nexus ........................................................................................ 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 2.7 The Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny .......................................................................... 41 2.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 43 AN ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ON CONFLICT AND HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE MIDST OF POLITICAL INSTABILITY: THE CASE OF THE UNIVERSITÉ FÉLIX HOUPHOUËT-BOIGNY IN COTE D’IVOIRE .......................................................................... 43 3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 43 3.1 The Status of the Various Respondents (Staffs and Students) ....................................... 43 3.2. Cote D’Ivoire Before the Onset of the Conflict ............................................................ 44 3.2.1 The State of Higher Education before the Conflict in Cote D’Ivoire ........................... 47 3.2.1 The State of Enrolment in your University before the Civil War in Cote D’Ivoire ..... 50 3.2.3 The Faculty and Administrative Strength ..................................................................... 51 3.2.4 The Sources of Funding to your University ................................................................. 54 3.3 The Effect of the Civil War on the Staff, Students, Funding and Infrastructure of Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny ......................................................................................... 55 3.3.1 The Effect of the Civil War on Staff ............................................................................ 56 3.3.2 The Effect of the Civil War on Students ...................................................................... 58 3.3.3 The Effect of the Civil War on the Sources of Funding of the University ................... 61 3.3.4 The Effect of the Civil War on Critical Infrastructure of the University ..................... 64 3.4 Involvement of Students in the War .................................................................................... 66 3.5 Ways in Which Conflict and its Impact on Higher Education can be Curbed .................... 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 3.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 69 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 70 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................... 70 4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 70 4.1 Summary of Major Research Findings........................................................................... 70 4.1.1 Findings on Cote D’Ivoire before the onset of the Conflict .................................. 71 4.1.2 Findings on the State of Higher Education before the Conflict in Cote D’Ivoire ........ 72 4.1.3 Findings on the state of enrolment in your University before the Civil war in Cote D’Ivoire ................................................................................................................................. 73 4.1.4 Findings on the state of Faculty and Administrative Strength ..................................... 74 4.1.5 Findings on the Sources of Funding of the University ................................................. 76 4.1.6 Findings on how the Civil War Affected the Students of the University ..................... 77 4.1.7 Findings on how the Civil War Affected Staff of the University ................................. 78 4.1.8 Findings on how it Affected the Sources of Funding of the University ....................... 79 4.1.9 Findings on the extent of damage to critical infrastructure at the university ............... 79 4.1.10 Findings on the Extent in which Students were Involved in the Civil War ............... 80 4.1.11 Findings on Ways in which Conflict and its Impact on Higher Education can be Curbed………………………………………………………………………………………81 4.2 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 81 4.3 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x REFERENCE ................................................................................................................................ 85 APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................. 101 INTERVIEW GUIDE ................................................................................................................. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE RESEARCH DESIGN 1.0 Introduction This chapter gives a background to the research problem and lays bare the contending issues in the problem statement. Additionally, it situates the study within a theoretical framework and available body of knowledge. It also explains the methodology used for the study. 1.1 Background to the Study According to Smith (1966) conflict is a situation in which the conditions, practices, or goals for the different participants are inherently incompatible. Conflict, according to Folger, Poole, and Stutman (1997), is the interaction of self-sufficient people with conflicting goals and interventions from one another in achieving those goals. According to Schmid, citing Lund in Thesaurus and Glossary of Early Warning and Conflict Prevention Terms (1998), conflict exists when two or more parties notice they have different interests, they express aggressive behaviours or use measures that will harm others to pressure their interests through actions that harm the other parties. Individuals, small or large groups, and countries may be among these parties. These parties may be individuals, small or large groups, and countries. Conflict contends with development. During conflicts people are killed while others are displaced, which also results in migration challenges. Also, during conflict, infrastructure is destroyed, while the affected country struggles politically, socially, and economically. In some instances, the legacy left on the affected country tends to linger on forever. Armed conflict, as cited in Collier 1999, and Bundervoet and Verwimp 2005, can disrupt livelihoods. This means that it may restrict people's ability to work or farm. It has the tendencies University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 of interrupting with free accessibility of the market thus leading to the raise in commodity prices and taxes. A country plagued by conflict and armed political conflict can be considered a failed state. Zartman (1995) noted that, a failed state develops when the state's main duties are no longer discharged. It can fail regardless of whether it is working appropriately or not. This normally happens when it loses the validity and the trust of its people. Zartman further argued that some notable features of a failed state included the presence of a long-lasting armed conflict, poverty, lack of basic social amenities, illiteracy, among others (Zartman, 1995). Education is one of the economic areas that has been struck by conflict. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), attacks on education occur in many nations experiencing armed conflict and insecurity. These attacks are aimed at students, teachers, academic assistance workers, academic trade unionists, and academic institutions at all levels. While significant progress has been made, specifically in the sensitization on the scope of targeted violence, the attacks continue and the impunity prevails (UNESCO, 2010). A 2020 report by the Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack (GCPEA), stated that over four hundred and forty (430) attacks on educational institutions occurred in and around Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali between 2015 and 2019. Despite Covid-19-related school closures, between late March and May, at least 27 attacks on middle schools were registered in Mali between January and July 2020, when schools reopened for children to sit for their examinations in June. Cote d'Ivoire was one of the countries in West Africa that has been politically stable until the death and succession of the first President, Félix Houphouët-Boigny. The country is the world’s leading cocoa producer, with the production of 2,180 metric tons in the 2019/20 crop year. The country is also a major exporter of raw cashew nuts, a net oil exporter, and has a huge manufacturing sector University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 (World Bank, 2020). Other major exports of the country include coffee, palm oil, and tropical woods. Côte d’Ivoire by developing country standards has an excellent infrastructure. In a report by African Economic Outlook (2006), Côte d’Ivoire has always built infrastructure in compliance with international standards. For enterprises to prosper, there is a network of more than 13,000 kilometers (8,000 km) of paved highways, ultra-modern telecommunications services, including a public data communication network. Côte d'Ivoire also had a high-quality educational system, making it one of the few in Sub-Saharan Africa. This success was primarily at the tertiary level, with universities and research institutions serving as quality benchmarks for other developing African nations. The Université de Cocody was renamed after their first President Félix Houphouët-Boigny. In 1999, Cote d'Ivoire had its first crisis, a coup d'état, in 1999. This had a notable impact on the economy. After the country’s economy had expanded in 1994-98, the economy reduced by 0.2 percent during 1999-2000. Higher education declined by 4.8%. this is as noted is in sharp contrast with the previous 10 percent increase that was recorded in 1994-98. (Dore’, et al, 2003). 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem Scholars have argued in peace and conflict studies that peace, rule of law, orderliness of peace and time are often replaced by torture, rape, mass expulsions, ethnic cleansing, lawlessness, negative values, and anti-social practices in conflict situations. Jabri (1996) explains that “once violent destruction of the enemy and its valued resources comes to define a relationship, the rules of the game or the rules of everyday life” change to violence. During the Côte d’Ivoire civil war, violence, civil unrest, and disorder became the rules of the game or daily life. Violence, killings, rape, civil unrest, internally displaced persons, refugees University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 marked civil strife. Departments and industries ceased to function as they did during the time of peace. There is total chaos and violence which spreads to all other sectors of the economy, education and civil life. Usually in conflict situations, it is the social services that suffer most. Resources meant for development are diverted into the prosecution of the conflict. Even when the conflict ends, it takes quite some time for social services to flourish. Education, is one such sector that suffers retrogression in times of violence even years after the violence has ended. However, there is a paucity in the research that focuses on the effects of political violence on tertiary education in the West African nations such as Côte d’Ivoire. It is for this reason that this study investigates the Ivorian Civil War in order to assess the impact of conflict on higher education with a special attention on the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny. This Study will examine how political conflict affects the operation of administrators, faculty members and students during such situations as well as identify ways to curb such occurrences in tertiary institutions. 1.3 Research Questions The following questions will guide the study. 1. What was the state of higher education before the conflict in Cote d’Ivoire? 2. What were the causes of conflict in Cote d’ Ivoire? 3. What was the impact of the conflict on Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny? 4. In what ways can conflicts and their impact on higher educational institutions be curbed? 1.4 Research Objectives 1. To assess the state of higher education before the conflict in Cote d’Ivoire. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 2. To examine the sources of the conflict in Côte d’ Ivoire. 3. To assess how the conflict has impacted on the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny. 4. Based on the findings, offer suggestions, and recommendations for mitigating the dysfunctional effects of the Ivorian civil war on education. 1.5 Scope of the Study The study looks at the impact of conflict on higher education in West Africa, using the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny in Côte D’Ivoire as a case study. It will examine the period from 2002- 2011 with a key focus on the nature of the conflict which has occurred. It will also look at how it has affected higher education due to its prominent role as a torchbearer of knowledge production, consumption and delivery in society. It will be using such variables as enrolment, attendance, resources, lecturer availability, among others to measure how higher education fared during the war. 1.6 Rationale of the Study Education produces several important outcomes for individuals, organisations, and society at large. Thus, education contributes to producing valuable human resources and aids the process of self- actualization in citizens. Therefore, anything that undermines a country’s educational system undermines a society’s future. It is expected that the findings from this study will help governments, societies, Civil Society organisations (CSOs), policy think tanks and researchers to find ways on how best to protect academic institutions from the negative impact of conflicts. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1.7 Theoretical Framework The democratic peace theory is used in this research. The theory claims that democracies do not frequently go to war with one another, making them stable and free to live in, thus aiding economic growth and progress in the long term. As a result, it contends that the more democratic countries are, the greater the world's peace (James, 1997). The Democratic Peace Theory is based on Immanuel Kant's "To Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch," which explains the key foundations required for democratic peace (Etten, 2014). The democratic peace theory's fundamental assumption is that democracies will not go to war with one another because of the involvement of the public. He advocated for a republican constitution as the foundation for creating permanent peace, which would necessitate citizen consent (Kant, 1795 trans. Humphrey, 2003: 9). The theory additionally argues that, citizens will hesitate to go for war if they are asked to because they know the dangerous nature of wars and they will want to avoid it at all cost. The proponent of this theory believes that, the choice to use force against other states is based on whether the public is prepared to handle the repercussions (Kant, 1795 trans. by Humphrey, 2003). Thus, there will only be war or conflict when a country is willing to accept and prepare for all the ravages that will stem from such action. Also, though democratic peace theory suggests that countries which practice democracy do not go to war against each other. This is not entirely true. As the current state of affairs in Europe specifically Russia and Ukraine reveals that democratic states can sometimes go to war against each other. The Russian Ukraine crisis emanates from the fact that the Minsk agreement was not fully enforced by the various parties. The crisis which started in march 2022 has led to the des- stabilization of the country Ukraine in relation to its economy, infrastructure, education, health and the quality of lives of the people. Therefore, critics of the democratic peace theory are justified in their criticisms of the theory lacking the holistic appraisal of other factors. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 There are different perspectives of the Democratic Peace theory and some of these include; The normative perspective of the Democratic Peace Theory as explained by Elman (1997) is that democratic political culture promotes amicable ways of resolving conflict which are extended to the international political process and foreign democratic states. This condition arises because leaders of countries believe that their colleagues, that is leaders of other countries will also be able to resolve their issues peacefully. In addition, the Democratic Peace Theory's structural analysis asserts that, it is the government body ,which holds elected leaders and decision-makers accountable to the whole nation , this makes conflict an unappealing option. As a result, making both government and its people not want to choose war at all cost due to the institutionalised norms built to sustain democratic practices in these countries (Russett, 1993). This is understandable given the fact that the costs and risks of conflict directly affect huge portions of the community. As a result, it is predicted that the ordinary voter will vote out the incumbent leader/party if they begin a losing or wasteful war, providing a clear institutional incentive for democratic leaders to anticipate such an electoral response before going to war (Russett, 1993). The rational process of voters in making choices in leadership can be attributed to collective inbuilt norms that override the tendency of an individual to act arbitrarily. The benefits of democratic dividends, if far outweighs the cost of wars, would lead to the removal of such undemocratic leaders by electorates through elections or impeachment processes (Ribot ,2003). Regardless of the exposition above, the argument does not presume that all citizens and elected representatives are liberal, but rather , democratic systems that offer citizens a say in government choices make it less likely that a democratic leader will be able to launch a war against another liberal democracy (Owen, 2005).Thus, even if an illiberal leader is in power, institutions like free University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 speech, political pluralism, and competitive elections will make it difficult for these leaders to persuade the public to go to war (Owen, 2005).War therefore, becomes a disincentive to many citizens who embrace democratic ideals and seek peaceful means to the resolution of conflicts within their countries. The states sometimes aid in the prevention of internal conflict and bloodshed by accepting democratic principles. Respect for the rule of law following an election contributes to peace and the avoidance of violence and conflict in democratic governments. This aids in the prevention of instabilities (Sharma & Quirk 2021). They observed that concerns that pose a danger to domestic peace, including human rights violations, civil wars, ethnic conflicts, and electoral violence, are being seen as part of a larger international peace and security struggle. This might result in a spill- over effect, negatively affecting the states and their neighbours. Meanwhile, some researchers argue that the Democratic Peace Theory has deficiencies. The common observable criticism against the Democratic Peace Theory is the view held by the realist argument, primarily because such critics are of the thinking that conflict represents opposing worldviews (Etten, 2014). As proposed by Farber and Gowa, that common interests, rather than common polities, can best explain the low incidence of wars between democracies (Farber and Gowa, 1995). According to critics of this theory, common strategic interests are a more crucial element than domestic political processes (Farber and Gowa, 1995). As a result, the structure of the international political system is the most important element in deciding how states rule (Layne, 1990). This criticism of the Democratic Peace Theory has been largely refuted by research that show that democracy, rather than alliance, prevents conflict and war. Non-aligned democracies are less likely than aligned non-democracies to combat each other. Furthermore, two non-democratic University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 governments with mutual interests are more likely to fight each other than two democracies with no common interests (Maoz, 1918). Despite this criticism, the democratic peace theory is seen as the most suitable theory in this study as it helps to shed light on the emergence of conflicts and its unintended consequences and impacts on society especially higher education across the region. Therefore, this theory helps situate the study within the literature so as to generate findings that are reliable for future studies. 1.8 Literature Review Following the Ivorian crisis, a slew of studies was conducted, some of which are reviewed below. According to Mallan (2013), conflict is an ever-present phenomenon in human relations. As a result, as people form groups to pursue a common goal, the likelihood of conflict rises dramatically. However, Mallan (2013) puts forward that not all conflicts are the same; there are varying levels of conflict that occur among family, friends, and co-workers.. The nature of conflicts and its devastating effects is evidenced by the many human resources lost and properties destroyed. Many authors have therefore written extensively on the impact or effects of armed political conflicts on education. While some literature takes up diverse methods in investigating this phenomenon, it is essential to underscore that most literature take a causal-effects approach, critically looking at political armed conflicts as a causal effect on the decline of education in such nations. Others have also focused on diverse dimensions of the political tensions in Cote d’Ivoire and looked critically at the root causes of the political tensions and conflicts, including (Ogwang, 2011; Zoummenou & Lamin, 2010; Obi, 2007). Yet still, others have focused on how the situation in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 Cote d’Ivoire has affected other aspects of national life such as the economy (Bassey, 2014; Gilpin, 2011) as well as continental integration (Cook, 2011; Sidibe, 2013). However, within the scope of the political tensions in Côte d’Ivoire and education, not many studies exist. That goes to say that while scholars have focused on diverse issues concerning the phenomenon relative to Cote d’Ivoire, very little attention has been paid to armed political conflicts and their impacts on the educational landscape of the nation. This section of the study will therefore provide an appraisal of such literature to provide a narrower context and a better perspective for the conduct of this current study. 1.8.1 Côte d’Ivoire and Civil War The civil war in Côte d'Ivoire has distinct characteristics in terms of the causes of civil wars and the structure of West African peace procedures. It was a war fueled mostly by political and social issues such as injustice, resentment felt by the nationals (Bah, 2010). Furthermore, Bah (2010) notes that conflict is marked by a significant effort by the belligerents to take ownership of the peace process and negotiate directly. observes that the war is distinguished by a concerted effort by the parties to seize control of the peace process and negotiate directly. The crisis in Côte d'Ivoire, that broke out after the Liberia and Sierra Leone civil conflicts and as well as that of Guinea Bissau, brought the international community with yet another security dilemma (Adebajo, 1995; 2002; Adebajo and Rashid, 2004).Schiel, Faulkner, and Powell (2017) account that since 1990, Côte d’Ivoire has experienced over a dozen army insurgencies , with three major events occurring in the first half of 2017. However, Prior to the 2000 election, Côte d’Ivoire experienced its first military coup and this is noted by Momodu (2018) that the first Ivorian civil war was University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 characterised by five years of serious violent instability that occurred in the once peaceful West African nation between 2002 and 2007. General Guei overthrew Henri Konan Bedie on December 25, 1999. The successor of the country’s first constitutionally elected president, Houphouet-Boigny, who died after thirty (30) years in office. Bedie had no choice but to flee to France. Guei put in place a new administration after the bloodless revolution and pledged open elections in late 2000. Tensions rose when the General's chosen Supreme Court rejected all candidates from the two major parties by setting the requirement that all candidates have two Ivorian parents and have never held the nationality of another country (Global Security, 2020). Another coup attempt disrupted the short term peaceful state on January 7, 2001. In March 2001, though,, Ivorian President Laurent Gbagbo and his foremost political rival, met for the first time following the violence between their supporters and agreed to work together towards reconciliation. Local municipal elections were conducted later in March 2001 without violence and with the full participation of all political parties (Global Security, 2020). Côte d’Ivoire experienced yet another civil unrest between the latter part of 2010 and early months of 2011. Explaining the situation, Momodu (2018) writes that the Second Ivorian Civil War was a five-month conflict in the West African country between 2010 and 2011. Adding to this, Global Security, 2020 remarks that the 2010 elections were contested, and supporters of then-President Laurent Gbagbo and opposition candidate Alassane Ouattara battled for months, killing around 3,000 people. Ultimately, Gbagbo was arrested and Ouattara became president. The United Nations (UN) Security Council lifted a 12-year-old weapons embargo on Côte d'Ivoire on April 28, 2016, and extended the UN peacekeeping deployment in the nation for another yea This done because Côte d’Ivoire exhibited some excellent progress towards peace, stability and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 economic prosperity. The resolution, which was voted unanimously, applauded the continuous discourse among all Ivorian political groups as well as improvements in the human rights situation (Global Security, 2020). According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), West African countries that had profited from their economic ties with Côte d’Ivoir were massively affected unfavourably, when the country's political and economic issues began in the late 1990s (UNDP, 2011). 1.8.2 The Impact of Civil Wars on Education in Cote D’Ivoire Sany (2010) explains that though the educational sector in Côte D’Ivoire clearly suffered from the conflict, which lasted to late 2004, it was also one of the reasons that sparked the war. The underlying causes of the conflict are multiple and complex. As a result of the conflict, the bad coordination of the distributions of resources leading to the uneven allocation made it difficult for others to benefit from the good of the land which should have been distributed equally by regions, became more impacted, leading to inequalities. Such education-based inequalities, according to Sany (2010) increased dissatisfactions and, more crucially, created a place for violent political and social contestations, paving the way for the politicization of education and fueling the conflict The battle wreaked havoc on an already troubled education system, pushing it to the bottom of the national priority list and prohibiting thousands of stakeholders-both students and teachers-from having access to it. (Sany, 2010). Due to the ongoing civil war that gradually crippled the educational rights of the citizenry thereby denying them access to quality education. Meanwhile, in wars zones, more attention is paid to basic education since it is considered as an essential area. The Higher education sector is still underserved in terms of policy and research in post wars nations. It is also observed that over the past decade, however, a limited yet expanding University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 body of research has emerged on the role of higher education in conflict-affected, fragile, and post- war counties. 8.3 Review of Scholarly Articles As investigated by Cervantes-Duarte and Fernández-Cano (2016) in a paper in the Educare Electronic Journal on the short and long-term impact of armed conflicts on education and its agents (teachers, students, and students' parents). Their research revealed that the impacts of violent political conflicts on education are massive and take many forms. The researchers found that armed political conflicts lead to both psychological and structural effects that impede the development of education. In addition, they found that armed political conflicts often tend to make student not want to return to school, damage of educational infrastructure, lack of adequate financial support on education in conflict prone areas and the withdrawal of family support and protection on education. This implies that, when conflicts occur education suffers in diverse ways, including the lackadaisical attitude of students and teachers in returning to conflict areas to undertake teaching and learning. Aside from that, armed political conflicts also result in damage of educational infrastructure such as school buildings, furniture and office stationery, among others, which in turn becomes a setback in attaining educational goals. Not only that, armed political conflict, from the findings of Cervantes-Duarte and Fernández-Cano (2016) burdens educational institutions with financial challenges, as organisations and individuals University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 who provide financial assistance shun away from conflict prone areas due to the negative consequences of armed conflict on education. Other effects that they found to be associated with armed conflict on education include shortage of qualified teaching staff and a loss of academic community due to the death and incarceration of students, teachers, professors and academics during war times. According to Cervante-Duarte and Fernández-Cano, these among other effects emanate as a result of the rigorous impact of armed political conflicts on education. Their account connotes that armed political conflict results in negative ramifications on educational institutions, thereby, making trainers and learners suffer dire consequences. In a similar United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) study by Bell and Huebler (2010) they account after studying 26 nations that, conflicts leave behind ‘a terrible legacy for the afflicted generations: lower percentage of the population with formal schooling whiles short of education, and lower literacy rates that remain over time.". Furthermore, they found that the situation in these studied countries deepened existing gaps in education between marginalized groups such as females and the rest of the population. The protracted nature of conflicts tends to affect literacy rates further deepening inequalities. On the score of deepened social gaps, Omoeva, Moussa and Hatch, (2018) emphasizes Bell and Huebler’s findings. They find that armed political conflict situations exacerbate existing social inequalities. These conflicts worsen educational attainment and their effects on inequalities in education are more evident when these conflicts have ethnic underpinnings. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 Tillman (2018) takes a look at the armed conflict-education nexus. The study looked at the effect of conflict on education with evidence from Sierra Leone. This paper was published by RePEc in the MPRA Paper . However, Tillman does not look at the effects of armed political conflicts on education with a critical focus on behavioural and structure effects but pays critical attention to the likelihood of armed political conflicts impeding students from attending schools. The researcher found that pre-school, primary school and secondary school going children suffer a loss of between 0.3 to 0.5 years of schooling. This means that children living within heavy war prone areas lose between a year to two years of education as compared to students living within less war prone areas. This decline in school attendance subsequently affects the educational gains made by way of skills, knowledge and social skills. There is a likelihood of a long-term effect on learners' academic progress. Perhaps Debalen and Saumik’s (2012) study offers the closest affiliation to the crux of this study. They emphasize the impact of the common battle on the long stretches of instruction with regards to the age groups of students in the school that are uncovered to armed conflict. The authors concluded from the findings that there exists a complete relationship between education and armed conflict in Cote d’Ivoire. They found that while education has been generally affected by armed conflicts in the nation, the northern part of the state has been more affected by the conflicts than the southern part. The study found that there has been unequal distribution of education facilities between the two sub-regions, where the southern region has received more educational facilities than the north. Principally, the study found that people who are of school going age, between the ages of 10 - 22, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://ideas.repec.org/s/pra/mprapa.html 16 are less likely to go to school compared to people who are aged between 23 to 32. The resulting effect is that primary and high school education are the most likely affected sectors during the armed conflicts. The study further found that the impact of armed conflicts on education occurs in diverse perspectives. This includes the destruction of infrastructure, displacement, problems of re- synchronizing academic calendar across war-torn areas after various episodes of war, closure of schools for long periods of time, and most tragically deaths of young students and teachers. In an internal seminar, Idrissa Ouili, a statistician, economist and Assistant Professor at the High Institute for Population Science (HIPS) at the University of Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso, with experience in Education, Poverty, population policies, family planning, and reproductive health issues, made known new finds from Cote d'Ivoire on the impact of armed conflict on children's education (UNICEF Innocenti, 2016). The study, “Armed Conflicts, Children’s Education and Mortality: New Evidence from Côte d’Ivoire ”, conducted in 2015 was to explore the impact of armed conflict on three different outcomes (school enrolment (probability of being enrolled in school); school attainment (number of years of schooling for individuals enrolled in school); and under five child mortality) during the Ivorian armed conflict from 1999 to 2011. Results of the research show that in the group of children aged 6-18 in 2011, armed conflict decreased school enrolment by 10 percent compared with a group of the same age in 1998. Again, those who were in schools during the conflict period experienced at least one-year drop- out of schooling on average, compared with a group of the same age in 1998. Lastly, in children University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 aged 5-16 in 2011, armed conflict increased under 5 mortality rates by 3 percent compared with a group of the same age in 1998. Literature search and review suggest that while attention has been paid to conflicts and their dire effects on education at the basic education and second cycle levels, most studies have not looked at armed conflicts’ effects on tertiary education. As such, there is the need for research to pay attention to such specificity. While there are hosts of materials that talk about the effects of armed political conflicts on education, most of them pay little attention to the armed conflict situation in Cote d’Ivoire. Nonetheless, some studies have looked at the Ivorian situation of armed political conflicts and their impacts on education and educational agents. Against the background of the evidence found from the literature review on the effects of political tension and conflict on education, this study will take a critical look at conflict and higher education during political struggles, focusing on the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny in Cote d’Ivoire. 1.9 Sources of Data Collection The study employs both primary and secondary sources of data. Primary sources of data include interviews with the staff and students of the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny in Cote d’Ivoire and also a Representative of the Association of African Universities (AAU). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 The secondary sources of data include books, articles, websites, journals, documents and media reports. 1.10 Research Methodology This study employs the qualitative method. This enables a thorough description and assessment of the research topic without limiting the scope of the study or the nature of participant replies. Information and data for the research include existing research work on the history of political instability in Cote d’Ivoire. It will also be concerned with gaining a deeper understanding of personal experiences of various actors mentioned above, and the effects of political tensions and conflicts on the operation of Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Côte d’Ivoire. Key specialists in the field of academia such as the Director of Research and Academic Planning (Representative) of the Association of African Universities were approached based on the extensive literature they have written and their expertise on the effects of political instability on higher education in Cote d’Ivoire. Similarly, the sample for the study will equally be drawn from administrators, faculty members and students of the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny who experienced any conflict in Cote d’Ivoire in any year that such political conflict has ensued. The justification of the sample size is because I wanted to have experienced people in this area to give the right information. The sample size for this research will be eleven (11) participants, comprising of six (6) key teaching staff and four (4) student leaders representing the student population from various faculties in the University. Also included is a Representative of the Association of African Universities (AAU). The sample size is therefore reflective of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 population, since they form a key part of the institution and by virtue of their knowledge and experience would be able to provide answers to the research questions within the study. 1.10.1 Sampling Technique Sampling techniques offer a range of methods to reduce the quantity of data that needs to be collected by considering only data from a sub-group rather than all possible cases. Qualitative research data collection methods are time consuming, therefore data is usually collected from a smaller sample (Research Gate, 2016). The justification for the use of this sample sizes is that; small sampling sizes enable the researcher to gather in-depth data on a phenomenon under study. It also enables the researcher to engage the respondent using an interview guide which provides rich data in relation to the phenomenon under observation. The data gathered is rich in descriptive data as it collects data in relation to respondent’s feedback verbatim. Lindlof and Taylor (2002) clarified that most sampling decisions in qualitative inquiry are not based on procedures of random probability; where every element of a population has an equal and independent chance of being selected. Therefore, the results from qualitative studies cannot legitimately be extrapolated to the population from which they were drawn. This study will adopt a snowball sampling technique to gather data from the identified participants. By using this method, research participants will mainly be reached through referrals. To reach the subjects for the study one or two potential subjects in the population will be identified at the initial stage through already established contacts at the university. These recruits will then be asked to recruit other people, and the chain will continue till the desired sample is reached. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Alternatively, established contacts from the university will be used to have access to administrators, faculty members and students (including current and past individuals) who have experienced conflict in any year that it has occurred in the country. 1.10.2 Data Collection Instrument The data collection tool for this study will be semi-structured interviews. According to Magaldi and Berler (2020), a semi-structured interview is an exploratory interview used most often in the social sciences for qualitative research purposes or to gather clinical data. While it generally follows a guide or protocol that is devised prior to the interview and is focused on a core topic to provide a general structure, the semi-structured interview also allows for discovery, with space to follow topical approach as the conversation unfolds. Adding to this, Wholey, Hatry, and Newcomer (2015) a semi-structured interview is done casually with one interviewee at a time and includes a combination of closed and open-ended inquiries, frequently supplemented by follow-up why or how questions. Furthermore, they added that rather than following slavishly to verbatim questions as in a structured poll, the discourse might wander around the themes on the agenda and may delve into completely new unexpected issues. Accentuating this, Doyle (2020) defines a semi-structured interview as a meeting in which the one asking the questions does not precisely adhere to a prepared set of questions. Instead of a straight question and response approach, they will offer more open-ended questions, allowing for a debate with the respondents . By employing a semi-structured interview, it will help in following up on other issues which will arise, to provide more clarity and address any concern(s) which hitherto would not have been possible using a quantitative method. This strength of the data collection tool selected for the study University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 will allow for flexibility, while staying in line with the guidelines that will be provided in the interview guide for this study. 1.10.3 Techniques for Data Analysis Following the gathering of data from the field through interviews with the targeted subjects, the interviews will be transcribed. The data gathered will be coded in line with the research objectives and analysis drawn out accordingly. The analysis will be done thematically, by categorising the responses from the interviews under themes and sub-themes which would ultimately address the objectives of the study. 1.11 Arrangement of Chapters The study is organised into four main chapters. Chapter one (1) covers the research design. Chapter two (2) provides an overview of the impact of conflict on higher education. Chapter three (3) analyses the results and discussions of findings in relation to data collected while chapter four (4) presents a summary of the key findings of the study and conclusions, and offers some policy recommendations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 CHAPTER TWO AN OVERVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF CONFLICT ON HIGHER EDUCATION 2.0 ` Introduction This chapter discusses conflict and higher education in the midst of political instability. It also focuses on the various impacts of political instability on the educational sector along with sub- themes. 2.1 A Brief History of Education Hetherington, 1979 and Davidoff, 1980 defined education as a systematic or organized way of learning, whether officially or informally. It essentially seeks to socialize the youngster by the adult in order for him or her to learn culturally desirable and suitable behaviors, objectives, motives, and skills for his or her future position in society. According to Fafunwa (1974), education is what each generation offers to its children in order for them to acquire positive attitudes, skills, and other behaviours that contributes to the good values of the community in which they live. Amaele et al (2011:7) also, defined education as the complete development of the individual child through acceptable means based on his capabilities and interests in order to meet the needs of society and for the individual to take his rightful place and contribute equally to the environment's enhancement. Gwarinda (1993) defines education as the process of growing desired characteristics in children, whereas Moumouni, as cited by Koma (1976), states that "education is everything that prepares young people for either integration in a given specific community with the goal of perpetuating University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 the established values and norms of such society." In the definitions of education given above, two crucial components stand out. These include that education entails learning information and abilities, and that it is a process of personal development. In this regard, education may be defined as the act of obtaining and imparting useful ideas and abilities that enable individuals to perform in accordance with societal norms. The first type of institution is what is known as an educational entrepreneur. They function as innovative and experimental extensions of the standard academic model. The second trend is the creation of corporate universities, which operate as self-contained learning organizations on their own corporate campuses. They are distinguished by a corporate research capability. There are several types of perspectives, these include the functionalist perspective, which defines education's mission in terms of its contribution to achieving consensus and social unity (Haralambos, 1986). The interactionist viewpoint is concerned with interpreting and comprehending meanings. According to the functionalist viewpoint, another role and goal of education is to teach norms, values, attitudes, and beliefs in society. Education should be able to help people in finding and developing their talents. These abilities should be applicable to the society in which the individual serves as a Representative. During Plato's days, educational organisations were known as the knowledge society, whose single purpose has demonstrated amazing progress and longevity. It has endured, altered, adjusted, and absorbed new faiths, shifting political systems, population pressures, and technology during stormy periods (Buchen, 2005). Education stands for the knowledge community with the main aim University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 of empowering and equipping people with skills which will enable them be independent. As a repository of knowledge, education emerged at a time of philosophical thoughts among men who met to engage in debates. The University as an educational enterprise continues to play pivotal roles in nation-building. Despite the essential role of the academy, several challenges continue to forestall its growth in our part of the world. 2.2 Historical Background on Higher Education in Africa Although present day higher education institutions in Africa are essentially a creation of European colonial frameworks, several studies have shown that education at all levels existed in pre-colonial African settings. Prominent African higher education academics such as Ajayi et al (1996), Assie- Lumumba (2006), and Lulat (2005) have exhaustively researched the origins of African higher education, tracing it back to the pyramids of Egypt, Ethiopian obelisks, and the Kingdom of Timbuktu. These ancient cities provided a means of knowledge exchange and transfer that facilitated the means of civilizations of the continent. The 2,700-year-old tradition of elite education in Ethiopia with an African script called Ge’ez could also be taken as an example of a higher form of education in pre-colonial Africa Zera Yacob of Ethiopia (1599–1692), one of the earliest African philosophers of the seventeenth century, was likewise a product of such African foundations (Lange, 1987). Thus, the existence of sophisticated civilizations and higher education learning spaces in Africa prior to the advent of Europeans suggests that education at all levels was practiced in pre-colonial African contexts. By the end of 1885, following the Berlin Conference on the Scramble for Africa, nearly all African continents were under European colonial dominion. Though many European colonists engaged in the process, including Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, Portugal, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 and Spain, the British and French had a significant role in building Africa's contemporary institutions, especially higher education. Although there were basic and secondary education institutes in colonial Africa prior to WWI, Africa had only a few higher education institutions till the end of WWII (WWII). some of these institutes which were built prior to WWI was the Fourah Bay College in Freetown, Sierra Leone, established in 1827 by the Church Missionary Society (CMS) of London as an institution for training African clergymen and schoolmasters; This was the oldest of all established in the Western model (Ridder and Symoens, 1992),but then University of Cape Town (1829) and Stellenbosch University (1866) of South Africa, University of Khartoum (1902), Cairo University(1908), University of Algeria (1909), were founded in the following years . Following the end of World War I, higher education institutions such as Makerere University in Uganda started to come up (1922), the Egerton University in Kenya (1939), the University of Ghana (1948), the University of Ibadan (1948) in Niagara, Addis Ababa University (1950) in Ethiopia, and the University of Zimbabwe (1952) were established (Damtew, 2003). However, the establishment of higher education institutions in Africa has primarily focused on Northern African countries and South Africa by the end of the 1960s, Sub-Saharan Africa had only 6 universities for a population of 230 million. there were still some countries that did not have Universities at all and some of these included Gambia, Sao Tome and Principe, Cape Verde, Djibouti, Guinea-Bissau and Seychelles (Teferra & Altbach, 2004). 2.3 The Role of Higher Education Amartya Sen (2002), states that “development occurs when people are able to accumulate something that can make their life more meaningful.” University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 According to Jacques Hallak (1990), an education professional, “education is a human right because it leads to individual creativity, increases the participation in the economic, social, cultural activity in society, contributing as such effectively to the human development”. Education therefore, becomes a medium by which individuals in a society are socialized based on established patterns whether be it formal or informal. These established patterns are deemed as acceptable practices for the individual to undergo in order to be fully accepted as a Representative of society. In Africa, there is growing concern about the quality of higher education. This came up at a time when there is growing realization of Higher education's role in development , and it is a natural response to public opinion that educational standard has fallen in recent years in the effort to increase enrolment; growing employer complaints that graduates are poorly prepared for the workplace; and increasing competition in the higher education market place as numerous private and transnational providers enter the scene (Materu, 2007). According to recent studies, developing Higer education may encourage faster technological catch-up and increase a country's potential to boost economic harvests (Bloom, Canning, and Chan 2006). Modern types of skills will be needed, and the Universities and polytechnics will be pushed to change their program structures, teaching and learning techniques to meet these new needs. In light of this difficulty, more emphasis should be placed on quality assurance as a vital aspect in ensuring educational relevance. New difficulties for higher education highlight the significance of building comprehensive quality assurance systems as important tools for dealing with today's issues (World Bank 2002). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 2.4.1 The Role of Education as Agent of Development In his study of the role of higher education in society, Burton Clark (1983) assumes that the role of higher education and its policy evolve over time, with the constant communications between the state, the academic terrorism, and community representing the demands that society places on its higher education system (Clark, 1983). Most post-colonial Africa's higher education policy in the 1960s and 1970s was determined within the context of post-colonial Africa's national development strategies. policies of decolonization were at some point, with the goal of redressing colonial injustices and pursuing effective ways of socioeconomic growth (World Bank, 1991).) Universities, polytechnics, training Colleges etc, were also viewed as agents of socioeconomic growth and political evolution in postcolonial Africa, with the duty of teaching professionals, boosting access, expanding knowledge frontiers, and supporting the national economy. This was the era when Adam Smith's economic theory, which describes the relationship between human capital and economic progress, became prominent in the field of education. According to the hypothesis, there is a clear relationship between an individual's productivity and their degree of education, and investing in formal education has a cumulative influence at the personal and social growth (Bloom, David, & Chan, 2005). Most African nationalists and academic elites of the period were persuaded by this human capital theory to define national policy directions in favour of higher education. The United Nations has designated the 1960s as the "development decade," acknowledging the significance of education in Africa's growth. The first regional meeting of African Heads of State and Government on higher education was also conducted in May 1961 in Addis Ababa, on the proposal of the United Nations, Followed with a summit of African university heads in 1962 at Tananarive, Madagascar (Yesufu, 1973). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 These summits distinctly said that African governments should view higher education institutions as their primary economic development partner. Additional seminars were conducted in Ghana, Khartoum, and Addis Abeba. The conferences, whether general or specialized, set about identifying Africa's aims, priorities, and resources, with the goal of launching the continent into the joyful orbit of social reconstruction and economic opulence. Education naturally gained significant importance, since the concept of equating higher education institutions with economic progress and means out of poverty predominated in most African countries' policy statements in the 1960s and 197 2.4.2 The Role as an Agent of Africanization Aside from being seen as agents of development and transformation, post-colonial African politics envisioned higher education institutions at the time as tools for promoting identification of Africans in historic Organisations. Africanization was defined as the preservation of African ambitions, descent, cultural legacy, and identity.. Malegapuru William Makgoba defined Africanization as “the process or vehicle for defining, interpreting, promoting and transmitting African thought, philosophy, identity, and culture. It encompasses an African mind-set shift from the European to an African paradigm.” (Makgoba, 1997, p. 203). Africanization refers to the means of establishing African institutions. The basis for Africanization was to create contexts that will reflect the African people's needs, interests, and values. Since post-colonial higher education institutions, did not reflect the African interest but reflected the European interest and style were creations of African higher education institutions' curricula, courses, and academic orientations were not in line with the needs of the continent (Ki-Zerbo, 1973). Furthermore, practically all of the academic personnel at these University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 universities were non-Africans (Yesufu, 1973). As a result, lecturers resolved to collaborate to reduce intellectual reliance by hastening Africanization of personnel and curriculum change. In the 1960s and 1970s, Africanization was popular among Africans as a means of keeping possession and recovering colonial Oragnistions (Ki-Zerbo, 1973). At the same time, Africanization was criticized as an Afrocentric effort that may isolate Africa from the rest of the world (Bankole, 2006).Some have also stated that the Africanization policy movement has morphed into a new notion known as 'contextualization. This basically means that higher education institutions like the Universities, Colleges etc. should not abandon roots, but rather, they should investigate and review within the structure of their colonial higher education system (Eicher, 1973). The primary instrument of the contextualization process was research. Higher education Institutions were encouraged to invest more in research so as to deal with the needs of Africans coupled with teaching and learning as a result, curricula were altered to include national content and interests. The region's graduate output increased dramatically from 17,000 in 1970 to 83,000 in 1987 (Saint, 1992). Locally acquired information was often developed through research and then disseminated to the public via teaching and publishing. The concept of incorporating research into the teaching process was inspired by the experiences of American colleges. Most African Universities administrations welcomed the partial shift from the colonial European model to the American model of combining research and teaching. (Ajayi et al, 1996) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 2.4.3 The Role as an Agent of Nation Building Higher education's role in post-independence Africa was not limited to the social obligations of teaching, learning, and research. However, unlike colleges in Europe, they were also tasked with nation-building. The newly formed post-colonial African governments inherited weak institutions with little public legitimacy and artificial borders with few shared cultural heritages that might hold the community together (Seepe, 2004). Thus, African governments attempted to reconstitute African identity by setting up powerful African institutions capable of instilling a feeling of nationalism in the general people. In order for African institutions to operate correctly, nation- building need a meritocratic bureaucracy. In this respect, colleges were pushed to their breaking point in order to produce a big middle-class (Accountants, Teachers, Doctors, Technicians, and Engineers), which is thought to be critical to nation-building (Yesufu, 1973). The nation-building project was also linked to the 1960s Pan-African movement. Both African educated elites and governments were motivated by a larger patriotic vision, which culminated to the formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) on May 25, 1963 in Addis Abeba. The intellectual foundation of African nationalism was formed by early-year graduates of African universities and western-trained African intellectuals (Seepe, 2004). 2.4.4 The role as Agent of National Development It is an open secret that issues such as political volatility, bribery, leadership crises are militating against the advancement rout of Africa over the years. Successive government’s inability to deal decisively with the thorny issues has crippled states institution not to carry out their mandate as expected. The not so strong institutions especially the low of commitment to higher education, which is one of the key agents of changes has not received the attention despite its critical role in development. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 It is an open secret that issues such as political volatility, bribery, leadership crises are militating against the advancement rout of Africa over the years. Successive government’s inability to deal decisively with the thorny issues has crippled states institution not to carry out their mandate as expected. The not so strong institutions especially the low of commitment to higher education, which is one of the key agents of changes has not received the attention despite its critical role in development. Copiously, Afolabi and Loto (2012;330) contend that the key sectors that has enough manpower and each person assume rightful roles to support and enhance the national development the continent has been yearning for. According to Ajayi and Afolabi (2009:34-36) education is recognized in Nigerian as a central means that will not only aide in achieving the national goals but will help infuse good morals, behaviours, character, and desired values in people that help in the nations development and self-actualization. This explains why it is argued also that the quality of a nation’s education determines the level of its national development. This justifies the argument that a country’s advancement’s is not only define by it rich natural resources but hinges on the level of quality of education. As alluded to by (Armstrong, D.G. et al 1981:142), education foster social and group relationships. According to Obasanjo (2012:3), education teaches people how to relate to and engage effectively with others in society, as well as the value of good organization for human advancement. In this case, the educational system's school system supports this growth. The school brings together people from many ethnic backgrounds for a shared goal. This encourages harmonious coexistence among the various pupils. Learners who closely connect with their school are believed to have a more favorable attitude toward instructors, fellow students, and the educational endeavor as a whole (Armstrong, D.G. et al 1981:143).Again, in the school system, there is the existence of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 official clubs and organisations. People who join these organisations experience dealing with those outside of their environment, as well as working and competing with people outside their circle . This goes a great way toward promoting national unity and peaceful cohabitation, both of which contribute to national prosperity. For example, organizations that are not formally supported by the school may make use of school facilities when classes are not in session. Learners gain from their involvement in these groups in the same manner that they benefit from membership in school- sponsored organizations. Education also promotes the culture of productivity by enabling individuals to discover their creative potentials and apply same for the improvement of the existing skill and technique of performing specific tasks. This goes a long way to increase the efficiency of their personal societal efforts (Obasanjo 2012:3). It is therefore vital that state actors continue to invest in higher education so as to harness greater dividends in areas of national development. The African university is a critical component of the higher education infrastructure. It is a distinct social domain, a primary conduit for knowledge generation and distribution that plays a critical role in every nation's socioeconomic and political growth. Individuals and communities benefit from it (Nyaigoti-Chacha, 2001:2). By way of developing minds, the African university provides the individual with various skills tailored towards enhancing their capacity to deliver in areas of industry, governance and multinational corporations. This is confirmed by the United Nations Development Programme’s Millennium Development Goals (2000), which reveals that tertiary institutions have a very crucial responsibility to in development, especially in developing nations. As a result, Morden day tertiary schools were suggested to strengthen an institution's capability’s to promote growth in its national context and foster development agency. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 Higher education must continually meet global standards of quality of instruction and research so as to carve a niche in the global market space and to meet global demands within the industry. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 2.5 Education and Conflict Nexus Education is affected in several ways during and after conflicts. Infrastructure are damaged during wars, people are displaced and most tragically students, pupils and teaching and non-teaching staff are sometime killed during conflicts (Abdi, 1998). (Buckland, 2005). It also complicates the school calendars by altering them since when there are wars every other thing stops in the areas affected (UNICEF, 2005), while schools stay closed indefinitely (Bruck, 1997), and has a negative and destructive socio-psychological impact on students (Sany, 2010). According to a cross-country research conducted by Lai and Thyne (2007), nations suffering civil conflict have a 1.6 to 3.2 percentage point drop in school enrolment. At the subnational level, evidence is developing suggesting the effects are similar, revealing the nature of conflict forms and how it affects the educational sector. According to Merrouche (2006), exposure to landmines in Cambodia resulted in an average loss of four years of schooling. According to a similar research, the mid-1990s genocide in Rwanda reduced average educational attainment by 5 years (Akresh and de Walque, 2008). A recent study that used household survey data from twenty-five war-affected nations Between 2000 and 2008, researchers observed that wars reduces the years of education, poorer literacy rates, and a lower percentage of the population with formal schooling (UNESCO, 2010). In terms of gender, Shemyakina (2006) discovers that men education is not really disturbed thus conflict has no substantial influence on male education rates in Tajikistan. But for the Females, wars disturbs them since most of the are not able to adjust and get back to school after a conflict , and that females were 12.3 percentage points less likely to complete compulsory pre-university schooling than those who completes school before the onset of the conflict .Côte d'Ivoire's civil war began in September 2002 as a result of rising ethnic tensions and a failed military coup attempt. It split the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 nation in two: the rebel-held north and the government-controlled south, and it resulted in over 3,000 deaths (World Bank, 2010). More than 700,000 individuals were internally displaced as a result of the fighting, and up to 500,000 children were absent from school between 2002 and 2004. (UNICEF, 2004). According to the Côte d'Ivoire Ministry of Education (2004), education in the north has been hit worse than education in the south. According to this study, over half of all school-aged children were absent, and just 20% of government-paid instructors remained in their positions in the north. Furthermore, the start of the 2005 school year was delayed in the North, resulting in about 72,000 youngsters being unable to take their exams. UNICEF (2005) UNESCO (2010) conducted a quantitative analysis on the association between education and conflict in Côte d'Ivoire using the 2006 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS). This study discovers a rise in the number of illiterate male cohorts in war-torn places. When the average educational achievement for males and females is examined individually, it is concluded that the average educational attainment for both genders has decreased since the conflict began. Prior to the civil war, the education system was already dealing with a student-teacher ratio of near to 40 (UNAIDS, 1998), with a net enrolment. Following the Education for All (EFA) project, a worldwide strategy to achieve the learning outcomes of all children, youth, and adults by 2015, newly elected President Laurent Gbagbo started a series of educational changes in 2000. The suggested agenda addressed critical issues such as improving teacher status, enacting free public schooling until tenth grade, and establishing a statewide pre-school system. As a result, the net national enrolment rate in primary school increased marginally to 64.2 percent in 2001 (Côte d'Ivoire Ministry of Education, 2003). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 Since the start of the civil conflict in Cote d'Ivoire in 2002, the educational sector has been the site of multiple clashes between the government, rebel factions, instructors, and student organizations. The topics vary from education policy to teacher status and coordination, access to education, and test organization and administration. The start of civil war quickly halted the momentum of educational reform begun in 2000, and education was pushed to the bottom of the national priority list (Sany, 2010). According to a UNICEF estimate from 2005, as many as 700,000 children were absent from school between 2002 and 2004. This statistic comprised pupils from elementary school to university. Riots in Abidjan in November 2004 destroyed infrastructure, including multiple bridges. According to Sany (2010), both groups employed education as a war strategy. Because of the war, the rebel-held north had more organizational and institutional problems in providing basic educational services than the government-held south. As a result, non-governmental groups became important suppliers of education in the North, which had considerably lower standards than the south. According to a UNOCHA (2004) assessment, from 2002 to 2004, over 300,000 students in the North attended NGO-run primary and secondary schools. The Government side used this as a strategy to portray the inability of non-governmental agencies in providing basic education and necessary infrastructure. Perhaps it paved a way for the government to legitimize its position, but it forced the non-governmental opposition to come up with an alternative strategy. (Adu Bafofoe & Bonney) Higher education institutions in most parts are negatively affected by political instability, high there is a need for them to present the school in a certain standard , the falling standard of the teaching and learning, overpopulated campus , decline in the sources of funding they receive these torment most Higher education institutions across the nations (Sawyerr, 2004). Faculty at Nigerian University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 institutions, for example, did not get pay increases between 1986 and 1992, despite a 95 percent depreciation of the national currency and a more than 100 percent inflation rate (Puplampu, 2006, p. 41). In the Central African Republic, academics and staff are not paid for their labor for extended periods of time, leading to an increase in brain drain and corruption on campus (N'Guerekata, 2004). The relationship between the state and the university has also had deleterious effects on society as a whole due to the onset of conflict which gradually erodes all gains made in the educational sector thereby depriving the country of its precious human resource. Education is a critical instrument in safeguarding the lives and property of any country. According to Sadiq (2013), an educated people is an advantage to a nation since it instills desirable human attributes like as honesty, sincerity, hard work, punctuality, productivity, invention, patriotism, selflessness, brotherhood, friendship, and many more. It also empowers individuals by instilling life-long skills and knowledge, freeing them from poverty and desire. In a similar vein, Fahd al- Qudah, as cited in Ekpo and Is'haq (2014), contends that if a nation is successful in developing (educating) its people as strong and complete individuals, she will be able to realize a glorious future for herself, promote peace within her borders, and defend her sovereignty. However, if a country fails to develop (teach) its citizens and leaves them incapable of carrying out parts of life's tasks efficiently, that country is bound to weakness, ruin, and oblivion. Furthermore, Jonathan (2016) emphasizes the relationship between education, poverty, and security, pointing out that the top ten (10) most literate nations in the world are at peace, whereas almost all of the top ten (10) least literate nations in the world are either at war or in a state of general insecurity. Counterinsurgency techniques, according to Jonathan, are short-term means for safeguarding a nation from instability, but education is a long-term remedy. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 Malala (2016) contends that defeating global terrorism requires more than the growth and development of weaponry and drones, but rather the transmission of high-quality education around the globe, regardless of area or culture. "We can only kill terrorists with wars and weapons, but we can only destroy this idea of terrorism with education," therefore textbooks and other instructional materials are being replaced with drones and firearms (Malala cited in Jayalakshmi, 2014). Malala also contends that education is critical to global security; hence, there is a need for policy changes in every nation in the globe to cater holistically for the education of every person, which might improve tolerance, patience, love for one another, friendship, and harmony in society. It could be concluded that sustainable global security can only be achieved when education is made a priority by states and their institutions. When properly realised, education can be a global asset to fight poverty, inequality, insecurity, and disease (Al-Rodhan, 2007). Most of the time the state is either incapable or unwilling support higher education due to the strict measures that limit them. While African nations are not all the same, they are frequently faced with comparable issues such as conflict, political instability, inadequate educational planning, diseases, and a lack of finance. These impediments have frequently prevented African higher education institutions from fully engaging in national development (Altbach, 2001). These institutions are rarely seen as legitimate actors in the process of national development. When considering higher education in the development process, a neoliberal economic perspective prevails, in which tertiary education overlooked because of the way it processes and propose solutions when it comes to funding primary and secondary education to be more cost effective (Bloom et al., 2006 and Puplampu, 2006), resulting in a neglect of higher education by governments and funding agencies alike. Furthermore, continuing to impose neoliberal development ideals may increase dependency and inhibit the possibility of African-defined development, which may provide viable alternatives to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 present neoliberal practices. As a result, higher education continues to play an important part in national development discourses, as seen by the diverse responsibilities played by various higher educational institutions. The educational sector especially tertiary education in Africa is still facing a lot of issues, some of which includes, the decline in organisational strength, a rise in student’s admissions, reduced government funding, a lack of good educational policies that can be easily sustained, incompetent political leaders, lack of quality educational facilities and laboratories, a decline in foreign aid, huge international debt, gender imbalance etc. All of these issues have been noted as the reasons for Africa’s educational crises and these have been discussed thoroughly in their research (Ajayi, et. al., 1996). Notwithstanding, the various obstacles higher education continues to face in our part of the world, it has been found that Education works very well with other indicators of development. It broadens people’s perceptions and helps with instilling new ideas in their attitudes that leads development, and encourage national unity and identity (Fägerlind & Saha, 1989). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 2.6 Development-Security Nexus Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan stated “there will be no development without security, and no security without development” (UN Larger Freedom 2005). This is perhaps revealing of the essential role that security and development plays in ensuring harmony and progress in society. Development-security nexus basically refers to the relations between security and development. These two key concepts have led to several debates centred on the nexus which highlights the interrelatedness of development and security. It is mostly suggested that position of the security- development nexus is closely tied to trends in security politics (Hettne, 2010), tendencies that emerge from agenda-setting events such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks or the inability to prevent genocide in Rwanda. There is also a widespread belief that the possible fulfilment of a security- development nexus in terms of a policy agenda has not been thoroughly investigated (Picciotto, Olonisakin and Clarke 2007). This viewpoint stems from the traditional state-centric perspective of security. The state of security tried to guarantee that the state was suitably secure from external dangers, but the advent of new security challenges has prompted some to emphasize the importance of a communal approach to security and development. The above exemplifies what has been thoughtfully developed as the development-security nexus. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 2.7 The Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny The Université Félix Houphout-Boigny (UFHB), formerly known as the University of Cocody Abidjan, is Côte d'Ivoire's primary higher education institution. The University was opened before the country's independence in 1960. The UFHB contains 13 faculties and different research institutions that offer diplomas ranging from two-year undergraduate to professional academic, medical, legal, and specialized degrees. (Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny ,2021). The University started with the Centre for Specialized Studies which was established in 1958 whiles the Centre d'Enseignement Supérieur d'Abidjan, validated by a decree issued on 11 September,1959. The Center for Higher Education was transformed into the University of Abidjan in 1963. In June, 1977, the University of Abidjan become the National University, with five (5) faculties, an institution, and a school. That is the Law Faculty, Science and Technology Faculty, Economics Faculties Graphologist, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Letters, Arts, and Human Sciences, Institute of Odonto Stomatology. (Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny,2021) On 2 September , 1992, the National University of Côte d'Ivoire established three (03) University Centers: the University Center of Cocody, the University Center of Abobo-Adjamé, and the University Center of Bouaké. The institution was performing so well until the Ivorian political crisis began, resulting in decreasing teaching quality and questionable campus morals. Some lecturers were reported to be seen openly selling certificates whiles others extorted young women for sex. The University performance totally declined with the onset of militant student union activities, these students controlled who graduated and who didn't and penalized students who didn't toe the previous University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 government's line. (Hay, 2012). The University of Cocody was renamed the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny, on 8 August , 2012. 2.8 Conclusion This Chapter focus on a brief history of education in relation to the historical background on Higher Education higher in Africa; the role of Higher Education as agent of Development, agent of Africanization, agent of Nation Building and agent of National Development. The chapter also looked at the Education and Conflict Nexus, Development -Security Nexus and a brief history of Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny,. The next chapter will analyse empirical findings based on the research objectives along major themes and sub-themes. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 CHAPTER THREE AN ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ON CONFLICT AND HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE MIDST OF POLITICAL INSTABILITY: THE CASE OF THE UNIVERSITÉ FÉLIX HOUPHOUËT-BOIGNY IN COTE D’IVOIRE 3.0 Introduction This chapter presents an analysis of findings along the study’s research questions and objectives. This chapter is developed from primary and secondary data used for this study. The findings of the research are presented in this chapter according to the themes that emerged from data collected through in-depth open-ended interviews with staff and students of the Université Félix Houphouët- Boigny, and a representative of the Association of African Universities (AAU). Instead of the real names of the participants, codes were used to refer to them in relation to the interview responses. The interviewing process was undertaken in accordance with an interview guide done via in - person, phone, zoom and WhatsApp meetings. 3.1 The Status of the Various Respondents (Staffs and Students) This major theme sought to find out the status of the various respondents taking part in the study. The participants included six (6) key teaching staff and four (4) students representing the student population from various faculties in the University. Also included is a participant from the Association of African Universities (AAU). The various respondents were purposively selected due to their extensive knowledge and experience in the various positions held at the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny. The students were selected based on their roles as student leaders in their respective faculties. The findings of the research reveal an appreciable level of knowledge and experience on the general themes developed for the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 3.2. Cote D’Ivoire Before the Onset of the Conflict This major theme sought to find out how Cote D’Ivoire was in terms of peace and stability before the onset of the conflict. The sub-theme will look at Higher education before the onset of the conflict and will also will look at the findings, which generally revealed that the country, especially its people, were peace loving citizens who cherished the heritage of their nation and contributed towards its development. This is seen in the responses given by the various participants who made reference to the peaceful nature of their country and its citizens despite some minor conflicts that tended to destroy the peace they have enjoyed over the years. In an interview with staff from the university, he stated that: “before the start of the conflict, Côte d’Ivoire was one and indivisible though we had some few ethnic and political issues, there was general stability that assured us that the country was safe”. (Staff 1 Interview UFHB, Nov, 2021). This view is also shared by another staff colleague who reiterated the fact that they “were one big family before the war. Though we have differences amongst us we have always lived as a family seeking for the common good of country. Ivorian’s are peace loving people until we had some political bigots who turned our heads against each other (Staff 2 Interview UFHB, Nov, 2021). It is worth noting that in West Africa, Cote d’Ivoire was one of the countries that had been politically stable until the death and succession of the first President Félix Houphouët-Boigny . The country is the world’s leading cocoa producer, with the production of 2,180 tons cocoa beans in the 2019/20 crop year. The country is also a top exporter of raw cashew nuts, a net exporter of oil, and with a significant manufacturing sector (World Bank, 2020). Other major exports of the country include coffee, coffee, palm oil, and tropical woods. By developing-country standards, Côte d’Ivoire has outstanding infrastructure (FAO, 2020). The country is blessed with abundant natural resources that has seen it emerge as one of the fastest growing economies in Africa. This University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 view is expressed by another staff of the university who emphasizes that: “we have always had some form of stability but I would not say total peace but it was okay for us to grow our economy and our human resource but what we experienced over the years, was total chaos and disruption of the social, economic and political system of the country due to a political stalemate. And now it is a country taken by political instability due to the rebellion which we believe is fueled by external adversaries” (Staff 3 Interview UFHB, Nov, 2021). In a report by the African Economic Outlook (2006), Côte d’Ivoire has always built infrastructure in compliance with international standards. There is a network of more than 13,000 kilometers (8,000 mi) of paved roads, modern telecommunications services, including a public data communication network a country for business to thrive. This revealed that the country had some considerable level of peace to be able to embark on her development needs. It must be noted that without peace and stability, a nation risks losing out when it comes to achieving its developmental agenda. Some students who were also interviewed revealed that Cote D’Ivoire was largely peaceful despite some minor conflicts between the north and south but they as young people viewed the country as peaceful. In an interview with student leaders from the various faculties, one of them stated that “as a young person, I think it’s a peaceful country despite some pitfalls such as bad governance and